Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Keywords: Faraday wave, pattern formation, vibrational mode, catastrophe theory, bifurcation, analogue model,
morphogenesis, parametric oscillation, nonlinear dynamic system
Received: July 13, 2017; Revised: September 6, 2017; Accepted: September 15, 2017; Published: October 25, 2017;
Available Online: October 25, 2017
DOI: 10.14294/WATER.2017.6
Abstract
trophe theory, and the framework of attrac-
The standing wave patterns formed on the tors and basins of attraction. We suggest
surface of a vertically oscillated fluid en- that Faraday wave phenomena represent a
closed by a container have long been a sub- convenient and tractable analogue model
ject of fascination, and are known as Fara- system for the study of morphogenesis and
day waves. In circular containers, stable, ra- vibrational modal phenomena in dynami-
dially symmetrical Faraday wave-patterns cal systems in general, examples of which
are resonant phenomena, and occur at the abound in physical and biological systems.
vibrational modes where whole numbers of
waves fit exactly onto the surface of the fluid Introduction
sample. These phenomena make excellent
systems for the study of pattern formation When fluid enclosed by a container is sub-
and complex nonlinear dynamics. We pro- jected to a vertical oscillation, standing
vide a systematic exploration of variables waves arise. These standing waves, which
that affect Faraday wave pattern formation depend on reflections from the edge of the
on water in vertical-walled circular contain- container, are known as Faraday waves
ers including amplitude, frequency, volume (Miles and Henderson, 1990). At some fre-
(or depth), temperature, and atmospheric quencies and amplitudes they form highly
pressure. In addition, we developed a novel ordered patterns, while at others they give
method for the quantification of the time rise to chaotic dynamics (Simonelli and
taken for patterns to reach full expression Gollub, 1989). Faraday wave phenomena
following the onset of excitation. The exci- make excellent systems for the study of
tation frequency and diameter of the con- pattern formation because of the high de-
tainer were the variables that most strongly gree of control compared with other pat-
affected pattern morphology. Amplitude tern-forming systems such as convection
affected the degree to which Faraday wave or chemical reactions (Huepe et al., 2006),
patterns were expressed but did not affect and the great richness and variety of pat-
pattern morphology. Volume (depth) and terns that are possible (Topaz et al., 2004;
temperature did not affect overall pattern Rajchenbach and Clamond, 2015). Thus,
morphology but in some cases altered the complex nonlinear phenomena can be
time taken for patterns to form. We discuss explored using a relatively simple experi-
our findings in light of René Thom’s catas- mental device.
nomena have been the subject of fascina- onto the surface (Ball, 2009). These Fara-
tion for several centuries. The patterns day wave modes arise from a combination
formed by sound vibrations were described of the outgoing waves excited by the driv-
by Leonardo da Vinci, who found that dust ing frequency and the waves reflected from
particles formed mounds and hillocks the vertical wall of the cell, and depend on
when the underlying surface was vibrated the frequency and amplitude of the excita-
(Winternitz, 1982). Similar phenomena tion and the diameter of the cell. They are
were experimentally and observationally resonant patterns in the same sense that
researched by Galileo Galilei (1668), Rob- standing waves in wind instruments such
ert Hooke (Inwood, 2003), Ernst Chladni as flutes are resonant patterns of vibration.
(Chladni, 1787; Waller and Chladni, 1961), Faraday waves in fluids are also analogous
Michael Faraday (Faraday, 1831), and Lord to the patterns formed by vibrating solid
Rayleigh (Rayleigh, 1883; 1887). particles on metal plates described by Ernst
Chladni in 1787 (Chladni, 1787; Waller and
Faraday and Rayleigh found that the trans-
Chladni, 1961). In Chladni’s figures, the pat-
verse waves excited on the surface of a ver-
terns are revealed by particles accumulat-
tically vibrated fluid oscillated at half the
ing along the nodal lines, which are parts of
excitation frequency (Faraday, 1831; Ray-
the plate that are neither moving upwards
leigh, 1883). The 2:1 ratio between driving
nor downwards, and form “a spiderweb of
frequency and oscillatory response is char-
motionless curves” (Abraham, 1976). By
acteristic of parametric resonance (Douady
contrast, in samples of liquid subjected to
and Fauve, 1988; Bechhoefer et al., 1995).
