State of art report

Condensed silica
fume in concrete

iTY" Thomas Telford

L London

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 FIP C O M M I S S I O N O N C O N C R E T E

Chairman: T. W. Kirkbride, UK Technical Secretary: H. E. Gram, Sweden

Members
P. Acker, France Z. George, India P. Poitevin, France
B. K. Bardhan-Roy, UK S. Helland, Norway C. Souwerbren, The Netherlands
T. W. Bremner, Canada C. Jaegermann, Israel H. Steinegger, FRG
R. D. Browne, UK E. Lakatos, Hungary J. Strasky, Czechoslovakia
R. Calzona, Italy F. D. Lydon, UK W. Wilk, Switzerland
H. Daneng, China J. Muhl, FRG

W O R K I N G G R O U P O N C O N D E N S E D SILICA F U M E IN C O N C R E T E

Chairman: S. Helland, Norway

Members
P. Acker, France H. E. Gram, Sweden E. J. Sellevold, Norway

Published by T h o m a s Telford Ltd, T h o m a s Telford H o u s e , 1 H e r o n Q u a y , L o n d o n E 1 4 9 X F

First published 1988

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Condensed silica fume in concrete.
1. Concrete. Aggregates. Silica fume in concrete
I. Federation Internationale de la
Precontrainte II. Series
666'.893

ISBN: 0 7277 1373 6

© Federation Internationale de la Precontrainte, 1988

All rights, including translation, reserved. Except for fair copying, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
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ten permission of the Publications Manager, Publications Division, Thomas Telford Ltd, Thomas Telford House, 1 Heron Quay, London
E14 9 X F .

Although the Federation Internationale de la Precontrainte does its best to ensure that any information it may give is accurate, no liability
or responsibility of any kind (including liability for negligence) is accepted in this respect by the Federation, its members, its servants or
agents.

Typeset in Great Britain by MHL Typesetting Ltd, Coventry.

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow.

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 FOREWORD

The importance of c o n d e n s e d silica fume in concrete w a s discussed at the meetings

o f the FIP C o m m i s s i o n on Concrete in Calgary ( 1 9 8 4 ) and L o n d o n ( 1 9 8 5 ) , w h e n it
was decided to prepare a 'state o f the art' report based o n a world r e v i e w o f published
material. At the N e w D e l h i m e e t i n g , in February 1 9 8 6 , it w a s agreed to u s e an exist­
ing paper by Erik J. S e l l e v o l d and Terje N i l s o n as a framework for the publication.
The paper had originally been prepared for presentation at the International W o r k s h o p
on C o n d e n s e d Silica F u m e in Concrete, organized by Canmet in June 1 9 8 7 .
The C o m m i s s i o n appointed the f o l l o w i n g working party to adapt the document into
an FIP publication: Steinar Helland (Chairman) (Selmer Furuholmen a/s, N o r w a y ) ,
Paul A c k e r (Laboratoire Central des Ponts et C h a u s s e e s , France), Hans Erik Gram
(Swedish Cement and Concrete Research Institute), and Erik J. Sellevold ( N o r w e g i a n
Building Research Institute).
All 25 m e m b e r s o f the C o m m i s s i o n w e r e contacted by mail for their v i e w s on the
original paper. The working party started by basing their work o n the broad response,
which included a considerable amount o f n e w information, research w o r k , and sug­
gestions for the presentation.
The main modifications to and extensions o f the original paper are

(a) a considerably increased number o f illustrations to i m p r o v e readability

(b) t w o n e w chapters, o n e o n health aspects and o n e o n national standards, c o d e s
and recommendations
(c) a number o f case studies to illustrate the practical use and application o f c o n ­
densed silica fume
(d) a total rewriting o f the chapter on fire resistance, based on n e w information
(e) a general updating, incorporating new information published in the past two years.

The major part o f the updating will be found in chapters 5 , 7 , and 8. In chapter
5 ('Hardening concrete') in particular, the problems with l o w curing temperatures
have been highlighted. In chapters 7 and 8 ('Durability' and 'Corrosion') a considerable
amount o f n e w information on frost resistance, alkali silica reaction, and corrosion
has been included
The draft for this report was discussed and approved by the Commission at the meeting
in Stavanger, N o r w a y , during the F I P / N B S y m p o s i u m on H i g h Strength Concrete
in June 1987.

T.W. KIRKBRIDE
Chairman
FIP Commission on Concrete

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The work done by M r S. Helland and his working party, and in particular by Mr
Erik J. S e l l e v o l d , the main author, w h o s e w o r k on the report w a s financed by a grant
from The N o r w e g i a n Concrete A s s o c i a t i o n , is gratefully a c k n o w l e d g e d .

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 CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1

2. Health aspects 2

3. Pozzolanic and filler effects 2

3.1 Reactivity and reaction products 2

3.2 Pore structure 4

3.3 Conclusions 5

4. Fresh Concrete 6

4.1 Water demand 6

4.2 Concrete colour 7

4.3 Cohesiveness and stability 7

4.4 Plastic shrinkage 7

4.5 Setting time 7

4.6 Conclusions 8

5. Hardening concrete 8

5.1 Strength development and temperature 8

5.2 Heat development 10

5.3 Conclusions 11

6. Hardened concrete: mechanical properties 11

6.1 Compressive strength 11

6.2 Tensile and flexural strength 12

6.3 Brittleness and f'-modulus 13

6.4 Fly ash-CSF combinations 13

6.5 Bond properties 14

6.6 Shrinkage 15

6.7 Creep 16

6.8 Fire resistance 17

6.9 Abrasion-erosion resistance 17

6.10 Conclusions 17

7. Hardened concrete: durability 19

7.1 Permeability 19

7.2 Frost resistance 20

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 7.3 Chemical resistance 25

8. Corrosion of reinforcement 28

8.1 pH-values: pozzolanic reaction and carbonation 28

8.2 Chlorides 30

8.3 Rate of corrosion 31

8.4 Conclusions 31

9. National standards, codes, and recommendations 32

10. References 32

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 1. INTRODUCTION
Condensed silica fume (CSF) is a by-product of the
smelting process used to produce silicon metal and ferro-
silicon alloys. Other names for CSF that can be found in
the literature include microsilica, ferrosilicon dust, arc
furnace silica, silica flue dust, amorphous silica, and
volatized silica. Even 'very fine-grained siliceous fly ash'
has been used. Besides CSF, microsilica seems to be the
most commonly accepted name. The CSFs used in the
investigations reviewed here all come from the produc­
tion of silicon metal, or of ferrosilicon alloy containing
more than 75% silicon. Such CSFs share the following
main characteristics: Si02 content in the range 85—98%,
mean particle size in the range 0.1 —0.2 /xm, spherical par­
ticle shape with a number of primary agglomerates, and
amorphous particles. Details concerning production, filter­
ing, and variations in physical and chemical characteristics
are available elsewhere, and will not be covered in this
report.
Since CSF is a by-product of the production of silicon
metal and ferrosilicon alloys, the produced quantity will
be sensitive to fluctuations in the metal trade. Table 1
shows the estimated production of CSF in 1984 for some
countries. No data are available for East European coun­
tries and the USSR. A number of other countries, e.g.
Brazil and China, have plants producing silicon metal or
ferrosilicon alloys; however, not much of the fume is
filtered, and so CSF from these countries is not currently
available to the concrete industry.
It is impossible to give exact figures regarding pricing
of CSF. However, as a general rule the price is higher
than that of cement. For special CSF-based proprietary
products the price may be as high as 15 times the price
of cement.
CSF for use in concrete is either in a 'natural' state,
densified, or in slurry form mixed with 50% water by
weight. General field experience and laboratory tests have
shown remarkably litde difference in the properties of
hardened concrete containing CSF with different
characteristics or in different forms. This is in sharp con­
trast to general experience with other fly ashes. The type
and form of CSF may significantly influence fresh con­
crete properties, however, and in particular the rheological
properties. It is not presendy possible to relate such dif­
ferences to specific physical or chemical characteristics
of the CSF. No distincfion is made here between types
and forms of CSF, but it is implied that the CSFs used
in the investigations reviewed share the broad
characteristics oudined above.
This state of the art report covers the properties of con­
crete containing CSF in the fresh state, during harden­
ing, and in the hardened state, with the emphasis on
durability properties. The review is based on published
reports, of which approximately 400 are available, the
majority of Norwegian origin and written in Norwegian.
Most of the reports contain original laboratory data, some
are review articles covering limited topics, and a few are
concerned with laboratory investigations of concrete from
old structures.
The first tests on CSF in concrete were made in the early
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1950s at the Norwegian Institute of Technology. At the
same time, CSF was included among a large number of
additive-cement combinations to produce concretes for
long-term exposure to the acidic, high sulphate content
water in a tunnel segment in the Oslo alum shale region.
Results of these tests were reported after 20 years of expo­
sure, and a final report after 30 years is now in preparation.
The first documented use of CSF in structural concrete
took place at the Fiskaa smelting plant, Norway, in 1971
— the concrete has since been investigated on several occa­
sions. Following the start of large-scale filtering in the
mid-1970s, the use of CSF, both in practice and in
laboratory investigation, was begun in several places. In
Gothenburg, Sweden, a readymix plant used CSF exten­
sively — including its use in concrete for a large wharf.
In Denmark and Norway, readymix plants also began pro­
duction, and systematic laboratory work started at the
Norwegian Institute of Technology. In Iceland, work was
started with a view to reducing the effects of alkali-
aggregate reactions using CSF, resulting in the produc­
tion of a cement containing 7.5% CSF.
Outside Scandinavia, reports began to appear at the end
of the 1970s, particularly from Quebec, Canada, where
the practical use of CSF in readymix concrete was started
in 1981. Since then, research work and practical use of
CSF in concrete has begun in many countries, and is
spreading rapidly.
When considering the properties of CSF concrete, it
is important to keep in mind that CSF is used in two dif­
ferent ways:
(a) as a cement replacement, in order to obtain reduc­
tion in the cement content — usually for economic
reasons
(b) As as addition to improve concrete properties —
both in the fresh and hardened state.
For normal low-grade structural concrete the required
strength can be obtained with an extremely low cement
content when CSF is used. The debate in Scandinavia
regarding CSF in concrete has mainly been focused on
the durability aspects of this approach. The true promise
of CSF, however, lies in the approach aiming to design
concrete for specific production processes and to achieve
better durability, or to enable the production of ultra-high-
strength concrete on a routine basis.
Table 1. Estimated production and use of CSF in 1984
Country Total quantity Utilized in cement
produced: Mt and concrete products: Mt
Norway 140 40
United States 100 2
France 60 0
Australia 60 20
South Africa 43 0
Japan 25 0
West Germany 25 0
Canada 23 11
Sweden 14 5
C S F IN CONCRETE
Norwegian standards allow up to 10% dosage of CSF
by weight of cement in concrete. Normal usage is generally
less than this. The term 'CSF concrete', as used in this
review, refers to dosages of 10% CSF or less, unless other­
wise specified. High CSF dosages combined with
superplasticizers and extremely low water/cement (W/C)
2. H E A L T H ASPECTS
It is well known that crystalline silica such as quartz
may cause silicosis. The particle size is here thought to
be critical, and threshold limit values are frequently given
for respirable dust. The question arises as to whether CSF
represents the same health hazard.
CSF consists mainly of sub-micron particles, and is
hence suspected to be respirable (particles of less than
5 /xm are respirable). However, this may depend on the
strength of secondary agglomerates which are present, as
well as local physiochemical conditions in the respiratory
system. A large number of X-ray diffraction analyses sug­
gest that CSF is an amorphous material and should
therefore be less dangerous than a crystalline material.
Heggestad et al.^ have, at least partly, confirmed the
amorphous structure of CSF by thermosonimetry.
Jahr^ has written several review articles on the pos­
3. P O Z Z O L A N I C A N D FILLER EFFECTS
CSF is both a reactive pozzolana and an effective filler.
Both properties combine to explain the effects CSF has
on the properties of cement-based products.
3.1 Reactivity and reaction products
A number of reports have appeared on the pozzolanic
reactivity ^ f CSF. The subject has been reviewed by
Hjorth^ and R e g o u r d . ^
The pozzolanic reactivity of CSF in cement pastes has
been demonstrated by measuring the amount of calcium
hydroxide at different times in pastes with varying dosages
of CSF. TGA-DTA and X-ray diffraction methods have
been used. The results generally show high pozzolanic
reactivity,^"although some studies have found me­
dium or low'"^-'^ reactivity. Other studies on pozzolanic
reactivity include those by Traetteberg'^ and Chatterji et
al^^ Fig. 1 shows calcium hydroxide contents for
various CSF dosages determined for mature cement paste
specimens. Extrapolation of the curve indicates that
roughly 24% CSF will eliminate the calcium hydroxide.
This figure varies in the literature, and depends on both
the method used to determine the calcium hydroxide con­
tent and the composition of the cement.
CSF has been found to have an accelerating effect on
the hydration of white cement,'^ roughly equal to the
effect of a fine calcium carbonate filler. Fig. 2 shows the
calcium hydroxide contents against time for a reference
paste and one containing 12% CSF. Up to about 2 days
the CSF mix has a higher calcium hydroxide content than
the reference mix, but then the curves cross, presumably
2
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ratios are the basis for a new generation of concretes with
extreme properties which are not discussed here.
Nomenclature. In this review the W/C ratio is calculated
on the basis of cement content only. The W/C + S ratio
is used for CSF mixes, where S is the quantity of CSF.
CSF dosage is given as a percentage of weight of cement.
sible health hazard in the handling of CSF. His conclu­
sion, which, among other factors, is based on a study of
865 workers in Norwegian and Swedish ferrosilicon
plants, and on results from animal experiments by
Gl0mme^ is that the tendency to cause lung changes is
far less for CSF than for respirable quartz.
The Norwegian authorities have established a threshold
limit value (TLV) of 2 - 0 mg/m^ for respirable CSF. For
comparison, alpha-quartz has a TLV of 0 - 2 mg/m^,
whereas for inert dust the value is 5 - 0 mg/m^. In the
USA, CSF has only recently been listed by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists."^
Amorphous silica is given a TLV of 5 - 0 mg/m^ and
quartz 0-1 mg/m^.
In many applications CSF is handled as an aqueous
slurry, reducing the dust problem virtually to zero.
because calcium hydroxide is consumed faster by the poz­
zolanic reaction than it is generated by the cement
hydration.
Wu and Y o u n g s t u d i e d the reaction of CSF with
tricalcium silicate and with calcium hydroxide. They con­
cluded that CSF accelerates the hydration of C3S. Halse
et ai^^ found that C3S hydration was 'enhanced' rather
than accelerated by CSF, while Traetteberg^^ concluded
that when lignosulphonates were used, it led to a marked
reduction in cement hydration over long periods of time,
both with and without CSF. Traetteberg's data'^ have
been re-evaluated by Markestad.^^
Cheng-yi and Feldman^^ studied the hydration of
cement paste and mortar with varying amounts of CSF
and ground quartz sand. Both additives were found to
accelerate the cement hydration during the first period,
but after 14 days the calcium hydroxide content was
eliminated in pastes containing 30% CSF. Mixes with 10%
CSF led to a reduction in calcium hydroxide content of
about 8% by weight of cement, implying a cement/CSF
(C/S) ratio of about 0 • 7 — a very low value. For mortar
mixes'^ a similar calculation yields a C/S value of about
1, which is a value in closer correspondence with other
observations.
The pozzolanic reactivity has been investigated in mixes
containing only CSF and calcium hydroxide. Buck and
Burkes^' detected well-crystallized calcium silicate
hydrate (CSH I) after 7 days of curing at 38°C. Grutzeck
et al}'^'^^ observed a silica-rich gel on the CSF surface
shortly after having mixed CSF in calcium hydroxide solu-
 POZZOLANIC A N D FILLER EFFECTS

tion or in cement paste. The gel later combined with

calcium hydroxide to form CSH.
Wu and Y o u n g f o u n d that CSF behaved similarly to
synthetic silica fume, differing only in rates of reaction
according to their specific surface areas. According to Wu
and Young, three kinds of CSH are formed in C3S-CSF
systems: (a) that formed directly from C3S hydration; (b)
that formed from the reaction between calcium hydrox­
ide and silica fume (with a slighdy lower C/S ratio); and
(c) that formed by reaction between CSH and CSF (with
a low C/S ratio and high degree of polymerization). The
latter will only form in mixes containing more CSF than
is needed to consume all the calcium hydroxide, i.e. it
is not relevant for normal CSF concrete.
Kurbus et al}^ mixed CSF with calcium hydroxide at
a water/solid ratio of 0 • 50, and cured the pastes at 55°C
and 90°C. The reaction was very temperature-dependent;
at 90°C, 6 8 - 9 5 % of added lime had reacted after 2 • 5 h
(depending on initial quantities), while at 55°C only
2 5 - 5 5 % had reacted in 2 - 5 h. At 20°C the reaction has
been found'^ to be very slow for a mix with C/S = 1 - 0 ,
but after 110 days there was no sign of calcium hydrox­
ide on TGA curves.
C/S ratios in the range 0-9—1 - 3 have been reported
for cement-CSF mixes.^"•^ Regourd^ found the C/S ratio
to decrease with increasing dosage of CSF — a natural
result, since a high CSF dosage implies a higher fraction
of CSH formed by the pozzolanic reaction in the total
amount of CSH.
A consequence of the low C/S ratio in the CSH is an
increased capacity to incorporate foreign ions such as
alkalis and aluminium. The high capacity to incorporate
alkalis has been demonstrated by analysis of pore water
squeezed out of hardened cement-CSF pastes^^'^^ (Fig.
3). These factors can partly explain the resistance of CSF
concrete to aggressive chemicals and alkali-aggregate reac­
tion expansions.^
30 40
T i m e in w a t e r : d
Fig. 2. Non-evaporable water content (WJ and calcium
hydroxide content for white cement pastes (W/C = 0-60) with
and without 12% CSF added (calculated from TGA results).
(From ref 10).
The microstructure of the binder phase in CSF concrete
appears 'very dense and amorphous'.^ Diamond^'^
reports that in contrast to normal concrete, in a properly
formulated CSF concrete the CSH gel particles cannot be
'visualized as individual particles, but rather as a massive,
dense structure'. Calcium hydroxide appears as small local
crystals, rather than large masses which act as flaws in
normal pastes. According to Diamond^^ and Regourd,^
the dense paste structure essentially extends to the true
aggregate boundary in a dense CSF concrete. This
eliminates the normal porous region of about 40—50 jicm,
rich in calcium hydroxide, which surrounds aggregate
grains in normal concrete. It should be emphasized that
these observations apply to high-CSF dosage, high-
strength mixes. In CSF concrete of normal strength with
moderate CSF dosage the changes in microstructure are
less marked.

A C u r e d for 5 2 d a y s
• C u r e d for 11 O d a y s
O C u r e d for 6 5 d a y s

0 4 8 12 16
Silica content: % of c e m e n t weight

Fig. 1. Calcium hydroxide contents (measured by thermal

gravimetric analysis (TGA)) of mature pastes made with white Fig. 3. Concentration of (a) and (b) OH— in pore solu­
Portland cement. The W/C ratio is constant (0 • 60), and various tions expressed at times indicated from cement paste and CSF-
amounts of CSF added. (From ref 10). bearing pastes, all at water/binder ratio of 0-50. (From ref 25).

