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LIGHT

Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which ranges from radio waves to gamma rays.
Electromagnetic radiation waves, as their names suggest are fluctuations of electric and
magnetic fields, which can transport energy from one location to another. Visible light is not
inherently different from the other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum with the exception
that the human eye can detect visible waves. Electromagnetic radiation can also be described
in terms of a stream of photons which are massless particles each travelling with wavelike
properties at the speed of light. A photon is the smallest quantity (quantum) of energy which
can be transported and it was the realization that light travelled in discrete quanta that was the
origins of Quantum Theory. The detection of light is a very powerful tool for probing the
universe around us. As light interacts with matter it can be become altered and by studying
light that has originated or interacted with matter, many of the properties of that matter can be
determined.
Wave-Like Properties of Light
Light exhibits certain behaviors that are characteristic of any wave and would be difficult to
explain with a purely particle-view. Light reflects in the same manner that any wave would
reflect. Light refracts in the same manner that any wave would refract. Light diffracts in the
same manner that any wave would diffract. Light undergoes interference in the same manner
that any wave would interfere. And light exhibits the Doppler effect just as any wave would
exhibit the Doppler effect. Light behaves in a way that is consistent with our conceptual and
mathematical understanding of waves. Since light behaves like a wave, one would have good
reason to believe that it might be a wave.

 Reflection of Light Waves

All waves are known to undergo reflection or the bouncing off of an obstacle. Most people
are very accustomed to the fact that light waves also undergo reflection. The reflection of
light waves off of a mirrored surface results in the formation of an image. One characteristic
of wave reflection is that the angle at which the wave approaches a flat reflecting surface is
equal to the angle at which the wave leaves the surface. This characteristic is observed for
water waves and sound waves. It is also observed for light waves. Light, like any wave,
follows the law of reflection when bouncing off surfaces
 Refraction Of Light Waves

All waves are known to undergo refraction when they pass from one medium to another
medium. That is, when a wavefront crosses the boundary between two media, the direction
that the wavefront is moving undergoes a sudden change; the path is "bent." This behavior of
wave refraction can be described by both conceptual and mathematical principles. First, the
direction of "bending" is dependent upon the relative speed of the two media. A wave will
bend one way when it passes from a medium in which it travels slowly into a medium in
which it travels fast; and if moving from a fast medium to a slow medium, the wavefront will
bend in the opposite direction. Second, the amount of bending is dependent upon the actual
speeds of the two media on each side of the boundary. The amount of bending is a
measurable behavior that follows distinct mathematical equations. These equations are based
upon the speeds of the wave in the two media and the angles at which the wave approaches
and departs from the boundary. Light, like any wave, is known to refract as it passes from
one medium into another medium. In fact, a study of the refraction of light reveals that its
refractive behavior follows the same conceptual and mathematical rules that govern the
refractive behavior of other waves such as water waves and sound waves.
 Diffraction Of Light Waves

Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier. Refraction
of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to
another. And diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an
opening or around an obstacle in their path. Water waves have the ability to travel around
corners, around obstacles and through openings. Sound waves do the same. When light
encounters an obstacle in its path, the obstacle blocks the light and tends to cause the
formation of a shadow in the region behind the obstacle. Light does not exhibit a very
noticeable ability to bend around the obstacle and fill in the region behind it with light.
Nonetheless, light does diffract around obstacles. In fact, if you observe a shadow carefully,
you will notice that its edges are extremely fuzzy. Interference effects occur due to the
diffraction of light around different sides of the object, causing the shadow of the object to be
fuzzy. This is often demonstrated in a Physics classroom with a laser light and penny
demonstration. Light diffracting around the right edge of a penny can constructively and
destructively interfere with light diffracting around the left edge of the penny. The result is
that an interference pattern is created; the pattern consists of alternating rings of light and
darkness. Such a pattern is only noticeable if a narrow beam of monochromatic light (i.e.,
single wavelength light) is passed directed at the penny. The photograph at the right shows an
interference pattern created in this manner. Since, light waves are diffracting around the
edges of the penny, the waves are broken up into different wavefronts that converge at a point
on a screen to produce the interference pattern shown in the photograph.
Particle-Like Properties of Light

Until the beginning of the 1900’s all known properties of light (and in fact any type of
electromagnetic radiation) were thought to only wave-like. In the early years of the 20
century experimental observations did hint at the fact that light might also posses particle
properties. I.e. that any radiation transports energy in quanta of energy that we now are used
to call photons. These observations were important in the early days of the developments of
quantum mechanics. Now quantum mechanics is one of the best tested theories describing the
physical world on the microscopic scale. The knowledge of quantum mechanics is crucial for
the understanding of basic physical phenomena on the microscopic (but increasingly also on
the mesoscopic and macroscopic scale).

 Photoelectric Effect
Based on the wave model of light, physicists predicted that increasing light amplitude would
increase the kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons, while increasing the frequency would
increase measured current. Contrary to the predictions, experiments showed that increasing
the light frequency increased the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons, and increasing the light
amplitude increased the current. Based on these findings, Einstein proposed that light
behaved like a stream of particles called photons with an energy of =hνE=hν. The work
function, ΦΦ, is the minimum amount of energy required to induce photoemission of
electrons from a metal surface, and the value of ΦΦdepends on the metal. The energy of the
incident photon must be equal to the sum of the metal's work function and the photoelectron
kinetic energy: =+ΦEphoton=KEelectron+Φ
Light frequency and the threshold frequency 𝑽𝒐

We can think of the incident light as a stream of photons with an energy determined by the
light frequency. When a photon hits the metal surface, the photon's energy is absorbed by an
electron in the metal. The graphic below illustrates the relationship between light frequency
and the kinetic energy of ejected electrons.

The scientists observed that if the incident light had a frequency less than a minimum
frequency ν0ν0, then no electrons were ejected regardless of the light amplitude. This
minimum frequency is also called the threshold frequency, and the value of ν0ν0 depends on
the metal. For frequencies greater than ν0ν0, electrons would be ejected from the metal.
Furthermore, the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons was proportional to the light frequency.
The relationship between photoelectron kinetic energy and light frequency is shown in graph
(a) below.

Because the light amplitude was kept constant as the light frequency increased, the number of
photons being absorbed by the metal remained constant. Thus, the rate at which electrons
were ejected from the metal (or the electric current) remained constant as well. The
relationship between electron current and light frequency is illustrated in graph (b) above.

Wave-Particle Duality
At first, physicists were reluctant to accept the dual nature of light. After all, many of us
humans like to have one right answer. But Einstein paved the way in 1905 by
embracing wave-particle duality. We've already discussed the photoelectric effect, which
led Einstein to describe light as a photon. Later that year, however, he added a twist to the
story in a paper introducing special relativity. In this paper, Einstein treated light as a
continuous field of waves -- an apparent contradiction to his description of light as a stream
of particles. Yet that was part of his genius. He willingly accepted the strange nature of light
and chose whichever attribute best addressed the problem he was trying to solve.Today,
physicists accept the dual nature of light. In this modern view, they define light as a
collection of one or more photons propagating through space as electromagnetic waves. This
definition, which combines light's wave and particle nature, makes it possible to rethink
Thomas Young's double-slit experiment in this way: Light travels away from a source as an
electromagnetic wave. When it encounters the slits, it passes through and divides into two
wave fronts. These wave fronts overlap and approach the screen. At the moment of impact,
however, the entire wave field disappears and a photon appears. Quantum physicists often
describe this by saying the spread-out wave "collapses" into a small point.
Name : RAGUNATH.B
ID : 1132700450
Major : NANO
Title : Properties of Light

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