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ANSWER KEY
1.Why we need mathematical model?
To improve understanding of the process
To optimize process design and hence operating conditions.
To design a control strategy for the process
To train operating personnel.
2.Name the input and output variable for continuous and batch process.
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Flashing happens in the control valve if the liquid pressure drops to the value below its
vapor pressure. Cavitation happens in the control valve if the liquid pressure is increasing
to a value over its vapor pressure
10.The flow rate of water through a fully open 3 inch valve is 150 gpm, at a differential
pressure of 6 PSI. Calculate the size coefficient.
ΔP G
q = Cv C v = 150 = 61
G ΔP
PART B – (5 X 16 = 80 marks)
11.(a) Derive the mathematical model for the given process. (16)
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11. (b) (i) Distinguish between Servo and regulatory operation. (6)
Consider the generalized closed – loop system shown in fig
When setpoint of a process undergoes a change while the disturbance affecting the
process remains constant, i.e. , the ability of the control system to track the
output close to the set point is called servo operation. In such situation,
Gc S Gp S
y S ysp S
1 Gm S Gp S Gc S
However, when the setpoint remains constant, i.e. , while the disturbance
forces the process output to move out of the track of the setpoint, the ability of the
control system to reject the effect of disturbance as soon as possible and track the
output close to the set point is called regulatory operation. In such situation,
Gd S
y S d S
1 Gm S Gp S Gc S
11.b.(ii) Explain the self-regulation process with an example. (10)
The ability of an open loop process or other device to settle out at some new operating
value after a set point change has taken place with no control action.
LIQUID LEVEL SYSTEM
Consider the liquid level system shown in Figure which consists of a tank of uniform
cross sectional area (A) to which a drain pipe is attached with a valve which has a flow
resistance ‘R’.
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The mass balance around the tank is,
In flow rate – Out flow rate = Rate of accumulation
d
qi t qo t V t 1
dt
dh t
qi t qo t A
dt
h t dh t
qi t A 2
R dt
Using deviation variables,
Qi qi qis
H h hs
H s R
Qi s 1 ARS
The step response of the self regulating process is shown in Fig below.
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It is clear from the step response of the process that when a step input is applied the
output reaches a constant steady state value. Thus the liquid level process with
discharge through a drain valve has the self regulating characteristics.
12.(a) (i) Design of electronic PID controller (8)
Solution:
The input range is 4V, the output range is 8V.
For the proportional mode, a 1% error causes a voltage change of 0.01x 4=0.04V,and cause
an output change of 4.2% or 0.042x8=0.336V. Thus ,
0.336
Gc 8.4
0.04
For the integral term, a 1% error causes the output to change by 10%/min
which is 10/60 = 0.167 %/% sec-1. Thus,
0.00167 X 8
Gi 0.334 sec1
0.04
For the derivative term, a 1% error should cause the output to change by 0.7% min which
is 0.6x 60 = 36 %/% sec . Thus,
36X 8
Gd 72 sec
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These results provide the following relations:
R2 1
8.4 0.334 RdCd 72
R1 RiCi
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From the fastest period specification, 2 R3Cd 0.16 0.6
Let R1=10 k ohm, Ci= Cd= 100 micro farad R2= 8.4 R1=84 K ohm
1 72 0.6
Ri 300 K Rd 720 K R3 95.5 K
0.334Ci Cd 2Cd
12.a.(ii)
Two position control is a position type of controller action in which the manipulated
variable is quickly changed to either a maximum or minimum value depending upon
whether the controlled variable is greater or less than the set point. The minimum
value of the manipulated variable is usually zero.
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The equations for two-position control are
Where
P(t) : Manipulated variable or controller output
Pon : Maximum value of manipulated variable
Poff : Minimum value of manipulated variable
e : Deviation or actuating error
If the actuating error signal e(t) is noisy, an ON/OFF controller will try to control the
noise. This effect can be reduced by modifying the original design to include a dead
band or hysteresis band or differential gap.
Pon
if e e 0
P t
nochange if e0 e e0
Poff
if e e 0
The input-output relationships of the on-off controllers are illustrated in fig 1.
On-off controllers are expensive and easy to implement. They are used in many level
control loops, and have found wide commercial application as thermostats in domestic
heating systems and refrigerators.