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C S F IN CONCRETE

80 r been studied by Sellevold et al. using water adsorption,

mercury penetration, and freeze calorimetry. They con­
6 1 2 inert filler
cluded that increasing CSF dosage at constant W/C ratio
(after l l O d a y s ) did not change the total porosity as measured by water
adsorption, but led to a refinement of the pore structure,
i.e. less of the pore space consisted of capillary pores,
where water can freeze and mercury penetrate. For pastes
where part of the cement was replaced by CSF on a 3:1
basis and the water content kept constant, the capillary
porosity was unchanged, indicating that CSF was roughly
three times as 'efficient' as cement in reducing capillary
porosity. By comparing pore structure data for CSF pastes
with pastes where an almost inert filler of equal fineness
was used, it was concluded that most of the pore refine­
ment effect was caused by the pozzolanic activity of the
CSF. Fig. 4 shows mercury penetration results for mature
10 100 1000 pastes.
Pore radius: n m Traetteberg^^ measured mercury penetration in mortars
Fig. 4. Mercury intrusion in mature (65-day-old) white cement with varying CSF contents, and concluded that CSF was
pastes (W/C = 0-60). The two last digits in the identification very efficient in subdividing the pore space.
numbers indicate the percentage of CSF added. The inert filler Mehta and Gjorv^^ measured mercury penetration in
is a fine precipitated calcium carbonate. The C-S paste is a cement pastes with W/C = 0 - 7 4 and in equivalent pastes
calcium hydroxide-CSF mix with C/S = 1-0. (From ref 10). where 30% of the cement volume was replaced by fly ash,
CSF, or an equal volume of the two. The results showed
The amount of water bound in the CSH formed by the that at 90 days the total penetration was equal for the con­
pozzolanic reaction was found to be the same as that con­ trol and the CSF pastes. For the control paste, however,
tained in the calcium hydroxide,'^ i.e. C/H = 1-0. more than 50% of the available pore space was large pores
Recalculation of the raw data by Meland^^ showed no in­ ( > 0 - l /xg), while the CSF paste contained only about
crease in bound water per gram of cement in pastes con­ 10% large pores. Fly ash also had a pore-refining effect,
taining CSF, in agreement with Sellevold et al.^^ but far less than CSF.
D i a m o n d , h o w e v e r , found the bound water per gram Cheng-yi and Feldman^^'^"*'^^ studied the porosity of
of cement to increase in CSF-cement pastes in comparison pastes and equivalent mortars with 0, 10, and 30% CSF
with pure cement pastes. Cheng-yi and Feldman'' found as replacement for cement in a 1:1 ratio. For pastes, the
for W/C + 5 = 0-45 that the non-evaporable water per results of mercury intrusion agreed with others: increased
gram of cement was 0 - 2 0 7 for a reference paste, 0-172 CSF dosage leads to a finer pore structure. After the first
with 10% CSF, and 0 - 2 1 9 with 30% CSF. For W/C +
5 = 0-25 the numbers were: 0-144 in the reference paste,
0-138 with 10% CSF, and 0-163 with 30% CSF. Thus,
the picture is not entirely clear at present. It is consistently
observed, however, by calorimetry and by the develop­
ment of non-evaporable water content or calcium hydrox­
ide over time, that CSF accelerates the hydration of
cement.
In a series of paste mixes to which different amounts
of CSF were added at a constant W/C ratio, it was found
that the total volume porosity to water in the pastes was
independent of the CSF dosage. This implies that the
chemical shrinkage caused by the pozzolanic reaction is
greater than that of the cement hydration; it was estimated
to be 12 cm^/100 g CSF, compared with a value of
about 5 cm^/100 g cement. As a consequence of this,
CSF concrete cured without access to water will exper­
ience a higher degree of self-desiccation, and consequently
a lower internal relative water vapour pressure. This has
been confirmed by measurements^^ where a mix with
W/C = 0 - 4 0 and 10% CSF had an internal relative
humidity (RH) value of 70% after 6 months of sealed
curing.

3.2 Pore structure

Pore structure plays a major role in determining the 0'
10' lO'* 10^ 10' 10^
permeability, and thereby durability properties, of cement-
Pore diameter: n m
based products. Recent work by Mehta^^ and Manmohan
and Mehta^' have demonstrated a relationship between Fig. 5. Mercury intrusion and reintrusion into 90-day-old
pore structure, permeability, and durability for blended cement pastes and mortars (W/C + S = 0-45). Plotted from
cements. The pore structure of cement-CSF pastes has data in refs 34 and 35.

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intrusion, the mercury was evaporated and a second in­
trusion performed. Hysteresis between the two curves in­
dicates discontinuity in the pore structure: the pore struc­
ture may be 'broken up" during the first intrusion. This
hysteresis increased markedly with increasing CSF con­
tent. For mortars''' the effect is even more pronounced
(Fig. 5J. Cheng-yi and Feldman related the effect to the
reaction of CSF with calcium hydroxide, particularly the
high calcium hydroxide concentrations around sand grains
in mortars.
They also demonstrated that CSF mixes have higher
ratios between mortar and paste compressive strength than
mixes without CSF, and attribute this to an improved bt)nd
between sand and binder matrix. The present authors have
also observed that CSF mortars have a higher fraction of
pores with diameters above 100 nm relative to equivalent
pastes than is the case for mortars and pastes without CSF.
That a pozzolanic reaction between CSF and calcium
hydroxide at the interface improves the bond appears to
be natural, but we find it less natural that such an improved
bond phase has a coarser and more unstable pore struc­
ture than is found in mixes with no CSF.
The Technological Institute in Denmark has developed
a method to estimate the capillary porosity of concrete
by microscopic examination of thin sections impregnated
with fluorescent epoxy. Applying this method to CSF con­
cretes from field and lab<iratory, Christensen''' concluded
that, in terms of reducing capillary porosity of concrete,
CSF has an efficiency about three times that of cement.
3.3 Conclusions
CSF is considered to be a very reactive pozzolana. When
used in cement systems it prtxluces a CSH gel with a lower
C/S ratio than the cement hydration; consequently, it has
a high capacity to incorporate foreign ions, particularly
alkalis. The nature of the hydration products of CSF, and
their infiuence on cement hydration, are not entirely
understtwd at present.
CSF also has a definite filler effect that is believed to
distribute the hydration products in a more homogenous
fashion in the available space.
These two factors have the combined effect of refining
the pore structure when CSF is added to cement-based
mixes. The refinement of the pore structure leads to
reduced permeability, and is considered to be the main
factor responsible for the influence CSF has on the
mechanical and durability properties of concrete.
Case study A. Distillery in Bergen, Norway
In 1982 a production plant for alcoholic beverages was
constructed in Bergen, on the western coast of Norway.
The total volume of concrete was 17 000 m \ The job
requirements were
(a) 35 MPa characteristic strength at 28 days
(b) high early strength
(c) the walls had to be poured without the help of
tremies
(d) a smooth surface on the walls without voids or
honeycombing
(e) very stable fresh concrete, without any tendency
to segregation or bleeding — necessary because
(he walls were up to 9 m in height, had two layers
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POZZOLANIC A N D FILLHR BFFECTS
of reinforcing bars, and had a thickness of only
30 cm
(f) low cost.
These requirements were met by the following mix:
110 kg ordinary Portland cement
110 kg rapid-hardening cement
22 kg CSF
2.5 kg lignosulphonate (40%)
W/C + S = 0 - 7 0
slump = 15—20 cm.
As the local price of the CSF was only 140% that of
the cement, this recipe gave an inexpensive concrete,
since the efficiency factor of the CSF with respect to
strength was about 4.
By using aggregate with continuous grading to avoid
segregation and honeycombing and to introduce a surplus
of fines by adding the CSF and the finely ground rapid-
hardening cement to avoid bleeding, the walls were
poured without any disfiguring pores.
The site was inspected after 18 months of exposure.
The depth of carbonation was then in the range of
0 - 5 — 2 - 0 mm, indicating that even at these high W/C
+ S ratios it is possible to achieve a dense concrete.
Source: ref. 37.
Case study B. Slipformed fertilizer storage silos
at Heroya, Norway
Two silos for storing fertilizers were slipformed at
Heroya in Norway in 1982. Each silo had a height of
28 m, a diameter of 27 m, and a wall thickness of 27 cm.
The walls were heavily reinforced both with ordinary
bars and post-tensioned cables.
Due to the highly corrosive properties of calcium
nitrate, a dense concrete of extremely good chemical
resistance had to be used. Since the paste is the weakest
part of the material, the client wanted to minimize the
cement and water content. At the same time, the heavy
reinforcement and the sensitive slipforming operation
required a concrete of good workability.
To meet these requirements the following mix was
used:
260 kg sulphate-resistant cement
40 kg CSF
112 1 total water content
19 1 combination of melainine and
lignosulphonate-based plasticizers
0.15 I air-entering agent
slump value = 17 cm
air content = 8%
mean strength at 28 days = 65 MPa.
By introducing such high amounts of plasticizers, the
yield shear strength of the fresh concrete was reduced
without altering the viscosity to the same degree as
usually occurs when water is added to the mix to increase
the slump value. To get a normal workability and a nor­
mal viscosity in the concrete, entrained air was used.
The slipforming operation was executed without any
major problems, in spite of the high content of CSF and
plasticizers. After 5 years of service there are no signs
of deterioration in the structure, and concrete based on
the above principles has since become the normal require­
ment in the Norwegian fertilizer industry.
Source: ref. 38.
C S F IN CONCRETE

4. FRESH C O N C R E T E

The influence of CSF on workability properties of con­ with three types of cement, different dosages of water-
crete depends somewhat on the type of concrete. The addi­ reducing agents, and 0%, 8% and 16% CSF by weight
tion of CSF to a given mix will generally lead to a lower of cement. It was found that the increased water demand
slump, and a more cohesive mix. The 'static' and per kilo of CSF added was of the order of 1 litre.
'dynamic' behaviour of CSF concrete do not relate in the However, water-reducing agents had a much stronger
same way as for normal concrete, i.e. the slump measure effect in CSF concrete. A lignosulphonate dosage (dry)
does not predict the response to vibration in the usual way. of 0 • 2—0 • 4 % by weight of cement was sufficient to equal
For practical purposes it is generally recommended that the water demand of the control mixes and those with 10%
the slump should be 20—30 mm higher for a CSF con­ CSF (Fig. 6). It was also found that the water-reducing
crete to obtain the same workability as that of normal con­ agent should be dosed by weight of CSF to keep the water
crete. This should be kept in mind when considering water demand near that of the control concrete. A dosage of 4%
demand tests based on equal slumps. dry lignosulphonate by weight of CSF is a good starting
point for CSF dosages between 5% and 15% by weight
4.1 Water demand of cement. The investigations cited above, as well as
Systematic measurements of water demand to reach a general Norwegian experience, show that lignosulphonate-
given slump for different CSF dosages have been made based water-reducing agents are as efficient as, or more
by Johansen^^ and Loland and Hustad.'*^ For very lean efficient than superplasticizers in reducing water demand
concrete (cement 100 kg/m^), it was found that the water in CSF concrete.
demand decreased as CSF was added,"^^ as has been Markestad'*^ also analysed Dagestad's raw data."^^ He
reported by Aitcin et al.^^ for lean mixes with less than concluded that the water reduction achieved by water-
10% CSF. reducing admixtures in CSF concrete was directly pro­
In concrete with a cement content of more than portional to the admixture concentration in the mixing
250 kg/m^, the water demand will increase when adding water, rather than to the amount of CSF. He proposed
CSF or even replacing cement on a 1:1 basis, when no a mix design method based on an efficiency factor of a
water-reducing agents are used. Sellevold and Radjy"^^ given admixture.
analysed the data from references 39 and 40, together with Maage and Dahl"^^ measured water demand for con­
data by Dagestad"^^ on water demand in concrete mixed cretes with different types of cement and various CSF
dosages. At a constant dosage of lignosulphonate, the
RP38 water demand increased with increasing CSF dosage for
RP38FA all types of cement.
SP30 Carette and Malhotra"^^ and Petersson et al. ^'^ have also
measured water demand in CSF concrete. Their conclu­
sions are in general agreement with the discussion above,
but not numerically identical. As already mentioned, the
type of CSF and its specific interaction with all the con­
stituent materials in a given concrete determine the water
demand of concrete. Systematic laboratory tests based on
fixed mix proportions in a control concrete have little
value. When CSF is used, the chosen mix design may not
10 20 30 40 50 be the optimum. For instance, the great fineness of CSF
C S F content: kg/m^ usually permits a coarser grading curve for the other
(a) materials.
L D w i t h all Adsorption of water-reducing admixtures on CSF has
F r o m ref . 5
3 cements been measured by Meland^^ and by Buil et al.
-1
2? 0)
Case study C . Housing project in Tromse, Norway
Ehiring the period 1980—82, a housing compound con­
sisting of 1100 flats was constructed in Tromso, nor­
thern Norway. The project consumed 27 000 m^ of
concrete with a requited characteristic strength of
li 25 MPa.
•13 / / ' LD: Condensed naphthalene sulphonate
The site demanded a concrete that enabled them to strip
/ / / P:Lignosulphonate
+ 1 the scaffolding of the 6 m span decks after 16 h, even
during the winter period. For the prefabricated produc­
tion and the construction of columns, the demand varied
0 10 20
between 16 h and 6 h (1 or 2 cycles/d).
W a t e r - r e d u c i n g a d m i x t u r e : % of C S F w e i g h t
This resulted in the following mix:
(b)
240 kg ordinary Portland cement
Fig. 6. (a) The influence of CSF content on the water demand 24 kg CSF
of mixes not containing water-reducing admixtures, (b) The in­ 4 kg plasticizers
fluence of water-reducing admixture dosage on the water
W/C + 5 = 0 . 7 0 - 0 - 7 5
demand of CSF concrete. SP30 = ordinary Portland cement;
slump = 1 8 - 2 0 cm
RP38 = rapid-hardening Portland cement; RP38FA = RP38
with 20% fly ash. (From ref 42).
mean strength at 28 days = 32 MPa.
6
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Due to the cheap CSF, which was 75% of the price
of cement while the efficiency factor for strength was
between 3 and 4, the site obtained an inexpensive mix
of high workability.
To ensure high early strength, the main bulk of the
concrete was heated by steam injection up to 40 —60°C.
During the winter period, infra-red heating of the form-
work was also adopted. At these high temperatures the
pozzolanic reaction is strongly accelerated, resulting in
a relative strength gain of the CSF concrete at an early
age, equivalent to ordinary concrete at the same
temperature. The elevated temperature of the mix
resulted in a reduced retardation from the
lignosulphonate. On the other hand, the risk of crack­
ing due to plastic shrinkage increased when this CSF
concrete was used in deck slabs.
As the concrete was batched on the site, giving short
transportation time, there were no problems due to slump
loss or quick setting.
The depth of carbonation, measured after 3! years,
was about 6 mm, indicating that the carbonation front
will reach the reinforcement after a period of roughly
50 years. To improve the quality of the concrete cover,
the Norwegian c«xie of practice was revised in 1986; the
maximum W/C + S for an outdoor construction is now
0-60.
Source: ref. 50.
4.2 Concrete colour
CSF may vary considerably in colour, which in turn
affects the colour of the fresh concrete. Generally, CSF
darkens the concrete. Bellander'" determined the "degree
of darkness', according to Swedish standards, of concretes
made with a light and a dark CSF. The dark CSF pro­
duced a darker fresh concrete, but after 20 days of storage
in laboratory air there was no measurable difference be­
tween the two CSF concretes and the control concrete.
The initial difference is presumably eliminated by drying-
carbonation effects.
4.3 Cohesiveness and stability
Increased cohesiveness is the most obvious difference
between CSF concrete and normal concrete. One conse­
quence of this cohesiveness is reflected in dynamic
workability tests such as 'Thaulow strokes' (a Norwegian
test somewhat analogous to the flow table test) or a
modified Vebe test where the time to obtain a slump of
250 mm on a Vebe table is recorded. Both Johansen"*
and Maage and Dahl*' found that at equal slumps, con­
crete containing CSF required more energy input for a
given flow (Fig. 7). In practice, this problem is overcome
by using a higher slump for CSF concrete. The
cohesiveness imparts stability to the mix, an effect of major
imp<irtance in connection with flowing concrete.
To produce high quality concrete for a fertilizer storage
silo, a mix was designed using about 15% CSF and a very
high dosage of superplasticizer. Helland'- reported that
the trial mix was extremely sticky and hard to handle. The
Tattersall Two-Point Workability Apparatus was used to
test the mixes, and the problem was solved by entraining
about 8% air in the concrete. This clearly demonstrated
that the slump measure is not useful to characterize such
extreme mixes.
Stability of concrete is commonly characterized in terms
of bleeding. Quantitative measurements of bleeding are
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FRESH CONCRETE
rare, but in two such studies Johansen''' and Maage and
Dahl'*'' found that CSF used as a cement replacement led
to a large reduction in bleeding, even for mixes with no
water-reducing agents and therefore increased water con­
tent. Bellander'' stated in a review article on practical
experience in Sweden that CSF also improves the ability
of concrete to be handled and transported without separa­
tion. In a comprehensive study of 25 concrete mixes,'**'
the bleeding and separation tendencies were evaluated
qualitatively. Again, the conclusion was that CSF greatly
improved the stability of concrete, particularly in very
lean mixes.
4.4 Plastic shrinkage
Plastic shrinkage and cracking takes place when
evaporation from a fresh concrete surface exceeds the rate
of bleeding water from the concrete. The fact that bleeding
can be practically eliminated in CSF concrete makes it
vulnerable in this respect. Johansen^' made a systematic
investigation of plastic shrinkage cracking, and concluded
that the critical time is just around the time when the set­
ting of the concrete takes place. The effect of CSF was,
as expected from practical experience, that the risk of
cracking increased. The problem can be eliminated by
applying a proper curing procedure to the concrete sur­
face. Experience shows that under conditions of fast
evaporation (wind and sun), curing measures must be taken
immediately after placing the concrete.
4.5 Setting time
The setting characteristics of cements are measured on
pastes with a standardized consistency, using a Vicat
apparatus. Maage**^ measured setting times for cement
pastes with 0 and 10% CSF. All pastes, except one con­
trol paste, were mixed with 0.4% dry lignosulphonate by
weight of cement. The setting of each of the pastes with
admixture was retarded relative to the control. However,
the retardation effect of the lignosulphonate was much less
in pastes containing CSF than in pure cement paste. This
observation agrees with the common practical experience
that CSF concrete can tolerate a higher lignosulphonate
dosage than normal concrete without suffering unaccept­
able retardation. Isothermal calorimetry data on pastes with
and without CSF and lignosulphonate are in agreement
with this.*'
lOOt-
Q.
E
5 10
C S F c o n t e n t : % b y w e i g h t of c e m e n t
Fig. 7. Time of vibration to reach a slump value of 250 mm
for concrete containing different types of cement and varying
CSF content. {From ref. 45).
C S F IN CONCRETE
Penetration measurement on mortar is a more practically
relevant test than the Vicat test. Bellander^' found a tend­
ency to increased setting time with increasing CSF dosage
for concretes of equal strength, while Petersson et al^^
found little influence of CSF dosage for concretes with
constant cement plus CSF content. Neither of these in­
vestigations used water-reducing admixtures; they are
therefore of little practical relevance, because almost all
CSF concrete is produced with the aid of water-reducing
agents.
Much practical experience has been gained concerning
the setting time of CSF concretes with admixtures, but
no comprehensive laboratory investigations have been
reported. As for CSF and control concretes of equal 28-day
strength, the former will normally have a longer setting
time and slower early strength development, since it has
a higher W/C + S ratio. A commonly used method for
practical control of the setting time and early strength
development is to use a combination of lignosulphonate
5. HARDENING CONCRETE
5.1 Strength development and temperature
Many investigations have measured strength develop­
ment with respect to time for CSF concretes. Most of these
are confined to compressive strength and curing at 2 0 ° C .
In some reports heat curing has been used. In this section
only compressive strength development and temperature
effects are considered for moist-cured specimens.
For moist curing near 20°C it has been established that
the strength development for a CSF concrete is slower
than for a control concrete of equal 28-day compressive
strength. This difference increases with increasing CSF
dosage and decreasing temperature. It does not mean,
however, that high early strengths cannot be obtained using
CSF. One-day strength as high as 100 MPa has been
reported by Biirge^^ for a concrete quality that can hardly
be made with Portland cement alone (Fig. 8). High early
strength in CSF concrete without the use of heat curing
or accelerators also means very high later strength. The
percentage of the 28-day strength that is obtained the first
day increases with a decreasing W/C ratio for normal con­
crete. The percentage for CSF concrete appears to be the
same as for normal concrete with the same W/C ratio,
but the CSF concrete characterized this way has a higher
absolute strength at 28 days.
Fig. 8. Compressive strength of concrete with gap-graded
quartz aggregate (binder 450 kg/m\ cement 351 kg/m^).
(From ref. 56).
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and superplasticizer, where the relative amounts are varied
to achieve the desired result.
4.6 Conclusions
The major effects of CSF on the workability of con­
crete are to increase the cohesiveness and stability of a
mix. Consequently, bleeding and separation are greatly
reduced.
The increased cohesiveness means that a higher slump
is needed to match the workability of a control concrete.
CSF addition leads to increased water demand. Water-
reducing agents or superplasticizers are necessary to realize
the potential of CSF in practice. The use of such admix­
tures has a greater effect in CSF concrete than in control
concrete.
The lack of bleeding in CSF concrete makes it more
vulnerable to plastic shrinkage cracking than ordinary con­
crete. Protective measures must be taken under conditions
creating high evaporation rates from the concrete surface.
CSF contributes most to strength development at 20°C
in the time range from 3 to 28 days. Empirical relation­
ships between short-time and 28-day strengths are
therefore not applicable to CSF concrete, which has a
much higher strength gain than normal concrete in this
time range. A comprehensive investigation^^ of strength
development of 84 mixes up to 90 days showed a general
trend for the CSF mixes to lag most behind the control
mixes between 1 and 7 days, at equal 28-day strengths.
At very short curing times the filler effect of the very fine
CSF particles presumably acts as an accelerator, and by
adsorpdon of water-reducing agents offsets some of their
retarding effects.
For the period between 28 and 90 days the general
tendency was for the CSF mixes to have a higher strength
gain than the controls. This particularly applied to lean
mixes. Johansen^^'^'^ measured strength up to 3 years and
concluded that there was little effect of CSF on either the
strength gain between 28 days and 1 year or between 1
and 3 years for water-stored specimens. Aitcin^^
reported on Canadian experience that, for concretes of
equal 28-day strength, the CSF mixes will have somewhat
lower long-term strengths. This is in contrast to the results
cited above. Long-term water storage is of limited prac­
tical interest, however; results from dry storage will be
discussed below.
The problems of obtaining early strength for CSF con­
crete are partly overcome in practical use (readymix,
concrete element production) by using warm concrete and
applying insulation, or by heat curing. A number of
systematic investigations on the effects of heat have also
been carried out. The first, on concretes mixed at 25°C
and 5 0 ° C , did not show higher 1-day and 3-day strengths
relative to 28-day strengths for CSF concrete compared
with c o n t r o l s . T h i s is possibly because the high initial
temperature was only maintained over a short period of
time.
Sandvik^^ measured strength development of 25 MPa
concrete with 0 and 10% CSF at 5, 20, and 40°C. The
concretes were mixed at 20°C and placed immediately
 HARDENING CONCRETE