vertical vibrations, patterns appear as os-
A familiar analogy is a child’s swing. If the
cillations of standing waves, with any given
swing is given a push when it reaches its
point flipping between peak and trough.
highest point on one side, and then another
push when it reaches the other extreme, Much of the research on Faraday waves
these two pushes will help it complete one has focused on attempts to characterize
back-and-forth cycle, and the swing will os- them mathematically, using theoretical
cillate at half the excitation frequency. approaches based on equations stemming
from physical theories, well-reviewed in
Standing waves on the surface of fluids are
Ibrahim (2015). However, the predictions
formed when the driving amplitude ex-
made by such mathematical models of-
ceeds a critical threshold (Bechhoefer et al.,
ten disagree with experimental results,
1995). Above this point—the so-called Far-
or else make predictions that are only ac-
aday instability—there is a bifurcation from
curate under restricted conditions (Miles
a single state of motion of the free surface of
the liquid to multiple states of motion, such and Henderson, 1990; Bechhoefer et al.,
that the surface of the liquid might be ris- 1995). For example, an approach based on
ing or falling (Miles and Henderson, 1990). the Mathieu equations, which are used to
Faraday wave patterns are influenced both model parametric resonance, was only par-
by properties of the liquid sample, such as tially successful in modelling surface waves
the diameter and shape of the container, because it could not take into account flu-
and the viscosity of the fluid (intrinsic fac- id viscosity (Benjamin and Ursell, 1954;
tors), and properties of the oscillation such Bechhoefer et al., 1995). Other investiga-
as excitation frequency and amplitude (ex- tions have used the Navier-Stokes equa-
trinsic factors; Abraham, 1976). tions (which describe the flow of viscous
substances) to characterize Faraday wave
Oscillating fluid samples in enclosed con- pattern dynamics (eg. Kumar and Tuck-
tainers have particular modes of vibration, erman, 1994). But solving Navier-Stokes
Computer Camera
MIDI input
LED light ring
Visualising cell
and fluid sample
30
60
i
Frame number
90
120 ii
150
180
210
240
270
b ii
0.45
Standard deviation of mean grey value
0.40
i
0.35
0.30
0.25
Frame number
Figure 2. Method used to evaluate time taken for the pattern to reach full expression
following the onset of the excitation frequency (time to full expression, or TFE). In a,
video frames are displayed, showing the onset of the excitation frequency (i), and the
onset of full expression of the pattern (ii). b is a profile plot showing the standard
deviation of the mean gray value of each video frame as a function of frame number.
The onset of the excitation frequency (i), and the onset of full expression of the pattern
(ii) are marked. Red horizontal lines show the mean (solid line) and 95% confidence
area (dashed lines) around the standard deviation of the mean gray values of the
pattern in full expression.
We asked whether reducing the ampli- In initial tests we explored a wide range of
tude could shift the pattern to an alterna- frequencies, and selected three that gave
tive form when close to the transition point repeatable patterns in order to investigate
between stability curves. To test this we those factors affecting pattern formation in
used two frequencies (115 Hz and 184 Hz) more detail. We later returned to a system-
close to the boundary between two stabil- atic examination of the effects of frequency
ity curves. At these frequencies, one of two on pattern over the entire range of our ap-
alternative patterns formed unpredictably. paratus, from 50-200 Hz, as discussed be-
We conducted four trials per sample of wa- low.
ter, on six samples of water per frequency We chose three frequencies that produced
(a total of 48 trials), recording which pat- patterns with different morphologies. At 56
tern formed. After the pattern was fully ex- Hz, the pattern showed six-fold symmetry;
pressed, we slowly reduced the amplitude, at 111 Hz, the pattern showed ten-fold sym-
recording any change in the pattern that metry; and at 180 Hz the pattern showed
occurred. fourteen-fold symmetry (Figure 3, compos-
Effect of Atmospheric Pressure on ite images). The overall patterns were com-
Pattern Formation posites of two alternating phases of oscil-
lation (Figure 3, phases I and II), whereby
To investigate the effect of atmospheric peaks became troughs, and troughs peaks.
