Instruments Booklet

Definitions and Technical Terms Instruments
Table of Contents
Safety.................................................................................2
Pressure.............................................................................5
Flow.................................................................................10
Level................................................................................20
Temperature.....................................................................30
Controllers........................................................................36
Control Valve.....................................................................45
Instrument Drawings.........................................................53
Electronics........................................................................55
Hazardous Area.................................................................68
Programmable Logic Controller...........................................76
Distributed control system..................................................83
Wellhead Control...............................................................89
Fire and Gas system..........................................................91
ESD system:......................................................................97
Vibration...........................................................................98
VTC 1st Edition 1 of 101

SAFETY
Safety: Protection, well being, security
Rules: Set of laws to be followed without any deviations
Procedures: An orderly way of doing things
Accident: Crash, Mishap, and Mistake
Incident: Event, Happening
PPE: Personal Protective Equipment, Protective coverall, hard
hat or safety helmet, safety goggles or glasses, safety shoes,
safety gloves and ear muffs or ear plugs
Safety Equipment: Fire Extinguishers, Fire Blankets, Eye
bath and shower
Hazards: dangers
Potential safety hazards: Likely hood of hazard to occur
Unsafe act: Action of person, which can cause accidents or
incidences
Unsafe condition: Situation in an area where there is
danger of unsafe working atmosphere
ICC Cards: Isolation completion certificate used to avoid
unauthorised use of equipment
Danger Notice Cards: Used on Electrical Equipment to
ensure they are isolated
Properties of H2S: colourless, rotten egg smell at low
concentration of less than 1ppm, heavier than air, soluble in
water, LEL 4.5% UEL 45.5 %
TLV: Threshold Limit Value: H2S is below 10 PPM. At this level
a person can work for 8 hours without problem

Effects of H2S at various concentrations: about 30 PPM-
eye and throat irritation, about 100 PPM - loss of smell, about
500 PPM-dizziness and headache, 1000 PPM & above-rapid
unconsciousness followed by death within minutes
Identifying hazardous concentration of H2S: Yellow color
painting of vessels / piping or yellow bands and local warning
signs.
Safety in H2S Areas: BA sets / Escape Respirators and H2S
detectors to be used in H2S present areas
Fire: is a chemical reaction, which produces Heat, Light and
Noise
Fire Triangle: Fuel, Heat, and Oxygen
Classes of fire: Class “A”, Class “B”, Class “C”, Class “D”,
Class “E”
Types of Fire Extinguishers: Fire extinguishers using
Water/Foam/Dry Powder/Carbon dioxide. Water- Red colour-
for Class “A” fire. Foam-Cream colour - for Class “B” fire. Dry
Powder-Blue colour -all types except Class “D” fire. Carbon
dioxide-Black colour - Class “D” fire
Ignition temperature: The minimum temperature at which
a material will ignite spontaneously
Flash Point: The lowest temperature at which sufficient
vapour is given off from a liquid to form a flammable mixture
with air in the space above the liquid. Spark or naked flame
can ignite mixture.
LEL - Lower Explosive Limit: The concentration of gas /air
mix in volume %, below which mixture will not support
combustion

UEL - Upper Explosive Limit: The concentration of gas / air
mix in volume %, below which mixture will not support
combustion. Flammable range is between LEL & UEL e.g.,
explosive limits for methane: LEL 5, UEL 15
LSA: Low Specific Activity
NORM: Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material
Hazardous Areas: Areas in which explosive gas- air mixture
present or most likely to occur
Classification of Hazardous Areas: Zone -0, Zone-1 and
Zone -2
Non Hazardous Areas: Area where an explosive gas /air
mixture not expected to be present
Purpose of area classification: for selection of equipment,
for consideration of all sources of ignition, for permit to work,
for access of portable equipment
Emergency Alert system: Severity of an emergency
situation for Das Island is defined in terms of colour code
Blue Alert: A relatively minor emergency like minor leak of
oil/gas, small fire etc which may continue but is unlikely to
escalate
Yellow Alert: An emergency, which has potential to escalate
into a major emergency e.g., significant oil or gas leak
Red Alert: A serious emergency situation which leads to
evacuation of personnel e.g., Serious fire, major oil / gas leak.

PRESSURE
Pressure: Is force exerted per unit area of surface. P = F/A.
In processing plants the hydrocarbon gases and liquids in
pipes and vessels exert pressure on the surface area.
Zero absolute pressure: Is the perfect vacuum point
Absolute Pressure: Is the pressure above Absolute zero
Gauge Pressure: Is the pressure exerted above atmospheric
pressure.
Vacuum gauge Pressure: Is the gauge pressure exerted
below atmospheric Pressure.
Units of pressure: Expressed as units of force divided by

units of area, such as Psi (pounds per square inch). The most
commonly used on the plant is bar. One bar is equal to 14.5
Psi. Or liquid Column height, such as inches water column (In.
Wc.), water column (mm. Wc.), inches of mercury (In. Hg)
and millimeters mercury (mm. Hg)
Pressure measuring elements: Bourdon Tubes (3 shapes:
C-type, Helical and Spiral), Bellows sensors, Diaphragm
sensors, Resonant-Wire sensors, Strain-Gauge sensors,

Capacitance pressure sensors and Spring-Loaded piston
sensors
Pressure Sensor protection: Diaphragm Seals (used to
isolate the pressure sensor from toxic, corrosive, dirty process
fluid). Siphons (used to isolate a hot-process media from the
pressure sensor). Throttling devices (used to dampen high-
frequency pressure fluctuations by putting restriction in the
inlet to the pressure sensor). Pressure Snubbers/Pulsation
dampener (reducing pressure fluctuations and filtering the
media). Pressure-Limiting Valves (protect the pressure sensor
from overpressure by blocking the process fluid at a preset
limit)
Manometers: Work on the principle of balancing an
unknown pressure against a known pressure produced by a
column of liquid in a vertical or inclined tube. Manometers are
used for measuring very low pressures
Manometer Errors: Meniscus (when the surface of the liquid

is not flat, but curved) and Parallax error can be minimised by
viewing the manometer at right angles and by putting the
scale as close to the manometer as possible.
Pressure Gauge: is a device sense pressure and provides a
visual representation of that pressure.

Pressure Gauge errors: Zero error (always read high or low
by a constant amount). Span error (has an internal
magnification error so the gauge reading will be out by
different amounts at each point). Linearity error (may read
correctly at 0 and 100% but will not follow a linear path
between these points)
Pressure Transmitters: Pressure transmitters are used
when the controller, recorder, or indicator needs to be located
in a remote area. The output is usually 4-20, mA for electronic
transmitters or 3-15 Psig for pneumatic transmitters. Most
transmitters have two adjustments, zero and span.
Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter:

Electronic Transmitters connection methods: Electronic
transmitters are connected in control loop in 3 methods: 2-
Wire, 3-Wire and 4-Wire
Electric Pressure Switches: An electric pressure switch
senses pressure and opens or closes an electrical switch
element at a set pressure to signal another electrical device.
There are many styles of electrical pressure switches.
Types of Electrical Switches:

Pneumatic Pressure Switches/Pressure Pilots: A
pneumatic pressure switch senses pressure and opens or
closes a small valve at a set pressure to supply or vent a
pneumatic signal to another pneumatic device. These switches
are equipped with a two-way or three-way valve instead of an
electrical switch. The two-way valve is either open or closed.
Pneumatic Switching Valve: Is a diaphragm operated pilot
valve for pneumatic or hydraulic control. The unit is equipped
with one, two or three snap-acting 3-way micro valves to
provide on-off output to one or more controlled circuits.
Pressure Regulator: Regulates its output pressure to a
certain value.

FLOW
Flow Measurement: It is one of the most frequently
measured process variables. The physical properties of fluids
are important factors in flow metering accuracy.
Major factors affecting Fluid Flow through Pipes:
velocity of the fluid, pipe size, friction due to contact with the
pipe, viscosity of the fluid, specific gravity of the fluid, fluid
condition and velocity profiles.
Three types of flow profile: Laminar or Streamlined, Transition
and Turbulent
Flow-straightening devices: Are used to improve the flow-
pattern from turbulent to transition or even to laminar. There
are three common elements; tubular element, radial Vane
element and aerodynamic straightening vanes.
Rate of flow: Is defined as the amount of fluid that passes a
given point in a set time.
Total flow: Can be defined as the total amount of fluid that
passes a given point over an extended period of time.
Volumetric flow meters: Flow meters measure volume
directly.
Mass flow meters: Flow meters measure mass directly
Differential Pressure Flow meters: Provide the best
results where the flow conditions are turbulent. The most
common types of differential pressure flow meters are:
Orifice, Venture tube, Elbow and Pitot tube
Orifice Plates: Orifice plates are the most widely used
primary elements. It consists of a flat piece of metal with a
sized hole bored in to it. When fluid flows through the orifice
its velocity increases, resulting in a pressure drop and an

increase in turbulence. The flow of liquid through the orifice
plate creates a differential pressure across it, in such a way
that the faster the flow the larger the pressure drop.
Orifice plate holders: are used to hold and position the

orifice plate concentrically within the flow line. 3 holders are
common; orifice flanges, junior orifice fitting and senior orifice
fitting.
Orifice taps: Are used to provide the differential pressure
created across the orifice. There are 4 common arrangements
of pressure taps; Flange taps, Vena Contracta taps, Corner
taps and Pipe taps.