at their curing temperatures; after 1 day they were trans­

ferred to water baths. The results showed the normal
pattern at 20°C, and very slow development for CSF con­
crete at 5°C — even at 28 days it had only reached about
two-thirds of the strength of the control concrete.
However, at 40°C the 1-day strength of the CSF concrete
was more than 50% higher than the strength of the con­
trol. This dramatic increase is not supported by later work.
Sandvik^^ later reported strength development for
40 MPa concrete with 0 and 10% CSF, cured isothermally
at 20°C and 4 0 ° C . Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and
rapid-hardening Portland cement (RHPC) gave basically
the same results: at 20°C the CSF mixes lag behind up
to 28 days, and at 4 0 ° C the CSF mixes are accelerated
more than the control mixes, shifting the crossing point
in the strength development to about 3 days. 16h Id

Skurdal^^ reported strength development at 20, 30, and

50°C for concrete with 0, 10, and 20% CSF, all with Fig. 9. Compressive strength development of concrete water-
28-day strengths at 20°C of about 30 and 65 MPa. Cur­ cured at 20° C, with various CSF dosages. Each curve represents
ing at 50°C reduced the 28-day strength of all the concretes mean values for 4 cement types; 100% represents 28-day
by about 20% relative to that obtained by curing at 20°C. strength for each mix type. (From ref 63).
Roughly the same reduction was found for concretes cured
for 1 day at 50°C and then for 27 days at 2 0 ° C . 30°C
curing gave a strength reduction for the control concrete
of about 10%, but no reduction was found for CSF mixes.
The effect of temperature on early strength was similar 28-day strength at20°C
| ) 100
to that found by Sandvik^^ 30°C was not sufficient to
produce 1-day strengths in CSF concretes equal to that
in the control, but at 50°C CSF mixes were about equal
to controls of 30 MPa concrete, while they surpassed con­
trol strengths of 65 MPa mixes.
Maage and Hammer^^ reported on a comprehensive 50
investigation involving four cement types (OPC, 10 and P30
25% pulverised fuel ash (PFA) blends, and a 15% slag MP3010%flyash
MP30 25%flyash
blend) with 0, 5, and 10% CSF. The mixes were made MP3015%slag
at 5 ° C , 20°C and 35°C and maintained at these
temperatures in water for 28 days, after which they were
stored at 20°C in water for up to one year. The com­ 14d 28d 3 6 12
16h 1d 3d
pressive strength was measured from 16 h. Mixes in three Age months
strength classes were made: 15, 25, and 45 MPa.
For 20°C curing, the CSF had the same influence on Fig. 10. Development of compressive strength in reference con­
crete cured in water at 5°Cfor 28 days, then at 20°C. 100%)
strength development as described above, regardless of
represents 28-day strength at 20°Cfor each cement t\pe. (From
the cement type (Fig. 9). Figs 10 and 11 show relative
ref 63).
strength development at 5°C with and without 10% CSF
for the four cement types, and similar data for 35°C cur­
ing are shown in Figs 12 and 13.
5°C ^ 20^0
At 5°C the blended cements lag behind OPC up to 28
days as expected; with 10% CSF the lag increases — it 28-day strength at 20°C I
looks as if the pozzolanic reactions have not contributed 100"

much to strength in the 28-day period. At 35°C the CSF

mix is more strongly accelerated (in comparison with cur­
ing at 20°C) than the reference mixes, particularly be­
tween the first and seventh day.
Helland^'^ reported the general experience in Norway
of adding CSF to Portland and fly-ash-blended Portland O P30
cement. Assuming that the relative rate of reaction at dif­ • MP3010%flyash
ferent temperatures, 6, corresponds to the Arrhenius • MP30 25%flyash
equation AMP3015%slag

E(d) 1 1
H = exp 16h 1d 3d 7d 14d 28d 6 12
R 293 213 + 6 months
Age

where R = 8.3 J/moPC, the activation energy E(d) Fig. 11. Development of compressive strength in concrete con­
increases by about 10% as 10% of CSF is added. This taining 10%) CSF and water-cured at 5 °C for 28 days, then at
is demonstrated in Fig. 14 for a Norwegian rapid- 20°C. 100%c represents 28-day strength at 20°Cfor each cement
hardening cement. type (with 10%c CSF). (From ref 63).
9
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 C S F IN CONCRETE

300r -RHPCplus10%CSF
5
-RHPC
4

I 3

1 2
° 200

"5 1
tr

0-5
^ 100
2 8 - d a y strength at 2 0 ' C

I P30 025
MP3010%flyash 10 20 30 40 50 60
M P 3 0 2 5 % l l y ash
• MP3015%slag Temperalure:°C

Fig. 14. Rate of reaction at different temperatures for a

—I I 1 Norwegian RHPC with and without 10% CSF. The relation­
16h I d 3d 7d 14d 28d 12 months
ship is valid up to about 407c of standard cube 28-day strength.
(From ref 67)
Fi((. 12. Development of compressive strength in reference con­
crete cured in water at 35 °Cfor 28 days, then at 20°C. 100% tribution to strength. This observation is important in the
represents 28-da\ strength at 20°C for each cement type. (From practical use of CSF in high-strength concrete.
ref 63). Since the strength potential is several times higher per
unit weight of CSF than for cement, and because the heat
300r development under normal field conditions is slower than
under adiabatic conditions, it is possible to design a low-
heat concrete of a specified strength using CSF. This was
shown by Rasmussen.*^ Skurdal,*"^ and Lessard et al.*^

5.3 Conclusions
200 CSF concrete is more sensitive to curing temperaure
than OPC concrete. The main contribution of CSF to con­
crete strength development at 20 °C takes place from about
3 to 28 days after mixing. For a CSF and a control con­
crete of equal 28-day strength, the strength of the CSF
concrete will be lower over the entire time period with
100 20°C curing.
Curing at elevated temperatures has a greater accelerat­
O P30
ing effect on CSF concrete than on control concrete.
' • MP3010%flyash Evidence indicates that a curing temperature of roughly
I A MP3025%tlyash
J • MP3015%slag
50°C is necessary for CSF concrete to equal the 1-day
strength of an equivalent control mix.
J L. _1_ -I Curing at temperatures below 20°C retards strength
16h i d 3d 7d 14d 28d 6 12 m o n t h s
development more for CSF concrete than for control con­
A9» crete. In practical work, the early strength problem may
Fig. 13. Development of compressive strength in concrete con­ be overcome by using warm concrete and insulation, or
taining 10% CSF and water-cured at 35°C for 28 da\s. then by applying heat.
at 20°C. lOOJc represents 28 day-strength at 20°C for each
CSF makes it possible to design low-heat concrete over
cement type. (From ref 63).
a wide range of strength levels.

5.2 Heat development

Isothermal heat development data already cited"*^ Case study D. Submerged concrete bridge at Karmoy,
showed that total heat development after 2 days was Norway
reduced when cement was replaced 1:1 by CSF. However, To transport gas from the oil fields of the North Sea
after such a short period of time little of the pozzolanic to the exposed western coast of Norway, a double
reaction has taken place. Adiabatic measurements on pipeline was constructed in 1982—83. At the shore
concrete'"^ show that the heat development by the poz­ approach the pipelines were placed inside a concrete tun­
zolanic reaction is I - 2 times as high per gram of CSF nel acting as an underwater bridge over the rocky sea
as the cement hydration per gram of cement, assuming bed. The tunnel has a length of 590 m and was cast as
that the two chemical reactions do not influence each other five separate prefabricated elements with lengths vary­
ing from 90 to 150 m and with a displacement of up to
in a CSF concrete.
7000 t.
For high-strength concrete/water-binder ratio below
0 - 4 0 and 15% CSF, Helland** found negligible contribu­ To reduce the environmental loadings from the waves,
tion of CSF to heat development, in spite of a large con- it was essential to reduce the duRgOMlMMi.i)/itie s U i ^
10
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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

ture. This resulted in the use of high-strength concrete
and a dense reinforcement (330 k g / m \ including
80 kg/m^ post-tensioned cables). To ensure proper con­
creting, a highly workable mix was needed, the require­
ment being at least 24 cm slump.
Thus the mix for the main elements was:
400 kg SP-30-4A Portland cement (a high-strength
cement)
32 kg CSF
4 kg naphthalene-based plasticizers
3 kg lignosulphonate-based plasticizers
W/C + S = 0.38
slump = 2 4 - 2 6 cm
mean strength at 28 days = 85 MPa
mean strength at 90 days = 95 MPa.
The Norwegian code of design now allows the use of
C-105. In 1982, however, C-65 was the highest tabulated
grade. For this reason the elements were designed in
C-65. The requirement was met with a large margin,
and the in situ strength today has passed 100 MPa.
The CSF was used not only as an addition to ensure
the specified compressive strength, but also to obtain
the high specified slump value without getting problems
with bleeding and segregation. The whole project, in­
cluding design and construction, was completed in 9
months. . Source: ref. 69.

6. H A R D E N E D C O N C R E T E : M E C H A N I C A L PROPERTIES

6.1 Compressive .strength Sorensen'''' found K factors in the range from 2 to 5.

The contribution of CSF to concrete strength can be increasing for richer mixes and decreasing with higher
expres.sed in at least two different ways. Loland and CSF contents.
Hustad* ™ introduced the term 'efficiency factor' (K), Strength results inconsistent with the general trend
defined by the equation
100
w
ch C + KS)^ 90

where the subscripts R and S indicate reference and CSF \

80
concrete respectively. The equation is based on the general \
assumption that, forgiven materials, each property of con­ 8%CSF-\ • X
70'
crete is a function of the W/C ratio. By applying a K fac­
6 % CSF
tor to the amount of CSF, it is converted into an equivalent
amount of cement. The efficiency factor may be calculated
I 60 \
for any property of concrete. It should be pointed out that
A" is a 'marginal' quantity and therefore sensitive to the
accuracy of the raw data. This was made clear by
Mtxleer,^' who studied batch-to-batch variation for con­
I" \
\ \

crete with and without CSF, as well as by Maage and

Hammer."'
Another factor, the 'cement replacement factor' {K^
20 \ \
is defined as the difference in cement contents needed to
produce equal strengths in a reference and a CSF con­ R e f e r e n c e concrete ^
10
crete with the same slump, divided by the CSF content.
takes into account different water demands in the two
types of concrete; its numerical value therefore depends 0 30 0 40 0 50 0 60 070 0 80 0 90 10 M
on the type and dosage of water-reducing agent used. This W/C
is why it is considered less 'fundamental' than the effi­
Fig. 15. 28-d(iy compressive strength versus W/C ratio for con­
ciency factor, K. The relationship between the two fac­ crete with different CSF contents. Concretes with and without
tors was discussed by Sellevold and Radjy.""' Examples water-reducing admixtures are not differentiated. Cement is
of based on experience with readymix concrete are standard Portland cement (SP30): strength is 28-day cube
given by Skrastins and Zoldners.^' Fig. 15 shows that strength for a lOOx lOOx ]00 mm cube. (From ref 42).
the general shape of the strength against W/C ratio curve
is maintained, but shifted to a higher level, when CSF appear in the literature. For example, Carette and
is added to concrete. Malhotra** reported strengths for concretes with a W/C
The majority of the papers published on CSF concrete + S ratio of 0 - 4 0 where 0 - 3 0 % of the cement was
contain data on compressive strength, but only a few con­ replaced by OPC. Different amounts of a superplasticizer
tain sufficient data to allow calculation of K factors. were used to maintain workability. The 28-day com­
Laland^' analysed data from Johansen^^ and Loland and pressive strength did not vary for mixes with CSF from
Hustad'" and found that A" = 2 for CSF mixes with 5 to 20%, in contrast to expectations based on Norwegian
300 kg/m' or higher cement content, while for leaner results.
mixes K = }>. Sellevold and Radjy"^ reported to be The strength potential of CSF was found to vary
between 2 and 4, the highest values being for rich mixes, somewhat with cement type."' However, when the
in contrast to Loland's findings." In line with general uncertainty in the efficiency factor is taken into account,
practical experience they also found K to be higher for it has been shown by analysis of results with four cement
8% CSF dosage than for 16% by weight of cement. types (one OPC mix, two PFA blends and one slag blend)
11
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C S F IN CONCRETE
that such differences are probably not statistically
significant.^^
Malhotra and Carette^^ have shown that low dosage of
CSF may be used to compensate for strength reduction
in blended cements with 50% slag, but only at ages above
14 days.
There has been much speculation regarding the use of
water-reducing agents in CSF concrete, and their role in
dispersing the fine particles. From a practical point of view
it is generally necessary to use them, since the strength-
giving potential of CSF may otherwise be cancelled out
by increased water demand. However, there is little
evidence that mixes without water-reducing agents pro­
duce reduced properties in CSF concrete when a com­
parison is made on an equal W/C + S b a s i s . O n e
exception is for flexural strength, which will be discuss­
ed later. Microscopic examinations^^ have revealed dif­
ferent degrees of CSF dispersion in hardened concrete;
however, such differences have not been related to dif­
ferences in concrete properties.
The results cited above apply to water-cured concrete
of 28 days or higher age. A number of papers have in­
vestigated the effects of early drying on strength proper­
ties. Since the major contribution of CSF to strength
develops within 3—28 days, it is natural to suspect that
CSF concrete is vulnerable to inadequate curing.
Johansen^^'^^ and Sellevold and Radjy"^^ reported com­
pressive strength development for continuously water-
cured CSF concrete and parallel cube specimens exposed
to laboratory air directly after demoulding. Concrete both
with and without CSF suffers long-term strength loss due
to the early drying, in the range of 10—20% reduction
relative to water-cured companion specimens. There is
little difference in this respect between the two types of
concrete, except possibly that the strength loss is somewhat
greater for CSF concretes of strengths less than 30 MPa
than for equivalent controls.
Maage and Hammer^^ found that dry curing from
demoulding of 100 mm^ cubes made with OPC and 10%
PFA-blended cement did not reduce the strength of the
concrete relative to water-cured controls until after 6
months. With a 25% PFA blend and a 15% slag blend
§ 3
11
O CO
C S F concrete • A
P C concrete o
2 A
I '
c
B 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S q u a r e root of c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h : ( M P a ) V2
Fig. 16. Relationship between uniaxial tensile strength and
compressive strength for a range of different concrete qualities.
(From ref. 76).
12
the reduction appeared after about 14 days of dry curing.
10% CSF mixes increased the effect, and the reduction
in strength started after 7 days curing for all four cement
types, with the cements ranked as in the reference mixes.
After one year the reduction for dry-cured reference mixes
was 10—30% depending on the cement type, while the
CSF mixes showed 20—45% reduction relative to water-
cured companions. The curing was exceptionally bad in
these experiments, since the 100 mm^ cubes dried from
all sides directly after exposure. A follow-up series run
at three laboratories (not yet published) indicates that the
strength losses due to bad curing are much reduced when
the cubes are allowed to dry from one side only.
Loland and Hustad^^ found that either type of concrete
wet-cured 7 days before exposure to drying, suffered lit­
tle strength loss, as was found by Peterson et al.^'^ for
concretes wet-cured 5 days before exposure.
It is evident from these results that CSF concrete requires
protection at early ages to realize its potential.
6.2 Tensile and flexural strength
The relationship between compressive strength and ten­
sile, flexural, or splitting strength has been studied in a
few cases. Loland and Hustad"^^ reported direct tension
and flexure data for 25 mixes, continuously water-cured
or exposed to drying after 7 days in water. Ages at the
time of test were about 3 months for the water-cured
samples and 1 year for those exposed to drying. Loland
and Gjorv"^^ plotted the results as tensile strength versus
square root of compressive strength for both curing con­
ditions (Fig. 16). Dry-stored specimens without CSF have
a higher ratio of tensile to compressive strength than wet-
stored specimens. For CSF mixes the curing condition
has no systematic influence, and the curve falls in between
the two curves for the control mixes. Flexure results follow
the same pattern as results for tensile strengths.
Johansen^^'^^ reports both compressive and flexural
strength data for concrete exposed to drying on
demoulding. Ages at the time of test were 1 and 3 years.
There was little overall change in either strength proper­
ties from 1 to 3 years, and no significant influence of CSF
was found. A plot of flexural versus compressive strength
showed that the same relationship was valid for mixes with
0 and 5% CSF, both with and without water-reducing
agents. Mixes with 11% CSF and water-reducing agent
also followed the same relationship, but the 11% mix
without water-reducing agent and 25 % CSF mixes both
/
with and without water-reducing agents had lowered ratios
of flexural strength to compressive strength.
Maage and Hammer^^ measured tensile strength for
mixes with four cement types and various CSF dosages,
both water-cured and exposed to drying after demoulding.
W Water-cured CSF mixes uniformly produced higher ten­
sile strengths, for given compressive strengths, than
reference mixes with all types of cement. After 3 months
of dry curing, the blended cement mixes performed
significantly worse ( 1 5 - 3 5 % ) than their water-cured com­
panions, while the OPC mix only suffered a small reduc­
tion in tensile strength due to dry curing. For concrete
with 10% CSF, OPC mixes also suffered a loss of about
-I 25% in tensile strength, while blended cements lost
8 9 10 40—50% of tensile strength. Thus, the tensile strength
of concrete made with blended cement, or any cement with
CSF, is very sensitive to curing conditions. Fig. 17 shows
that all the concrete mixes produce more or less equal
curves for the two curing conditions in a plot of tensile
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strength against compressive strength. (Note that the
overall plot in Fig. 17 shows a general trend, but obscures
the detailed results given above.) Fig. 17 is in contrast
to the behaviour when dry curing is preceded by 7 days
of water curing as discussed above (Fig. 16). The pic­
ture is consequently not entirely clear at present, but it
indicates that the early curing history is quite important.
Dispersion may also play a role, since mixes without
plasticizers were more sensitive to bad curing than mixes
containing plasticizers. This applies to concretes of equal
compressive strength.
6.3 Brittleness and E-modulus
Cement pastes with more than 10% CSF have been
found to be very brittle.'^'^^ Principles of fracture
mechanics have been applied to study brittleness or duc­
tility in CSF concrete. Loland and Hustad^^ compared
ductility of 25 MPa concrete with 0 and 10% CSF by
weight of cement. They concluded that the difference was
very small, with a tendency to somewhat lower ductility
in the CSF concrete. A more comprehensive study by
Loland^^ (reviewed by Loland^^) covered many grades of
concrete, as well as wet and dry curing. A plot of 'maxi­
mum fracture zone deformation' against tensile strength
did not reveal any systematic differences between CSF
and control concrete. The curing condition had an in­
fluence, but the major effect was, as commonly agreed,
that increased strength led to increased brittleness.
Tunnel segments of high strength concrete ( > 80 MPa)
with CSF were produced to protect gas pipelines on the
western shore of Norway. Details of the project, including
stress-strain diagrams for the concrete, were reported by
Einstabland et al The stress-strain curves were almost
linear up to 0.2% strain, with a fracture strain of close
to 0-3%. More complete stress-strain diagrams, using a
stiff testing machine designed for high-strength and ultra-
high-strength ( > 100 MPa) concrete with CSF, has
recently been reported by Helland et al}^ They found
that as the strength increased, the fracture strain also in­
creased. In addition,the 'falling' part of the stress-strain
curve increased in steepness (Fig. 18). This is in line with
experience with normal concrete. A brittle concrete does
W a t e r cured
if
%
TO
(D
^ 2
Air cured
_L
10 20 30 40
C o m p r e s s i v e strength: M P a
Fig. 17. Relationship between compressive and tensile
strengths for water-cured samples and samples exposed to dry­
ing in air from the point of demoulding. Four cement types, and
0 and 10% CSF dosages are included. (From ref. 63).
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
not necessarily mean a brittle construction; that depends
on design and reinforcement. Helland et al.^^ also
reported test data for over-reinforced beams, which did
not disintegrate, but failed gradually — presumably
because the compressive failure was local and spread
progressively inwards in the cross-section.
The high failure strain of ultra-high-strength CSF con­
crete is a consequence of the fact that the ^-modulus does
not increase nearly as much as the compressive strength.
Loland^^ gave ^-modulus versus compressive strength
data for a large number of concretes, demonstrating this.
He found no significant difference between CSF and con­
trol concretes. Sellevold et al. showed that the dynamic
f'-modulus of cement pastes increased with increasing CSF
addition. In concrete, however, the aggregates dominate
the ^-modulus. Hence, increased stiffness of the binder
phase is reflected only to a moderate degree in concrete.
Larrard et al. investigated the fracture characteristics
of normal-strength concrete (54 MPa), high-strength con­
crete (76 MPa), and very-high-strength concrete
(105 MPa) containing 10% CSF. They concluded that
although the latter two showed 'quasi-explosive' behaviour
in normal compression testing, they did show 'significantly
better fracture toughness than usual normal concrete', and
consequently that 'it is absolutely possible to build duc­
tile structures with high-strength and very-high-strength
concrete'.
6.4 Fly a s h - C S F combinations
Several investigators have explored the possibility of
using CSF in combination with fly ash.^^'^^-^^'^^"^^ The
purpose has generally been to use the highly reactive CSF
to compensate for the slow strength development
associated with fly ash in concrete. Results obtained by
Carette and Malhotra^^ confirm this possibility (Fig. 19).
Work in this area has recently been carried out in Nor-
4 3 , 6 3 rpi^g blended cement is finely ground, so that
strength development matches that of OPC. A wide range
of properties of CSF concrete made with such a blended
cement are being studied. Results do not indicate any
120
- 0 % CSF
. 7-10% CSF
- 15% CSF,
basalt aggregate
100
80
in 60
S
CO
40
20
50 60
0-1 0-2 0-3 0-4 0-5 0-6
Strain: % o
Fig. 18. Stress-strain diagram for high strength concrete tested
in compression. (From ref. 81).
13
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C S F IN CONCRETE

