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The geometry of twisted multi-filament structures

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1958 Br. J. Appl. Phys. 9 133

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 ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTIONS

The geometry of twisted nrmulti-iXament structures

By G. J. STANSFIELD,
Dunlop Cotton Mills Ltd., Rochdale

[Paper Jirst received 27 September, and in final form 5 November, 19571

A self-consistentgeometry of cords made from multi-filament yarns is derived from the assumption
that all filaments in a cord follow an epihelical path. This path is defined mathematically using
a definition of ply twist not considered before, which leads to simpler formulae than those
developed by previous workers. Formulae for changes in ply length, ply twist and cord length
on cording are derived which enable the retraction of cords and yams on twisting to be predicted
accurately. An experimental method of cord twisting (simple twisting) is described which
enables a simple experimental verification of this theory of twist to be carried out.

LIST O F P R I N C I P A L SYMBOLS model. It is concluded that this model represents the

Z, yarn constant, proportional to yarn radius. materials considered, within close limits.
It is first necessary to define precisely the meaning of twist
a, cord radius.
in a ply of a multi-ply cord. This definition must (a) conform
b, ply or yarn radius.
with intuitive ideas concerning twist in yarns, ( b ) lead to
n, ply twist.
n? s, ply or yarn twist.
mathematically consistent formulae and ( c ) lead to experi-
mentally correct formulae. Intuitively the idea of twist for
s, initial yarn twist.
N, cord twist.
a continuous filament yarn may be obtained by considering
Pn, pX,ply or yarn retracted length per unit untwisted yarn
an ordinary twist tester. In this instrument a measured
length of twisted yarn is fastened between a rotatable clamp
length.
P, cord retracted length per unit untwisted ply length. and a movable carriage, the carriage being loaded to secure
a uniform tension in the yarn. The yarn is now untwisted
6’$ cord folding angle.
by rotatkg the clamp until the filaments in the yarn are
I; radius of filament helix.
parallel to each other. The number of revolutions necessary
4, angular position of ply axis. to untwist the yarn is then taken to be the turns of twist in
[, angular position of filament with respect to ply axis.
the yarn and the “twist” is defined as the number of turns
U , filament length.
1: ply axis length. of twist per unit twisted length of yarn.
z, cord axis length. This intuitive definition of twist in a single yarn leads to
the mathematical one. Consider one filament in a yarn,
#, angle between filament and ply axis. RPQ (Fig. l), then each point on the filament can be fixed
y , initial parameter of epihelix.
y , untwisted yarn length.
by the length of EP and the angle which E P , perpendicular