Differential Pressure Measurement: Uses a differential

pressure transmitter to send a signal to an indicator, recorder
or controller.
Indicator: Device used to present or display the measured
value at a defined scale.
Recorder: Device used to record the measured value at a
defined scale.

Relationship between Differential pressure and flow:
The rate of flow is in direct proportion to the square root of
differential pressure.
Square Root Extractor: Is usually fitted to the output of a

differential pressure transmitter to extract the square root of
the differential pressure signal.
Integral Orifice plates: In this type the plate, flanges, and

differential pressure transmitter are supplied as one unit.
Venturi tube: Consists of conical entrance, throat, and
conical outlet. The differential pressure is measured between
the inlet (upstream of the conical entrance) and the throat.
HP LP

Pitot tube: Consists of two parts that senses two pressures;
the impact pressure (dynamic) and the static pressure
Variable Area Flow meter (Rotameter): Is used for

measuring low flows of clean liquids or gases at high
temperatures and pressure. The area of the annulus is
proportional to the height of the float in the tube. The
measured flow is proportional to the annular area around the
float.

Vortex shedding flow meters: Is suitable for measuring
liquid flows at high velocity. Vortices are produced from
alternate edges of the bluff body at a frequency proportional
to the volumetric flow rate
Turbine Flow meter: Is a velocity flow meter, consists of

machined housing with free rotating rotor and magnetic
pickup. The angular velocity (rotor speed of rotation) is
proportional to the volumetric rate of flow.
Positive Displacement Flow meters: It is a very accurate

volumetric flow meter. Separates the incoming fluid into a
series of known discrete volumes then totals the number of
volumes in a known length of time.

Magnetic flow meter: Is a volumetric device used for

electrically conductive liquids and slurries. The magnetic flow
meter generates a magnetic field perpendicular to the flow
stream and measures the voltage produced across the fluid
passing through the meter. The voltage produced is
proportional to the average velocity of the volumetric flow
rate.
Mass Flow Measurement: Flow quantity is measured with

consideration of the fluid density.
Coriolis Flow Meters: Measure the mass flow directly. It
consists of a force sensor tube and electronic transmitter. The

angular velocity of the vibrating tube, in combination with the
mass velocity of the flowing fluid, causes the tube to twist.
The amount of twist is measured with magnetic position
detectors, producing a signal, which is linearly proportional to
the mass flow rate of every parcel and particle passing
through the sensor tube.
Thermal Mass Flow meters: Consists of two temperature

elements (RTD) installed equidistant of a flow tube upstream
and downstream of the heat input. With no flow, the heat
reaching each temperature element (RTD) is equal. With
increasing flow the flow stream carries heat away from the
upstream element T1 and an increasing amount toward the
downstream element T2. Temperature difference detected
between the two elements is proportional to the amount of
the mass flow rate.

Ultrasonic (Transit time) Flow Meters: Has two

transducers mounted diametrically opposite the pipe, one
upstream of the other. Each transducer sends an ultrasonic
beam at approximately 1 MHz. The difference in transit time
between the two beams is used to determine the average
liquid velocity. The beam that travels in the direction of the
flow travels faster then the opposite one.
Ultrasonic (Doppler Effect) Flow Meters: Utilises

separated dual transducers mounted on opposite sides of the
pipe. Transmitter projects a continuous ultrasonic beam at
about 0.5 MHz through the pipe wall into the flowing stream.

Particles in the stream reflect the ultrasonic radiation, which is
detected by the receiver. The frequency reaching the receiver
is shifted in proportion to the stream velocity. The frequency
difference is a measure of the flow rate.
Flow Switches: devices used to indicate either the presence

or the absence of flow. Any of the primary flow elements can
have associated switches. Thermal flow switches use a heater
and a heat sensor. When flow is present the heat sensor is
cooled by the flow and the switch activates a thermal flow
switch.
Flow Glasses: glass windows in the pipe, which allow the
fluid to be directly observed. A paddle wheel or float is often
used so that movement in the fluid is more readily observed.

LEVEL
Level Measurement: defined as the measurement of the
position of an interface between two media such as gas and
liquid or between two liquids.
Level measurement Units: may be expressed in units of
length or percentage level.
Level Measurement Principle: Level devices operate under

3 main different principles (height of the liquid surface,
pressure head, and weight of the material)
Direct Level measurement Methods: measures the height
above a zero point by any of (Dip-sticks/Dip-Rods, Weighted
gauge tape, Sight glasses, and Floats).
Sight Glasses: The most common types used are tubular
and magnetic

Indirect level measurement Methods: Uses the changing

position of the liquid surface to determine level with reference

to a datum line. It can be used for low & high levels where
the use of direct method instruments is impractical.
Hydrostatic head pressure: Is defined as the weight of
liquid existing above a reference or datum line. Level
measurement involves the principles of hydrostatics including
Diaphragm-box system, Hydrostatic differential-pressure
meters, and air-bubble tube or purge system. A depth/height
of liquid has a particular static pressure or head expressed as
P=gh
The Diaphragm-box System: Operates by giving an
indication of the pressure produced by the static head of the
liquid that is related to the actual level in the tank.
HDP Meters for Open Vessels: Uses a DP transmitter to

provide a signal to a remote indicator or controller. Any
differential pressure detected between the HP and LP side is
converted to a signal that is directly proportional to the level
in the tank.

Zero: Is the bottom scale value of measuring range.

LRV: Is the lower range value
URV: Is the upper range value
Span: The difference between (URV) and (LRV) of the
instrument range
Linearity: Is the degree to which the calibration curve of an
instrument device matches a straight line. The linearity error
is generally the greatest departure from the best straight line
that can be drawn through the measured calibration points.
Zero Suppression and elevation: If the DP cell is mounted
above or below the actual bottom of the vessel or in a closed
vessel, then Zero Elevation and Zero Suppression adjustments
of the transmitter range will become necessary.
HDP Meters for Closed Vessels: The pressure above the
liquid will affect the pressure measured at the bottom. These
instruments are affected by changes in the process density
and should only be used for liquids with fixed specific gravity
or where errors due to varying specific gravity are acceptable.

Bubble Tube (Purge) Systems: The bubble tube system

continuously bubbles air or an inert purge gas through a tube
that extends nearly to the bottom of the vessel at low flow
rate. The back-pressure in the bubble tube will be a function
of the hydrostatic pressure or head of the liquid in the vessel.
Constant airflow must be kept through the purge tube.
Displacement devices: It works on the buoyancy principle.

For each increment of displacer submersion in the liquid, an
equal increment of buoyancy change will result. The height of
the liquid is in linear proportional displacer buoyancy change.

Determining Suspended Weight for a Displacer: Total
weight that must be suspended from the displacer rod to
simulate a certain condition of fluid level. This equation can be
used: Ws = Wd – [(0.0361)(V)(Sg)]
Suspended Weight for a Displacer in interface
applications:
Ws = Wd – [(0.0361)(VL)(Sg) + (0.0361)(VH)(Sg)
Torque tube: In this method a displacer body is connected
to a torque tube which twists a specified amount for each
increment of buoyancy change.
Capacitance probes:
probes: Capacitance probes are used when
instruments that use specific gravity for sensing are not
reliable and the difference in dielectric constant between the

fluids is significant. Capacitance probes are installed on
vertical mounting for continuous level measurement.
Capacitance change is proportional to the dielectric constant
of the measured liquid.
Conductivity Level sensors: Conductivity Level Sensors are

typically used for the detection of high or low Level, and are
only suitable for use in conductive liquids such as water.