50 r
%CSF
'20 + 8 0 % control
40 h
^Reference: 100% Portland cement
Control: 70% Portland cement, 30% fly ash
28
Age: days
Fig. 19. Compressive strength versus age for concrete
a W/C + S ratio of 0-50. (From ref 83).
significant difference in CSF effects in concretes contain­
ing OPC or a blended cement containing 10% fly ash.
Results for blended cements containing 25 % fly ash show
greater sensitivity to curing temperature and curing con­
dition, as already discussed above.
6.5 Bond properties
Bond properties of concrete include bond to aggregates,
bond to reinforcing steel, bond to fibres, and bond when
fresh concrete is placed on old concrete.
Johansen and Dahl^^ investigated concrete-to-concrete
bond for various combinations of normal and CSF con­
crete. They concluded that CSF was 'an important aid
material to obtain good bond at joints or for two-layer
construction'. One contributing reason for this is that
segregation is small in CSF concrete. Hence, a weak top
layer as a result from a horizontal pour is avoided.
Carles-Gibergues et al. have studied the zone form­
ed between aggregate and cement paste (the 'aureole').
This zone is a point of weakness, being available for crack
15 + 8 5 % control propagation in concrete. They report that the
10 + 9 0 % control
characteristics of the aureole are altered in the presence
\- 95% control
of CSF. In particular, it reduces the thickness of the zone.
Regourd^ observed an 'excellent cement paste-aggregate
bond' in mortars with CSF. Part of the reason for an im­
proved bond phase is presumably the greater stability of
CSF mixes.
Biirge^^'^^ reported improved bond strength to
with reinforcing steel by the use of CSF both for high-strength
lightweight concrete and for high-strength normal weight
concrete.
A project to investigate interface structure and bond
strength (pull-out test) between concrete and reinforcing
steel has been reported by Gjorv et ai^^ and Monteiro
et al"^^ They tested concretes with varying strength
levels and CSF dosages from 0 to 16% by weight of
cement. They concluded that addition of CSF gave im­
proved pull-out strength (Fig. 20), particularly at high
compressive strength levels of the concrete. The inter­
face zone was found to be 'more densified', i.e. reduced
both in porosity and thickness.
Bache^^ reported high bond strength to plastic fibres in
a review of ultra-high-strength CSF mixes, as did Krenchel
and Shah.^"^ Ramakrishnan and Srinivasan^^ studied steel
fibre reinforced concrete and found that, in general, CSF
improved the performance characteristics of steel fibre-
reinforced concrete.
Scandinavia has recently seen the widespread use of steel
fibre-reinforced shotcrete using the wet process, since this
makes it possible to avoid wire mesh reinforcing nets. A

30 000 r

(b)
24 000

18 0 0 0

3
? 12 0 0 0

6000

30 000 r

(d)
24 000

0% CSF
8% CSF
16% CSF

-L. -L. -I
3000 5000 7000 9000 11 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 3000 5000 7000 9000 11 0 0 0 13 000

C o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h : p.s.i. C o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h : p.s.i.

Fig. 20. Pull-out strength versus concrete compressive strength: (a) deformed bars (upper posi­
tion); (b) plain bars (upper position); (c) deformed bars (lower position); (d) plain bars (lower
position). (From ref 91).
14
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recent comprehensive study of field projects with
labtiratory follow-up'**' concluded that CSF is an import­
ant ingredient in the mix. but due to lack of control in
field situations the effects of CSF are difficult to quantify.
The need for an accelerator in CSF mixes to maintain
low rebound losses appears to have been reduced. Use
of the methcxl in the USA was reported by Corwine."^'
A comprehensive review of CSF shotcrete in Canada was
recently given by Morgan et
The use of CSF in carbon fibre-reinforced cements has
been investigated by Ohama et al.'*'' They conclude that
CSF plus a water-reducing agent arc efficient in dispers­
ing the carbon fibres, and that the CSF improves fibre
anchorage.
Bcrgstrom and Gram'"" used CSF to reduce the pH in
the pore water of the cement matrix in order to improve
the durability of alkali-sensitive fibres. They concluded
that embrittlemcnt was delayed but not prevented for glass
fibres. For sisal fibres they found that embrittlemcnt "can
be avoided almost completely". Experience with CSF in
asbestos-free fibre-reinforced cement was reported by
Radjy et al.
All these studies indicate that CSF can be used to
improve bond properties of different kinds, as well as to
improve durability properties. This is an important area
that may increase the potential of cement-based binders.
Case study E . Norwegian shotcrete
In 1986 about 45 (XX) m' of shotcrete were produc­
ed in Norway, mainly for rock stabilization and tunnei
lining. The majority of this was pr(xluced by the wet
process method and applied by robots. By this method
the concrete is mixed with water at the batching plant,
and only an accelerator is added at the nozzle. 60—70%
of the production was steel fibre-reinforced, and about
85% contained CSF.
CSF is used to improve the pumpability, the strength
(due both to better quality of the concrete from the batch­
ing plant and to the reduced need for accelerator), the
permeability, and the bond to the fibres. A normal mix
for wet process shotcrete is:
4 0 0 - 6 0 0 kg cement
up to 10% CSF
2 - 8 litres plasticizers
max size of the aggregate = 4 - 1 2 mm
W/C + S = 0 - 4 0 - 0 - 6 0
slump value = 12 — 24 cm.
The normal requirements for the applied shotcrete are
grade C-25 or C-35. However, by the use of CSF and
plasticizers it is also possible to produce high quality
shotcrete with compressive strength up to 100 MPa.
Source: refs 102. 103.
6.6 Shrinkage
Traetteberg and Alstad"^^ measured shrinkage of pastes
with W/C + S-ratioof 0 - 5 0 , with 0, 5, and 15% of the
cement replaced by CSF. The pastes were cured for either
2 or 28 days before exposure to relative humidities from
12 to 75%. For samples exposed after 2 days curing, the
results indicated greater shrinkage at increasing CSF con­
tents. This was particularly significant at RH values below
50%, i.e. in a range below that at which concrete shrinkage
normally is assessed. The same trend was observed for
pastes pre-cured for 28 days. The weight loss of the CSF
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
pastes was smaller than for the control pastes in the
'capillary range', i.e. at RH values above about 40%.
These observations seem natural taking into account that
the pastes were made with a constant W/C + S ratio: CSF
pastes have finer pore structure and consequently retain
more capillary condensed water at a given RH. At RH
values below the capillary range, the weight loss and the
shrinkage are controlled by the amount of CSH, which
is greater for the CSF pastes.
The shrinkage of concrete depends on the shrinkage of
the cement paste, but also on the volume fraction of the
aggregate. Several investigations have been made of
shrinkage in concrete by standard methcxis, i.e. un­
restrained shrinkage of prismatic specimens at RH values
of 50 - 60%. Johansen measured .shrinkage on con­
crete prisms exposed to 50% RH directly after demoulding
and after 28 days of water curing. The W/C + S ratio
varied from 0-37 to 1 -06, and the CSF dosage from 0
to 25% by weight of cement. The mortar fraction was
also sieved from the fresh concrete, and parallel shrinkage
measurements were performed on mortar prisms. The con­
cretes were produced with predeterminal cement plus CSF
contents both with and without a water-reducing agent.
The water demand to prtxluce the desired slump therefore
varied widely, resulting in varying W/C + S ratios as well
as aggregate volume fractions. It is therefore difficult to
compare the measured shrinkage values directly. For
samples precured for 28 days and with 0. 5. and 10% CSF
the shrinkage values at 3 years varied little and were not
directly related to either water-reducing agents, aggregate
volume fraction, or W/C + S ratio. AT 25% CSF dosage
the influence of water-reducing agents was evident in that
they pri.xluced significantly higher aggregate volume frac­
tions and therefore lower shrinkage over the entire W/C
-f- 5 range. This applied to both 1 and 28 days of pre-
curing. In general, only 1 day of pre-curing resulted in
higher shrinkage, particularly for CSF mixes and for con­
trol mixes with W/C ratios of less than 0 - 6 0 . Thus, for
quality concrete (W/C + S < 0-60) no significant dif­
ference was found between control mixes and mixes
containing 0, 5, and 10% CSF. The 25% CSF mixes pro­
duced higher shrinkages, particularly mixes with no water-
reducing agents. Shrinkage data on mortars generally
followed the same pattern, with a small tendency to
increased shrinkage with increasing CSF dosage up to 10%
and a clearly significant difference at 25% CSF dosage.
Johansen applied a simple composite model to relate
the shrinkage values for the concretes and for their
equivalent mortars. He found that increasing CSF dosage
generally led to a lower ratio between concrete and mor­
tar shrinkage, and concluded that this must be caused by
a higher degree of stress relaxation in CSF concrete, since
the shrinkage potential in the mortars was not fully
reflected in concrete shrinkage. He also suggested that
this might be caused by increased microcracking in CSF
concrete. A s discussed in section 7.1.2, microscope
studies of field CSF concretes have suggested a higher
density of microcracks than in control concrete.^** Since
the importance of such microcracking for concrete pro­
perties has not been established, the implications of this
are unclear.
Loland and Hustad™ measured shrinkage for 25 con­
crete mixes, with 0, 10, and 20% CSF by weight of cement
and W/C + S ratios from 0-37 to 2 -11. The specimens
were exposed to 60% RH after 7 days of moist curing.
The shrinkage after 14 months was not significantly dif-
LS
C S F IN CONCRETE
ferent for concretes with W/C -\- S ratios over 0 - 6 0 . At
lower values the mixes containing CSF had less shrinkage
than the controls.
Carette and Malhotra"^^ moist-cured the concrete for 28
days and subsequently measured shrinkage 84 days after
production. Two series were tested. One used about
230 kg cement plus CSF, with CSF dosage from 0 to 43 %.
No water-reducing agent was used; hence the W/C + S
ratio varied from 0 - 6 4 to 0 - 8 4 with increasing CSF
dosage. The other series had the same range of CSF
dosage, but the cement plus CSF was kept constant at about
400 kg/m^ and the W/C -h S ratio at 0 - 4 0 by using dif­
ferent amounts of superplasticizer. For both series the pat­
tern was less shrinkage for the concretes containing CSF.
The measuring time was short in these experiments, which
may have distorted the results. For example, Maage'^^
has reported shrinkage with 0 and 10% CSF cured for
28 days prior to exposure, where shrinkage for the CSF
mix was less than for the control of equal strength at times
up to several months, but then tended to catch up (Fig.
21). When exposed immediately after demoulding, the
CSF mixes showed somewhat greater shrinkage over the
whole time span. Maage's experiments were performed
both with OPC and a blended cement with 10% fly ash
interground. The shrinkage properties of the two cements
did not differ.
Malhotra and Carette^^ measured shrinkage over up to
100 days in slag-cement concretes containing CSF, and
found only marginal differences relative to controls.
Petersson et al.^^ measured shrinkage after 7 days of
wet curing for concretes with 0, 7, and 13% CSF con­
tent by weight of cement. The mixes were lean, with W/C
-h S ratios from 0 - 8 0 to 0 - 9 4 and 28-day compressive
strengths from 27 to 35 MPa. At short curing times the
CSF mixes had higher shrinkage, but at curing times of
over 80 days there was little difference from the control.
Buil and Acker'^^ measured shrinkage of a control
concrete {W/C = 0-44) and one containing 33% CSF
(W/C -h 5 = 0-40). The CSF concrete had shrinkage
strains roughly one-half as large as those of the control
after about one year. For high-strength mortars with and
without 40% CSF, Buil et al."^^ found slightly higher
shrinkage after 90 days for the CSF mix (99 MPa) than
for the control without superplasticizer (50 MPa), while
a control (C3 MPa) with the same superplasticizer dosage
as the CSF mix had almost twice the shrinkage.
For a series of very-high-strength concretes with CSF,
002
a Few reports are available on creep of CSF concrete.
X Buil and Acker^^^ measured drying creep and creep in a
LU
002
004
- 0 % C S F , c u r e d in w a t e r
i ^
C
0-06 — 0 — 0 % C S F , c u r e d i n air
— • — 1 0 % C S F , c u r e d in w a t e r
- - • - - 1 0 % C S F , c u r e d in air
^ 0081-
7d
Time
Fig. 21. Development of shrinkage for samples cured in water
and in air containing P30 cement (OPC) and MP30 cement
(90% OPC + 7 0 % PFA), both with and without 10%c CSF.
(From ref 105).
16
Helland et al^^ measured shrinkage according to ASTM
C157.^^^ They found that shrinkage values were low in
comparison with normal concretes, and that shrinkage was
linearly related to the water content of the concretes.
Wolsiefer'^^ has also reported shrinkage for high-
strength ( > 100 MPa) CSF concrete. For samples moist-
cured for 14 days prior to exposure (ASTM C257^^^),
lower shrinkage was observed than for reference concrete,
while exposure after 1 day led to higher shrinkage for CSF
concrete.
It appears from the existing evidence that at equal W/C
-h S ratios, CSF paste has a higher shrinkage potential
than a control paste. This effect is most evident at CSF
dosages above 10% by weight or cement, as also seen
in mortar tests. The effect of exposure to very early dry­
ing is less clear: pastes with or without CSF showed litde
sensitivity, while mortars showed a clear tendency to in­
crease shrinkage. This tendency was of the same
magnitude for mortars with 0, 5, or 10% CSF.
Shrinkage data for concrete are even more difficult to
assess, since the volume fraction of aggregates plays an
important role, and in laboratory experiments this variable
is not usually optimized. Minimum shrinkage is obtained
when the binder phase volume fraction is minimum and
its quality maximum (low W/C -h S ratio). Hence, the
use of water-reducing agents is of importance in that it
allows reduction in binder phase volume fraction.
However, water-reducing agents by themselves lead to
increased shrinkage, thus offsetting some or all of the
advantage gained by the reduced water content.
The results reviewed here indicate that concrete
shrinkage is little influenced by CSF contents, at least up
to 10% by weight of cement. For concrete exposed to dry­
ing very early, shrinkage is increased; this effect is most
marked for lean CSF mixes {W/C -h 5 > 0 • 60) and high
CSF contents ( > 10% by weight of cement). This con­
clusion seems natural, since early drying inhibits the
pozzolanic reaction.
CSF concrete dries out more slowly than control con­
crete of equal strength. This may partly explain why the
higher shrinkage potential in cement paste containing CSF
is not reflected in concrete shrinkage. It is known that
slow drying (or large specimen size) leads to decreased
shrinkage for a given concrete.
Finally, it should be noted that crack sensitivity of con­
crete is not only related to shrinkage, but to the creep and
stress relaxation properties as well. Data on shrinkage
alone are therefore of limited value in connection with
crack sensitivity.
6.7 Creep
sealed environment for a control concrete {W/C = 0 - 4 4 ,
53 MPa) and one with 33% CSF {W/C -h 5 = 0-40,
76 MPa). Unloaded sealed samples suffered substantial
strains, either caused by self-desiccation effects or in­
complete sealing. The creep of the sealed specimens was
roughly equal for the two types of concrete, while the CSF
mix had substantially less total creep deformation under
drying conditions than the control.
28d 3 6
months Wolsiefer^^^ measured creep of CSF concrete. High-
strength mixes were loaded at 12 h and at 28 days. Up
to 4 months, the CSF concretes showed less creep than
has been reported for normal high-strength concrete.
Creep of high-strength concrete (112 MPa) containing
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10% CSF was measured by Penttala,'^^ who found that
the concrete drying creep values were some 80% of the
CEB values, but that the creep takes place much faster
than the CEB formula predicts. Close to 80% of the total
deformation after 400 days in water before being loaded
in atmospheres of 60% and 80% RH.
Tazawa and Yonekura'*' also measured creep of CSF
concretes with W/C ratios from 0 - 3 0 to 0 - 6 5 and 30%
of the cement replaced by CSF, i.e. a high CSF dosage
of about 43% by weight of cement. The strengths varied
from 40 to 75 MPa — quite low for such compositions.
Specimen were loaded after 28 days' curing in water and
exposed to two conditions: storage in water, and drying
at 50% RH. For water storge ('basic creep') the specific
creep did not depend much on concrete strength level,
and CSF concretes had slightly higher specific creep than
controls. Drying creep decreased strongly with increas­
ing compressive strength, and CSF mixes had almost
doubled the specific creep values compared with the con­
trols over the whole strength range.
It should be noted that all of the results given here are
for either very high strengths or very high CSF dosages.
They may therefore not be representative of more nor­
mal CSF structural concrete.
6.8 Fire resistance
Aaneland''^ exposed one face of concrete elements to
ISO (wood fire) and HC (hydrocarbon) fire loads. Four
concretes were tested, one of which contained 9% CSF
by weight of cement. 28-day cube strengths for the four
concretes were 32—35 MPa. The elements were tested
after 12 weeks. All elements fulfilled the requirements
as to temperature on the unexposed side. Spalling on the
exposed side was also evaluated. The CSF concrete had
a somewhat higher spalling, but the data were too limited
to allow general conclusions to be drawn.
Pedersen'^^ exposed 100 mm cylinders of high-
strength CSF concrete (W/C + S = 0 -16 and 20% CSF)
to slow heating (1 °C/min). Several of the specimens sud­
denly disintegrated at temperatures near 300°C. It should
be kept in mind that this mix is extreme and by no means
representative for CSF concrete. However, certain
characteristics of CSF concrete are important in connec­
tion with the spalling problem. CSF concrete dries out
very slowly (see section 7.1.1), while its thermal conduc­
tivity probably is as high or higher than for normal
concrete. These factors indicate that high vapour pressure
can be built up internally and cause spalling. Hertz^^"^ has
discussed the question in connection with dense CSF
concrete.
These Danish results have motivated further studies of
fire tests of high strength concrete. Maage and
Rueslatten'^^ heated 100 mm cubes in a furnace to
1150°C over a 60 min period. Three concretes were
tested: one with 15% CSF and mature strength of
138 MPa, and two reference concretes of about 80 MPa
strength. All three concretes were tested in two moisture
conditions: after continuous water storage, and after
several weeks drying at 105°C. The test specimens were
inspected during the heating at 570°C and 700°C. After
the end of the tests the remaining strength was measured.
At 570°C only one sample showed spalling or cracking,
at 700°C more cracks were visible, and at 1125°C all
samples were cracked. The remaining strength was about
8% of the original for all three concretes. One mix with
7% CSF (124 MPa at 19 months), exposed over a long
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
time to indoor climate, performed similarly to the others
by visual inspection. The main point in this small test series
is that no explosive effects were observed in spite of
extreme variations in moisture states.
Shirley et al^^^ produced 100 mm thick slabs from five
mixes: one normal strength control (50 MPa), two high-
strength controls (70 and 90 MPa), and two CSF mixes
(70 and 120 MPa) with 10% and 15% CSF by weight of
cement. The slabs were moist-cured for 7 days and then
dried at about 30°C and 2 0 - 3 0 % RH until testing at ages
of 8 0 - 1 3 0 days. The RH value at slab mid-depth was
reduced to the range of 7 7 - 8 4 % at testing. Fire testing
was carried out according to ASTM El 19,^'^ where one
face of the slab is exposed to a rise in temperature to 600°C
in about 10 minutes and to about 1100°C after 4 hours.
The conclusion was that the tested concretes 'revealed no
significant difference in behaviour'. There was no
explosive behaviour, and none of the concretes showed
even minor spalling on the exposed surface.
As part of a large project on offshore concrete, Jensen
et al.^^^ reported on 100 mm thick, prestressed concrete
DT elements exposed to hydrocarbon fires reaching
1100°C in 30 min. Four elements of each of three con­
crete mixes were tested: control concrete (49 MPa), CSF
concrete (10% CSF, 53 MPa) and a lightweight aggregate
concrete (58 MPa). The prestressing cables were cut after
3 days, and from then on the elements were stored out­
side without protection for about 6 months (summer and
autumn). From that point on, the curing varied as follows:
four elements were stored outside under cover for 3 weeks
before testing; four elements were stored inside at 20°C
for 4 weeks before testing, and four elements were stored
inside for 2 weeks, fire insulation was applied, and then
they were stored inside for another 5 weeks before testing.
The moisture content was determined before fire testing
by chipping off pieces from the element sides and drying
at 105°C. The moisture content varied from 3 - 4 % to
6-4% by weight of dry concrete; the lowest values were
for CSF concrete and the highest for the control mix.
Moisture content for neither concrete was very dependent
on storage conditions. No measurements were made of
the relative humidity in the concretes. The results of the
fire tests were unsatisfactory for all uninsulated elements;
the elements stored outside started to spall after about 5
minutes, and the prestressing wires were exposed after
8-5 minutes. The test was stopped after 31 min because
one of the elements developed a hole right through. The
development for the elements stored inside was similar,
but somewhat delayed in time. Two of the insulated
elements were undamaged, but on another the insulation
scaled off and the behaviour was similar to that of the unin­
sulated elements.
Jensen et al.^^^ also reported on two further test series:
one on small test specimens and slabs (100 x 1000 X
1000 mm), and one on prestressed and reinforced beams,
both loaded and unloaded during fire testing. The first
of these series resulted in considerable damage to all
specimens, particularly to those in a 'moist' condition.
No significant difference was found for normal density
concrete with compressive strength from 40 to 80 MPa,
while lightweight concrete suffered the most pronounced
damage. No CSF mix was included.
The beams of the last test series largely confirmed the
results on the DT beams, except that the CSF mix exper­
ienced most spalling. In general, prestressing resulted in
increased risk of spalling. Specimens were tested at the
17
C S F IN CONCRETE