Whenever the signal to the controller is below set point the controller
output is maximum, and as the error signal crosses the set point the controller output
goes to minimum, and this variation is shown in fig.2. This cycle will continue
indefinitely because the controller cannot balance the supply against the load. Rapid
cycling causes frequent upsets to the plant and leads to excessive wear and tear to the
final control element. Thus ON/OFF controller is recommended for large capacity
processes. The output of the system with ON/OFF controller cannot follow the set
point.
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Fig.2. On – off controller characteristics
A differential gap in two position control causes the manipulated variable to maintain
its previous value until the controlled variable has moved slightly beyond the set
point.
12.b.(ii) Explain in detail the electronic controller to realize proportional and integral
control action. (8)
Implementation of this mode requires a circuit that has a response given by,
t
k
p t kc e(t ) c
i e t dt po
0
The op amp circuit implementation of this mode of controller is shown in Fig below.
R
The gain of the controller is , kc = 2
R1
The integration time is , i = RiCi . The adjustment of this controller are the PB through
R k
kc = 2 , and integration gain is , ki = c
R1 RiC i
13.(a) (i) How controllers are tuned based on frequency response methods? (8)
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13.a. (ii) Explain in detail the various evaluation criteria. (8)
ERROR PERFORMANCE INDEXES:
There are several error criteria in which the corresponding performance indexes
are integrals of some function or weighted function of the deviation of the system
output from input. Since the values of the integrals can be obtained as functions of the
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system parameters once a performance index is specified, the optional system can be
designed by adjusting the parameters to yield, the smaller value of the integral.
According to the integral square error (ISE) criterion, the quality of system
performance is evaluated by the following integral: e 2 t dt
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The performance index based on the integral of time multiplied square error (ITSE)
criterion is te 2 t dt . The optimal system is the one that minimizes this integral. This
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criterion has a characteristics that in the unit-step response of the system a large initial
error is weighed lightly, while errors occurring late in the transient response are
penalized heavily. This criterion has a better selectivity than the integral square-error
criterion.
The performance index defined by the integral absolute error (IAE) criterion is
e t dt . This is one of the most easily applied performance indexes. If this criterion
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is used both highly under damped and highly over damped systems cannot be made
optimum. An optimum system based on this criterion is a system that has reasonable
damping and satisfactory transient response characteristics. However this performance
index cannot evaluated by analytical means.
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INTEGRAL OF TIME MULTIPLIED ABSOLUTE SQUARE ERROR CRITERION:
According to this criterion, the optimum system is the one that minimizes the
following performance index t e t dt . A large initial error in a unit step response is
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weighted lightly and errors occurring late in the transient response are penalized
heavily.
A system designed by use of this criterion has a characteristic that the overshoot in the
transient response is small and oscillations are well damped. This criterion posses good
selectivity and is an improvement over the integral absolute error (IAE) criterion. It is
however very difficult to evaluate analytically although it can be easily measured
experimentally.
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Excluding controller, the process and measuring elements are considered in series and
by applying Bode stability criterion, the phase cross over frequency is obtained.
According to the Bode of stability criterion, amplitude ratio is equal to unity at
phase cross over frequency p when the system is on the verge of instability. Thus
The ultimate period Pu is defined as the period of the sustained cyclic that would occur
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if a proportional controller with a gain Kcu where used and Pu=
p
kc =0.6 Kcu i = Pu/2 d =Pu/8
13.b. (ii) What are the draw backs of process reaction curve method? How to
overcome it? (4)
METHODS TO OVERCOME IT
14.(a) (i) Design a feed forward controller for a heat exchanger. (8)
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14.(a) (ii) What is split range control? Explain with a simple example. (8)
Split-Range Control
This split range control configuration has only one controlled output and more than one
manipulated variable. Since there is only one controlled output, there is only one control signal,
which is thus splits into several parts, each affecting one of the available manipulations.
Split-range control of a chemical reactor
Consider the reactor shown in fig..a, where a gas-phase reaction takes place. Two control
valves manipulate the flows of the feed and the reaction product. It is clear that in order to
control the pressure in the reactor, the two valves cannot act independently, but should be
coordinated. Fig .3.20.b indicates the coordination of the two valves’ actions as a function of the
controller’s output signal.
Let the controller’s output signal corresponding to the desire operation of the reactor be 6 psi(8
mA). From fig.3.20.b.it is seen that, valve V2 is partly open while valve V1 is completely open.
When the pressure in the reactor increases, the controller’s output signal also increases. Then it is
split into two parts, affects the two valves simultaneously, and the following action takes place:
As the controller output increases from 6 psi(8 mA) to 9 psi(12 mA) , the valve V2 open
continuously, while valve V1 remains completely open. Both actions lead to a reduction in the
pressure.