A large proportion of industrial textiles is used as reinforce-

ment material for rubber and plastics. These textiles are
principally used in cord form, these cords consisting of two
or more twisted plies twisted together. In the study of
properties of textile cords such as strength, elongation and
modulus it is necessary first to establish a system of co-
ordinates which will enable the geometrical form of the
cords to be characterized unambiguously. This paper
establishes such a system of co-ordinates, for multi-ply multi-
filament cords, whose number of filaments (greater than 400)
Per ply is much greater than the number of plies (two to five).
It should be noted that this geometry applies only to Fig. 1, A simple helix
systems which may be described as bundles of continuous
strings, a string being defined as a body capable only of to the yarn axis 00’, makes with an initial line O R in the
sustaining a tensile force and not a torsional or flexural Oxy plane.
couple. The theory probably does not apply exactly to a If 5 is the angle between O R and EP, then the filament
system of corded monofilament rubber, for example. would have made 6 / 2 7 revolutions between 0 and E. If
The differential geometry of the non-uniform simple helix is the length of the yarn axis between 0 and E the twist of
and epihelix is first discussed in this paper and the equations the yarn is (1/2~r)([/A). This is the mean yarn twist between
obtained are then applied to derive relations between the 0 and E. The twist at a point may be defined as (1/277)(d&dA).
lengths and twists of cords and their plies using an idealized It is now necessary to extend this concept to a yarn, the axis
model of a cord, in which it is assumed that the filaments of which is twisted into a helix, that is, a yarn made into the
epihelical paths. Experiments on the retraction of ply of a cord.
tyre cords are described and it is shown that their In Fig. 2(a), Cc‘ is the axis of a cord ply, the cord axis of
results support the formulae derived from the mathematical which is 00’. The filament R P is twisted round the ply
9, APRIL 1958 133 BRITISH JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS
 G. J. Stansjeld
axis Cc' which is itself twisted round thc cord axis 00'.
If 00 = z and 0'~' makes an angle 4 with OC, then the
cord twist may be defined by analogy with the yarn twist as
(1/2n) (d&dz). The ply twist is now defined as (I/%) (d&dh)
where x is the length of the ply axis from C to C' and f is
the angle through which the radius vector generating the
filament rotates between C'P and CR.
(b)
Fig. 2. (a) An epihelix. (b) Model used to illustrate
the definition of ply twist
The above definition of cord twist agrees with those
previously adopted by Woods:') Treloar(*) and others, but
the ply twist definition does not. It has been Customary to
define ply twist in terms of the tortuosity of the P b axis and whilst remaining throughout in a plane parallel to the OYZ
the torsion in the ply. This is equivalent to defining the ply
twist as (1/2n) (&d& where 6 is the angle turned through
by a vector perpendicular to the P ~ Yaxis and passing through
the filament as that vector passes along the ply axis from C
to C'. It will be seen from Fig. 2 that the vector used for
defining ply twist in this paper is perpendicular to the cord
axis and not the ply axis. A simple model may be constructed
BRITISH JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS
to illustrate the position Of the plane Containing the radius
vector generating the path of a filament.
TWObundles of braided spindle band were prepared, each
containing several strings. Each bundle was then twisted
separately in the same direction and the same amount. A
circle was then marked round one of the bundles in a plane
perpendicular to the axis of the bundle. Finally the two
bundles were twisted together to make a cord. The result
of these operations is shown in Fig. 2(6).
It can be seen that the circle of section remained approxi-
mately perpendicular to the cord axis and not the ply axis
throughout the cording operation. This suggests that the
path of the filament should be described by vectors rotating
in a plane perpendicular to the cord axis (the transverse
plane) and not the ply axis.
Imagine any cord crossed by two transverse planes a
distance 6z apart. Let the length of ply axis of any ply
intercepted between these planes be 6x and let the untwisted
length of yarn in the ply intercepted between these two
planes be 6y.
Then (6z/6y), (6h/6y) both exist as the planes move
together and ultimately coincide. Hence we define the
following parameters of the cord at that rransverse plane.
THE SIMPLE NON-UNIFORM HELIX
This helix is generated by a rotating vector of length a
advancing along the Or axis rotating at a rate d$/dz which
need not necessarily be constant. At any transverse plane
on the Oz axis (that is, any plane parallel to the Oxy plane)
the helix makes an angle 6 with the Or axis.
lmagine two transverse planes 6z apart along the Oz axis
and an arcual length 6h apart along the helix itself. We
then have a differential triangle AEC (Fig. I ) in the surface
of the cylinder on which the helix is drawn where CE = a&+,
AB = 62, A C = 6h and angle CAB = e. So
tan e = a-ddz4 sin e = ad'
dh
cos e
dz
== -
dh
(2)
THE NON-UNIFORM EPIHELIX
Having defined the simple non-uniform helix above and
derived the geometrical properties of it necessary to the
discussion in this paper, the curve which is postulated to be
the path of a filament in a multi-filament structure is now
studied. It has been suggested that the curve be called a
non-uniform epihelix.
The epihelix is generated by a vector of length r which,
plane, rotates about a point, the locus of which is a simple
non-uniform helix with the properties discussed above.
In any transverse plane the parametric equations of the
epihe]ix are:
x = a cos' +
rcos(y - f )
y = a sin q5 + r sin ( y - f )
134 VOL.9, APRIL1958
 The geometry of twisted multi-filament structures
Where 4, [ are the angles made by the simple helix vector This equation gives the relation between pn and n involving
and the epihelix vector with the Ox axis and y is the initial only one experimental constant, a, which is proportional to
value of [ at z = 0 ($ and [ are measured in opposite senses). ply radius.
If U is an arcual length measured along the epihelix Also from definitions (1) and relations (2)
(2)’= d4\
(aa, ’ + ($)* -
and
tan 0
P
= 2naN