ages of 13 weeks and 60 weeks; the latter were allowed found no external spalling or internal damage to any of
to dry indoors for a year before testing. The risk of spalling the specimens, and concluded that CSF concrete 'appears
after drying was low for both beam types with normal to give the same or better performance than comparable
density concrete, but the risk was still apparent for conventional concrete when exposed to the standard
lightweight concrete. ASTM El 19 time-temperature fire exposure'.
The main conclusions of the work are that spalling and The reports cited here appear to have rather contradic­
damage occur earlier than expected, and that prestress and tory results. The Danish test"^ showed an 'explosive'
increasing moisture content increase the severity of the effect for a very dense mix {W/C 4- 5 - 0 • 16, 20% CSF)
effects. CSF concrete appears more sensitive to spalling. at a very low heating rate, while refs 115 — 120 indicate
Lightweight concrete is more sensitive to spalling than no such effects at much faster heating rates, a variety of
normal density concrete, contrary to common expectation. moisture conditions, and concrete compositions to W/C
The remaining strength of CSF concrete after heating + S = 0 - 2 2 , 15% CSF. It would be useful to perform
to SSO^'C has been investigated by Dahl."^ Increasing experiments to determine if such a sharp limit on binder
the dosage of CSF resulted in somewhat reduced composition with regard to the explosive effect indeed
temperature resistance, while water storage after heat exists.
exposure led to large strength gains for mixes with 0 and Except for the results in ref 115 it appears, as expected,
10% CSF. Mixes with 20% CSF experienced lower that increasing moisture content leads to increased damage.
strength gains. The influence of concrete strength level and CSF content
W i l l i a m s o n e x p o s e d concrete blocks (approximate is less clear. None of the reports indicates that increased
dimensions 150 X 260 X 500 mm) to the standard ASTM strength leads to increased damage by fire exposure. The
El 19'^^ time-temperature fire. Two reference mixes (30 role of CSF is only found to be detrimental in connection
and 80 MPa) and two CSF mixes (50 and 100 MPa) were with spalling of prestressed beams.^'^ The major
tested. The relative humidity in the concrete was monitored Norwegian study^'^ showed clearly that HC fire
during the storage period of about 6 months; it reached exposure in connection with prestressed or loaded con­
a level of 71 —74% RH at the time of testing. Williamson crete elements in a moist state is a serious problem at the
moderate strength level of 5 0 - 6 0 MPa, regardless of mix
composition.

90 h
6.9 Abrasion-erosion resistance
Very low W/C ratio ( < 0 - 2 5 ) and high CSF dosage
( > 20%) mortars are known to be highly resistant to abra­
sion and wear. This property is currently used in a variety
of applications. For concrete little published data are
available. Holland'^^ has reported on a repair project
using high-strength CSF concrete on the Kinzua dam still­
ing basin. Laboratory results on abrasion-erosion were
very promising (Fig. 22), and repairs were carried out
in 1983 after full-scale test pours were made. A follow-
up report after one year's service'^^ states that 'the con­
crete appears to perform as intended'.

6.10 Conclusions
Q> 40 L The contribution of CSF to any property of hardened
concrete may be expressed in terms of an efficiency fac­
tor, K. For compressive strength K is in the range of 2—5,
meaning that 2 to 5 kg of cement may be replaced by 1 kg
of CSF in a given concrete without impairing the com­
pressive strength. This applies provided the water con­
tent is kept constant and the CSF dosage is less than about
20% by weight of cement. is a 'marginal' quantity, and
cannot normally be determined accurately. CSF makes
it possible to produce high-strength concrete (over
100 MPa) on a routine basis.
Tensile and flexural strengths of CSF concrete are
related to compressive strength in a manner similar to that
of normal concrete. However, if CSF concrete is exposed
to drying after only one day of curing in the mould, the
(a) Fibre-reinforced c o n c r e t e from K i n z u a stilling b a s i n . tensile and flexural strengths are reduced more than for
(b) Conventional concrete. Pennsylvania limestone aggregate. control concrete.
(c) C o n v e n t i o n a l c o n c r e t e . Virginia d i a b a s e a g g r e g a t e .
(d) C o n v e n t i o n a l c o n c r e t e . Mississippi chert a g g r e g a t e . The brittleness of normal concrete increases with in­
(e) A v e r a g e of C S F c o n c r e t e s p e c i m e n s p r e p a r e d during actual construction. creasing strength level. CSF concrete appears to follow
(f) C S F c o n c r e t e . Virginia d i a b a s e a g g r e g a t e .
(g) C S F concrete. Pennsylvania limestone aggregate. the same pattern as normal concrete in this respect.
Various studies indicate that CSF can be used to improve
Fig. 22. Abrasion-erosion test data for various concretes tested any bond property of concrete; to aggregate, to reinforc­
in the laboratory. (From ref. 121). ing steel, to various fibres, or to old concrete.
18
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Cement paste and mortar containing CSF appears to
have a larger shrinkage potential than controls at equal
W/C + 5 ratios. This increased potential has not been
found to be reflected in increased concrete shrinkage.
Fire exposure tests indicate that spalling is a potentially
7. HARDENED CONCRETE: DURABILITY
A substantial number of investigations have been con­
cerned with various durability aspects of concrete con­
taining CSF. Review papers in English on physical and
chemical durability have been published by Hjorth^ and
Gjorv'^^ and on corrosion protection of reinforcement by
Vennesland and Gjorv.^^"^ A general agreement exists
that, apart from the chemical composition, the permeability
of a given concrete is a good indicator of its durability
both to physical and chemical aggression. Data on the
permeability will therefore be discussed first in this section.
7.1 Permeability
The term permeability may be applied to gas, vapour,
and liquid transport through a porous material, although
the term diffusion is more generally used when describ­
ing gas or vapour. Two types of experimental techniques
have been used with CSF concrete and cement paste:
observation of weight loss versus drying time, and water
transport under a pressure gradient. Oxygen and chloride
diffusion in water-saturated concrete have also been
measured, but will be discussed in connection with cor­
rosion of reinforcement (section 8).
7.7.7 Drying experiments
Sellevold et al. measured drying rates for 3 mm
thick discs of cement-CSF pastes containing 0—20% of
CSF by weight of cement. One series, in which the W/C
ratio was kept constant and CSF used as an additive, gave
the result that the relative diffusion coefficient was reduced
from 1 - 0 at 0% CSF to 0-25 at 20% CSF. The reduction
was non-linear, i.e. the effect per unit weight of CSF added
decreased with increasing total CSF dosage. A parallel
series, in which the water content in the paste was kept
constant and the cement replaced by CSF in a ratio of 3:1,
gave equal diffusion coefficients for 0, 8, and 16% CSF
contents by weight of cement. This result indicates that
with respect to water diffusion during drying the efficiency
factor (K) of the CSF in cement paste is about 3, close
to the value of generally found for compressive strength.
Sorensen^"^ calculated relative diffusion coefficients
from drying experiments on concrete discs containing 0,
8, and 16% CSF by weight of cement. The efficiency fac­
tor for the CSF with respect to drying calculated from
these results was in the range 6—8, i.e. higher than K for
compressive strength.
These two investigations considered together show that
the CSF has a greater effect in concrete than in cement
paste, indicating that the boundary phase between aggre­
gate and paste is improved more by the use of CSF than
the cement paste phase itself This indication has implica­
tions for any other property of concrete which depends
on the quality of the interface, for example bond and water
permeability.
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DURABILITY
serious problem for high-strength concrete in general, and
it is particularly sensitive to the moisture content of the
concrete and to the state of stress.
High-stress CSF concrete has a potential for high
abrasion-erosion and wear resistance.
7.7.2 Water permeability
The first permeability tests on CSF concrete were car­
ried out in the 1960s by Markestad.'^^ Using a lean mix
(W/C = 0 - 8 9 ) , and replacing 20% of the cement with
CSF, the concrete was found to be 'completely im­
permeable' to water under 7 atm pressure for 15 days
(60 mm thick disc specimens). In 1975, water penetra­
tion tests according to Swedish standards were carried out
on concrete with 0, 10, and 20% CSF replacement of the
cement on a 1:1 basis. This resulted in higher
strengths for the CSF mixes, and about one-half as much
water penetration in the 10% CSF mix as in the reference
mix. Use of 20% CSF reduced the penetration further,
but by substantially less than twice the reduction produc­
ed by 10% CSF. Note that no water-reducing agent was
used in either of these investigations.
As part of a comprehensive investigation, the water
permeability of 25 concretes was measured by Hustad and
Loland.^^^ The concretes contained 0, 10, and 20% CSF
by weight of cement and were made both with and without
water-reducing agents. The cement content ranged from
100 to 500 kg/m . When comparing permeability coef­
ficients on the basis of the same 28-day compressive
strength, the CSF concretes were somewhat less permeable
at strength levels up to 30—40 MPa. At higher strength
levels the accuracy of the test method used was not high
enough to permit comparisons; all mixes were essentially
'watertight'. The permeability coefficients for the strong
concretes were in the range 1 0 t o 10"'^ m/s.
Sandvik^^ has reported permeability coefficients for
concretes of fixed composition except for 5, 10, and 20%
replacement of cement by CSF on a 1:1 basis. The
reference mix had 300 kg/m^ of cement and a 28-day
cube strength of 31 MPa. The CSF mixes had 28-day cube
strengths of 36, 43, and 44 MPa respectively. No water-
reducing agents were used. The results do not permit com­
parison at equal strength levels. The mix containing 5%
CSF produced a reduction in the permeability coefficient
from 3 X 10"^' to 6 X lO"'^ m/s; at higher CSF
replacement levels the coefficient was too low to be
measured (i.e. below 1 0 " m / s ) (Fig. 23).
Skurdal^^ measured permeability coefficients of a
reference concrete and one containing 10% CSF by weight
of cement. Both mixes had 28-day cube strengths of about
32 MPa at 2 0 ° C curing. Parallel samples were cured at
30°C and 5 0 ° C ; the former resulted in slightly lower
strengths at 29 days, while the latter led to reductions of
about 20% for both mixes. The permeability coefficients
of the CSF mixes were consistently lower than for the
reference mixes (20°C curing: 7 - 2 x 10"'^ and 0-5 x
10-'^ m/s; 30°C curing: 27 X 10"'^ and 0 - 8 x 1 0 " ' '
m/s; 50°C curing: 90 X 10'^^ and 74 X 10~'^ m/s).
Heat curing of both types of concrete led to increased
permeability.
19
C S F IN CONCRETE
10 '
S t o r e d In w a t e r
D r i e d for 1 4
daysat40'C
prior to
testing
300/0 285/15 270/30
M I X proportions. c e m e n t / C S F : k g / i n '
Fig. 23. Hydraulic conductivity (permcahility) of different con­
crete compositions given different storage conditions. (From ref.
65).
Note that the values for the permeability coefficients
in the two latter investigations do not match precisely for
comparable concretes, in spite of the fact that the same
experimental apparatus was used. This is a common
phenomenon for penneability measurements, and emphas­
izes the need for caution when, for example, attempting
to base evaluations of the effects of CSF on results from
different test series.
As part of a project to investigate the condition of field
concretes with and without CSF. Maage''^" measured the
water permeability of discs cut from drilled cores in
various structures. The age of the structures varied from
3 to 9 years. The results are shown in Fig. 24. The abscissa
is {W/C + 35) in order to compare concretes of similar
compressive strengths. The trend is that CSF concretes
have lower permeabilities at equal strengths. Microscopic
examination of thin sections from the concretes was made
by the Technological Institute in Denmark, which con­
cluded that CSF mixes in general were more dense, and
that they contained more microcracks. The micrtKracks
apparently have no influence on the permeability, nor on
the measured stress-strain curves in compression.
1 10 "
10 '
0-6
W / C (controls)
W/C + 3S (CSF)
Without C S F
With C S F
10
Fig. 24. Permeability of samples drilled from siruciures,
against W/C ratio for controls and W/C + iS ratio for CSF
concrete. (From ref. 128).
20
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In a comprehensive test series of CSF with blended
cements already described,''' permeability was also
measured.'-** The results were not entirely consistent, but
on average CSF mixes had somewhat lower permeabil­
ity than control mixes at equal strength. CSF appeared
to have least effect with a blended cement containing 25%
PFA. The concretes were water-cured for an initial pericxl
of 28 days and then exposed to 6 months of air-drying
prior to testing. It has already been stated (section 7.2.2)
that drying-rewetting treatment "opens" the pore structure
of cement paste, and in particular of CSF-cement
pastes.'" Johansen"" found that the permeability
increased more for CSF concrete than for controls after
such a moisture history.
Mindess and Gray'" reported on a permeability study
of CSF and control mixes, testing both pastes and cement-
aggregate composites. They concluded that CSF appears
to decrease the permeability. However, the presence of
aggregate was not found to have much influence on
240/60
permeability. This is possibly because the aggregate-paste
interface was tew small compared with that of normal con­
crete, and the great uncertainty associated with pemieabil-
ity measurements therefore prevented the detection of any
interface effects.
7.1.3 Conclusions
The available data indicate that CSF in concrete reduces
the permeability more than it improves the compressive
strength, i.e. the efficiency factor is greater with respect
to permeability than with respect to compressive strength.
This appears to be particularly evident for low dosage
levels of CSF, and at low concrete strength levels. Com­
parison of cement paste and concrete results indicates that
it is particularly the aggregate-paste interface which is im­
proved by CSF.
7.2 Frost resistance
The need for more durable concrete, in particular con­
crete with improved resistance to freeze/thaw exposure
in the presence of salts, has motivated a number of in­
vestigations of CSF concrete. The investigations include
studies of air pore system characteristics, basic studies
of ice formation and pore structure, and freeze/thaw testing
with and without deicing salts.
7.2./ Air entrainment
As a part of a large study of air-entraining agents in
concrete, Okkenhaug and Gjorv'^- and Okkenhaug'"
have studied the effects of mixer type, mixing time, aggre­
gate grading, and air contents on the stability of the air
content during handling of the concrete. They also studied
air pore system characteristics for concrete both with and
without CSF. Their conclusion was that a desired total
air content could be obtained relatively easily in both types
of concrete, by adjusting the dosage of air-entraining agent.
Compared with control concrete, a higher dosage is needed
in a CSF concrete without a water-reducing agent, but
0-7
with a water-reducing agent the difference is decreased.
O k k e n h a u g a l s o concluded that for a given content the
air pore characteristics in CSF concrete are more
favourable, and the air content is more stable with respect
to vibration of the concrete, particularly in mixes with
both water-reducing agents and air entrainment.
Carette and Malhotra''*' found that for a low W/C + S
ratio (0-40) the replacement of cement by CSF in a 1:1
ratio led to an increased need for an air-entraining agent.
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The mixes also contained a superplasticizer. The air pore
characteristics were measured on the hardened concrete,
but in contrast to Okkenhaug and Gjorv,^^^ who used 8%
CSF by weight of cement, the results did not indicate any
consistent improvement. A dose of 5% CSF did improve
both the spacing factor and the specific surface, but higher
CSF dosage led to less favourable values than for the con­
trol concrete.
Virtanen'^"^ found that CSF concrete needed a higher
dosage of air-entraining agent than a control mix to reach
a given air content, but the dosage was less than that
required for concrete containing fly ash and slag. A plot
of spacing factors against air content for the various mixes
produced identical curves.
In a further test series, Virtanen^^^ investigated high
quality concrete (40—50 MPa) for bridge edge beams,
containing from 0 to 16% CSF, and different air-entraining
agent dosages. For a given dosage of air-entraining agents
an increase in CSF content resulted in reduced air con­
tent in the fresh mix. No measurements were made of the
air pore system in the hardened concrete.
Lehtonen*^^'^^ studied concrete of W/C + 5 = 0-45
with 0, 5, 10, and 15% CSF, and found that a higher
dosage of air-entraining agent was needed to produce equal
amounts of air with increasing CSF dosage. In agreement
with O k k e n h a u g , h e found that the air content in CSF
concrete was more stable with respect to vibration.
Such benefits are apparently not produced automatically
when CSF is used; for example, both Aitcin and
Vezina'^^ and Rasmussen'^^ reported somewhat greater
loss of air from CSF concrete during handling and plac­
ing than for concrete without CSF.
Christensen and Jensen^"^^ reported a comprehensive
quality control programme on concrete (W/C -h S = 0-35,
15% CSF) for bridge edge beams. The requirements were
a minimum of 3 - 5% air, specific surface of air pores of
more than 30 mm~\ and a maximum spacing factor of
0-20 mm. It was found that 28% of the concrete tested
did not fulfil the air requirement, 10% failed the require­
ment regarding specific surface, and all tests gave satisfac­
tory spacing factors. The authors concluded that require­
ments for the air pore system in hardened concrete should
be in terms of the most direcdy measured values: air con­
tent relative to paste volume, and the specific surface area
of the pore system. Mathematically derived quantities,
such as the spacing factor, are based on a number of
assumptions usually not justified.
As part of a large project concerning the effects of CSF
in blended cements, air entraining of CSF mixes has been
investigated by Maage and Dahl."^^ Pure Portland
cements were used, as well as 10 and 25% fly-ash blends
and a 15% blast-furnace slag blend. CSF dosage was 0,
5, and 10%. The mixes were designed to produce equal
28-day strength at two strength levels: 25 and 45 MPa.
An effort was made to produce realistic mix proportions,
as opposed to simple replacement of cement by a certain
factor. The results showed that CSF had remarkably lit-
tie effect on the need for air-entraining agent. The response
of the concrete to handling was simulated using a drum
mixer and vibration treatment. CSF also had little effect
on the stability of the air content.
Seen as a whole, the evidence is that proper air entrain­
ment in CSF concrete can be obtained as easily as in
ordinary concrete. The air pore structure will not
automatically be improved, but will depend on all the fac­
tors involved in the production of concrete.
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DURABILITY
The stability of the air pore system to handling and
vibration of the concrete may be improved by CSF, but
this again depends on the mix design. The large varia­
tions experienced in air entrainment of fly-ash concretes
are not found in concrete with CSF.
7.2.2 Moisture conditions
The moisture history and condition of a specimen is of
particular importance to its frost resistance. It has been
established by Fagerlund^^' that a given concrete
possesses a 'critical degree of saturation' (CDS) above
which it is susceptible to rapid deterioration under
freeze/thaw conditions; at moisture contents below this
level, deterioration is very slow. The CDS is considered
to be a material property; in order to assess the frost
resistance of a concrete in a given environment it is
necessary to know what the moisture content will be in
practice. This is normally done by capillary suction experi­
ments, where pre-dried specimens are exposed to water
and the weight gain with time is measured. The weight
normally increases very quickly in the first day or two
until it levels off, after which the increase is very slow
and presumably represents filling of air voids. The method
allows the prediction of a service life, equivalent to the
time needed to reach the critical degree of saturation.
Work by Vuorinen^"^^ has resulted in a Finnish
National Standard'"^^ in which the 'pore protection fac­
tor' is defined as the ratio between the unfilled pore space
after capillary suction and the total pore space available
to water (determined by pressure saturation at 150 atm).
Empirical data suggest that the pore protection factor
should be at least 0 • 25 for concrete exposed to severe
conditions.
It is implicit in these methods that the concretes are
exposed to drying and re wetting treatments. Sellevold and
Bager''^'* have established by low temperature
calorimetry that even mild drying (58% RH) and re wet­
ting alters the pattern of ice formation in cement paste
and mortar quite dramatically. Freezing in virgin
specimens of W/C less than 0 - 5 0 is gradual over a wide
temperature range. However, after drying (at elevated
temperatures) and re wetting, more ice forms, and this takes
place in a very concentrated manner as the ice first
nucleates. Thus the drying and rewetting implicit in the
Finnish and the CDS methods are not unrealistic in prac­
tical terms, and the effects of moisture condition should
be taken into account in any practical frost-resistance
testing.
Calorimetric determination of ice formation in hardened
cement pastes with various amounts of CSF were made
by Sellevold et al. They found that a control paste with
W/C = 0 - 6 0 had a large 'primary' freezing peak near
0 ° C , indicating, as expected, bad frost resistance. Addi­
tion of 8% or more CSF resulted in an absence of the
primary freezing peak — the first freezing now taking
place around — 2 0 ° C . This behaviour was interpreted as
a result of altered pore structure in the paste. However,
as shown in Fig. 25, when pastes without primary freez­
ing peaks were dried gently (at 58% RH) and resaturated
with water, a distinct primary freezing peak appeared —
as had also been found to be the case for control pastes.
Experiments have shown^"^^ that pastes with extremely
low W/C ratios and high CSF contents do not give any
primary freezing peaks even after drying and resatura-
tion treatment.
Thus, it is possible to produce CSF concrete which is
C S F IN CONCRETE