Automatic Tank Gauge (ATG) Level System: Used to

measure the liquid level when the fluid stored at atmospheric
pressure or slightly higher. A servo keeps constant tension on
a tape attached to a float. The float follows guide wires so
that the tape is always vertical and the float stays at the
surface of the liquid.
Sonic and Ultrasonic level sensors: Used when it is not
acceptable for the level measuring instrument to come into
contact with the process material; a sonic or ultrasonic device
can by used. These devices measure the distance from a

reference point in the vessel to the level interface, using sonic
or ultrasonic waves.
Level Transmitters: is an instrument that converts the

output of a Level sensor into either an analogue signal or a
digital signal that can be transmitted to a remote location.
Level Troll: Is a level measuring device directly connected to
the vessel or tank at the same elevation as the Level being
measured. Equipped with separate specific gravity adjustment
so a transmitter calibrated for water can be used for another
liquid by simply changing the SG (specific gravity) adjustment
dial, to the SG of the liquid level to be measured.
Interface Level: Is the line of separation formed if two or
more immiscible liquids of different specific gravity are flowed

into a vessel/tank and are allowed sufficient time to settle.
The higher SG (specific gravity) liquid settles at the bottom of
the vessel, over that the lower SG, over that the light and so
on. Differential pressure transmitters and Level-trolls are
equally used for liquid interface measurement.
Level Switches: Used to detect the liquid high and low
levels. The level switch outputs are used for initiating the
alarm and shutdown functions. The outputs are also used for
On/Off controls, such as in the starting and stopping of
pumps.
High Level Alarm: If the level switch is used for a high-level
alarm, then the wiring is terminated on 'Common' and
'Normally close'. If the process level goes above the set point
(switch level) the switch contact breaks, resulting in a 'High
level alarm'.
Low Level Alarm: If the level switch is used for a low-level
alarm, then the wiring is terminated on 'Common' and
'Normally open. If the process level goes below the set point
(switch level) the switch contact breaks, resulting in a 'Low
level alarm'.
Emulsion: Is a status in liquids where two or more liquids are
in a somewhat homogeneous status. In an emulsion status, a
clear interface is not visible. In crude oil and water, emulsion
looks like crude oil but is heavier than crude. So the
transmitters measurement is uncertain for water.

TEMPERATURE
Temperature measurement: Is very important in industry,
which use equipment supply to remove and exchange heat
energy in various processes. It is also important for protection
of the equipment, as uncontrolled high or low temperatures
can cause structural deterioration of pipelines and vessels.
Temperature: is defined as the degree of hotness or
coldness measured on a definite scale. Temperature is the
Measurement of intensity of heat.
Hotness and coldness: Are the result of molecular activity.
As the molecules of a substance move faster, the temperature
of that substance increases. Heat is a form of energy and is
measured in calories or BTU's (British Thermal Units).
Heat Transfer: The flow of heat is transferred in three ways:
convection, conduction, and radiation.
Convection: Heat transferred by moving a portion of gas or
liquid from one place to another.
Conduction: Heat transferred to all parts of the substance
when it is applied to one part of it.
Radiation: Heat energy is transferred in the form of rays
sent out by the heated substance.
Temperature Scales: Temperature is expressed in degree
scale. Centigrade the Fahrenheit scales are commonly used in
Industrial applications.
Centigrade scale: Zero starts at the point of pure water and
divided into 100 graduations at the temperature of boiling
point of pure water. Each division is known as a degree
centigrade, from 0° C to 100° C.

The Fahrenheit scale: Zero starts below ice point It is
divided into 10 equal graduations in between pure water ice
point and boiling point. The ice point is 32° F and the boiling
point is 212° F.
Temperature Scale Conversion: Temperature value on
given scale can be converted to express on other Scale:
°C = (°F-32) x 5/9 and °F = (°C x 9/5) + 32
Filled Thermometers: Is a metallic assembly that consists
of a bulb, capillary and a Bourdon tube assembly. Three types
of metal bulb temperatures are in common use and they are
categorised according the working fluid, Mercury, Liquid, Gas
or Vapour. Filled Thermometers work on the principle of
thermal expansion of Mineral substances.
Bimetallic Thermometers: Work on the principle that
different metal substances have different thermal expansion
coefficients. Bimetallic elements are made from two metal
strips bonded together. Bimetallic element can form a spiral or
helix to increase the amount of motion available for a given
temperature change.
Thermocouple “T/C”: Is a temperature measuring element.
Formed from two dissimilar metals joined together at one or
both ends (hot junction). If it is exposed to the temperature
being measured an e.m.f is produced and measured at the
other end (cold junction). Thermocouples are used in
measuring a wide range of temperatures from 250C
to1400C. T/C is a fast response to temperature changes.
Types of thermocouples: There are about a dozen
commonly used thermocouples, which have been assigned a
letter designation. The most common types are type J, type K,
type T and type E.

Thermocouple Assemblies: Defines if the T/C makes

electrical contact with the sheath (called ground junction) or
electrically insulated from the sheath (called ungrounded
junction) or T/C extends slightly beyond the sheath (called
exposed junction).
T/C Extension cables: Are used to connect T/C to the
measuring circuit. They are manufactured from the same
material as the thermocouple being used in order to provide
greater accuracy.
Thermopile: Is a group of thermocouples connected in
series. Thermopile O/P voltage is the sum voltages of its T/Cs.
T/C reference tables: Used to convert the mV signal from
the thermocouple into a temperature reading. All table values
are referenced to a cold junction temperature of 0° C.
T/C Burnout detection: Electronic modules can be used to
detect thermocouple failure by driving the indication fully
upscale or downscale.

T/C Circuit Flexibility: Thermocouples may be used in
parallel, in series, and in switching and differential circuits.
RTD-Resistance Temperature Detector: Is a temperature

measuring element, a conductor of known characteristics
constructed for insertion into the medium for temperature
measurement. RTD is the most stable and the most accurate
at moderate temperatures.
Pt 100: Is an RTD made from Platinum metal. Pt100 RTD has
100  electrical resistance @ 0° C and increase resistance
0.385  for every °C of temperature rise.
Thermistors: Are resistance temperature elements made
from a semiconductor material and basically do the same job
as an RTD. They generally have a negative Temperature
coefficient (NTC). Highly sensitive to temperature changes
making them useful in temperature trip alarms.
RTD Accuracy: Temperature can be determined precisely if
the resistance of the connecting circuit (Leads) is
compensated. There are 3 methods to connect RTD element

to the measuring circuit; 2-Wire, 3-Wire and 4-Wire. The most
accurate method for connecting the RTD is with four wires.
Pt100 Reference tables: Used to convert RTD 

(Resistance) value into a temperature reading.
Thermowells: Are used to protect temperature detectors
and so that the detector can be changed without interrupting
the process. But introduces time delay into the measurement
system due to thermal lag.
Pyrometer: Is a non-contact temperature measuring system.
Suited for measurement on poor heat conductors (Ceramics
and Plastics etc). Also useful for measuring temperatures of
moving parts / parts that cannot be touched or are out of
reach / live parts / very small items. For accurate temperature
when using a pyrometer, the target should be larger than the
instruments field of view or spot size.

Burnout of temperature elements: This could happen due
to excess temperature or mechanical damage and element
circuit will be open, discontinuing the electrical path.
Burnout Detection: If temperature element is burnt, the
measuring instrument shows a range maximum value or
minimum value. Shutdown logic fail safe option is selected in
Burnout Protection.
Temperature Transmitters: are used when it is necessary
to convert the signal from a temperature sensor to one of the
standard signals for transmission over a long distance or
interface with other instruments.
Electrical Temperature Switch: An electric temperature
switch is a device, which causes a contact to open or close
with a change in temperature.

CONTROLLERS
Process Control Objectives: Closely monitor the condition
of the process, maintain the process in a safe and stable
condition, and compensate for changes in the process
conditions and maintain production to a given specification.
Automatic control system: Is the system able to maintain
a pre-set operating condition over an extended period of time
without any operator involvement.
Control Loop Elements: Primary Element (usually in
physical contact with the process) which senses changes in
the process variable. Transmitter takes the signal from the
primary element and gives a standard proportional output.
Controller (is the 'brains' of the control loop) receives a signal
from the transmitter and then compares this value with the
set point and computes the amount of output signal needed
to remove the difference between the measurement and the
set point. Final Control Element gets the signal from the
controller and alters its output accordingly to manipulate the
medium.

Open Loop Control System: Open loop control has no
information or feedback about the measured value. The
position of the correcting element is fixed. It is unable to
compensate for any disturbances in the process.
Closed Control Loop: In a closed loop control system the

output of the measuring element is fed into the loop controller
where it is compared with the set point. An error signal is
generated when the measured value is not equal to the set
point. Subsequently, the controller adjusts the position of the
control valve until the measured value fed into the controller
is equal to the set point. Closed loop control has information
and feedback about the measured value. The position of the
correcting element is variable. It is able to compensate for any
disturbances in the process.