For large increase in the reactor’s pressure, the control output may exceed 9 psi (12mA). In
such a case, valve V2 is completely opened while V1 starts closing. Both actions again lead to a
reduction in pressure until the reactor has returned to the desired operation. The table given
below gives the output signal and valve positions.
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Controller’s output signal Valve V1 Valve V2
Any change in either of the inputs will lead to change in the values of both the outputs. This
phenomenon persists even when two control loops are formed as in Fig. This is termed as
control loop interaction. There are two types of effects of an input on an output, viz . direct and
indirect.
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14.b. (ii) Explain control of boiler, using three element method. (8)
Similar to feed flow, changes in steam flow can also cause large deviations in drum level, and
could possibly trip the boiler. Changes in steam flow rate are measurable and this measurement
can be used to improve level control very successfully by using a feedforward control strategy.
For the feedforward control strategy, steam flow rate is measured and used as the set point of
the feedwater flow controller. In this way the feedwater flow rate is adjusted to match the steam
flow. Changes in steam flow rate will almost immediately be counteracted by similar changes in
feedwater flow rate. To ensure that deviations in drum level are also used for control, the output
of the drum level controller is added to the feedforward from steam flow.The combination of
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drum level measurement, steam flow measurement, and feed flow measurement to control
boiler drum level is called three-element control.
15.(a)
15. (b)(i) Explain the operation of pneumatic actuators with and without positioned. (8)
Pneumatic actuator:
Pneumatic actuators may operate directly from the pneumatic output signal from a
pneumatic controller or they may employ a separate source of compressed air. The
types of pneumatic actuators are,
spring actuator
spring actuator with positioner
spring less actuator
piston actuator
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spring actuator:
These actuators consist of a flexible diaphragm placed between two casings.
One of the chambers resulting from this arrangement must be made pressure tight. The
force generated within the actuator is opposed by a range spring. The controller air
signal goes into the pressure tight chamber and an increase or decrease in air pressure
produces a force that is used to overcome the force of the actuator’s range spring and
the forces within the valve body. The action of the valve, fail open or fail close is
determined by the actuator.
The size of the actuator depends on the process pressure against which it
must move the stem and on the air pressure available. These diaphragm actuators are
simple in construction and also dependable and economical. The construction of the
spring actuator is shown in fig 4.9.
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Hysteresis is reduced and linearity is usually improved because the static
operation is governed by the feedback spring and input bellows.
The actuator can handle much higher static friction forces because of the
amplifying pilot.
Variable thrust forces on the motor stem do not disturb the stem position to any
great extend.
Speed of response is generally improved because the pneumatic controller must
supply sufficient air to fill the small input bellows rather than the large actuator
chamber.
15. (b) (ii) Describe the standard control valve characteristics. (8)
Valve characteristics:
The function of a control valve is to vary the flow of fluid through the valve
by means of a change of pressure to the valve top. The relation between the flow
through the valve and the valve stem position (lift) is called the valve characteristics,
which is described by means of a graph as shown in fig.4.3. where three types of valve
characteristics are illustrated.
In general, the flow through a control valve for a specific fluid at a given temperature
can be expressed as :
q = f1 (L, p1, p2 ) -------- 1
where q = volumetric flow rate
L = valve stem position (or) (lift).
p1 = upstream pressure
p2 = down stream pressure.
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The inherent valve characteristics is determined for fixed values of p 1 & p2 for which
case equation 1 becomes,
q = f2 (L)
q L
Let m and x
qmax Lmax
Where q max is the maximum flow when the valve stem is at its maximum lift L max
(valve is full-open)
x – is the fraction of maximum lift
m - is the fraction of maximum flow
q L
Thus, f
qmax Lmax
(or) m = f (x)
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Assuming that the valve is shut tight when the lift is at lowest position, (ie) m = 0 at x =
0. Integrating equation 4.3 & introducing the limits m = 0 at x = 0 & m = 1 at x = 1
gives,
dm dx
1 1
dm dx
0 0
1 1
m x
0 0
which implies 1
hence m x
q L
(or)
qmax Lmax
Thus for a linear valve the flow through the valve is directly proportional to stem
movement.
q x
L
R q qmin R Lmax
qmin
QUICK OPENING VALVE CHARACTERISTICS:
In this type, a relatively small motion of valve stem results in maximum
possible flow rate through the valve. For example, 30 % of stem travel the flow may be
90 % .
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