frost resistant without air entrainment, provided that the

W/C ratio is low enough and the CSF content high enough.
Cool An estimate of the required mix proportion would be a
W/C ratio of approximately 0 - 3 0 with a CSF dosage of
10h
\ yC-S Is 10% or more by weight of cement. Industrial trial pro­
duction of such a concrete is under way, by the Danish
Road Authority among others.
Two recent programmes have investigated the moisture
0-8
state of CSF concrete in connection with frost-resistance
tests. Virtanen^^^ determined the 'protective pore ratio'
for a series of concretes with different air content and CSF
0-6 h
dosage of 0, 4, 8, and 16%. For a given air content, the
protective pore ratio increased with increasing CSF
dosage. For example, at 6% air the ratio increased from
0-4h 0-25 in the reference concrete to 0 • 70 for the one con­
taining 16% CSF. Thus, the absorption of water is much
slower in CSF, and possibly not only air voids remain
-10
-50 -40 -30 -20 empty after a fixed time period of water suction.
C a l o r i m e t e r block t e m p e r a t u r e : °C Lehtonen^^^ provided more information by presenting
(a) plots of water uptake against time. For concretes with W/C
+ = 0 - 4 5 and 0 and 10% CSF contents, the critical
degree of saturation was not very different (about 0 • 83)
50 in spite of variations in air content. The water suction
behaviour was quite different, however. The reference
concrete quickly reached a plateau, while the CSF con­
crete showed a much more gradual water absorption.
These results indicate major differences between CSF and
reference concrete in their drying and wetting behaviour
which probably are important in practical conditions, but
40 are not normally taken into account in frost and durabil­
ity tests of the type described below.

7.2,3 Frost resistance testing

In the first paper published on CSF concrete, in 1952,
Bernhardt*"^^ included results on frost resistance. No
admixtures were used, which resulted in an extremely high
30
cement content (730 kg/m^) to produce concrete of high
slump and a W/C ratio of 0 - 4 0 . CSF dosage varied from
10 to 30%, and the W/C ratio from 0 - 4 0 to 0-96. The
test procedure consisted of freezing in air and thawing
in sea water; frost resistance was assessed in terms of
weight loss as a function of frost cycles. Concretes with
CSF performed significantly better than the controls, par­
^ 2 0
ticularly for concretes well cured prior to exposure to
freeze/thaw. This is in line with later findings proving
that CSF concrete requires more time to reach its potential.
Traetteberg^^ tested frost resistance of 15-day-old mor­
tars with various air contents. The CSF dosage was be­
tween 0 and 25 % and the W/C + S ratio in the range of
0 • 48 to 0 • 83. The test procedure involved freezing in air
10
and thawing in water; damage was evaluated in terms of
residual length change and decrease in dynamic E-
modulus. All CSF mortars with W/C + 5 ratios of 0-60
or less showed excellent frost resistance in terms of
residual length change and dynamic £'-modulus, while the
controls required a W/C ratio of 0 - 4 0 to be resistant.
However, strength tests made after exposure of both a
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2
control mortar and one with 5% CSF (both with air-
C a l o r i m e t e r block t e m p e r a t u r e : °C entraining and water-reducing agent) showed practically
(b) zero bending strength. For the CSF mortar, this is in direct
contrast to the other 'indirect' measures of frost resistance.
Fig. 25. Low temperature calorimetry (heat flow) for water-
The observed contradiction between direct and indirect
saturated cement paste samples. The last two digits in the
identification numbers represent CSF dosage. All samples have measures of frost resistance for samples with water
W/C = 0-60. Areas under the peaks give the heat of fusion, reducers and air-entraining agents was not consistent for
proportional to amount of ice formed, (a) Virgin water-saturated other mixes. Later work has not revealed any similar pat-
pastes; (b) dried-re saturated pastes. (From ref. 10). tem, and hence one must conclude that Traetteberg's results
22
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are anomalous. The main conclusions of the paper were
that CSF improves the frost resistance in mortars, and
is less dependent on a proper air void system. Traetteberg
also measured pore size distribution of the mortars by mer­
cury intrusion, and concluded that the positive effects of
CSF on frost resistance are related to alterations in the
pore structure.
Cheng-Yi and Feldman^^'"^^ also tested frost resistance
according to ASTM C666 (B)'^^ of mortars with W/C +
S ratios of 0-45 and 0 - 6 0 , containing 0, 10, and 30%
CSF. At the high W/C + S ratio, adding CSF improved
the performance. At low W/C + 5, 10% CSF led to
improved resistance; however, 30% CSF resulted in bad
frost resistance despite the greater strength of the mix.
None of the mortars was air-entrained. The good results
for CSF mortars were attributed to an increase in the pore
volume in the range 0-35—20 /xm, which the authors
believed act as air pores because of their ink-bottle shape.
However, no data were given on the degree of saturation
during the tests. The authors suggested that the observa­
tion showing that the strongest mix gave the lowest frost
resistance was caused by a combination of low permeabili­
ty and a higher CSF dosage than needed for complete poz­
zolanic reaction.
As part of a comprehensive study, the frost resistance
of 25 concrete mixes with and without CSF has been in­
vestigated.'^' The method used was that of ASTM
C666;'^^ in addition to measurement of dynamic E-
modulus, the compressive strength of the concretes after
freeze/thaw treatment was determined. In an effort to pro­
vide an accelerated comparison between the concretes,
none of them were air entrained. The results showed that
the efficiency factor of the CSF with respect to frost
resistance is greater than with respect to compressive
strength.
Carette and Malhotra'*^ also tested the frost resistance
(ASTM C666'^^) of concrete containing 0 to 30% CSF,
all having W/C + 5 = 0 - 4 0 . Various dosages of a
superplasticizer were used to obtain workable concretes,
and all concretes were air entrained. The results were that
increasing CSF content led to decreased frost resistance,
particularly for high CSF dosages. Air void characteristics
were determined for the concretes, but they do not explain
these apparently anomalous results. However, in terms
of the general experience with CSF concrete, the com­
pressive strengths of the freeze/thaw series of concretes
were also anomalous in that cement replacement levels
from 5 to 20% CSF gave identical 28-day strengths. Nor­
mally, increased replacement levels should lead to substan­
tial strength increases. There is no obvious explanation
for these differences.
Aitcin and Vezina'^^ report on freeze/thaw resistance
(using ASTM C666'^^) of reference concrete and con­
crete where cement was replaced 3:1 by CSF. CSF dosage
was about 8%. Both mixes were air entrained with the
same average spacing factor. The authors concluded that
the 'CSF concrete was far superior to the plain concrete'.
Yamato et al.,^^^ using the method of ASTM C666
(A),'^^ tested concretes with W/C + 5 ratios of 0 - 2 5 ,
0 - 3 5 , 0 - 4 5 , and 0 - 5 5 , and CSF dosages of 0, 5, 10, 20,
and 30%. Except for the highest W/C + S ratio, none
of the mixes was air entrained. Freeze/thaw testing was
initiated after 28 days of curing in water. None of the
samples, including the air-entrained ones, had satisfac­
tory air void systems. The test results showed that all mixes
with W/C + 5 = 0-25 had durability factors above 90,
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DURABILITY
decreasing somewhat with increasing CSF dosage. For
higher W/C + S ratios none of the concretes performed
satisfactorily, but the general trend was that the poorest
performance was for 20 and 30% CSF dosages. This is
in line with the results in refs 46 and 35, which indicate
that high ( 2 0 - 3 0 % ) CSF dosage at W/C + S ratios in
the range 0 - 3 5 - 0 - 5 5 is detrimental to frost resistance,
while lower dosages generally appear to be beneficial over
a wide range of W/C -h 5" ratios.
The resistance of CSF concrete to freeze/thaw treatment
with deicing salts has been reported by Sorensen.'^^ The
test was performed according to RILEM Recommenda­
tion CDC 2,'^'' on virgin specimens as well as on com­
panion specimens pre-dried at 4 5 ° C for 14 days. The
results showed that the pre-drying treatment had a
detrimental effect, particularly on the control mixes. Air
entrainment was in general very beneficial, but a concrete
containing 10% CSF with W/C + S = 0 - 3 8 was resist­
ant without any air entrainment. This isolated result should
not be understood as final, since mixes of equivalent com­
position have later proved less frost-resistant.
Lehtonen'^^'^'' performed salt scaling experiments on
air-entrained concretes with 0—15% of the cement
replaced by CSF. All concretes had a W/C + S ratio of
0 - 4 5 . The results showed clear improvement by increas­
ing CSF dosage. Beyond the RILEM Standard 28 cycles,
the trend for CSF concrete was an increased rate of scal­
ing. However, at 56 cycles the scaling of all CSF con­
cretes was well below that of the control mixes.
Virtanen'^'' investigated the influence of CSF, fly ash,
and slag replacement for cement on frost resistance. All
mixes were both with and without air entrainment, and
designed to give approximately equal compressive strength
(30—40 MPa). Pore structure and air void characteristics
were determined, as well as parameters from frost
resistance and salt scaling experiments. Virtanen concluded
that 'Condensed silica fume addition improves freeze/thaw
resistance compared with cement concretes having the
same strength and air content'.
A further series of experiments'^^ focused on develop­
ing highly durable concrete for edge beams designed for
road bridges. The mixes were based on a cement content
of about 400 kg/m^ with 1:1 replacement of cement with
CSF, and CSF dosages of 0, 4, 8, and 16%. Both
superplasticizers and air-entraining agents were used. The
28-day compressive strengths were in the range
42—56 MPa. The freeze/thaw testing consisted of alter­
nately dipping 100 mm cubes in water at 20°C (16 h) and
then freezing in a salt solution at — 15°C (8 h). The Fin­
nish standard requires that the volume must not decrease
by more than 5% after 25 cycles. The result in all cases
was that the scaling was reduced with increasing CSF con­
tent — in spite of decreased air content with increasing
CSF dosage (Fig. 26).
Rasmussen'^^ reported on a large long-term field
exposure test programme on air-entrained concretes with
several types of cement and varying CSF dosages. The
interim report is on laboratory salt-frost testing (similar
to ISO 4846'^^) on samples similar to those exposed in
the field. The mixes were divided into three classes accord­
ing to cement content; in CSF mixes 10% dosage was used
and cement was replaced by CSF in a ratio of 3:1. The
poorest performance was for mixes with blended cements
(25 % fly ash) and CSF (mixes with cement content of 200
and 260 kg/m^). This is probably because pre-curing
consisted only of 14 days in water then 14 days in air;
23
C S F IN CONCRETE