Control Modes: There are 4 modes of control; On-Off (Gap),

Proportional (P), Integral (I), and Derivative (D)
Control System Categories: Two Steps (On-Off), One-term
(Proportional only), Two-term (Proportional plus Integral, and
Three-term (Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative.
On-Off Control system: The output from the controller is
either 0% or 100% regardless of the size of the error. This
leads to a very cyclic control system, the process oscillates,
causes excessive wear to final control element

Proportional Action: With proportional control action, the
correcting element is adjusted in proportion to the change in
the measured value from the set point.
Proportional Band (PB): A controller's proportional band is
defined as the range of input values that will result in the
controller's output sending the correcting element from one
extreme to another. The proportional band (PB) is normally
quoted as a percentage.
The proportional band is the percentage change in the
controller input divided by the percentage change in the
controller output multiplied by 100%. If a controller has a
proportional band of, say, 20% that means that there will be
a full output change for a change of just 20% of the input
(10% either side of the set point). With a controller, the lower
the proportional band is the more sensitive is the controller.
Gain of the controller: The gain of a controller is output

change divided by input change. This is the inverse of PB
multiplied by 100. When the proportional band of a controller

is very low (and so the gain is very high) the controller is very
sensitive and acts like an ON/OFF controller. With a controller,
the higher the gain the more sensitive the controller is.
Proportional Control (P): With this form of control the
output from the controller is directly proportional to the input
error signal, i.e. the larger the input error the larger the
output response from the controller. The actual sizes of the
output depends on another factor, the controller’s proportional
band or gain (the controller's sensitivity). Proportional control
provides good process stability, but it suffers from OFFSET
when the process is subject to sustained load changes.
Proportional only action is used in applications where process
load changes are small and offset can be tolerated. Usually
used in Liquid Level Control.
Offset: Is the difference between the actual process value

and the desired value. The size of the offset will be dependent
on the size of the proportional band and the load.
Controller action: A direct acting controller's output
increases as the input signal increases, whereas a reverse
acting controller's output decreases as the input signal
increases.
Integral Action: Integral action is used in conjunction with
proportional action to eliminate this problem. So long as an
offset occurs integral action will keep the valve moving until

the offset is reduced to zero. Integral action is more
commonly know as RESET; this comes from its action of
resetting the error between the actual value and the desired
value to zero.
Measured in minutes per repeat or repeats per minute.
However it makes the process less stable and takes longer to
settle down. Also suffers from integral saturation or wind-up
on batch processes. P+I control usually used in Pressure
control and Flow control.
Derivative Action: It is commonly known as RATE control

because it works on the rate of change in the process
variable. Sometimes known as pre-act because of its attempt
to “anticipate “ the control output required. It is used in
conjunction with proportional action to reduce the settling
time of process. Cannot be used on its own. PID controllers
are only required where tight control over the process
variable, such as in temperature systems, is essential.
Derivative Action Time: Is defined as the time interval, in
minutes, in which the output change due to proportional
action is equal to the output change due to derivative action,

so long as the deviation is changing at a constant rate. In
terms of minutes the larger the number the greater the
derivative action present and greater effect, the smaller the
number the less derivative action present.
Set point adjustment: Allows the operator to select the

required operating point for the process when the controller is
in automatic mode.
Auto/manual selector switch: Allows the operator to
select the operation mode of the controller (Manual or
Automatic).
Output Adjustment: Allows the position of the final control
element to be controlled by the operator when the controller
is in manual mode.
Tuning of a Controller: Means to select the setting values
of its control modes of this controller.
Ultimate tuning of a Controller: Means to select the
optimum setting values of its control modes in order to obtain
the best process response.

Control Lags: Described as the time that elapses between a
change in the process variable from the desired value until the
process variable returns to the desired value. The total time
lag of a control loop is the addition of measurement lags,
Process lags, Transfer lags, Distance/velocity lags, Controller
and correcting unit lags.
Measurement Lags: Is the time it takes the measuring
device to give a signal that accurately represents the process
variable.
Process Lags: Is the time it takes so that the process
becomes stable.
Transfer Lags: Is the time it takes so that the process is
transferred.
Distance and Velocity Lags: Distance and velocity lags are
also known as 'dead time'. This is the time required for a
change to travel from one point of the process to another.
Multiple Loop Control: Are considered to exist when two or
more input signals jointly affect the action of the control
system such as cascade control, ratio control and override
control
Cascade Control: In cascade control the output from one
controller called “the master" is the set point for another
controller commonly referred to as “the slave". The master
will have an independent plant measurement. Only the slave
controller has an output to the final control element.
Increases the speed of response of the master control loop.

Ratio Control: Ratio control is where a predetermined ratio

is maintained between two or more variables. Each controller
has its own output to separate final control elements. The set
points of both controllers are set from a master primary
signal. The set points on the controllers can be adjusted by
altering the required ratio between the two process variables.
Ratio control is commonly used on the air/fuel flow for
combustion chambers or gas turbines.

CONTROL VALVE
Control Valve Parts: all control valves have 2 major parts;
Actuator and Valve Body
Functional block Diagram of the control valve:
Globe Valve Single Port: Single port - globe body has one
plug to move into the seat with increasing signal pressure.
Globe Valve Double Port: Double port globe body provides

fewer imbalances of plug forces.

Three-way Valve Body: Three-way valve has three
connections for converging (mixing) or diverting (splitting)
operation.
Angle valves: Designed for construction purposes. It is easily

removed and reinstalled.
Diaphragm Valve:

Full Ball and Vee notch Ball valves: Designed to handle
hard fluids such as heavy crude and polymer slurries.
Eccentric Rotating Plug (desk)
Butterfly Valve:

Two-way valve bodies: Have two flow connections, one
inlet and one outlet,
Three-way valve bodies: Have three flow connections, two
of which may be inlets with one outlet.
Valve trim: Valves control the rate of flow by introducing a
pressure drop across the valve trim. In a globe valve, the
valve trim would typically include valve plug, seat ring, cage,
stem and stem pin.
Bonnet Assembly: An assembly including the part through

which a valve plug-stem moves and a means for sealing
against leakage along the stem.
Packing Box Assembly: The part of the bonnet assembly
used to seal against leakage around the valve plug stem.

Valve Flow Characteristics: Valve flow characteristic is
defined as the relationship that exists between valve flow and
valve position.
Quick Opening: A quick opening characteristic provides for a
maximum change in flow rate at low stem travel while
maintaining a linear relationship through most of the stem
travel.
Linear: A valve with a linear flow characteristic produces flow
directly proportional to the valve lift. Fifty percent of valve lift
produces 50% of valve flow etc.
Equal Percentage: An equal percentage flow characteristic
is one in which equal increments of stem travel produce equal
percentage changes in existing flow.
Globe valve components that control its characteristics: Flow

characteristic would logically be a function of trim design.
Primarily valve plug shapes or patterns determine valve flow
characteristics.
Valve Seats: The seat or seat ring is that part of the valve
trim or body that the plug contacts for closure. The seat ring
may be screwed or welded to the body.

Cages: The cage is a hollow cylindrical trim element that is a
guide to align the movement of a valve plug with a seat ring
in the valve body. The walls of the cage contain openings,
which usually determine the flow characteristic of the control
valve.
Valve shutoff classes: There are six classes of valve

leakage. Class I no test. Class II 0.5% of rated valve
capacity. Class III 0.1% of rated valve capacity. Class IV
0.01 % of rated valve capacity. Class V 0.0005 ml/min of
water per inch of port diameter per Psi differential. Class VI
bubble tight (1 to 45 bubbles per minute for port sizes 1” to
8” diameter).
Valve flow coefficient (Cv): Is defined as the number of
US gallons of water at 60° F that will flow through the valve in
one minute when pressure differential across the valve is 1
Psi.

Valve Actuators: The actuator provides the power to vary
the orifice area of the valve in response to a signal received.
Diaphragm Type actuator: Diaphragm type actuator is the
most frequently used type. These actuators may be direct
acting or reverse acting.
Direct Acting Actuators: Air to lower actuator.

Direct Acting Actuators: Air to raise actuator
Piston Type Actuators: The air piston provides high torque
or force and has a fast stroking speed. It provides a high
power to weight ratio.
Electro-Hydraulic Actuators: Require only electrical power
to the motor and an electrical input signal from the controller.
Solenoid actuators: A Solenoid actuator is an
electromagnetic device, which moves its plunger/valve plug
when electrical power is applied on its coil.
Valve Positioners: It receives the controller output,
compares it with the actual valve position then gives an

output to the actuator to put the valve in the required position
accurately.
Benefits of using Valve Positioners: Accurate positioning
of the valve stem, Ability to change the valve characteristics,
Split the operating range of two or more valves, Increase the
speed of response, and Reverse the action of a valve
Basic principles of the valve positioners: There are two
main principles on which the valve positioners are designed;
Motion balance and Force balance.
(I/P) Converter: Current to Pneumatic converter used to
convert the current signal (usually 4-20mA) to pressure signal
(usually 3-15 psi). There are 2 types of converters,
Electromagnetic type and Solid State type.
Limit Switches: Limit switches are used to operate signal
lights, small solenoid valves, electric relays, or alarms when
the control valve position reaches a predetermined point.
Position Transmitter: The instrument senses the position of
the valve and provides either analogue or digital electronic
output signal.
The volume booster: Is normally used in control valve
actuators having no positioner to increase the stroking speed
Trip Valve: Pressure sensing trip valves are sometimes used
for control applications where a specific actuator action is
required when supply pressure fails or falls below a specific
limit.