= p,,COS 6
(6)
(7)
d6 d 4 dz These three last equations are the fundamental geometrical
- 2ar- - - cos (4 - 6 - y )
dh dh (-)
dh relations for a cord and are applicable at any transverse plane
Hence substituting relations (2) of the cord even though the cord be irregular.

TWIST CHANGES DUR!SG CORDING

Consider two yarns each having s turns of twist per unit

As y varies from 0-2n this equation gives the value of
(du/dh)* at the transverse plane for the family of epihelices
which pass through the circumference of a circle of radius I’,
the centre of the circie being on the simple helix.
Hence the mean value of (daldh)? for all such epihelices is:
1 4-[r(d(/dh)]*
Since the mean value of cos (4 - 6 - y), as y varies from
0-277, is zero [see Appendix (iii)].
length lying parallel to each other and fixed rigidly together
at each end. Let one end of this combination be fixed and
the other end rotated about an axis mid-way between the
yarns. Consider two transverse planes 6z apart in the cord.
Fig. 3 shows one of the transverse planes, cord axis 0,
ply axis C1 and filament P where O X is a line parallel to the
(4)

MODEL OF A CORD

A cord is assumed to consist of plies, the axes of which

describe helices about the cord axis whose filaments describe
epihelices about the ply axes.
The following further assumptions are made:
(i) the “m” filaments are distributed uniformly across the
cross-section of a ply, that is, the number of filaments
crossing unit cross-section of the ply is the same for
all parts of that cross-section;
(ii) the parameters of each epihelix described by a filament,
i.e. d&dz and d[/dh are the same;
(iii) the ply retracted length pn is a mean* of the com-
ponents of length along the ply axis per unit ply axis Fig. 3. A transverse plane
length of all the filaments.
We can on these assumptions obtain a relation between ,on, Ox axis. For the process of twisting decribed above (which
the ply retracted length, and n, the ply twist. we call compound cord twisting) the angle OCiP is unchanged
Consider a transverse plane of a cord and an annulus of during the twisting. It follows that since C,P,OC! make
the ply, drawn in that plane, of radius v (less than the ply angles 4, 6 - y with the Ox axis, where 6 is measured in
radius) and thickness dr. This annulus contains 2rmrdr,brb2 the opposite direction to 4, then 4 - [ - y = c where c
filaments [by assumption (l)] and since, by assumption (2), is a constant independent of the cord twist for a compound
the twists of all the filaments is then the same for the filaments twisting operation.
in this annulus, the mean value of (du/dh)‘ = 1 - 4nzn2rr’by By the definition of n, pn, X and P [equations (l)]
definitions (1) and formula (4).
Hence a mean value“ of dhida for these filaments is
I/d(I-L 4n*n’r2).
Hence a mean value* of dh,’du for all the filaments in the ply Differentiating with respect to cord twist, N

and by assumption (3)

Hence
-
[see Appendix ($1.
But 4 6is independent of cord twist for compound twisting.
(3/3N)(np,z- N P ) = 0

Inverting this equation and writing SI = 2nb we get So np,, .lip is independent of cord twist.
T
Now, since n = s and ,on = ps at A: = 0 then
m = (2ipJdU - p,) (jb) np, + NP = sps (8)
* This mean value is not an arithmetic mean-see Appendix (i). for compound cord twisting.
VOL. 9? APRIL1958 135 BRITISH JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS
 G. J. Stansfield
The calculation of ply length and piy twist at any cord Therefore, the axiai component of filament length at radius
twist can be done as follows: equation (5b) gives r is o(1 +477*n2r2)-f. In an annuius of the yarn cross-section
of radius I’ and thickness dr there are 2mdrm/nb2 filaments
= (2jPn)dU - P,) if m is the number of filaments in the yarn and b is the radius
Therefore 1 - pn = &a2n2p; of the yarn.
Therefore, mean axial component of filament length per
but from equation (8) unit filament length
u2n2p: = a2(sp, - NP)2
Therefore pn = 1 - &a2(sp, - NP)’ (9)
which enables the ply retracted length pn to be calculated
from experimental data on cord retraction.
The ply twist can now be calculated using equation (8) in
so pn = 7{ 2
(2,,nb)‘ ‘+ ’[1 (2mb)’I - l }