this is not enough time for the fly ash to develop its poten­
tial. The richer mixes (cement content 300—400 kg/m^)
all performed well.
One disturbing aspect of the results is the lack of
repeatability of the freeze/thaw testing. In a second test,
much less scaling was recorded for all samples relative
to the first, presumably identical, test. The internal rank­
ing between the different mixes in the series was the same,
however. This highlights the reproducibility problems
associated with present standardized test methods. In their
present stage of development they can apparently, at their
best, be expected to produce a ranking order among dif­
ferent samples tested at the same time. Testing against
absolute criteria is obviously hazardous.
The Technological Institute, Department of Building
Technology, Copenhagen, Denmark, has investigated
drilled cores from a number of structures with CSF con­
crete as part of a quality control programme. Several
methods were used to assess frost resistance, including
a dilation method (equivalent to ASTM C671 '^^) and salt
scaling tests. Christensen^^ concluded that 'CSF gener­
ally improves the frost durability of concrete as measured
by frost resistance testing'.
Recent work has further complicated the picture regard­
ing the role of CSF in the frost resistance of concrete.
Petersson'^^ measured salt scaling of mortar mixes
without air entrainment with water/binder-ratio of 0 • 35
(Fig. 27). A reference mix showed gradual scaling as
expected, while a mix containing 19% CSF by weight of
cement gave essentially no scaling up to 110 cycles, after
N o . of f r e e z e / t h a w c y c l e s which time the specimens disintegrated rapidly. Similar
(a) behaviour was observed for a mix with a water/binder-
ratio of 0 • 54 and a CSF dosage of 11 % after 60 cycles.
Petersson described two typical stages in salt-frost attack:
the first scaling starts in the first few cycles and then levels
off for good quality reference concrete; a second stage
starts later, and may be caused by an increase in the degree
of saturation over a critical level. The second stage appears
to be more typical for CSF concrete, and leads to much
more severe deterioration.
Petersson^^^ also compared the effect of air-entraining
agents alone with their effect when combined with water-
reducing agents. At equal total air contents, the salt scal­
ing was much higher for the admixture combination,
presumably because of a coarser air void system. The con­
crete did not contain CSF, but admixture combination is
a factor to be aware of in connection with CSF concrete
because it normally contains higher amounts of water-
reducing agents.
Several recent Canadian reports give apparently con­
flicting results. Hooton^^^ tested non-air-entrained con­
crete with water/binder-ratio of 0-35 with 0—20% cement
replacement by CSF, according to ASTM C666 (A).'^^
All the CSF mixes gave superior performance up to 900
cycles. The control mix failed after 58 cycles.
P i g e o n s u m m e d up extensive work at Laval Univer­
sity, both measuring salt scaling (ASTM C672'^^) and
resistance to internal cracking (ASTM C666^^^). The
approach was based on determining a critical spacing fac­
CSF:% tor for a given mix, by testing a number of parallel mixes
(b) differing only in air void spacing factors. The resistance
to internal cracking was found to be reduced for mixes
Fig. 26. Volume decrease: (a) as a function of freeze/thaw containing 10% CSF and water/binder-ratios of 0-3 and
cycles during salt-frost testing; (b) as a Junction of CSF con­ 0 - 5 , relative to controls. The same conclusion was drawn
tent after 100 cycles, for concretes with varying air-entraining for the salt scaling resistance of CSF concrete containing
admixture (AEA) content. (From ref. 135). up to 10% CSF by weight of cement. The nature of the
24
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100
N u m b e r of f r e e z e / t h a w c y c l e s
Fig. 27. Scaling resistance curves (loss of mass) for concretes
without (a) and with (b and c) CSF as functions of the number
of freeze-thaw cycles. (From ref 157).
scaling was noted to be different for the two types of con­
crete: control mixes scale in discrete spots, while CSF
mixes scale uniformly over the entire surface area.
Aitcin and Pigeon'^' reported on field performance of
CSF concrete exposed to de-icing salts. They concluded
that CSF concretes perform as well as normal concretes,
in spite of generally higher W/C ratios, provided that the
air void spacing factor is less than 0-20—0-25 mm. This
can be obtained with 'no special difficulty'.
Bilodeau and C a r e t t e t e s t e d mixes with 0 and 8%
CSF with water/binder-ratios from 0 - 4 0 to 0 - 6 4 , both
for internal cracking (ASTM C666'^^) and salt scaling
(ASTM C672'^^). All concretes were air-entrained with
spacing factors of below 0 - 2 0 mm. The concretes with
water/binder ratios of less than 0 • 60 performed well, with
a tendency for CSF mixes to be more susceptible to scal­
ing. A number of tests were carried out, with curing and
moisture treatment differing from the standard ASTM pro­
cedures. It was clear that such treatment has significant
influence on the test results — requiring further investiga­
tion, according to the authors.
The possibility of producing durable concrete without
air entrainment has been investigated by Malhotra et
aO^^ Water/binder ratios from 0 - 2 5 to 0 - 3 6 with CSF
doses of 0—20% were used, both with and without air
entrainment. Testing was according to ASTM C666.'^^
In direct contrast to the results by Hooton^^^ cited above,
all mixes without air entrainment failed the test, with
durability factors below 12. Air-entrained concretes con­
taining 10 and 20% CSF also failed to complete 300
cycles, probably because of air void spacing factors well
over 0 - 2 0 mm.
7.2.4 Conclusions
As is evident from the above, the situation today is
unclear. Even when nominally identical procedures are
applied to non-air-entrained, high-strength concrete, the
results are contradictory.^^^'^^^ It is likely that for high-
strength concrete other factors enter the picture, such as
dispersion of the CSF, homogeneity of the binder phase,
existence of microcracks, and bond to aggregates. These
factors are not normally investigated, but they may be im­
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DURABILITY
portant for high-strength concrete performance. There is
evidence of reduced frost resistance relative to the high
strength level, particularly for high-strength concrete with
high CSF dosages ( > 15% by weight of cement). On the
other hand, there is also evidence that low W/C ratio con­
crete with CSF has such fine pore structure that no ice
forms above — 20°C, hence producing frost-resistant con­
crete without air entrainment. The question is open, and
its solution may require other methods than W/C ratio,
CSF dosage and compressive strength to characterize con­
crete structure.
For normal-strength air-entrained concrete there is a
difference between Canadian and Scandinavian laboratory
results. Scandinavian results indicate improved frost
resistance with the use of CSF, wheras the Canadian results
indicate the opposite. Part of this conflict in results may
be caused by the test methods used. The Canadian results
are based on strict adherence to ASTM procedures,
200
whereas in Scandinavia a variety of methods have been
applied. It is clear that care must be taken in applying stan­
dard methods to CSF concrete. Curing time and moisture
history are important to field performance, but these fac­
tors are fixed in the ASTM procedures.
For example, as part of a round-robin test,^^"^ a con­
crete with a W/C ratio of 0 • 45 and about 5 % air content
was found to give minimal salt scaling. The same con­
crete disintegrated quickly when it was dried at 50°C and
placed in water one week prior to testing. On the other
hand, a concrete with water/binder ratio of 0 - 3 5 , 7% CSF
and 6% air appeared to perform well after such treatment.
This illustrates the need to develop new test procedures
that take into account factors known to be important to
field performance. Experience of field performance of CSF
concrete to date has not indicated any particular problem
with frost resistance.
At the present time it is clear that a proper air entrain­
ment system is necessary to protect normal-strength con­
crete, with or without CSF, from frost attack.
7.3 Chemical resistance
7.3.1 Leaching and efflorescence
Efflorescence frequently occurs on concrete surfaces
exposed to wetting-drying or to percolation of water
through the concrete. The main cause is usually leaching
of calcium hydroxide, which carbonates on the surface.
Efflorescence is mainly an aesthetic problem, but if exten­
sive leaching of lime takes place in the concrete the porosi­
ty is increased, with decreased strength and durability as
a consequence.
Samuelsson'^^ measured the leaching of lime from
mortar surfaces with 0, 5, and 10% CSF addition at fixed
W/C ratios. Different pre-curing times and relative
humidities were tested. He concluded that the most effi­
cient preventive measure was to pre-cure the concrete at
8 0 - 9 5 % RH for several days prior to exposure to leaching
water. This allows hydration to proceed and carbonation
to take place in the pore system. The effect of CSF was
to reduce leaching, providing that the pre-curing period
was at least 4 days in a moist atmosphere. Curing periods
beyond 4 days were not tested. One might expect more
effect from CSF addition if time is allowed for the poz­
zolanic reaction to go further, thereby reducing the free
lime content and providing a finer pore structure.
For concrete submerged in water, the leaching of lime
is a major weakening factor. Carlsen and Vennesland'^^
made cement pastes with sulphate-resistant and rapid-
25
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C S F IN CONCRETE
hardening Portland cements, and 0, 5, and 10% CSF. The
W/C -f- S ratio was kept constant at 0 - 5 0 . Mature
12-7 mm^ cube specimens were exposed to sea water for
540 days. All specimens showed strength reductions of
about 50 %. The authors gave no explanation for this sur­
prising result.
7.3.2 Sulphate resistance
The first published report on CSF in concrete^"^^ con­
tained data on sulphate resistance of concrete stored in
a 10% sodium sulphate solution. Bernhardt concluded that
the sulphate resistance was improved when 10—15% of
the cement was replaced by CSF, but he stressed that the
duration of the tests was too short to allow firm conclu­
sions to be drawn.
In 1952 a large number of concrete specimens were
placed in a tunnel in Oslo's alum shale region for long-
term tests. The groundwater contains up to 4 g/1 SO3
and the pH varies from neutral to 2 -5. Two reports have
been published so far, one'^^ on the 12-year results, and
one*^^ on the 20-year results. The test specimens were
produced with a variety of cements and additives, in­
cluding one set where 15% of ordinary Portland cement
was replaced by CSF. All mixes had W/C ratios of about
0 - 5 0 , except for the CSF mix which had a higher water
demand, and therefore a W/C + S ratio of 0 • 62. Damage
was assessed by measuring volume reductions. After 20
years of exposure the most resistant mixes were those with
sulphate-resistant cements and the CSF mix, which all per­
formed approximately equally (Fig. 28).
Reasons for the good performance of the CSF mix in­
clude: the refined pore structure, and therefore reduced
transport rate of harmful ions,^^ the lower calcium
hydroxide content, and the increased amount of aluminium
incorporated in the CSF, reducing the amount of alumina
available for ettringite production.^ Inspection of the test
samples after 30 years' exposure confirmed the results
cited above.
Laboratory investigations confirm the data from the field
tests. Mather^^^ measured expansion in a sulphate solu-
10
Exposure: years
Fig. 28 Volume reduction of100 X 100 X 400 mm concrete
prisms stored for 20 years in acidic sulphate-rich water in the
Oslo alum-shale region. (From ref. 5, adapted from ref. 168).
26
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tion of mortar prisms where 30% of the cement was
replaced by an equal volume of various pozzolans. Three
types of cements were used, and the CSF in combination
with all the three cements proved to be the most efficient
pozzolana in preventing expansion.
Carlsen and Vennesland'^^ measured strength reduc­
tions of cement pastes after exposure to a sodium sulphate
solution. They found good performance for a paste made
with sulphate-resistant cement and one made with rapid-
hardening Portland cement containing 5% CSF, while the
control with RHPC was destroyed quite quickly.
Popovic et al.^^^ used OPC, a blended cement with
20% slag, and a blended cement with 15% natural poz­
zolana to produce control mortars and mortars where 15%
CSF was added alone, and together with a superplasticizer
to compensate for the increased water demand in CSF
mixes. After 28 days of water curing the small prisms
(25 X 25 X 160 mm) were exposed to a 10% ammonium
sulphate solution. They concluded that sulphate corrosion
is predominant in this solution, and that CSF prevents this
type of corrosion as well as acid corrosion. The Steinegger-
Koch test in sodium sulphate solution 'confirmed this con­
clusion completely, and the fact that ordinary and blended
Portland cement with admixture of silica fume exhibit bet­
ter durability than special sulphate-resisting cement'. It
is interesting to note that in these results CSF was equal­
ly as effective with and without superplasticizers; i.e. at
different total porosities CSF inhibits ammonium sulphate
corrosion, which implies that chemical effects of CSF are
more important than reduced permeability in this regard.
M e h t a c o m p a r e d the resistance to chemical aggres-
sives of concrete with OPC, latex-modified concrete, and
a mix containing 15% CSF. The W/C -h S ratio of the
three mixes was about 0 - 3 3 . Curing was in air for the
latex mix; the two others were wet-cured for 7 days. After
one week all mixes were air-cured for 6 weeks prior to
exposure to the aggressives. Two sulphate solutions were
used: 5% ammonium sulphate and 5% sodium sulphate.
The failure criteria was the amount of time samples needed
to suffer a 25% weight loss. Ammonium sulphate was
equally destructive to the control and the CSF mix, while
the latex mix suffered less weight loss. Mehta attributed
this to the ability of ammonium sulphate to decompose
CSH, while the latex coating delays the decomposition.
Note that this result is in contrast to the one found by
Popovic et al.^^^ where the CSF mix performed better
than the control in a more concentrated solution. None
of the three mixes decomposed in the sodium sulphate solu­
tion, a result M e h t a a t t r i b u t e d to the low W/C ratios.
Hooton^^^ tested mortars with a W/C ratio of 0-49 and
10 and 20% cement replacement by CSF, according to
ASTM C1012:''^^ immersion in a 5% sodium sulphate
solufion. The control failed quickly, while the CSF mor­
tars expanded less than a mortar made with sulphate-
resistant cement (Fig. 29).
7.3.3 Alkali-aggregate reactions
It is well known that reactive pozzolans can be used
to control the expansions associated with the alkali-
aggregate reaction. Pore-water analysis of CSF cement
paste^^'^^ demonstrated the ability of CSF to reduce the
alkali concentrations in the pore water quite rapidly, thus
making it unavailable for the slower reaction with reac­
tive silica in the aggregates.
Asgeirsson and Gudmundsson^^"* used CSF with high
alkali Icelandic cements and reactive sands in mortar bar

0-24-
0-20-
OPC
0-15
P r o p o s e d A S T M limits
. . T y p e II
010
'OPC + 2 0 % C S F + \
005 superplasticizer \—-^-"'^''^
90 180
T i m e in 5 % sodium sulphate solution: d a y s
Fig. 29. ASTM CI 012 sulphate resistance of CSF mortar
(From ref 158).
tests, and demonstrated the abihty ot CSF to reduce expan­
sions (Fig. 30).
Olafsson'^^ reported further Icelandic experiences on
blended cements made with CSF. The presence of salts
(from sea-dredged aggregate) was generally found to in­
crease the alkali-aggregate expansions. CSF contents of
5 and 15% were found to reduce the expansions, both with
and without the presence of salts. A characteristic of the
expansions in the specimens containing CSF was that they
took place over a long period of time. Short-term tests
(14 days) are therefore not suitable to evaluate the effect
of CSF. Expansions were found to decrease with decreas­
ing lime/silica ratios in the blended cements. This obser­
vation has been used to determine the necessary CSF
dosage to prevent harmful expansions. All Icelandic
cements are currently blends containing 7-5% CSF.
Field experience with Icelandic CSF-blended cement
has recently been reported by Sveinbjorsson.'^^ A total
of 200 houses constructed in the period 1979—1986 were
selected at random. Visual inspection was performed and
cores drilled for microscopic examination before and after
one month of storage in 'a container with favourable con­
ditions for alkali-aggregate reactions'. None of the samples
was considered to have symptoms of alkali-aggregate
damage, and the conclusion was that the use of CSF had
been successful in preventing destructive alkali-aggregate
expansion in concrete.
Oberholster and Westra'^^ tested a number of mineral
admixtures for their efficiency in reducing alkali-aggregate
expansion in mortars containing high alkali cements. CSF
was found to be the most efficient.
The reactivity of several Scandinavian sands was tested
by means of various methods in a Nordtest project.
The prime purpose of the work was to compare test
methods; however, a number of mortars clearly
demonstrated the ability of CSF to reduce expansion.
Perry and Gillott'^^ reported work on CSF and alkali-
silica reactions. They measured mortar bar expansions at
23°C, 38°C and 51°C by using a pessimum amount of
reactive opal aggregate and blended cements. They found
that CSF reduced the total expansions considerably, but
also found, as did Olafsson,'^^ that the expansions were
delayed for CSF mixes. A CSF dosage of 5% increased
expansion, and Perry and Gillott concluded that probably
as much as 20% of the cement needs to be replaced by
CSF to suppress effectively the expansion with their very
reactive aggregates. A new aspect of their work was the
DURABILITY
0-30 r
TypeV.
0-20 h
c
o
<n
c
270 365
X
LU
bars. O-IOh
Time: months
Fig. 30. Expansion of mortar prisms made with high-alkali
cement, reactive sand, and three CSF dosages. (From ref. 5,
based on data from ref. 174).
finding that the use of a superplasticizer dramatically in­
creased expansion relative to identical mixes without
superplasticizer. This was particularly evident for CSF
mixes, and could not be explained by the alkalis con­
tributed by the superplasticizer. They also concluded that
CSF was inefficient in suppressing expansion due to alkali-
carbonate reaction, although some reduction was observed.
Gillott'^^ has recently reviewed the effects of CSF on
alkali-aggregate reactions.
Nilsson and Peterson'^' studied the relationship be­
tween moisture state and 'pop-outs' caused by alkali-silica
reactions. The use of CSF as an inhibitor was also tested,
and found efficient in preventing pop-outs at a 5 % dosage
level. A CSF dosage of 10 or 15% was needed to pre­
vent expansion.
CSF from two different sources was used both by Perry
and Gillott'^^ and by Nilsson and Peterson.'^' It is
noteworthy that in both cases one source proved
significantly more effective than the other.
The effect of CSF as an inhibitor against pop-outs has
also been investigated by P e t e r s o n . H e was unable to
draw any firm conclusions from his results regarding pop-
outs, but found that fine aggregates were not protected
by as much as 10% CSF dosage.
The investigation by Popovic et al.^^^ included a study
of the efficiency of CSF in preventing alkali-silica expan­
sion in concrete. Using 23% CSF dosage by weight of
a cement containing 0-8% total alkalis and Pyrex glass
aggregate (ASTM 441'^^), no expansion was observed.
Aitcin and Regourd'^"* reported on a field test follow-
up after 3 years on a series of concretes with very reac­
tive aggregates and alkali-rich cement. Lean mixes with
high CSF dosages ( 2 0 - 4 0 % ) showed no trace of gel
formation, while traces were found in richer mixes with
15% CSF dosage. The alkali-aggregate reaction was con­
sidered to be 'under control' in all mixes.
27
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C S F IN CONCRETE
7.3.4 Other chemicals
Improved resistance of concrete to a large number of
chemically aggressive agents, including nitrates, chlorides,
sulphates, and acids, is reported in a technical brochure
from Norcem Cement. The concrete described
generally has a higher CSF dosage than for normal CSF
concrete, as the concrete is intended for special
applications.
Popovic et al^'^^ found that 15% CSF was efficient in
'preventing' corrosion of OPC mortars in 5% sulphuric
acid solution and 5 % ammonium nitrate fertilizer solu­
tion. 'Preventing' in this connection means strength
decrease relative to a control exposed to the same aggres­
sives — not relative to a control in water. CSF also greatly
improved the resistance to a 10% ammonium nitrate solu­
tion. The performance of CSF with OPC, a 20% slag
blend, and a 15% natural pozzolan blend was comparable,
and reproducible.
Mehta'^^ compared the response of a control concrete,
a latex modified concrete, and a 15% CSF concrete to
exposure to 1 % hydrochloric acid solution, 5% acetic acid
solution, 1% lactic acid solution, and 1% sulphuric acid
solution respectively. All concretes had W/C ratios of
about 0-33. The results showed that the CSF mix generally
had the best resistance to chemical attack.
Feldman and C h e n g - y i m e a s u r e d the resistance of
mortars to a 4% MgCl2 solution for 150—170 days,
followed by exposure to a mixed chloride solution of
27-5% CaCl2, 3-9% MgCls, 1-2% NaCl, and 2 - 1 %
8. CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT
The corrosion process of reinforcement steel in con­
crete may be divided into two stages: the initiation stage
and the propagation stage. Steel in concrete is normally
in a passive state with respect to corrosion, because of
the high pH value in the pore water. The passive iron oxide
layer that normally protects the steel is destroyed when
the pH value is reduced below about 10—11, or when
chloride ions reach the steel surface even at higher pH
values. The rate of corrosion, once the passive iron oxide
layer is destroyed, depends on the presence of moisture
and oxygen, and on the electrical resistivity of the concrete.
8.1 pH values: pozzolanic reaction and carbonation
Scandinavian cements have a relatively high alkali con­
tent, which results in very high pH values for concrete
pore water ( > 13.5). CSF reduces the pore water alkali
content much more than the 'dilution' effect when it partly
replaces cement on a 1:1 basis. Page and Vennesland^^
found pH values of pore water in mature pastes to be about
13-9, 13-4, 12-9, and 12-0 for 0, 10, 20, and 30% ce­
ment replacement levels respectively (Fig. 31). Thus, 30%
replacement of cement by CSF is needed before the pH
value drops below that of a saturated calcium hydroxide
solution — approximately 12-5.
Diamond^^ determined a pH value of 12-2 after 145
days' hydration for a paste with 30% of the cement
replaced by CSF. In later work D i a m o n d r e p o r t e d
pore water analyses made 4 and 24 hours after mixing
of an equivalent paste, as well as a reference. There are
some changes not caused by the dilution effects, but the
main conclusion is that CSF has 'litde measureable ef­
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NaHC03. The mortars had W/C + S ratios of 0-45 and
0 - 6 0 with 0, 10, and 30% dosage of CSF. Curing times
before exposure were 7 and 28 days. The investigation
included measurements of mercury intrusion, stiffness,
calcium hydroxide contents, and non-evaporable water
contents before and after exposure. The authors concluded
that CSF and long curing time prior to exposure substan­
tially increased the resistance of the mortars. They attrib­
uted this effect mainly to inherent lowered permeability,
but also to the reactions between excess CSF, low calcium
CSH, unhydrated cement, and the salt solution which
results in reduced total pore volume, and thereby reduced
permeability.
7.3.5 Conclusions
Many investigations as well as practical experience have
indicated that a major potential advantage of CSF in con­
crete is to improve chemical resistance. Sulphate resistance
and protection against alkali-aggregate reactions are two
areas of particular promise. Recent reports indicate that
protection may be increased against a variety of chemical
aggressives.
The reasons for the generally good performance of CSF
concrete in chemically-aggressive environments include:
(a) refined pore structure, and therefore reduced transfer
rates of harmful ions; (b) reduced content of calcium
hydroxide; and (c) lower C/S ratio of the reaction pro­
ducts, which increases the capacity to incorporate foreign
ions such as aluminium or alkalis in the lattice.
fect on the major dissolved component species' during
the first 24 hours. More time is obviously needed for pro­
ducing the effects observed after long periods of time.
Glasser and Marr^^^ mixed mortars with a low and a
high alkali cement {W/C = 0-60) as well as blends where
15% of the cement was replaced by CSF. Pore water was
squeezed out and analysed. The pH stabilized after 3
months; for the high alkali cement the values were 13-77
for the reference mix and 13 • 18 for the CSF mix, in line
with earlier r e s u l t s . T h e calcium hydroxide content was
reduced by more than one-half. CSF had much more effect
than any of the fly ashes or natural pozzolana tested, but
the reactivity with calcium hydroxide was comparable to
a Degussa flame hydrolysis silica. CSF reduced the alkali
contents to roughly one-third relative to the control OPC;
the soluble sulphate was also markedly reduced to less
than one-half, but the chloride concentration was increased
somewhat in contrast to all the other mineral additives.
The authors stated that it is the low C/S ratio of the CSH
formed with CSF present which is responsible for the alkali
depledon, either by sorption or by stabilizing alkali-rich
compounds.
Gautefall and Vennesland'^^ report pore water analysis
for cement pastes made with OPC, fly ash blends (10 and
25%) and a slag blend (15%), all with 0 - 1 5 % CSF. The
results regarding the ability of CSF to reduce pH values
and alkali pore water concentrations are in general agree­
ment with results already cited, although the values of the
reductions depend somewhat on the type of cement.
The results cited here for high dosages of CSF are con­
sistent with thermogravimetric data which indicate that
 C O R R O S I O N OF REINFORCEMENT