INSTRUMENT DRAWINGS
Instrument Codes and symbols: The primary purpose of
using codes and symbols is to enable the various Instrument
functions required in a process to be clearly and concisely
represented on Process Flow Diagrams (PFD) and on Pipeline
and Instrumentation Drawings (P&ID). They also indicate
which process parameter is being measured, the relative
locations of the measurement and control devices and the
permissible limits applicable to certain variable process
conditions.
Instrument tang number: Usually identified by 3 codes
(location number code – Function letter code – Serial number
code)
Location Number code: Indicates the specific process unit
in which the instrument is installed.
Function letter code: Indicates the property or process
variable being measured or controlled.
Serial number code: Identifies the specific instrument and
therefore prevents confusion when there are several
instruments in a single process unit, each having the same
function letter code.
Annunciators: Alarm system designed for altering the
process operator for abnormal operation conditions, thus
enabling corrective action to be taken.
Process Block Diagram: The process block diagram is the
simplest diagram that indicates the main process and utility
systems.
Process Flow Diagrams (PFD): A PFD is a simplified flow
diagram of either a single process unit, a utility unit, a
complete process module or offsite product storage or loading

system. PFD provides a preliminary understanding of the
process system indicating only the main items of equipment,
the main pipelines and the essential instruments
Piping and Instrumentation Drawing (P&ID): P&ID is a
detailed flow diagram of different operating facilities
connected together. P&ID typically provide detailed
information about plant equipment, instruments and control
devices, operating data…etc.
Control Loop Diagram: This Diagram is used to express
control philosophy. Loop diagram must show the components
and accessories of the instrument loop. This diagram is used
for construction purpose, inspection, commissioning and start-
up, maintenance, modification, reconstruction and
documentation.
Cause and Effect Charts: Cause and Effect charts are logic
matrices, which list the detectable problems (causes) against
the automatic control reactions (effects) taken to safeguard
the process and process area. The causes are described by
the problem (event), the location or equipment involved
(process component) and the device detecting the problem
(normally the instrument tag no.). The effects explain the
action taken, the location/equipment affected (process
component) and which shutdown devices are activated (by
tag no.).
Functional Logic Diagram: The Logic Diagram is mainly a
summarisation of the Shutdown philosophy of a specific
equipment or plant in the form of symbols.
Instruments Hook-Up Diagram: Shows how the
instruments and their fittings of a loop are assembled to form
a working unit. List and identify the material required.

ELECTRONICS
Atom Structure: Atoms have a nucleus with electrons
orbiting around it. The nucleus is composed of protons (+)
and neutrons (neutral). Electrons have a negative charge (-).
Conductors: Materials that permit many electrons to move

freely are called conductors
Insulators: Materials that allow few free electrons are called

insulators.
Semiconductors: Semiconductor materials, such as silicon,
that can be used to manufacture devices that have
characteristics of both conductors and insulators.
Coulomb’s Law: Charged bodies attract or repel each other
with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the
charges, and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
Electricity: Is the flow of free electrons in a conductor from
one atom to the next atom in the same general direction.

Current: Is the flow of electrons through a conductor and is
designated by the symbol “I” and measured in Amperes.
Voltage: Is the force that is applied to a conductor that

causes electric current to flow. Voltage values are expressed
in volts.
Voltage sources: Voltage can be generated from batteries,
which use an electrochemical process, and a power plant
generator utilises a magnetic induction process.
Resistance: All material impedes the flow of electrical
current to some extent. The amount of resistance depends
upon composition, length, cross-section and temperature of
the resistive material. Resistance of a conductor increases
with an increase of length or a decrease of cross-section.
Resistance is designated by the symbol “R”. The unit of
measurement for resistance is ohms ().
Ohm’s Law: States that current varies directly with voltage
and inversely with resistance.
Resistance in a series circuit: A series circuit is formed

when any numbers of resistors are connected end-to-end so
that there is only one path for current to flow.
Total Resistance Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4

Voltage in a series circuit: Kirchhoff’s law states that the
sum of the voltage drops across the resistances of a closed
circuit equals the total voltage applied to the circuit.
Resistors in a parallel circuit: When there are three or

more resistors in parallel, the formula is:
When there are only two resistors.
Voltage in a parallel circuit: When resistors are placed in

parallel across a voltage source, the voltage is the same
across each resistor.
Current in a parallel circuit: Total current in a parallel

circuit is equal to the sum of the current in each branch

Electric power: In an electrical circuit, voltage applied to a

conductor will cause electrons to flow. Voltage is the force
and electron flow is the motion. The rate at which work is
done is called power and is represented by the symbol “P”.
Power is measured in watts and is represented by the symbol
“W”. The watt is defined as the rate work is done in a circuit
when 1 amp flows with 1 volt applied. P = I E, P = I2 R, and
P = V2/R
Electromagnetic Field: is magnetic field generated by
current flow in a conductor.
Left-hand rule for conductors: If a current-carrying
conductor is grasped with the left hand with the thumb
pointing in the direction of electron flow, the fingers will point
in the direction of the magnetic lines of flux.
(DC) Direct current: In direct current electricity, electrons

flow continuously in one direction from the source of power

through a conductor to a load and back to the source of
power.
(AC) alternating current: Electrons will flow through a
conductor from the negative terminal to the positive terminal,
first in one direction then another.
Frequency: AC frequency is defined as the number of cycles
per second made by voltage. The accepted term for cycles per
second is hertz
Inductance: Inductance is the property of an electric circuit
that opposes any change in electric current. The letter “L”
designates inductance. The unit of measurement for
inductance is the henry (h).
Current flow and field strength: Current flow produces a
magnetic field in a conductor. As current flow increases, field
strength increases, and as current flow decreases, field
strength decreases.
Inductors: Are coils of wire. They may be wrapped around a
core.
Capacitance: Is a measure of a circuit’s ability to store an
electrical charge. A device manufactured to have a specific
amount of capacitance is called a capacitor. Capacitors have a
capacity to hold a specific quantity of electrons. The
capacitance of a capacitor depends on the area of the plates,
the distance between the plates, and the material of the
dielectric. The unit of measurement is farads “F”.
Inductive and Capacitive Reactance: In an AC circuit
containing only inductance, capacitance, or both, opposition
to current flow is called reactance. Total opposition to current
flow in an AC circuit that contains both reactance and
resistance is called impedance designated by the symbol “Z”.
Reactance and impedance are expressed in ohms.

Capacitive reactance: Capacitance also opposes AC current
flow. Capacitive reactance is designated by the symbol XC.
PN Junction: Formed when a piece of 'P' type material and a

piece of 'N' type material are joined together. When an

external voltage is applied to a PN Junction, if the 'N' region is
made positive to the 'P' region the depletion layer gets
stronger and no current flows. If the 'P' region is made
positive to the 'N' region, the contact potential and depletion
layer are broken down and current will flow.
Rectifiers: The most common use of a diode is to change an

A.C. supply to a D.C. supply, called Rectification.

The Bridge Rectifier: Uses a diode bridge to rectify the AC
and produce a full-wave output. smoothing circuit must added
to produce a stable D.C.
Zener Diode: The ZENER diode makes use of the reverse

breakdown effect of a PN junction. It is specially doped to
break down at a fixed voltage and is used as a reference.
Light Emitting Diodes (LED): These are specially doped PN
junctions. When they receive a small forward D.C. voltage

(around 1.5V), they produce (emit) light. The light at the
junction is focused by a lens to produce a bright spot.
Photo-Diode: This device is the opposite of an LED. Light is

focused onto a PN junction and the light energy is used to
produce a current through the junction. The photo-diode is
reversing biased so that very little current flows.
Opto-Coupler: Used for isolating one circuit from another

one. It consists of an LED and photo-diode together in one
unit.

Transistors: These devices use a D.C. power supply as an

energy source to increase the level of an alternating current
signal to a usable level. There are three common transistors in
use: the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), the Field Effect
Transistor (FET) and the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field
Effect Transistor (MOSFET).
FET Symbols
Depletion MOSFET symbol

Enhanced MOSFET symbol
Operational Amplifier (Op Amp): is a high gain single chip

IC. When it is connected to outside components it can do
simple mathematical functions (e.g. +, -, X, √ etc.). The IC
can be either BJT or CMOS. In instrumentation it is often
CMOS because frequencies are low and low power is a great
advantage. amplifiers usually comprise of a large number of
transistors, resistors and capacitors all on a single chip or
“integrated circuit”. The most ubiquitous is the “741” which
contains 20 transistors, 11 resistors and 1 capacitor in one
small package.

LOGIC GATES: Logic circuits are the electronic way of

performing electrical switching without either relays or
switches.
"NOT" gate (inverter): This is a simple IC OP-AMP. It
produces a "a" output for a "1" 'input or a "1" output for a "0"
input. This is written as:
Logic AND Gate: A conditional logic. The output of this logic

is positive. A relay energises when all the inputs and contacts
are closed.

Logic OR Gate: A conditional logic, where the output is
positive/relay energises when any one of the inputs is positive
or a parallel contact is closed.

