Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (Alexander and Sadiku) - 4th Edition

Introduction to Computer science 2017/18
Chapter Two
Organization of Computer system
2.1. Introduction to Computer system

System is a group of components, consisting of subsystems or procedures that work in a
coordination fashion to achieve some objective.
A computer system composed of two main components:
 Computer hardwareand
 Computer software
2.2. Computer Hardware
Computer hardware is the physical part of the computer that you can see, you use and the parts
you can touch.
The hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of interacting physical parts based
on the need of the information flow. Information flows in the computer hardware. Based on
information processing, we can divide computer hardware into four:
1) Input Device
2) Storage Device
3) Output Device
4) Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Compiled by Mr. Ayana F. Page 1

Fig computer system
Input Devices
Input devices are used to enter information into computer. They convert the data we give them
into the form that can be manipulated in the computer (electronic format).
Keyboard
is an input device consisting of a set of typewriter-like keys that enable one to enter data into a
computer. The keys on the keyboard are often classified as follows
 Alphanumeric keys - Letters and numbers

 Punctuation keys - comma, period, semicolon, etc.
 Special keys- function keys, control keys, arrow keys, caps lock, etc.
In detail the following are descriptions of the keys of keyboard.
Escape key - Generally used to abort system actions.
Function keys - functions vary from program to program. For example F1 is used to get help
most of the times
Enter key - used to enter commands or to return to blank (new) lines in a document.
Backspace key - used to move the cursor backwards, deleting backward.
Tab key - used to access tab stop.

Caps lock key – used to write small or capital letters.
Shift key - used to produce upper case or lower case letters and sometimes to invoke commands
Control key & Alt key - commonly used in combination with other keys to enter commands e g.
Control home.
Insert key - used to enter characters.
Arrow keys - used to move the cursor around the display screen.
Delete keys - used to delete characters.
Num lock keys - used to activate/deactivate the numeric keypad.
Print screen keys - used to print the contents of the screen.
The arrangement of the keyboard's key may differ. The most common in English- speaking
countries is the QWERTY keyboard. It is called QWERTY keyboard because the first five keys
on the top row of letters spell Q, W, E, R, T, and Y. The arrangement of keys in this case is
based on typewriter (alphabets and punctuation) and calculator (numeric pad). This is to make
data entry easy.
The other type of keyboard layout is the Dvorak Keyboard. In this layout, the most commonly
used letters are placed in the most accessible places. The home keys are the five English vowel
letters A, O, E, U, I (for the left hand) & the five most often used consonants (D, H, T, N, S) are
the home keys for the right hand. The next most frequently used letters are on the keys one row
up, the next easier position to reach.
Mouse
Mouse is a hand-operated device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display
screen. It is a small object that can be rolled along a rough flat surface.
Its name is derived from its shape, which looks a bit a mouse; its connecting wire that one can
imagine to be the mouse’s tail. Mouse was invented by Douglas Engelbart of Stanford Research
center in 1963.
Mouse can have as many as three buttons whose function depends on what program is running
 Left-button: for left click. E.g selecting text

 Right-button: for right click. E.g see property of file
 Middle button: for scrolling purpose. This button is sometimes missing.
Most mouse are connected to the system unit by a cable or cord. There are also mouse that are
not connected to system unit by a cable/cord. They are called cordless mouse (wireless mouse).
They communicate with system unit using infrared light, similar technology used in remote
controls, or radio waves.
Mouse has roller ball at the bottom. The roller ball converts mouse movements into electronic
signals.
Mouse pad -is a pad on which you can move a mouse. It provides more traction than smooth
surfaces such as glass & wood, so they make it easier to move a mouse accurately.
Advantage: -easy to use
Use:
 making menu selection

 editing documents
 moving documents (i.e. dragging data from one location to another location)
 Opening and closing programs
Optical Recognition Systems
Optical recognition system uses light to read characters, codes, and marks, and convert them into
computer understandable format. There are many types of optical recognition systems:
 OCR (Optical Character Recognition)