Writing 2nb =r and re-arranging.

the form:
n = (2/apn)dU - P,)
Further, equation (7) gives
pn = P sec 6
So, using equation (9)
sec 0 = (I/p)(l - ia2[sp, - ,VP]’)
So the folding angle can be calculated from retraction data.
CORD RETRACTION EQUATIOX
an = (2/pn)2/(1- p,) as in equation (5b).
(10)
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
In this experimental work we are assuming that the yarns
and cords involved are uniform.
(11) (a) Yarn refraction. Using the apparatus illustrated
diagrammatically in Fig. 4, an untwisted yarn was attached
at one end to one of the rotatable clamps B and at the other
end to the carriage A , the yarn being tensioned by a weight

By equation ( 1 I) A $ $ $ E
P sec 0 = 1 - &z*(sP,- NP)’ P L B‘
but since Eh
2 2 Fig. 4. Apparatus for the measurement of yarn and
an = - 2 / ( 1 - p,,), as = -d(1 - p,) or 1 - $a2s2p: = ps cord retraction
Pn Ps
then of about 50 g. The yarn length could be read off on a scale
P sec 0 = ps - jaZsp,NP - &a2N2P* (12) parallel to the yarn and the number of turns of twist inserted.
on a counter coupled to shaft D.
Arrenging as a quadratic equation and solving for P. About 180in. of 1650 denier continuous filament rayon
P=
2 sec 0 - a2sp,N
a2N2
4x2hr2p,
C‘;l - (2 sec 0 - a2spSN)2 I+-+ (13)
yarn was given various twists up to about 15 turnsjin. and
the retracted length pn of the yarn was measured for
each value of the twist n. A graph was then plotted of
( l / p n ) d ( l- p,J against n for each yarn and the results are
which may be written
shown in Fig. 5.
P= 2PS

2 0.5
where F(x) = 7 [(1 - X*)i - 11
X-

THE RETRACTION OF A SINGLE Y A R N

The retracted length p, of a ply of twist n in a cord is

given by m = (2/p,)d(l - p,) [equation (5b)l and, since a
yarn may be regarded as a cord with zero cord twist, this
equation gives the relation between the retracted length of a
yarn and the yarn twist. Equation (5b) may, however, be
derived separately for a yarn.(3)
We assume that the filaments are arranged in simple
helices about the axis of the yarn and that the retracted
length of the yam is the mean axial component of the filament
length per unit filament length. For a filament tracing a
helix of radius r, if the filament is of length U in a yarn of
length I, then axial component of filament length equals
U cos $J where $J is the, angle the filament makes with the 0
yarn axis. Also tan $ = 2nnr as in equation (3).
5 IO 15