HAZARDOUS AREA
Hazardous Area: Is the area in which explosive gas-air
mixtures are present (or may be present) in quantities such as
to require special precautions in the construction and use of
electrical apparatus.
(ZONE 0) H. Area: Where an explosive atmosphere is
continuously present for long periods.
(ZONE 1) H. Area: Where an explosive atmosphere is likely
to occur in normal operation.
(ZONE 2) H. Area: Where an explosive atmosphere is not
likely to occur in normal operation and if it occurs it is only
present for a short period.
Flameproof Enclosures (Type Ex ‘d’): Equipment is
capable of containing an internal explosion without
transmitting that explosion to the surrounding explosive
atmosphere.
Increased Safety Enclosures (Type Ex ‘e’): Equipment
which prevents the generation of arcs, sparks and excessively
hot areas in equipment thus preventing the risk of explosion
inside or outside of the enclosure.
Intrinsic Safety Enclosures (type Ex 'i'): Power is limited
to this equipment in such a way that a spark or a hot surface
would not be hot enough to ignite the explosive atmosphere.
Pressurised Enclosures (type Ex 'p'): Here the concept
used is to house the equipment in an enclosure, which is
pressurised or purged by inert gas, thus preventing an
explosive atmosphere from reaching the equipment.
Oil-immersed Enclosures (type Ex ‘O’): All equipment is
totally immersed in oil, thus preventing an explosive
atmosphere from reaching the equipment.

Powder-filled Enclosures (type Ex 'q'): Equipment is
totally immersed in powder, thus preventing an explosive
atmosphere from reaching the equipment.
Non-sparking and Restricted Breathing (type Ex 'n' or
‘N’): This gives a level of protection by housing electrical
equipment in substantial enclosures that inhibit mechanical
damage and give some degree of ingress protection.
Special Protection (type Ex 'S'): This applies to items of
equipment not entirety covered by any of the foregoing
concepts but one that can clearly be demonstrated to be
explosion-proof.
Moulded/Encapsulated (type Ex 'm'): Apparatus is totally
encapsulated by a non-porous compound. Electrical
connection is by flying leads.
Temperature Class (Equipment): This class is related to
the maximum surface temperature at which equipment
operates anywhere on the equipment, inside or out.
Temperature Class (Hazardous materials): This class of
protection is related to the maximum temperature on the
outside of the enclosure. Is related to the auto ignition
temperature of the hazard material.
Electrical Apparatus Gas group: All electrical apparatus is
grouped according to the ignition energy produced, in terms
of the gas-air mixture that it will not ignite.
Classification of Gases: Gases are grouped together
according to their degree of hazard. This is based on the
amount of energy required to light the gas/air mixture.
Temperature classification: Temperature classified
according to auto ignition temperature flammable atmosphere
and the maximum surface temperature of the equipment.
Temperature classified as T1: 450°C, T2: 300°C, T3: 200°C,

T4: 135°C, T5: 100°C and T6: 85°C. Temperature/Gas
Classification
Apparatus Marking: Labels are intended to indicate the
main information required by the different methods of
protection.
IP System: Is the ingress protection system for enclosures.

This is designed to indicate the standard degrees of protection
from touch and ingress of solids (first numeral) and the
ingress of liquids (second numeral). Two digits are used to
denote the level of ingress protection that a piece of
apparatus enjoys: IP  
Intrinsic Safety (IS): Intrinsic safety is defined as a
protection technique based upon the restriction of electrical

energy within apparatus and inter-connecting wiring, exposed
to a potentially explosive atmosphere, to a level below that
which can cause ignition by either sparking or heating effects.
IS principle is made to apply to the whole circuit, including
interconnecting cables.
IS Energy Grouping: Is related to the maximum energy
available to produce a spark under fault conditions. This
energy must always be considerably less than the minimum
energy required igniting an explosive gas-air mixture, which
may be present.
IS System Configuration: The associated apparatus is

located in the non-hazardous area and limits the voltage and
current offered into the hazardous area. Associated apparatus
does not have a T class.

IS Barrier Devices (Associated Apparatous): Comes in

two fundamental forms: ZENER Diode safety Barrier, and
Galvanic Isolator.
ZENER Barrier: Is used to protect the IS system against
either over-voltage or over-current. Is normally located in the
safe area and situated as close as possible to the boundary
with the hazardous area. A simple Zener barrier has three
principal components: Resistor, Zener diode, and Fuse, all of
which must have infallible properties. Diodes are considered
to be infallible when two or more are connected in parallel.

IS Principle of Operation: In the event of a short-circuit
developing in the apparatus in the hazardous area, or across
the IS wiring, the series resistor in the barrier will limit the
short-circuit to a safe level so that the integrity of the system
is maintained. If a voltage greater than the normal maximum
voltage of the IS system invades the circuit at the input
terminals of the Zener barrier, this will cause the Zener diode
to trigger, and the resulting fault-current will be shunted to
earth, and therefore prevented from reaching the hazardous
area. The duration of the fault-current will be very brief since
the fuse will blow.
Categories of IS: Two categories of intrinsic safety are
available, “ib” and “ia”. Category, “ib" will maintain safety in
the event of one fault occurring. Category, “ia”, is required to
maintain safety should two simultaneous faults occur.
Category 'ib' intrinsic safety may be used in zones 1 and 2,
but not zone zero, and category 'ia’ intrinsic safety is safe for
use in zones 0, 1 and 2.

Galvanic Isolators: Galvanic isolator is another means of
interfacing some types of intrinsically safe circuits. Essentially,
it operates by electrically isolating the hazardous area from
the safe area, the link either being optical by a light emitting
diode which is encapsulated with photo-transistor connected
to the safe area terminals or through magnetic link.
Signal Conditioners: Signal conditioners are somewhat of a

necessary evil to convert the control signals from one-form to-
anther in order to match the subsequent use. They include
current-to-pressure, current-to-voltage, …etc.
Signal Transmission: Is the transmission of a measured
variable from the point of measurement to a remote point.

Telemetering: Is the transmission of the measured signal as
a pulse, a frequency or a tone for longer distance.
Pulse Telemetering: When pulse telemetering is used, the
measurement is transmitted in terms of time rather than the
magnitude of any electrical value.
Frequency (or tone) Telemetering: In a frequency or tone
telemetering system, the measurement is transmitted as a
function of electrical frequency. Frequency telemetering
systems are used for long distances. The transmitted signal in
tone telemetering is a pure audible tone. The duration of the
tone is proportional to the value that is being measured.

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC): Is defined as a
"digital electronic device that uses a programmable memory
to store instructions and to implement specific functions such
as logic, sequence, timing, counting, and arithmetic to control
machines and processes"
Basic Parts of Programmable Controller: All
programmable controllers have the same basic parts and
characteristics. There are four basic parts of the
programmable controller: Power supply, Input/output
interface, Processor, and Programming unit. These parts are
interconnected and work together.
PLC Power Supply: power supply provides all the necessary

voltage levels required for the programmable controllers'
internal operations and may provide power for the
input/output modules. Charges an internal battery in
programmable controllers to prevent loss of memory when
external power is removed.
PLC Input Module: Receives incoming signals from input
devices (such as process switches, pushbuttons, photoelectric,

proximity…etc) which are usually at a high voltage level and
interfaces these signals to the low power digital processor
module. Input module is either analogue or digital.
PLC Output Module: Receives low power digital signals from
the processor and converts them into high power signals.
These high power signals can drive industrial loads than can
light, move, grip, rotate, extend, release, heat, and perform
other functions. The output module is also either analogue or
digital.
Standard wiring connection for Digital Input Module:
Input Module Circuitry: It is responsible for connecting an

external input source to the PC so that it modifies the
operation of the processor. As a rule, input module circuitry
has a prescribed operating voltage and current rating. This
circuit responds to either an ac or dc energy source. The
circuit actuates an LED in its output.

Standard wiring connection for Digital Output Module:
Discrete Output Module Circuitry: The output module of a

PC is responsible for connecting the processor to a load device
being energised by an outside source. The circuit has an

optical coupler connecting the output of the processor to the
module. This is used to isolate the processor from the power
source of the load device.
Analogue Input Module: Receives incoming analogue

signals from input devices (such as process transmitters,
potentiometers, rheostats, etc...) then converts these signals
from analogue to digital by an analogue to digital (A to D)
converter. The converted value, which is proportional to the
analogue signal, is sent to the processor.
Analogue Output module: After the processor has
processed the information according to the program, the
processor outputs the information to a digital to analogue (D
to A) converter. The converted signal can provide an analogue
voltage or current output that can be used or displayed on an
instrument in a variety of processes and applications.
Processor Module: Processor module is the brain of the

programmable controller. This module organises all control
activity by receiving inputs, performing logical decisions

according to the program, and controlling the outputs. The
processor continuously examines the status of the inputs and
outputs and updates them according to the program.
Program Scanning: When a processor checks the memory

of a PC and executes the program stored there, it must follow
a procedure that tells what is stored at each memory location.
Scanning is a continuous and sequential process of checking
the status of inputs, evaluating the logic, and updating the
outputs.

Scan Time: Is the time it takes a programmable controller to

make a sweep of the program. Scan time is usually given as
the time per 1k byte of memory and typically runs in the 1 to
25 millisecond range.
Programming Unit: This unit allows input into the
programmable controller through a keyboard. The processor
must be given exact, step-by-step directions. This includes
communicating to the processor such things as load set, reset,
clear, enter in, move, and start timing.
PLC Language: Allows the user to communicate with the
processor. Line (ladder) diagram and functional blocks are
commonly used in industrial purposes.
Multiplexing: Multiplexing is a method of transmitting more
than one signal over a single transmission system. With
multiplexing, a single-wire pair can serve multiple transmitters
and receivers. Multiplexing is ideal when used with
programmable controllers, as all inputs and outputs can be
connected with just one pair of wires. Many advantages exist
in using a multiplexing system for control.


DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM
Distributed control system: Is a control system in which
the components, which make up the system as a whole, are
distributed around the process areas. The devices operate as
independent units and accept data from or transmit data to,
Operator Interface.
DCS Database: Are all inputs and outputs and any given PV
or output signal may take one of several different forms, all of
which require to be catered for in the control system.
DCS Elements: These elements make-up the DCS.
DCS Architecture:

Data Communications: All units of the DCS require to be

joined together by a data communications path, such that
data can be sent to., or be received, from each of the units
which make up the system or network.
DCS Configuration: DCS is configured by filling in forms,
which appear on the Operator Interface display screen.
Special displays appear when selected from a menu of
configuration displays. A sequence program is written or a
logic system configured from the display. The Controller
Processor card is the heart of the process control loop; the
control blocks and input and output blocks all reside in it. The
input and output blocks, together with the Field Interface
Cards (FICs), make up the control loop structure.

DCS Network: Where a great number of data points are

required, it is the practice to split the plant or process up into
manageable packages.
LCN: Is a local area network through which DCS modules
communicate with each other.
UCN: Universal Control Network is a high-speed, high security
process control network based on open system
interconnection standards.
Area displays: summarises the operating condition and
trends of the process units that make up the area assigned to
the console, or of a large area.
Unit displays: Summarise the operating condition and trends
of the individual discontinuous and continuous units in the
area assigned to a console.
Group displays: Show values and status for up to eight
points in a group, summarise operating trends within the
group, or present status and sequence information for process
modules.
Detail displays: Present the operating parameters and limits
for individual data points and process modules. The operator

can change operating parameters and characteristics through
this display.
Removing Modules from Service: Before attempting any
testing or other manipulation of the questioned module(s),
they should be removed from service through the shutdown
target at the node's on-process status display. This ensures
that there will be no conflicts such as unnecessary alarming,
with the remaining on process modules.
IEPAS01: Power Supply module, which supplies PCU
electronic modules and non-field powered I/O loops, with
power. Input voltage 110/240 VAC 50-60 HZ, Output voltage
+5 V DC, +24 V DC, +/-15 V DC.
IEMMU01: Is the module-mounting unit, which provides 12
slot positions for mounting system modules inside PCU. Its
backplane contains the regulated power rails, slave expander
bus and control-way.
IEFAN01: Is the air fan, which provides a flow of cooling air
up through the MMUs.
IMDSI02: Digital slave input accepts 15 digital-input signals
of 24V DC, 125V DC and 110V AC. It converts the received
high power signals to low power value and interface them to
MFP.
IMDSO04: Digital slave output, which provides 15 digital
output signals of 24V DC. DSO is a digital signal interface
between MFP and field devices.
IMASI02: Analogue slave input module, which provides 15
analogue-input channels of 1-5 V DC. ASI performs analogue
to digital conversion of input signals to be read by MFP over
the slave bus.

IMASO01: Is the Analogue slave output, which provides 14
analogue output channels of 1-5 V DC. ASO performs digital
to analogue conversion of output signals to field devices.
IMMFP02: Multifunction processor is the workhorse of the
INFI 90 system. MFP provides powerful solutions to process
control problems. Execute control loops, which have been
downloaded from an EWS. Has a set of function codes that
allow the configuration engineer to design control strategies
for the process. Each MFP can have a maximum of 64 I/O
slaves in any combination to communicate with the process.
INNPM01 and INNIS01: Network process module together
with Network interface slave provides the interface between a
PCU and INFI-NET loop. It act as translator between the INFI-
NET ring and control-way. NPM communicates with MFPs
within the PCU over the control-way. NIS handles the INFI-
NET communications.
PCU: Process Control Unit can be considered to be a stand-
alone process control system. Each PCU appears as one node
on the INFI-NET. It contains system slot-in modules.
OIS: Operator Interface Station allows the operator
interactive control of the plant. Each OIS appears as a node
on the INFI-NET. OIS always have the most accurate
information about the current process status.
INFI-NET: INFI-NET is a dual redundant data highway
operating at a data rate of 10 Mbaud. INFI-NET uses a ring
topology with data transfer being unidirectional. The ring is
implemented across a mixed coaxial/fibre optic cabling
system.
ICI: INFI-NET Computer Interface, which allows data to
be transferred between an Engineering workstation (EWS)
and nodes on the INFI-NET.

NIU: Network Interface Unit provides communications
between an OIS and the INFI-NET.
EWS: Engineering Work Station is the primary station for
engineering and maintenance access. The configuration,
compilation, and downloading to MFPs of the function blocks
are all performed by an EWS.

WELLHEAD CONTROL
Wellhead Safety System: a safety system automatically
shuts in the well. It controls and monitors the well, shutting in
the well if necessary.
Hydraulic Surface Safety System (HSSS): This is a

complete all hydraulic controlled safety system. Hydraulic
power is derived from pneumatic pumps driven by gas
separated from the oil production flow-line, with the pumps
being the only device that uses gas.
HSSS Basic System Consists of:
1. Hydraulic power unit with a master control module to
control all well control panels on detection of a master
ESD fault.

2. Single slot completion panels with dual completions
(string 1 and string 4) and optional sea-line control.
3. Separate telemetry system to control and monitor the
master control unit and the single slot completion units.
4. A gas knock out pot hooks up between the flow-
line and the hydraulic power unit.
5. A gas saddle tank with dual regulation stations to control
gas to the safety system gas driven pumps.

FIRE AND GAS SYSTEM
The Fire and Gas system: Is designed to give the earliest
possible warning and location of fire in its initial stage, a
flammable gas leakage or accumulation up to the lower
explosive limit (LEL%). And any toxic gas likely to be present
up to the occupational exposure limit (OEL).
Addressable type system: If the controller is intelligent
type, the detectors will be addressable types, which are
individually identified at the F&GCP via a data highway.
Traditional type system: If the controller is traditional type
(composed of discreet electronic modules), the detectors are
of the traditional type, which changes the value of the
electrical current in its loop via normal wiring connections.
1. Detectors (inputs)
2. Detector Interface Module

DIM
3. Fire & Gas Control Panel

F&G CP
4. Output Interface Module

OIM
5. Interface Rely
IR
6. Output Devices
Manual call points (MACs): Are manual alarm call points.

MACs are installed at strategic locations within a process areas

or building. Activation of one or more alarm points initiates a
confirmed fire signal in the fire panel, local and general alarms
in the plant areas.
Smoke detectors: Smoke detectors are used in confined
areas where smoke can be easily detected.
Ionisation smoke detectors: Contains an ionisation
chamber consisting of a small radioactive source mounted
between two metal electrodes to which a voltage is applied.
The alpha particles emitted by the radioactive ionise the air
into positive and negative ions, which separate and travel to
electrodes of opposite sign. The result is the flow of a small
electrical current between the electrodes. When smoke
particles enter the chamber ion reduction in the chamber
current occurs. This reduction in current can be used to
monitor smoke concentration.
Photo electric “optical” smoke Detectors: Incorporates
the light scattering principle within its solid-state sensing
chamber. In its non-activated state, the beam generated by
the pulsating light source is not seen by the light sensor, as it
is positioned out of the direct path of the beam. In its pre-
activated state, smoke will enter the sensing chamber causing
the light source beam to deflect across the light sensor. The
detector latches into an activated state when the smoke
concentration exceeds the calibration point and is verified by
the detector time delay circuit. The detector will then transmit
an electrical signal to the control unit producing an alarm
condition.
Heat Detectors: Heat detectors are generally used in areas
that are unsuitable for smoke detectors.
Thermal Heat Detector: An alarm condition occurs when
the surrounding temperature rise reaches the factory preset
temperature which leads to the silver contact points to close

and sends an alarm signal or when a rapid temperature rise
occurs in excess of 5° F per minute the outer shell and the
Inner strut are heated unequally. The outer shell expands
faster than the Inner strut assembly. This causes the silver
contacts to close and the alarm signal is sent.
Infrared Oil-mist Detectors: This type is used in areas

where oil mists are liable to occur. The Infrared beam is
directed towards a remote panel of retro- reflective sheeting,
the resultant returned signal being continuously monitored via
an on-board microprocessor.
Ultra violet flame detectors: Provided in areas where a fire
is not likely to generate smoke. UV detector is continually
looking at ultra violet radiation at a factory pre-set value.
When it sees a greater amount of radiation than the pre-set
value a relay is energised and the contacts of this relay can be
utilised to perform switching of actions.
Infra-red flame detectors: The hotter the object, the

greater the intensity of the IR emitted. IR detectors responds
to infra-red radiation within a wave length of 4.2 to 4.7

microns. They are unsuitable for any fires where carbon is not
present.
Combined ultra violet / infra-red flame detectors: are

used for monitoring a pool fire. It can respond to sources of
ultraviolet radiation and also IR. Most UV/IR. Detectors have
what is known as an optical integrity (Oi) device which
basically sends a small pulsed amount of radiation for a preset
time and if electronics do not see these pulses then a fault
alarm is generated.
Oi: provides a single means of assuring that the fire detection

system is operational and ready to respond to fire or
explosion, by checking the detector, the detector's optical
surfaces and the associated electrical circuitry in the

controller, to provide early warning of system faults, so
corrective maintenance can be performed.
Flammable Gas Detectors: Detect the flammable gases in
air based upon the principle of catalytic combustion. On
exposure to a flammable gas in air, oxidation occurs on the
catalyst surface causing a rise in the active bead temperature
and thus increasing the resistance of its platinum coil. This
change in resistance unbalances the wheatstone bridge and
results in a change in the output signal 4-20 mA proportional
to the gas/air concentration as well as local readout in LEL %.
Toxic (H2S) gas detectors: Utilise the ability of Hydrogen

Sulphide's to strongly adsorb onto a very selective proprietary
metal oxide semiconductor as the basis for measurement.
When air containing Hydrogen Sulphide gas diffuses into the
semiconductor resistor R (sensor) through the flame arrester
it causes the electrical resistance of 'R' to decrease. This
change in the resistance is monitored by the electronics,
which gives a local readout and 4-20 mA signal proportional to
the H2S gas concentration. When pure air enters the sensor
the semiconductor resistance returns to its clean air value
(0 PPM = 4 mA).

Fusible plug loops: Are installed in potentially hazardous

locations in a process area. Loss of air pressure within a loop
either by plug fusion or manual release initiates an ESD.
Deluge systems: The aim of these systems is to spray water
in such a way to cover a certain area or equipment for fire
suppression or cooling against a heat radiated from another
area or equipment. The deluge valve actuating system is
automatically activated by a confirmed fire signal from the
F&GCP and/or manually activated by a push button from
operation board.

ESD SYSTEM:
ESD system: Ensures that, in the event of a hazardous
situation, a planned automatic shutdown and isolation of
processes and utilities is carried out in a logical and safest
possible sequence so that risk to personnel, environment and
equipment is minimised. ESD should act if sudden loss of feed
to the plant from the source of the product or Process upsets
that result in process parameters approaches critical limits or
there is confirmed detection of fire or gas within the plant or
a serious fault in an item of equipment, which is vital to
continued safe and efficient operation of the plant.
ESD Level - 0 “Offshore system”: Local or unit shutdown.
ESD Level -1 “Offshore system”: Production shutdown
with production units isolated but maintained under operating
pressure. Operation of ESD-1 incorporates the ESD-0
shutdown actions.
ESD Level -2 “Offshore system”: Platform shutdown with
production units isolated and depressurised to flare (after a
time delay). Operation of ESD-2 incorporates the ESD-1
shutdown actions and:
ESD Level -1 “Das”: Total shutdown with automatic
depressurisation of the process plant.
ESD Level -2 “Das”: Total shutdown and isolation of the
process plant without depressurisation. Operation of ESD-1
incorporates the ESD-2 shutdown actions.
ESD Level -3 “Das”: Shutdown of the individual processes
and equipment systems that would be affected by an isolated
or local emergency. Operation of ESD-2 incorporates the ESD-
3 shutdown actions.

VIBRATION
Vibration: Is a periodic movement of mass about the point
of equilibrium. Vibration is measured in terms of
Displacement, Frequency, Velocity and Acceleration.
Displacement - Vibration: Is the distance of the mass from
the start or rest. Displacement is expressed as peak to peak
value or peak value only. Displacement (relative and absolute)
is normally measured in “micro meters”. 1 micrometer =
1/1000 of a millimeter. It can also be measured in “mils”.
Frequency - Vibration: Is the number of cycles the mass
completes during a given time (normally 1-second).
Velocity – Vibration: Is a measure of the speed at which
the mass is moving or vibrating during its oscillation. Velocity
is measured as peak or average value. Velocity is normally
measured in millimeter / second (mm/s). It can also be
measured in inches/sec.
Acceleration: Is normally measured in m/S2, (meters per
second/ second). But it can also be measured in ft/S2 or g’s. 1
g = 9.81 m/S2 or 32.2 ft/S2. Acceleration can be expressed as
a peak value or as RMS value.
Vibration transducers: Devices, that detect vibration of
moving mass and convert the mechanical vibration into an
electric signal.
Absolute vibration transducers: Measure the overall
mechanical condition of the surface of the machinery they are
mounted to.
Velocity Transducers: Measure the velocity of vibration of a
vibrating object. The probe with the probe housing is
permanently fixed onto the vibrating part, normally a bearing
housing or machine casing.

Acceleration Transducers: known as accelerometers,
measures the acceleration of vibration.
Keyphasor: The Keyphasor transducer is a valuable tool
when diagnosing machinery problems. It is like a timing mark
on an automobile. At a minimum the generated pulse can be
used to measure machine speed. If there is no notch or
projection, a Keyphasor signal can be obtained using a strobe,
optical pickup, magnetic pickup, or other means.
Phase Lag Angle: Phase is a timing relationship measured in
degrees, between two events of a vibrating part. For example,
the relationship between the Keyphasor pulse and a vibration
signal. Using the Keyphasor and amplitude measurements,
complex machine information can be obtained.

Axial and Radial Measurements: Axial refers to the' same

direction as shaft centerline (axis). Two common axial
measurements are thrust and differential expansion. Axial
measurements are usually position measurements as shown
below.
Radial is perpendicular to the shaft centre line. Vibration is

usually a radial measurement.

Typical Proximity Probe Systems: The probe is like a
radio station. It transmits high frequency (RF) energy into a
material. This energy absorbed by the material is called eddy.
The proximity probe system converts the amount of energy
absorbed into a voltage. The monitor changes the voltage into
a meter reading. If the probe to material distance changes, so
does the voltage value that is sent back to the monitor.
Shaft
Bearing Assembly

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Definitions and Technical Terms Instruments

VTC 1st Edition 1 of 101

VTC 1st Edition 2 of 101

VTC 1st Edition 3 of 101

VTC 1st Edition 4 of 101

Units of pressure: Expressed as units of force divided by

VTC 1st Edition 5 of 101

Manometer Errors: Meniscus (when the surface of the liquid

VTC 1st Edition 6 of 101

VTC 1st Edition 7 of 101

VTC 1st Edition 8 of 101

VTC 1st Edition 9 of 101

VTC 1st Edition 10 of 101

Orifice plate holders: are used to hold and position the

VTC 1st Edition 11 of 101

Differential Pressure Measurement: Uses a differential

VTC 1st Edition 12 of 101

Square Root Extractor: Is usually fitted to the output of a

Integral Orifice plates: In this type the plate, flanges, and

VTC 1st Edition 13 of 101

Variable Area Flow meter (Rotameter): Is used for

VTC 1st Edition 14 of 101

Turbine Flow meter: Is a velocity flow meter, consists of

Positive Displacement Flow meters: It is a very accurate

VTC 1st Edition 15 of 101

Magnetic flow meter: Is a volumetric device used for

Mass Flow Measurement: Flow quantity is measured with

VTC 1st Edition 16 of 101

Thermal Mass Flow meters: Consists of two temperature

VTC 1st Edition 17 of 101

Ultrasonic (Transit time) Flow Meters: Has two

Ultrasonic (Doppler Effect) Flow Meters: Utilises

VTC 1st Edition 18 of 101

Flow Switches: devices used to indicate either the presence

VTC 1st Edition 19 of 101

Level Measurement Principle: Level devices operate under

VTC 1st Edition 20 of 101

Indirect level measurement Methods: Uses the changing

VTC 1st Edition 21 of 101

HDP Meters for Open Vessels: Uses a DP transmitter to

VTC 1st Edition 22 of 101

Zero: Is the bottom scale value of measuring range.

VTC 1st Edition 23 of 101

Bubble Tube (Purge) Systems: The bubble tube system

Displacement devices: It works on the buoyancy principle.

VTC 1st Edition 24 of 101

VTC 1st Edition 25 of 101

Conductivity Level sensors: Conductivity Level Sensors are

VTC 1st Edition 26 of 101

Automatic Tank Gauge (ATG) Level System: Used to

VTC 1st Edition 27 of 101

Level Transmitters: is an instrument that converts the

VTC 1st Edition 28 of 101

VTC 1st Edition 29 of 101

VTC 1st Edition 30 of 101

VTC 1st Edition 31 of 101

Thermocouple Assemblies: Defines if the T/C makes

VTC 1st Edition 32 of 101

RTD-Resistance Temperature Detector: Is a temperature

VTC 1st Edition 33 of 101

Pt100 Reference tables: Used to convert RTD 

VTC 1st Edition 34 of 101

VTC 1st Edition 35 of 101

VTC 1st Edition 36 of 101