 OMR (Optical Mark recognition)
 Barcode Reader
I) OCR

OCR are scanners that read typewritten, computer printed, and in some cases hand printed characters
from ordinary documents. They scan the shape of character and compare it with predefined font shapes
found in memory. Based on the comparison, they can convert the characters into computer code.
Use:
Enter documents found on paper into computer without the need to type it using keyboard. This
makes the job easy.
II) OMR
OMR senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil marks. It doesn’t utilize letters of the
alphabet. Instead, with the use of electronic scanners, marks and symbols are converted into
appropriate electronic signals.
It is used to process questionnaires or exams using computer. The read mark is interpreted and matched
against previously entered answer key. Example, the ESLCE is corrected using this device.
III) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
It is intensively used by U.S. banking industry to input information on checking account

transactions. It has been in use since the 1950s, allows checks and deposit slips to be read both
by people and by machines. The machines, called magnetic ink character readers, read and
convert the characters into machine code by detecting the presence of magnetized particles in the
ink on the checks or deposit slips. As many as 1500 checks per minute can be read and stored.
MICR uses a special ink that can be magnetized during processing. It is almost exclusively used by
banking industry for processing checks. When the check is processed, the amount is written in the
lower right corner.

Fig Check that uses magnetic ink
The numbers you see at the bottom of the check uses magnetic ink.
Advantage:
It allows both computer

er and human being to read data
IV) Bar Code Reader
Bar code reader is a peripheral that reads bar codes printed on products. Bar code uses a pattern
or symbols to represent data. It consists of vertical lines and spaces of different width. There are
different kinds of bar codes; the most commonly used is called UPC (Universal Product Code). It
is used to identify product manufacturer,
ufacturer, product number, etc.
Fig bar code and bar code reader respectively
Use:
 used in super market,

ket, grocery, etc to identify products and their price.
Speech Recognition Systems

Speech recognition is the ability of computers to recognize human speech. We use microphone
to enter the speech into computer. The computer then processes the speech and performs the
action ordered by speech.
It allows:
 To issue/enter commands to the computer. For example, instead of going to start button->
programs->Microsoft Word to open Microsoft Word, we simply speak into the microphone
of the computer “Open Microsoft Word”. Then the computer opens the program.
 To enter data using dictation instead of typing from keyboard. This makes data entry very
easier.
This is the latest technology and is still under research.
Light Pen
Light pen is a light sensitive pen like device that is used in conjunction with computer monitor. It
is used by touching the screen with this device to create or modify graphics. A light cell in the tip
of the pen senses light from the screen to determine the pen’s location on the screen.
Fig light pen and monitor

Use:
 to draw directly on the screen by using the screen as paper

 to select options for processing (to select from menu)
Joystick
Joystick uses the movement of vertical stem to direct pointer on the screen.
Often used with computer games
It has buttons you can press to activate events.
Touch Screen
Touch screen allow you to use finger instead of mouse or related input device. It lets you to enter
data or command (e.g. button click) by touching areas of the screen. It enables you perform
activities you perform with mouse using your finger. It is not used to enter large amounts of data.
Used:
 To issue a command to software to perform a particular task like menu selection, button
click, etc
 To choose from a list of options
Advantage:
 They are easy to use

 They are easy to learn even by no technical people
They are used to provide information in hotels, airports, and other public areas.
Output Devices
Output devices are usedto get data out of a computer so that it can be examined, analyzed or
distributed to others. It converts information from machine-understandable form to a human
understandable form.
Two types of output:
Soft copy: displayed on monitor, projector, or similar devices

Hard copy: printed on paper
Examples
 The Visual Display Unit (VDU) or monitor or screen

 Printers (dot matrix, daisy wheel, laser printers)
 Plotters
 Voice (audio) response unit
 Disk drives
Monitor
Monitor is the most frequent type of output device. It consists of a display surface called screen
which displays output to the user. Image is displayed on monitors using pattern of lighted dots.
Each of these lighted dots is called pixel a short form of picture element.
There are three types of monitor:
1) CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
2) LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
3) Plasma display
CRT Monitor
CRT is similar in size and technology to televisions. It uses electron guns that emit electrons.
These electrons are directed towards phosphorous coated screen. The phosphorous coat glows
(emits light) when hit by electron from electron guns, thus creating visible things that we see.
Disadvantage: -large size (bulky)
- consumes much power