so cos *
BRITISH JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYXCS
= (1 + 47T’n?r*)-b
136
Yarn twist
Fig. 5. Graph of (1 \p,)v’(l
n (turns/in.)
- p,)
.~ against yarn twist N
VOL. 9, APRIL 1958
 The geometry of twisted multi-filament structures
The graph is a straight line through the origin, showing
that the relation between p, and n is of the form un =
(2/~,)2/(1- p,,) where 4 2 is the gradient of the line. Using
the value of E obtained above and equation ( 5 2 ) the graph of
Fig. 6 was drawn showing the theoretical retraction curve
and the experimental points. Good agreement is shown
between the theoretical curves and the practical points.
I I
0.95
I I I
5 IO 15
Yarn twist n (turnsbn)
Fig. 6 . Retracted length curve for 1650 denier rayon
yarn
C , experimental points; -, theoretical curve.
(b) Cord retraction. From a cord retraction experiment
the quantities which can be measured are: s, the yarn singles
twist before cord twisting; ps, the retracted yarn length before
cord twisting; 8, the yarn constant; A’, the cord twist;
and P, the cord retracted length.
Using equation (11) sec 8 = (l/P)[I - $2/(sps - NP)’],
0 can be calculated from the retraction data for all values of
N and P. A graph of tan 8 against Ai can, therefore, be
plotted. Such a graph for a 2/1650 rayon cord is shown in
Fig. 7 .
U cord axis.
5 IO 15
Cord twist N (turns/ in.)
Fig. 7. Graph of tan (folding angle) against cord twist,
for compound cord twisting
- - _, continuation of the linear portion of the experimental
results.
VOL. 9, APRIL 1958
**
But tan 0 = 2 ~ a Nby equation (3). Since the graph of
tan 0 against N is not a straight line the ratio tan 6’jN is not
constant for all N, that is, the cord radius a varies during the
cording operation.
However, since the graph of tan 8 against N is linear after
about N = 2-3 turns/in. a straight line can be fitted to the
points of the experimental graph. The result of calculating
the cord retracted length for a range of iV from 0-15 turns/in.,
using the cord retraction equation (14) with a obtained from
a preliminary yarn retraction experiment and 8, as obtained
from the tan 8 versus N graph as above, is shown in Fig. 8.
It can be seen that the theoretical curve gives a good fit to
the experimental points.
75-0.
0 5 IO 15
Cord twist N (turns/in)
Fig. 8. Graph of cord retracted length against cord
twist
C ,experimental points; -, theoretical curve.
VARIATION OF CORD RADIUS, a WITH TWIST
In the preceding section it is shown that the cord radius a
varies with twist. It is interesting to enquire whether the
radius depends upon the ply twist, the cord twist or a com-
bination of the two. An experiment was therefore designed
in which the cord twist could be varied without varying the
ply twist.
Simple cord twisting. A cord AE has one end A fixed on
a carriage which can move in the direction A D (Fig. 4). The
ends B, 5’of the yarns constituting the cord are attached to
two yarn clamps B and B’, which are geared to an axle D
through a twisting head C in such a manner that the end of
the cord at BB’ can be rotated about the axis A D without
rotation of the yarn clamps B B’ about their own axes. This
manner of twisting a cord is called simple twisting in contrast
to the usual (twist tester) method, which may be called
compound twisting.
If we consider any transverse plane of a cord which is
being simply twisted, then (see Fig. 3) the angle between the
direction C I P and a fixed line O X is constant throughout the
twisting where C, is the ply axis, P any filament and 0 the
It follows that for simple twisting - y is independent of
the cord twist N. Hence at any transverse plane (1/2n)(d[/dy)
is independent of N since y, the untwisted length of the yarn
in the ply, is also independent of iV. Hence the product
np, = ( 1 ! 2 ~ ) ( d ( / d yis) independent of the cord twist .I; for
simple twisting.
137 BRITISH JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS
 G. J . Stansfeld
Now at any transverse plane in the cord This corroborates the deductions and assumption in
statement (1 5).
pn = 1 - iz2n2pz from equation ( j b ) CO~CLUSIOSS
So since np, is independent of A’, so also is pi; and hence n. (1) The model of a cord proposed in this paper yields a
We may therefore state: set of self-consistent formulae for cord retraction.
“if the ply radius parameter U( = 2 ~ b is) constant for all (2) A definition of ply twist is proposed which is consistent
forms of cord twisting, then both the ply retracted length p,), Fvith the model and enables the mathematics to be considerably
and the ply twist n, of a cord are independent of the cord simplified.
twist N for simple twisting.” (15) (3) An alternative cord twisting process (simple twisting) is
defined. which yields simpler formulae than those for com-
Experimentally it is impossible to twist a cord in a simple pound twisting and which facilitates experimental study of
manner because this operation involves the sliding of one the structure of a yarn in a cord.
ply over another throughout the length of the cord during (4) The formulae developed are a good fit to the experi-
the simple twisting operation, and this sliding is prevented by mental data of yarn retraction and the cord retraction for
inter-ply friction. It is, however, possible to untwist a cord both simple and compound twisting.
simply.
The procedure is to make a cord in the ordinary manner A C K N O W L E D G EM E UT S
and connect it to the apparatus in Fig. 4. About a hundred
The author would like to express his thanks to Dr. 1.R. G .
turns of cord twist, say, are simply removed from the cord Treloar of the British Rayon Research Association for helpful
and then the twist is evened out along the cord by untwisting criticism.
the whole cord in a compound manner and re-twisting it to The author also wishes to {hank Mr. W. L. Jackson.
restore the .cord twist as it was immediately after the simple Senior Physicist, and Mr. G. F. Morton, Research Manager.
untwisting. The length of the cord L and the cord twist A,
for many valuable discussions during the course of this work.
for various values of N are found in this manner. Thanks are due to Mr. L. F. Pickup, Technical Manager, for
If y is the untwisted length of the yarn from which the
his continued interest and t o him and his colleagues on the
cord was made, then P = L / y at all points in the cord if
Management Board of the Dunlop Cotton Mills Ltd. for
we assume the cord was twisted uniformly.
permission to publish this work.
So from equations (6) and (7)
1/[(y2pz/L2)- 11 = 2xaRr (16) REFEREYCES