pressure on pattern formation, we excited We could see these alternating peaks and
samples of water at the two transition fre- troughs only by using fast shutter speeds;
quencies (115 Hz and 184 Hz). We conduct- at the normal shutter speed of 1/30 sec-
a 56 Hz
a 56 Hz
b 111 Hz
b 111 Hz
c 180 Hz
a
56 Hz
30 111 Hz
180 Hz
25
Time to full expression (s)
20
15
10
b 56 Hz c 111 Hz d 180 Hz
2
−2
−4
100 200 300 400 500 200 400 600 800 300 600 900 1200
Amplitude (mV)
Figure 5. The time taken for patterns to reach full expression after the start of excitation (TFE)
decreased with increasing amplitude (a), as did the variation in TFE between replicates (b-d). In a,
separate curves are plotted for each of the three sample frequencies, with error bars depicting the
standard deviation of the TFE for three replicates at each amplitude. b-d show significant negative
relationship between the standard deviation of the TFE and amplitude. In b-d, lines are the fitted
response of separate linear models for each of the three frequencies, with gray bands depicting 95%
confidence intervals. 56 Hz (gray); T1,17 = -2.76; P = 0.01; 111 Hz (maroon); T1,14 = -3.41; P = 0.004; 180
Hz (blue); T1,11 = -2.87, P = 0.02.
a 56 Hz a 56 Hz
b 111 Hz
b 111 Hz
c 180 Hz
1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
Volume (ml)
Figure 9. Temperature
5 oC 10 oC 15 oC 20 oC 25 oC 30 oC did not alter the overall
morphology of the pattern
and had a negligible effect on
the degree to which patterns
were expressed. Patterns
a 56 Hz formed at six temperatures
(5oC, 10oC, 15oC, 20oC, 25oC,
and 30oC) are shown for
each of the three sample
frequencies.
b 111 Hz
c 180 Hz
0.0 180 Hz
5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30
Temperature (oC)
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
Fold symmetry
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 12. Relationship between the excitation frequency and the fold symmetry of pattern formed
for the medium cell. The three replicates are represented in light blue through dark blue and show
the frequency bandwidths of the patterns. The gray shaded area highlights the patterns of two-fold
symmetry which have poorly defined morphology and represent neither developed patterns nor no
patterns. Data are the same as those presented in Figure 11.
Figure 14. Montage of video frames showing the instability between alternative Faraday wave
patterns at 184 Hz. The 14-fold pattern was replaced by an unstable 26-fold pattern.
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
Figure 15. Atmospheric pressure increased the probability of the higher order pattern forming when
samples of water were oscillated at frequencies close to the point of intersection between adjacent
stability troughs. At 115 Hz either 10-fold or 14-fold patterns formed. At 184 Hz either 14-fold or 26-
fold patterns formed. Values are the probability that the higher order pattern would form, and lines
are fitted values of separate generalized linear models for each of the two frequencies, with gray bands
depicting 95% confidence intervals. 115 Hz: χ2 = 8.0, P = 0.005; 184 Hz: χ2 = 4.7, P = 0.03).
10
7
Fold symmetry
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 17. Relationship between the excitation frequency and the fold symmetry of pattern formed for
the small cell. The gray shaded area highlights the patterns of two-fold symmetry which have poorly
defined morphology and represent neither developed patterns nor no patterns. Data are the same as
those presented in Figure 16.
a 45 Hz b 63 Hz
c 90 Hz d 150 Hz
Figure 18. Patterns formed in the large cell (diameter = 49.50 mm)
were irregular and somewhat unstable. At frequencies below
~65 Hz (a and b), pattern morphologies could be classified according
to their fold symmetry. At frequencies above ~65 Hz (c and d),
pattern morphologies could not be classified.