Fig CRT monitor and electron gun
Yoke: moves electron beams across and down the screen by generating electromagnetic field
Electron beams: negatively charged electrons moving towards the screen form electron guns
Liquid Crystal Display
Crystal display is most commonly used in digital watches, clocks, calculators, etc. In computer,
they are commonly used for portable computers. E.g. laptop.
Liquid crystal uses liquid crystal for display purpose, not electron guns. The liquid crystal is
deposited between sheets of polarizing material.
Advantage over CRT: -small size which makes it easy to transport
-consumes less power which makes it suitable for laptop.
Gas Plasma
Gas plasma substitutes neon gas for liquid crystal. The neon gas glows and produces pixels that
form picture. It is used for portable computers
Advantage:

Better display quality than LCD but more expensive than LCD
Printer
There are two types of output:
Soft copy: is information that is displayed on monitor, projector, etc.
Hard copy: a data that is printed on paper.
Printer is a device that enables us to produce a hard copy of data/information. They have varying
speeds, capabilities, and printing methods. Based on the way they print, printers are divided into
two:
 Impact printers
 Non-impact printer
Impact printers
Impact printer transfer printable material onto paper by striking paper, ribbon, and character
together. Most of such printers take continuous form of paper. Some of impact printers are:
Dot-matrix Printer
They print by striking wire pins against an inked ribbon. The print head of such printers contains
pins. When this pin is pressed against a ribbon and paper, it prints small dots. The combination
of small dots printed closely forms a character.
Daisy-wheel Printer
It has a plastic or metal wheel on which the shape of each character stands out in relief. A
hammer presses the wheel against a ribbon producing characters on paper.
Disadvantage:
 They can’t print graphics

Non-Impact Printers
They print without having a mechanism that strikes a paper. They print by spraying ink or by
using heat and pressure to fuse black powder onto paper. The various types of non-impact printer
include:

Ink Jet Printers
An ink jet printer sprays tiny drops of ink onto paper. The print head of such printers contains a
nozzle which has many holes. Ink is propelled by heat or pressure through the nozzle holes and
form character or image on the screen.
 Produce high quality print

 Quiet because the paper is not struck
 Heavy weight paper is recommended
Laser Printer
They work similarly to photocopying machine. They convert data from computer into a laser
beam (kind of light), why they are called laser printer. They use mirrors to direct light onto a
drum which in turn produce characters on paper. The drum is light sensitive material that
becomes charged when it is hit by light. The charged areas of the drum attract ink from toner and
the ink is transferred onto paper. A heating material heats the ink and attaches it onto the paper.
It produces high quality print.
Thermal printers
Thermal printers use heat to transfer inks from ink sheets onto printing surface. They produce
high-quality print. Because of this, they are used to produce high quality color artwork and text.
They can use plain paper but produce best result on chemically treated papers.
Plotters
Plotters are used to produce high-quality drawings such as bar charts, maps, architectural
drawings, and three-dimensional drawings.
 Can produce high quality multi-color documents

 Can print on large size papers, which most printers can’t handle.
Storage Devices
Two types of storage devices:
 Primary storage device: data is lost when computer is off.

 Secondary storage device: stores data permanently.
Primary storage device (Main Memory)
Main memory refers to integrated circuit that stores program instructions and data. Memory
stores three things:
 Operation system software instructions

 Application software instruction
 Data that is being processed
There are three types of primary memory:
RAM (Random Access Memory)
ROM (Read Only Memory)
CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
RAM
RAM is temporary storage i.e. the data is lost when the computer is off unlike secondary storage.
Because of this it is called volatile memory. Why is it volatile? It uses electric power to store
data. When you write anything on your computer, first it is stored on RAM. When you save the
file, it is transferred into secondary storage. RAM has differing capacity, the common ones being
128, 256, and 512.
It is directly accessible by CPU. It is called RAM because each memory location can be accessed
randomly using memory address. Each unit in RAM has memory address by which it can be
easily accessed/referenced.
ROM
ROM(Read Only Memory) store information permanently. They have programs built into them
at the factory and that program could not be changed or erased by the user, but read.
It is non-volatile, read-only (not changeable). Read-only means data can't be altered or erased but
read.
ROM contains special instruction that the computer uses when it is turned on. E.g. instruction
that starts the computer, instruction that displays information on screen, etc.

There are three kinds of ROM:
 PROM (Programmable ROM)

 EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM)
PROM: this kind of ROM can be written by user once. But, you can't erase or write to it more
than once; you can only read from.
EPROM:this kinds of ROM can be written to or erased as many times as the user wants. It is
like CD-RW.
EEPROM: similar to EPROM, it can be re-written to or erased. But we use electrical power to
erase the contents here.
CMOS
CMOS contains essential information that is required when the computer is turned on. E.g. RAM
size, type of mouse, etc.
Non-volatile, but modifiable to incorporate changes. It is powered by battery when computer is

off.
Secondary Storage
Secondary storage (also called auxiliary storage), takes many forms. It includes punched cards,
punched paper tape, magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk. Based on information access,
secondary storage devices are divided into two:
 Sequential Access: information is accessed sequentially. To access information on such

media, we start from the beginning and read through to the end. Jumping to some part is not
possible. E.g. tape recorder cassette
 Random Access: information can be accessed in any order. You can access the first or the
last part of information by jumping others. E.g. floppy disk
Sequential Access Medias
1) Punched Cards

Punched cards are one of the oldest and most familiar data storage devices. There are two types
of punched cards, 80 columns and 96 columns, and the first one is a standard punched card. Data is
stored on punched cards by cutting parts of the paper out and leaving other parts intact. The cut part
(hole) may represent binary 1 and the intact part represents binary 0.
Fig punched card
2) Punched Paper Tape
It is similar to punched card, except it is a continuous strip of paper
Punched paper tape is a continuous strip of paper used to store data in much the same manner as
punched cards. This storage media is less expensive and more compact than punched cards.
3) Magnetic Tapes
During 1950s and 1960s, magnetic tape was the primary method of storing large amount of data.
Today they are used primarily for back up purposes.
It consists of thin ribbon plastic called tape. One side of the tape is coated with iron-oxide, a
material that can be magnetized. By magnetizing and demagnetizing the tape, computer stores
data on it.

Fig magnetic tape
Disadvantage:
 Sequential access
Back up is a data that is stored in a different place than the original computer where data is used.
This is to avoid the danger of data loss due to disasters. If the original data is lost, the copy will
be used.
Read-Write head: writes data on the tape or reads data from tape.
Random Access Storage Media
Data can be accessed in any order.
Magnetic Disks
Magnetic disk is the most widely used storage medium on all computers. It consists of a round piece
of plastic or metal the surface of which is covered with magnetic material. Magnetic disks offer:
 High storage capacity

 Reliability
 Fast date access during reading or writing to disk.
Magnetic disks are metals or plastic platters coated with ferrous oxide, an easily magnetizable
material. They allow for random access of information and overcome the slow access time
commonly found in tape files.
Examples: floppy disk, hard disk
Floppy Disks
They are also called diskette. It is made up of thin Mylar plastic which is coated with metal
oxide. Data is stored as electromagnetic charges on the plastic coat. It stores data by means of
magnetizing and demagnetizing the metal oxide.

Floppy is an easily removable storage used to transport data from one computer to another. It
is used to store programs and data for a longer period outside the computer system. Often used
with mini and microcomputers. Data is stored in concentric circles called tracks.
Fig sector and track

Each track is further divided into sectors. A sector stores the amount of information that can be
read or written in single operation.
The most widely used type of floppy disks is the 5.25 inch and the 3.5 inch wide floppy disks. Each has
two differentstorage capacity.
31/2 inch: -can store 1.44MB of data on double side high density
-can store 720kb of data on single side low density
51/4 inch: -can store 1.2MB of data on double side high density
-can store 360kb of data on single side low density
Density refers to the number of bits that can be recorded on one-inch of track.
High density: increased storage capacity
Low density: low storage capacity
Rules for handling Floppy Disks
Floppy disks are magnetic devices which stores data on them. Improper handling of floppy disks
may result in losing the data stored on the disk. It is therefore necessary to know the following rules
to protect your disks and/or your data on it from damage.
 Never place the disk near magnetic devices, keep the disk away from your telephone since
telephone boxes contain magnetic units.
 Always place disks back into their envelope when you are not using them.
 Never touch your floppy disk media.
 Never smoke near floppy disks.
 Store your floppies in a safe location.
Keep at room temperature in the range of 10 to 50oc
Always make a backup copy of your floppy disk.