For simple twisting, if the statement (15) is true, then ypIz (1) WOODS,H. J. J. Text. Inst. Manchr, 24, p. T317 (1933).
is constant for all N a n d is the length of the cord when it is (2) TRELOAR, L. R. G. J . Text. inst. Manchr, 41, p. T348
completely untwisted simply. (1956).
(3) TRELOAR, L. R. G. J. Text. Inst. Manelir, 41, p. T357
(1956).
APPENDIX
(i) The mean of’dhlda
In the derivation of the formula cm = 2/p,\/l - pn,
having defined the cord model such that ~ , ~ ( = d z / d his) a
mean value of dh/du, it is necessary to enquire as to the
meaning of “a mean” in this connexion.
T o obtain the relation (4) we show that the mean of (duldh)’
+
in an annulus of radius r of the ply is 1 [r(d[/dX)]?=
1 - 4dn’r’.
Hence a mean value of d)\/du = (1 - 4n2n2r’)-f. This
mean value is the root mean harmonic square defined by the

0.2 h equation:
‘ 1 1
r.m.h.s. of xIs2x3. . . x, = l / \ (i C ?)

This method of estimating a mean of dhldu cannot be

justified mathematically, beyond the definition, and the
question as to its appropriateness depends upon the experi-
mental applicability or otherwise of the final result.
(ii) The proqf’qfnp,, - N P = sp,
Cord twist N (turnslin) I n this proof we assert that
Fig. 9. Graph of tan (folding angle) against cord twist
for simple cord twisting
and this is true providing (3(/3y) +(34/3y) is not zero
A graph of tan 8 = .\/[y’pz/L2) - 11 against A’ for a throughout the range considered (for compound twisting).
2/1650 denier rayon cord is shown in Fig. 9. Since this Since (b[,’ay) -k ( J # ~ / b y=) 2n(NP - np,) equation (17) is
graph is a straight line through the origin we may conclude true providing XP np,, is not zero for all N. But at N = 0,
that (i) a the cord radius is constant for simple twisting, and np, = sps, so NP - np, can only be zero at N = 0 if S = 0,
(ii) p , the ply retracted length is constant for simple twisting. in which case the cord would no longer exist in the geometrical
BRITISH JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 138 VOL. 9, APRIL1958
 The geometrj of twisted multi-filament structures
form postulated, and SO the case of S = 0 is excluded from generating vector r. In practice, since the ply cross-section
the discussion. is slightly elliptical Y is not strictly constant. However, if
this proof is written with Y varying as the radius vector of
(iii) Note on equation (4)
an ellipse, then the eccentricity terms occur only in products
The mathematics from which this equation is derived with sin (9 - ( - y ) and sin (9 -- ( - y), and so are elimin-
depend upon the epihelix having a constant secondary ated during the averaging process.