in excess of 24% CSF by weight of cement is needed to i4r

consume all the calcium hydroxide.'^ We conclude that
CSF does reduce the pH of concrete pore water for all
cement types, but at normal dosage of CSF the reduction
is far from sufficient to destroy the passivity of the steel. 13
When concrete carbonates, the pH is reduced enough
to depassivate the steel. Carbonation takes place both at
the expense of the calcium hydroxide and the calcium oxide
in the CSH phase. The fact that CSF concrete contains
12
less calcium hydroxide than does control concrete does
not therefore automatically mean that CSF concrete is • 0% CSh
more vulnerable to carbonation. Other factors also in­ O 10% CSF
• 20% CSF
fluence the rate of carbonation: curing history, moisture A 30% CSF
state, and CO2 diffusion rates. Because of the complex­ I I
ity of the problem we consider direct measures of car­ 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
bonation depths to be more relevant than theoretical Curing time: days
predictions based, for example, on amounts of calcium
hydroxide. Fig. 31. Influence of CSF content on pH values of pore water
squeezed from cement pastes (OPC, W/C + S = 0-50.) (From
Meland and Traetteberg'^^ measured calcium hydrox­
ref 26).
ide and calcium carbonate contents in 3—4 mm thick
cement paste discs with W/C + 5 = 0 • 50 and 0 and 15 %
of the cement replaced by CSF, after various times of
exposure to 50% and 100% RH air with 1 and 3% CO2 40
• 0%CSF
content. The CSF paste was moist-cured for 21 days prior X O 5% CSF
to exposure, and the control paste was moist-cured for X 1 0 % CSF

7 days. The calcium hydroxide contents of the uncar- o A 2 0 % CSF

30
bonated pastes agreed reasonably well with data from
Sellevold et al.,^^ taking into account the different O X
cements used. However, other results were of a novel
20 h
nature: in line with common experience, the control paste
carbonated most at 50% RH, but the CSF paste carbonated
much more at 100% RH than at 50% RH. Also, between o
1 and 6 months substantial carbonation took place in the 1 0 h

CSF paste, but the calcium hydroxide content hardly

E
changed. A similar tendency was found for the control E
paste. It should be noted that the CO2 pressure was much i 0

higher than under natural conditions in these tests. We (a)

cannot draw any firm conclusions from these experiments,
but they point out the need for more basic knowledge on
30 r
carbonation, and on the influence of reactive pozzolans
on cement hydration and the hydration products.
X
Carbonation of concrete is usually measured by the • o
20 h
phenolphthalein test on fracture surfaces perpendicular to
the surface exposed to carbonation. Johansen,
Vennesland and Gjorv,'^'^ and Vennesland'^' made car­
1 0 h X
bonation measurements over periods of up to 3 years for
a large number of concrete mixes with and without CSF. o
Vennesland's results showed that 10% CSF dosage had
no influence on the carbonation depth for specimens cured
20 40 60
for 7 days in water prior to exposure to laboratory air,
2 8 - d a y c o m p r e s s i v e strength: M P a
when carbonation depth was plotted against the 28-day
(b)
compressive strength of water-cured specimens. Johansen
Fig. 32. Carbonation depths of concretes after 6 years of
exposed the specimens direcfly upon demoulding. His exposure at 20°C and 50% RH. Precuring prior to exposure:
results after 3 years show two clear effects: firstly, lack (a) 1 day in mould; (b) 1 day in mould, then 27 days in water.
of moist-curing at least doubles the carbonation depth for (From ref 192).
both types of concrete; and secondly, CSF concrete is even
more sensitive to lack of proper curing than normal con­ for weaker mixes, but the carbonation depths were greater.
crete. Thus, as is well known, proper curing of concrete For example, badly-cured 25 MPa control concrete
is essential to avoid excessive carbonation. showed a depth of about 32 mm, while a well-cured com­
Johansen'^^ measured carbonation depths on the same panion showed about 22 mm. The effect of CSF (5, 10,
mixes after 6 years of exposure, both for specimens and 20%) was small at 5 % dosage, but the trend was clear
exposed directly after demoulding, and after 27 days of for both types of exposure when comparison was made
water curing (Fig. 32). Bad curing sfill has a major effect on an equal 28-day strength basis: increased CSF dosage
on carbonation depths; for mixes of higher strength than led to increased carbonation depths.
40 MPa at 28 days, carbonation was roughly doubled In order to obtain data from a variety of field condi­
relative to water-cured companions. The factor was smaller tions, Maage and Sellevold'^^ took samples from 16
29
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C S F IN CONCRETE
buildings with CSF concrete and 11 controls. The age of
the buildings varied from 40 to 80 months, and the con­
crete in all cases had a nominal characteristic strength of
25 MPa. The measured carbonation depths were adjusted
to correspond to an age of 5 years. The result was that
there was no significant difference between the mean
values of carbonation for the two types of concrete
(9—10 mm). The CSF concrete, however, showed much
greater variation in carbonation depth than the control con­
crete. It seems likely that this reflects the greater sensitivity
of CSF concrete to early curing conditions, which cer­
tainly vary considerably between building sites. These field
data, as well as controlled laboratory results, are given
by Skjolsvold.'^^
CSF concrete of higher quality from structures has also
been investigated. Christensen-^^ found no influence of
CSF on carbonation depth. Drilled cores from a pier in
Gothenburg, Sweden, have been investigated by
M a a g e . N o n e of five concretes (three with CSF) with
core strengths from 44 to 68 MPa showed carbonation
depths above 2 mm after about 7 years of service. The
same was true for two 12-year-old concretes, one with
CSF (60 MPa) and one control (50 MPa), from a silo
cover at Fiskaa Verk, Kristiansand, Norway.
Carbonation of concrete in the Middle East for a variety
of curing and exposure conditions has been reported by
de Fontenay.'^^ Some mixes with 5% CSF were included
(Fig. 33). He concluded that CSF used as an addition to
improve durability has no influence on the rate of
carbonation.
Based on the above, it seems as if CSF will increase
carbonation at dosages above approximately 5% in badly-
cured medium-to-low grade concrete. There is no field
evidence indicating that carbonation is a problem in high
quality concrete, either with or without CSF. Laboratory
tests over up to 6 years indicate that for equal strength,
CSF concrete will carbonate somewhat deeper than con­
trol concrete regardless of strength class or exposure
condition.
8.2 Chlorides
Chlorides may be mixed into fresh concrete (as acceler­
ator or from aggregates) or may penetrate hardened con­
crete from external sources (such as deicing salts or sea
water). In either case, only a proportion of the chloride
ions will be available, and thus presumably aggressive
in the pore water. The capacity of a concrete to bind
lA//C = 0 - 5 0
12 18
T i m e of e x p o s u r e : m o n t h s
Fig. 33. Carbonation depths in concrete containing sulphate-
resistant cement, both with and without CSF. (From ref. 195).
30
chlorides is therefore of interest, as well as the resistance
it offers to the penetration of chlorides.
Page and Vennesland^^ added chlorides to cement-CSF
pastes, and later squeezed out pore water for analysis.
Their results showed that as the CSF dosage increased,
the fraction of the chlorides available in the pore water
also increased. They suggested this effect to be caused
by the lowered pH value, which increases the solubility
and thereby reduces the quantity of Friedel's salt. The
latter, a calcium chloro-aluminate-hydrate, is thought to
be the dominant factor in binding chloride ions during
cement hydration. The lower pH of CSF concrete also
indicates that the threshold concentration of chlorides in
the pore water, which will induce steel depassivation, is
reduced.
The hypothesis that there is a critical ratio of chloride
to hydroxyl concentrations in concrete pore water with
respect to inducing depassivation of steel was followed
up in further work by Page and Havdahl,'^^ by electro­
chemical monitoring of the corrosion behaviour of steel
electrodes in CSF-cement pastes of similar compositions
to those studied e a r l i e r . T h e y concluded that the free
chloride/hydroxyl ratio alone was not a reliable index for
comparing the corrosiveness of hardened pastes with vary­
ing CSF dosages. Repassivation took place in some pastes
after some initial corrosion had occurred, presumably
because of insufficient mobility of chloride ions in the
dense pore structure of CSF cement paste. The results thus
indicate that acceptable chloride limits are lower for CSF
concrete than for reference OPC concrete, but further work
is required on exposure for longer periods of time, together
with data on chloride diffusion.
Monteiro et al. '^^ studied the steel-cement paste inter­
face for a reference mix and for one where 16% of the
cement had been replaced by CSF. A 2% dosage of
calcium chloride was added to the fresh mixes. After
storage in a fog room for 180 days, the pastes were dried.
This led to separation of the steel from the matrix. The
interfacial zone was examined by SEM. Both mixes
showed an interfacial film of large calcium hydroxide
crystals, but only the CSF mix showed visual evidence
of corrosion. The authors attributed this to a higher
chloride-hydroxyl ratio in the pore water for the CSF mix.
However, in light of the work by Page and Havdahl'^^
discussed above, it is not known if repassivation had occur­
red. Note that the chloride dosage was twice as high in
ref 197 as in ref 196.
Penetration of chlorides into CSF concrete from sea
water has been studied by Fisher et al. With CSF used
as additive, they found that it considerably reduced the
W/C+S = 0 - 7 8 diffusion coefficient of chlorides in concrete. For exam­
ple, a concrete with 8% CSF added had a chloride diffu­
sion coefficient of 1 • 1 x 10"^ cm^/s while an
WIC = 0 - 4 6
equivalent mix without CSF had a value of 1-5 X
10-^ cm^/s.
Chloride penetration in concrete has been measured with
somewhat inconclusive results.'^' Penetration from sea
x-^'v water into pastes was found to decrease markedly when
I V / C + S = 0-51 5 - 1 5 % of the cement was replaced by CSF'^^ (Fig. 34).
The diffusion of chlorides through discs of hardened
SRPC
SRPC+CSF cement pastes has been measured by Gautefall.^^ W/C
+ S ratios of 0 - 5 , 0 - 7 , and 0 - 9 were used with CSF
24 dosages of 5, 10, and 15%. OPC and a blended cement
with 10% fly ash were used. The diffusion coefficients
for blended cement pastes were 30—50% lower than for
OPC pastes. The replacement of cement by CSF led to
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marked reductions in the diffusion coefficient, particularly
for OPC pastes. For example, 10% CSF led to reductions
of 68—84% in the diffusion coefficients of OPC pastes.
Byfors,^^' using the same technique, also found that
replacement of cement by CSF in cement pastes led to
substantial reduction in the chloride diffusivity. Based on
available data, she also made a theoretical estimate of
initiation time for diffusion-controlled chloride-initiated
reinforcement corrosion, and concluded that both CSF and
fly ash extended this time.
For concrete bridge decks, the US Federal Highway
Administration has described a rapid chloride permeability
test. Christensen et al applied the test to compare a
high-strength CSF concrete with a latex-modified concrete
and a low-slump dense concrete. The CSF obtained a 'very
low' permeability rating, while the two other mixes were
rated as 'moderate'.
Chloride penetration into concrete with 5—30% cement
replaced by CSF has been measured by Marusin,^^^:
penetration was reduced at all CSF dosage levels.
8.3 Rate of corrosion
Vennesland and Gjorv'^"* and Vennesland'^' measured
oxygen diffusion and electrical resistivity of concrete mixes
with and without CSF. The oxygen difftision did not show
any systematic dependence on CSF dosage or water-
reducing agent content for water-saturated specimens. The
electrical resistivity of CSF concretes increased signifi-
candy to exceed resistivity of controls, presumably because
of both lower ion concentrations and the refined pore
structure.
Electrical resistivities of dry and wet-cured concretes
made with four cement types and CSF dosages from 0
to 15% have been reported by Gautefall and
V e n n e s l a n d . T h e dry-cured samples all had such a
high resistance that no corrosion due to macrocell effects
was possible. Wet-cured concrete generally showed only
small decreases in resistivity with increasing W/C + S
ratio for a given cement type and CSF dosage. CSF pro­
duced a substantial increase in resistance for all cement
types (Fig. 35).
Fisher et al. '^^ measured rates of corrosion in control
concrete and in concrete with CSF addition. They found
that the corrosion rate was about the same in the two con­
cretes for equal total chloride concentrations. They also
found the resistivity of the concrete to be considerably
increased on addition of CSF.
20
CSF
!io
o >
0 5 10 15 20 25 5 10 15
Penetration depth: m m Penetration depth: m m
(a) (b)
Fig. 34 Chloride penetration into hardened cement
(OPC; (a) W/C + S = 0-50; (b) W/C + S = 0- 70). Specimens
were exposed to sea water for 6 months. Chloride content given
as a percentage by weight of paste. (From ref J 99).
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C O R R O S I O N OF REINFORCEMENT
Preece et al.^^^ studied the electrochemical behaviour
of steel in dense CSF cement mortars. They found that
the mortar provided a high degree of corrosion protec­
tion to the steel, and attributed this to: (a) a very low W/C
-h S ratio, resulting in a very fine pore structure which
apparently limits the access of water; and (b) very high
electrical resistivity, which limits the galvanic current even
in the absence of passivity of the steel.
Biirge^^^ has reported that the use of a very dense
polymer-modified cement-CSF mortar with corrosion in­
hibitors added is effective as a protective coating for steel
in corrosive environments.
Cracks in concrete may result in the formation of con­
centrated anodic areas at the exposed steel, and conse­
quently high corrosion rates. The ability of concrete to
'self-heal' the cracks is important, to avoid the corrosion
problem. Gautefall and Vennesland^^^ investigated the
self-healing capacity of concretes with and without CSF
in sea water with access to oxygen, simulating a splash-
zone situation. They found no significant difference be­
tween the two types of concrete.
8.4 Conclusions
As discussed above, the individual factors controlling
the corrosion of steel in concrete are known and may be
investigated. The present evidence indicates, for concretes
of equal strength, that: (a) in regard to chloride-induced
corrosion, the use of CSF will extend the initiation time;
and (b) in regard to carbonation-induced corrosion of low-
to-medium grade concrete, CSF may shorten the initia­
tion fime. For quality concrete with compressive strength
exceeding about 40 MPa, carbonation is not generally
regarded as a problem.
However, in practical situations it is the combination
of these factors which governs the risk of corrosion, and
information on the individual factors is not sufficient to
allow a direct prediction of the corrosion protection offered
by different concrete mixes. Present evidence suggests
that the use of CSF as an addition to improve concrete
durability will also improve the concrete's ability to pro­
tect embedded steel from corrosion.
It should also be noted that the primary factors govern­
ing corrosion protection of steel in concrete are probably
the quality of the initial curing and that the concrete cover
over the reinforcing steel is sufficient.
o SP30
A SP30 + 1 0 % C S F
MP30(10%fly ash)
M P 3 0 ( 1 0 % fly ash) + 5% CSF
A MP30 (10% fly a s h ) + 10% CSF
0 MP30 (25% fly a s h )
• MP30 (25% fly a s h ) + 5% CSF
50r V MP30 (25% fly a s h ) + 10% CSF
E 40
^^30
' 20
20 25 lOh
0 0-5 0-6 0-7 0-8 0-9 10 M 1-2 1-3
W/C + S
paste
Fig. 35. Electrical resistivity of concrete with different cement
types, W/C + S ratios and CSF dosages. Mature water-cured
specimens. (From ref 189).
31
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CSF IN C O N C R E T E
9. NATIONAL STANDARDS, CODES, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Arabian Gulf, Rasheeduzzafar et al. Proposal for a code
of practice to ensure durability of concrete construction
in the Arabian Gulf environment. King Fahd University,
Saudi Arabia.
Canada. CAN/CSA-A23.5-M86. Supplementary cement­
ing materials.
Denmark. DS 4 U . Code of practice for the structural use
of concrete.
The Danish Academy of Technical Sciences Hefte no. 25.
Basic Concrete Specification. Copenhagen, May 1986.
Finland. Suomen Betoniyhdistys r.y. Betoninormit 1987,
RakMK BY, by 15, Helsinki.
10. REFERENCES
1. Heggestad et al. Investigation of Elkem microsilica by
t h e r m o s o n i m e t r y . Thermochimia Acta, 1984, 72,
202-212.
2. Jahr J. Possible health hazard from different types of
amorphous silicas — suggested threshold limit values.
Health effects of synthetic silica particulates. Edited by
D a n n o m D . American Society for Testing of Materials,
04 732000-17.
3. Glomme J. Risikoen for stovlungesykdom i ferrosilisium-
smelteverk. Del II: Dyreeksperimentelle undersokelser.
Arbeidsforskningsinstituttene, O s l o , N o r w a y , 1964. (In
Norwegian).
4. American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygenists. Threshold limit values for chemical substances
in the work environment adopted by ACGIHfor 1984—85.
A C G I H , Cincinatti, 1984, 3 9 .
5. Hjorth L. Microsilica in Concrete. Nordic Concrete
Federation, Oslo, 1982, Publication N o . 1.
6. Regourd M . Condensed silica fume. Edited by Aitcin P . C .
Universite de Sherbrooke, Q u e b e c , 1983, 2 0 - 2 4 .
7. Regourd M . Microstructure of high strength cement paste
systems. Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc, 4 2 , 1985, 3 - 1 7 .
8. Regourd M . et al. Hydraulic reactivity of various poz-
zolanas. Proc. 5th Int. Symp. on Concrete TechnoL,
Monterrey, M a r . 1 9 8 1 .
9. Regourd M . et al. Microstructure of field concretes con­
taining silica fume. Proc. 4th Int. Conf on Cement
Microscopy. Las Vegas, M a r . 1 9 8 3 .
10. Sellevold E.}. et al. Silica fume — cement pastes: hydra­
tion and pore structure. N o r w e g i a n Institute of
Technology, T r o n d h e i m , 1982, Report B M L 8 2 . 6 1 0 ,
19-50.
11. Huang Cheng-yi and Feldman R . F . Hydration reactions
in Portland cement — silica fume blends. Cement and
Concrete Res., 1985, 15, 5 8 5 - 5 9 2 .
12. Huang Cheng-yi and Feldman R . F . Influence of silica
fume on the microstructural development in cement mor­
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