Disk drive: is part of a computer system which reads from and writes data on a disk.
Hard Disk
A high capacity magnetic disk made up of metal which can be fixed in the system unit of the
computer. It serves as a secondary storage and it enables very fast accessibility of data. Accessing
data from hard disk is faster than from floppy disks.
The disks, which are usually grouped together into a disk packare separated by small air spaces to
allow access for read-write head. Each disk is subdivided into tracks and sectors on which
information is stored. The disk pack is mounted on a magnetic disk drive which rotates the disk at
speed up to 1,000 revolutions per second.
Fig hard disk
Platters are grouped together to form hard disk. The amount of time it takes to retrieve (or store)
data from (or to) disk is called the disk access time. It rotates at high speed and this is measured
in terms of revolutions per second.
Data is stored on hard disks by magnetizing and demagnetizing the surface each cylinder. They
store data on both sides of the cylinder i.e two sided. It is read-write head that reads or writes
data from hard disk.
Optical Disk
Optical disks use laser light to read or write data from optical disk. Laser: light amplified
stimulated emission of rays.
Optical disks use high powered laser light to burn microscopic holes on the surface of the disk to

store data. Burned out part is called pit, and the non-burnt part is called land. Land may represent
binary 0 and pit binary 1.
Fig CD pit and land

Optical disks use low powered laser to read data.
There are two most common types of optical disks:
 CD (Compact Disc)
 DVD (Digital Versatile Disc)
CD (Compact Disc)
CD can store 700BM of information. Data is stored only on one side of the disc.There are three
basic types of CDs:
1) CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory)
2) CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable)
3) CD-RW (Compact Disc Read-Write)
CD-ROM
This kind of is read only i.e. you can’t write data to such CDs or you can’t erase from them.
Data is only accessed/read from these CDs.
CD-R
It is also called WORM (Write Once and Read Many). These CDs can be written on once. But
then after, you can’t rewrite on it or erase data from it. After you first wrote data on such discs,
then only thing you can do to read data from them.
CD-RW
They are also called erasable optical discs. You can write data as many times as you want on
such CDs. You can also erase the content of such CDs.
DVD
DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. But some people mistakenly call it Digital Video Disc.

It is a new technology that is introduced recently. It is similar to CD except that it can store large
amounts of data and it has narrow tracks than CD.
It can store 4.7-17GB of information.
Central Processing Unit
It is also called microprocessors or processors. A microprocessor is a semiconductor device

consisting mostly one software controlled LSIchip which performs the functions of automatic data
processing. Processors are not optimized to perform complex numerical calculations and other
special tasks (graphics manipulations). For this purpose specialized coprocessorswhich are also
called math-coprocessorshave been developed to increase the processing capability of a computer
and speed up complex mathematical floating-point calculations. The coprocessors operate in parallel
with CPUs.
CPU executes instructions and performs the computer's processing activities. It is also known as
processor or microprocessor. It functions the same purpose as the human brain for human being.
It is called the brain of the computer.
CPU has three sub-components:
 Control Unit (CU)

 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Memory
The three sub components are connected by a cable like device called bus. It facilitates
communication between the parts. It is used to transfer data between these sub components.
Control Unit
As human brain control the body, control unit controls the computer. Control Unit does not
execute instruction by itself, i.e. does not carry out instruction, but it directs other processing
elements to execute instruction.
It retrieves instruction from memory and this process is called fetch instruction. After fetching
instruction, it translates that instruction into computer understandable format and sends signals to

other computer hardware units to carry out the instruction. This process (the process of
translating instruction) is called decoding.
Arithmetic Logic Unit
The purpose of ALU is to execute instruction. It performs two operations:
 Arithmetic operation
 Logic Operation
Arithmetic operation: this includes mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division, etc. If you give your computer the instruction 2+3, this will be included
in arithmetic operation and it is executed by Arithmetic Unit.
Logical Operation: this is concerned with the comparison of data and it is called logical
operation. It includes operators like less than, greater than, equal to, less or equal to, greater or
equal to, different from, etc. e.g. if mark>80, grade is 'A'.
Arithmetic Logic Unit has two parts:
Arithmetic Unit: perform arithmetic operations
Logic Unit: performs logical operations
Registers
When instruction is loaded from main memory, it is placed first in registers to wait instruction
from control unit. Registers are temporary storage location for data prior to execution in ALU.
There are different types of registers. E.g. data register, program counter, address register, etc.
How CPU Works
CPU operates by performing the following four operations, i.e. instruction execution has four
steps:

1) Fetch instruction
2) Decode instruction
3) Execute instruction
4) Store result
Fetch Instruction: fetching instruction is getting instruction from memory. Instructions are stored
in memory and wait execution. The Control Unit gets the instructions from memory and brings it
for execution. It keeps track of which instruction is to be executed next.
Decode Instruction: translating instruction into commandsthat the computer can process.
Decoding understands what the instruction is about and what it tells the computer to do.
Execute Instruction: the actual processing of the commands i.e carrying out what the instruction
order the computer to do.
Store Result: writing the result of executed instruction into memory.
Example: suppose we give the following two instructions to the computer
2+3
3*4
When we write these instructions, first they are stored in memory (RAM) and wait for execution.
The first step in carrying out instruction is getting the instruction from memory. The control unit
gets the first instruction 2+3 and sets pointer to next program to be executed i.e. 3*4. This is the
fetching process.
Then the CU translates the instruction and it finds out that the instruction tells the computer to
add 2 and 3 together. This is translating or decoding instruction.
After decoding CU sends control message to ALU based on the interpretation done in step 2. The
ALU adds the numbers and gets the result which is 5. This process is called execution.
The last step is storing the result of execution, 5 in this case, in memory back. This process is
called storing the result.
CPU speed is measured in Hertz. Hertz is the number of cycles per second.
1Hz=1cycle per second
20Hz=20 cycle per second
Larger units are KHz (Kilo Hertz), MHz (Mega Hertz), GHz(Giga Hertz), etc.
1KHz=1000Hz
1MHz=1000 KHz
1GHz=1000MHZ
Current CPUs are as fast as 2-3GHz (2-3 billion cycles per second)
Based on the number of instruction set they can execute, we have two types of CPU:
 RISC(Reduced Instruction Set Computer)

 CISC(Complex Instruction Set Computer)
CISC: uses large number of basic instruction i.e. larger number of instruction set could be
executed in such CPUS. This is the most commonly used type of CPU. E.g. Intel Pentium
RISC:
 Use fewer instruction sets.

 The design is simpler and less costly.
 Faster than CISC
2.3. Computer Software
Computer hardware is directed by a set of instructions. Without these instructions, computer can
do nothing. These set of instructions are called software (also called programs).
We use programming languages to write these instructions. Examples of programming language

includes C, C++, Visual Basic, Java, etc. Examples of instruction are:

Cout<<"This line sends information to screen.";
Cin>>x;
The first instruction prints This line sends information to screen on the monitor.The second line
accepts input from user.
Softwares are categorized into two:
 System Software
 Application Software
System Software
System software consists of programs that are related to controlling the actual operations of the
computer equipment/resource. There are three types of system software:
 Operating System
 Utility Software
 Language translators
Operating system manage resources, provides a user interface, and run application softwares. It
organizes resources such as keyboard, mouse, printer, monitor, etc. It also presents GUI
(Graphical User Interface) to the user for easy use of computer. It makes complex hardware more
user friendly i.e. it acts between the user and hardware.
A) Operating system
Operating system coordinates the activity between the user and the computer. An operating
system has four major functions.
I) Process management
In operating system terms, a process is a program or part of a program that can be executed
separately. The operating system does the task of managing these processes that are being
executed and waiting to be executed. There are different ways of managing processes:
 Single tasking

 Multitasking
 multiprocessing
II) Input/output Management
The I/O manager coordinates the computers communication with outside world, flow of data to
the display screen and other output devices (printers/ plotters) and from the key board or other
input devices. Handles the flow of data to and from the disk drives (file management).
Handles the process of preparing a disk for use, the copying, renaming, erasing task of a file.
III) Memory Management
During processing, some area of memory are used to store the operating system instructions,
application program instructions, and data to be processed. It is the task of operating system to
allocate or assign each of these items to a memory area.
IV System Administration
Operating system as a system administrator manages the performance of the system (e.g
response time), system security (username and password), and storage device management
(deleting files, renaming files, formatting disks, creating directories, etc).
Types of Operating System
1) Based on the number of programs they can handle at a time

Based on the number of programs they can run a time, operating systems are divided into
two:
Single tasking os: on such system, only one program can be run on the computer at a time. To
run another program, you have to close the first program and load another program. For
example, if you are working on Microsoft Word and in addition if you want to open
Microsoft Excel, first you have to close Word first because you can’t open two programs at
the same time. Then you can open Excel. Single tasking os can’t handle more than one
program at a time.
Examples of such operating systems are MS-DOS, and PC-DOS which were used in 1980s.

Multi-tasking os: on such systems you can run as many programs as you like. You can work
on Word and Excel at the same time. Such systems can handle more than one program at a
time. Examples Windows 2000, Windows XP, Macintosh, etc.
2) Based on the number of users they can serve at a time

Based on the number of users they can serve at a time, we divide os into two:
Single User: they can serve only one user at a time. They can’t serve more than one user at a
time. E.g. Windows 95, Windows 98/2000/xp, etc.
Multi User: lets more than one computer to access the computer at one time. E.g. Unix This is
done via network that connects terminals to the multi user computer.
B) Utility Programs
Utilities are programs that make computing easier. They perform specific tasks related to
managing computer resources or files. There are different utility programs:
i) Troubleshooting programs: enable us to recognize and correct computer problems

before they become serious.
ii) Anti-virus programs: they protect your computer against viruses or other malicious
programs that damage computer. E.g MacAfee, Sophos, Norton, etc.
iii) File compression programs: are used to reduce the size of files or data so that it takes
less storage space or network band. E.g WinZip, WinRAR, etc.
iv) Uninstall programs: these softwares enable us to safely and completely remove
unneeded programs/softwares from your computer.
v) Back up softwares: with the help of this software, we can make copies of files to be
used in case of the original data is lost/damaged. This copy is called back up.
vi) Screen savers: helps to prevent your work from being seen by others if you leave your
computer idle for some time.
C) Language translators

Language translators are used to convert the programming instruction written by users into
binary code that the computer can understand. They are written for specific programming
languages and computer system.
Application Software
Application software performs useful work for the user. These useful work could be:
 Word processing-document creation

 Spreadsheet-electronic calculation
 Email/communicating-email sending and reading
Users use these softwares to perform different activities like calculation, video editing, word
processing, presentation, etc.
Some of the uses of application software:
i) Word Processing
This is the most widely used computer application. Word processing is the use of computer
to produce documents that consist primarily of text. Such documents can also contain
pictures, drawing, photograph, etc.
Used for:
 Writing letter
 Writing memos
 Producing reports
Some of the softwares used for word processing include:
 Microsoft word
 Corel WordPerfect
 Lotus WordPro
 WordStar
ii) Spreadsheet Software

Spreadsheet software is used to organize, manipulate, and graph numeric information. It
enables us to do financial analysis, and other complicated mathematical calculation
electronically. E.g interest rate, payroll, etc.
Some of the softwares used for this purpose include:
 Lotus 1-2-3
 Microsoft Excel
 Quatropro
iii) Database Management system (DBMS)
Database is a collection of related data that is stored in computer. DBMS organizes the
collection of data so that information can be retrieved easily. Database softwares allow you
to create a database and to retrieve, manipulate, and update the data.
Softwares that are used for DBMS:
 Microsoft Access
 Oracle
 SQL
 FoxPro
 Dbase IV
iv) Presentation Graphics
Presentation graphics helps you to create professional and exciting presentations that could
be used in meeting, group discussion, etc. Such soft waresenable you to incorporate charts,
graphics, sound, etc in your presentation.
Soft wares used for this purpose include:
 Microsoft PowerPoint
 Lotus Freelance Graphics
 Corel Presentations
v) Accounting software
Accounting software enables companies to record and report their financial transactions.
Tasks done by these software include:

 Invoicing
 Accounts Receivable
 Accounts Payable
 Payroll
 Inventory
 General Ledger
 Purchase orders, etc
Softwares used for this purpose:
 Peachtree accounting
 Intuit QuickBooks
vi) Computer Aided Design
It is used to create design for products, new buildings, etc. They are used by engineers.
Example of softwares used for this purpose include:
AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, Parametric
Vii) Communication
They are used to transfer data from one computer to another. They enable computers to send
and receive data of any kind such as text, graphics, fax documents, etc.
Some of the softwares used for this purpose are:
 Netscape Navigator-to work on internet

 Internet Explorer-to work on internet
 Procom Plus
 Crosstalk
2.4. Generation of Computers
Although computer professionals do not agree on exact dates or specifics, computer

developments are often categorized by generations. Actually there are four generations and
major characteristics that distinguish these generations are the following;

 Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.
 Major secondary storage media used.
 Computer language used.
 Types or characteristic of operating system used.
 Memory access time (a time to store or retrieve a word or data from memory).
Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in the hardware,
typically tenfold or better increases in speed and reliability.
Over generations, computers have shown:
 Increasing speed
 Reduced size
 Increasing reliability
 Reducing cost
First generation (1950s)
This generation computers used vacuum tubes as components for the electronic circuit. Punched
cards were the main source of inputs, and magnetic grams were used for internal storage. They
operate in a speed of milliseconds (thousands of a second) and could handle more than 10,000
additions each second. Most applications were scientific calculations.
Second generations (early 1960s)
Transistors were the main circuit components. Invented by Bell Labs, the transistor was smaller,
faster and more reliable than the vacuum tube. Magnetic cores, used for main storage, could be
concerned in microseconds (millionths of a second) with more than 200,000 additions possible
each second. Business applications become more commonplace, with large data files stored on
magnetic tape and disk.
The most widely used second generations were:
IBM 1620 –small scientific computers
IBM 1401 –small to medium commercial computers

IBM 7094 –large scientific computer
High-level languages COBOL and FORTRAN were introduced during this period. Batch
operating systems are used that permitted rapid processing of magnetic tape files.
Third generation (late 1960s, early 1970s)
It was characterized by solid-state logic and integrated circuit (IC). Computer storage switched
from magnetic cores to integrated circuit boards that provide modularity (expandable storage)
and compatibility (interchangeable equipment). Software become more important with
sophisticated operating systems, improved programming languages, and new input/output
methods such as optical scanning and plotters.
Example:
IBM system /360 was the dominant
IBM 1130
Fourth generation (late 1970s,early 1989s,)
It has greatly expanded storage capabilities and improved circuitry. It has large-scale integrated
circuits (LSI) which has several hundred thousand transistors placed on one tiny silicon chip.
Computer memory operates at speeds of Nano-seconds (billionths of a second) with large
computers capable of adding 15 million numbers per second.
The fifth generation computer
It is in progress. An architecture, which makes use of the changes in technology and allows a
simple and natural methodology for solving problems, is being sought.
These computers will have:
 Intelligent processors, i.e., processors that can draw inferences.

 Users will also be able to interact with them in natural languages such as English, German
etc.
Japans are working intensively on the project for developing the 5th generation.

In general we summarize generation of computer as follows

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Introduction to Computer science 2017/18

Organization of Computer system

2.1. Introduction to Computer system

A computer system composed of two main components:

4) Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Compiled by Mr. Ayana F. Page 1

Fig computer system

 Alphanumeric keys - Letters and numbers

Escape key - Generally used to abort system actions.

most of the times

Backspace key - used to move the cursor backwards, deleting backward.

Tab key - used to access tab stop.

Compiled by Mr. Ayana F. Page 2

Insert key - used to enter characters.

Delete keys - used to delete characters.

Num lock keys - used to activate/deactivate the numeric keypad.

Print screen keys - used to print the contents of the screen.

 Left-button: for left click. E.g selecting text

Advantage: -easy to use

 making menu selection

 OCR (Optical Character Recognition)

Compiled by Mr. Ayana F. Page 4

makes the job easy.

III) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

It is intensively used by U.S. banking industry to input information on checking account

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Fig Check that uses magnetic ink

It allows both computer

IV) Bar Code Reader

Fig bar code and bar code reader respectively

 used in super market,

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Fig light pen and monitor

Compiled by Mr. Ayana F. Page 7

 to draw directly on the screen by using the screen as paper

Often used with computer games

It has buttons you can press to activate events.

 They are easy to use

Two types of output:

Soft copy: displayed on monitor, projector, or similar devices

 The Visual Display Unit (VDU) or monitor or screen

There are three types of monitor:

1) CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

2) LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

Disadvantage: -large size (bulky)

- consumes much power

Compiled by Mr. Ayana F. Page 9

Fig CRT monitor and electron gun

Liquid Crystal Display

Advantage over CRT: -small size which makes it easy to transport

-consumes less power which makes it suitable for laptop.

Compiled by Mr. Ayana F. Page 10

Hard copy: a data that is printed on paper.

 They can’t print graphics

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 Produce high quality print

 Can produce high quality multi-color documents

Two types of storage devices:

 Primary storage device: data is lost when computer is off.

 Operation system software instructions

RAM (Random Access Memory)

ROM (Read Only Memory)

CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)