eam temperature, discharge lag and target biasing

in some television pick-up tubes
By B. MELTZER,B.Sc., PhD., F.Inst.P., Department of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, and
P. L. HOLMES.
BSc., Research Laboratories of Electric and Musical Industries Ltd., Hayes, Middlesex
[PaperJirst received 2 September, and in final form 30 October, 19571
Discharge lag in pick-up tubes, particularly of modern cathode-potential-stabilized type, and its
relation to the acceptance of rhe electron beam by the target are analysed. Measurements of
beam acceptance as a function of target potential reveal effective beam temperatures substantially
equal to cathode temperature at low beam currents, but higher and multi-valued at high currents.
These temperatures set a limit to the possible reduction of lag without target biasing; this
limiting lag, referred to as Maxwellian lag, is calculated and presented graphically. Direct
measurements of lag are compared with the limiting values. Target biasing, the application of a
small positive potential to the target face, reduces this limitation. Results of electron-optical
measurements. throwing some light on the anomalous beam temperatures, are presented.

T’ne requirement that a television picture should be reproduced
accurately in time as well as in space imposes limitations o n
camera tube design. In a perfect camera tube of the full-
storage type, ideally the output signal should depend solely
on the illumination during the previous frame. However, in
practice this is not the case, and a bright image takes some
time to build up o r to decay. Decay lag is usually longer than
build-up lag and is more objectionable ir. normal television
practice, as a moving bright object will leave a characteristic
trail behind it. However, the lag effect has been put to use
in some storage tubes.(’)
Lag may arise from several causes--e.g. delayed photo-
conductive effect,(’) dielectric hysteresis, or “burn-in” as in
the image orthicon.(’] These effects may be circumvented,
but the form of lag investigated in this paper, which has been
given the name “discharge lag,“ is inherent in the mechanism
of charge-restoration by a low-energy electron beam, a type
of scanning employed in all modern camera tubes. It is. in
fact. dependent on the energy-spread of electrons in the
beam; a factor which is not altogether under control. During
film and gun cathode with the tube in the normal operating
condition for use as a camera tube. A preliminary experi-
ment had shown that if the tube controls were set t o pre-
determined average values, and then adjusted slightly to
maximize accepted beam, the beam was then correctly
focused on the target and alined perpendicularly to it.
Twenty-nine curves were obtained on nine tubes. The
factors varied were: beam current (controlled by the modu-
lator electrode), a.c. or d.c. heater current (for possible
magnetic effects), size of limiter aperture, limiter anode
potential, gun type, strength of focusing magnetic field,
target material, and gun alinement.
F
2
fE

an investigation aimed at producing improved camera

measurements of the acceptance of a low-energy
(2
beam by a target at varying potentials were made, and hence
expected values of lag were calculated and compared with h
e
measured values.

BEAM A C C E P T A S C E A S D B E A M T E M P E R A T U R E
During the operation of a cathode-potential stabilized Fig. 1. The three main regions of a beam acceptance
klevision camera tube, the potential of the target is always curve. Exponential region, A . Linear region, B.
within a few volts of that of the cathode of the electron-gun. Secondary emission region, C
in order to measure the amount of beam actually accepted by
the target of a tube, special tubes were made similar to the Fig. 1 shows a typical beam acceptance curve, and Fig. 2
C.P.S. Emitron (type 5954),(5)but with the photoemissive shows the lower-potential end with current plotted to a
mosaic replaced by a continuous film, usually of gold. logarithmic scale. I t will be noted that the curve in Fig. 1
Photoemissive layers give identical measurements at low can be divided into three main regions-a h e a r region,
energies (<2 eV). The current accepted by this film was which is modified at higher voltages by secondary emission
measured as a function of the potential difference between and by saturation to give a second region, and, at low
VOL. 9, APRIL 1958 139 BRITISH JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS