HVAC !

overview SLIDES

© V. Ismet Ugursal
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dalhousie University
2012

Also used at:
Summer School of Thermodynamics - Anzio 2012
Module 514: Green- and Zero-Emission Buildings: Energy and Exergy analysis

1
 World Energy Consumption - Sectoral % (2007)
Data source: U.S. Energy Information Administration / International Energy
Outlook 2010 (http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/)
14%

27%

7%

Residential
Commercial/Institutional
Industrial/Agricultural
Transportation

52%

2
 Energy use in buildings
  Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning
(HVAC)
  Space heating
  Space cooling
  Ventilation
  DHW heating
  Lights and appliances

3
Primary function of HVAC
To maintain environmental conditions in a
space that are:
  Conducive to human comfort
and/or
  Required by a product or process

This implies control of physical and

chemical qualities of air.

4
Environmental conditions are
described by:
  Temperature
  Humidity

  Noise

  Air movement

  Air cleanliness

5
FACTORS THAT AFFECT
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
Occupancy Characteristics
  Activity level (rest, play, office work, labor)
  Duration (stay or passing through)
  Occupancy distribution (uniform or scattered)
  Occupancy pattern (continuous or periodic)
Generation of contaminants in space
  Smells (restaurant – non toxic)
  Combustion gases (garage - toxic)
  Cigarette smoke (toxic)
Special product or process
  Temp & RH in museums and art galleries
  Ventilation requirements in industrial settings
6
Environment in a space is affected by
  Local atmospheric conditions
  Temp, RH, wind, precipitation, solar radiation
  Physical characteristics of the building
  Wall, roof, window, door (i.e. envelope
component) areas and materials of construction
  Orientation
  Infiltration
  Type of glazing
  Heat generation from within
  People, lights, processes, motors, etc.
  Ventilation requirements
7
HVAC system/equipment are installed to maintain
acceptable environmental conditions by:
  Heating
  Cooling
  Humidification
  De-humidification
  Ventilation

  Systems and equipment are sized for the

worst conditions, i.e. DESIGN CONDITIONS.
All other times they operate at part load.
=> Controls are required to modulate the
system/equipment
8
 COMFORT AND HEALTH

  INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY (IEQ)

  INDOOR AIR QUALITY (IAQ)
  SICK BUILDING SYNDROME

9
 LIFE CYCLE COSTS OF A
COMMERICAL BUILDING
OVER A 30 YEAR PERIOD

SHARE OF TOTAL
Design and construction 2%

Operation, energy & maintenance 6%

Personnel 92%

See:
Whole Building Design Guide (WBDG); Life-cycle cost analysis:
http://www.wbdg.org/resources/lcca.php

10
 THERMAL COMFORT
That state of mind which expresses
satisfaction with the environment
Difficult to address this definition
=> majority of the COMFORT CHARTS are
based on the definition of comfort as
A sensation that is neither slightly
warm, nor slightly cool"

11
 THERMAL COMFORT
  ASHRAE Standard 55-2010: Thermal
Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy
  Indoor Environmental Quality, Ch 9-13, ASHRAE
Handbook of Fundamentals, 2009
ASHRAE: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air
Conditioning Engineers

ASHRAE Standard 55-2004: http://

c0131231.cdn.cloudfiles.rackspacecloud.com/
ASHRAE_Thermal_Comfort_Standard.pdf

12
THERMAL COMFORT
  EVERYBODY IS DIFFERENT
  HEAT GENERATED BY BODY
  ACTIVITY
  AGE
  SIZE
  GENDER
  CLOTHING LEVEL
  nude and clothed subjects feel comfortable at the same skin
temperature of 33°C + 1.5°C

13
COMFORT INVOLVES CONTROL OF:
  DRY BULB TEMP
  HUMIDITY OF THE SURROUNDING AIR

  RELATIVE VELOCITY OF AIR

  TEMP OF ANY SURFACE THAT VIEWS AND

CAN RADIATE
  PERSONAL VARIABLES OF ACTIVITY AND
CLOTHING
AND
  ODOR

  CONTAMINANTS

  NOISE

  VIBRATION
14
THERMAL COMFORT
  WELL DESIGNED SYSTEM KEEPS
THESE WITHIN SPECIFICATION
LIMITS SET DOWN BY
  CUSTOMER
  CODES
  GOOD ENGINEERING JUDGEMENT

15
ASHRAE COMFORT CHART

16
 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)
  FREE OF
  ODORS
  CONTAMINANTS
  RADIOACTIVE (EG. RADON FROM THE GROUND)
  VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOC)
  GASEOUS: CO, CO2
  SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
  MICRO-ORGANISMS, VIRUSES, ALERGENS, MOLDS
  ADHERE STRICTLY TO CODES AND STANDARDS

IT WILL COST MONEY - THERE WILL BE PRESSURES

17
 EFFECTS OF HUMIDITY
  ODOR PERCEPTION
  ODOR PERCEPTION AND IRRITATION MINIMUM AT RH
BETWEEN 45% AND 60%
  RESPIRATORY HEALTH
  RH BETWEEN 30% AND 70%
  STATIC ELECTRICITY
  RH 45% OR MORE
  PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF DIESEASE
  RH AROUND 50%
  ABSORPTION OF SOUND
  RH ABOVE 50% => NEGLIGIBLE
  CONDENSATION (VISIBLE AND CONCEALED)
18
19
METHODS TO CONTROL
CONTAMINANTS
  SOURCE ELIMINATION (NO SMOKING)
  OUTDOOR AIR - VENTILATION
  SPACE AIR DISTRIBUTION
  CEILING TO FLOOR
  DIRECTIONAL DISTRIBUTION OR EXHAUST
  AIR CLEANING
  FILTERS

20
 VENTILATION
  ASHRAE STANDARD 62-2010:
Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air
Quality
  Ventilation and Infiltration, Ch. 16, ,
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals,
2009

21
22
OUTDOOR DESIGN
CRITERIA
  INFORMATION PROVIDED BY
ASHRAE AND FROM VARIOUS
WEATHER SERVICES
  HEATING DESIGN INFORMATION
  COOLING DESIGN INFORMATION

23
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals
2009 - Station List

24
ASHRAE
Handbook of
Fundamentals
2009
Station Data

25
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals
2009 - Ch. 14

26
Outdoor Design Conditions -
Heating
  99.6 %
  8725 h/yr OK
  35 h/yr TROUBLE
  99%
  8672 h/yr OK
  88 h/yr TROUBLE

27
Outdoor Design Conditions -
Cooling
  0.4 %
  35 h/yr TROUBLE
  1.0 %
  88 h/yr TROUBLE
  2.0 %
  176 h/yr TROUBLE

28
CALCULATION OF HEATING
AND
COOLING LOADS

29
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

30
SPACE HEATING LOAD
  HEATING LOAD DUE TO HEAT LOSSES THROUGH
  ENVELOPE
  INFILTRATION/EXFILTRATION OF AIR (UNCONTROLLED)
  VENTILATION (CONTROLLED)

  HEAT LOSS CALCULATIONS ASSUME STEADY STATE

  DURING WINTER LONG PERIODS OF SAME OUTDOOR
CONDITIONS
  LITTLE HEAT GAIN
  OCCUR DURING EARLY MORNING

  CONSIDER PART LOAD IN ENERGY ANALYSIS

31
BUILDING ENVELOPE
  WALL, ROOF, FLOOR & FENESTRATIONS
  ENERGY ENTERS AND LEAVES
  WALLS & ROOFS: MULTIPLE LAYERS
  WINDOWS 1, 2 OR 3 GLASS + INSIDE COVERING
  BASEMENT – DIFFICULT (USE TABULATED/ESTIMATED
VALUES)

32
BUILDING HEAT TRANSFER
ALL THREE:
  CONDUCTION

  CONVECTION

  RADIATION

OCCUR SIMULTANEOUSLY

33
THERMAL BRIDGE
  Envelope area with a significant higher rate of
heat flow
  increase heat gain or loss
  causes condensation inside or on envelope
surface
  Condensation
  Increases heat flow
  Causes material damage and mold growth

34
COMPOSITE WALL - R VALUE CALCULATION
(ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, 2009)

35
ROOF - R VALUE CALCULATION
(ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, 2009)

36
FENESTRATION - U VALUES
(ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, 2009)

37
 INFILTRATION
  All structures have some leakage or infiltration
  door openings
  construction cracks

  Energy needs to be added to

  increase the temperature
  increase the moisture content

  INFILTRATION LOAD CAN BE A MAJOR PART

OF SPACE LOAD
38
INFILTRATION
  ESTIMATION:
  CRACK METHOD
  AIR-CHANGE METHOD
(Air change/hour - ACH)
  ACH between 0.5 and 2.0
  Modern, new, well constructed office
buildings: 0.1 ACH

39
DESIGN HEATING LOAD
  SUM OF:
  HEAT LOSS THROUGH THE ENVELOPE
  HEAT LOSS DUE TO INFILTRATION
  HEAT LOSS DUE TO VENTILATION
AT DESIGN INDOOR AND OUTDOOR
CONDITIONS

40
 DESIGN HEATING LOAD
#n &
DESIGN HEATING LOAD = %" U i Ai + ( m˙ inf + m˙ vent )c p ((Tin ) Tout )
$ i=1 '
where,
  Ui = heat transfer coefficient (1/Ri) of envelope component i
  A
. i = surface area of envelope component i
  minf = mass flow rate of infiltrated air
.
  mvent = mass flow rate of ventilation air
  cp= specific heat of air
  Tin= indoor design temperature
  Tout = outdoor design temperature
  n = number of envelope components (walls, roofs, windows,….)

41
DESIGN COOLING LOAD

42
  Design heating load => steady state analysis
  Design cooling load => transient (unsteady
state) analysis
  Variable solar heat gain
  Variable outdoor temperature
  Variable internal heat gains
  Thermal storage effects

43
Related Concepts
  Heat gain
  Cooling load
  Heat extraction rate

44
 Heat Gain
  Rate at which energy is transferred to or generated
within a space.
  Heat gain can be sensible (S) or latent (L).
  Components of heat gain:
  Solar (S)
  Heat transmission through the envelope by conduction,
convection and radiation (S)
  Sensible heat convected and radiated from internal
sources (S)
  Latent heat gains from internal sources (L)
  Ventilation and infiltration (S and L)
45
 Cooling Load
Rate at which energy must be removed from
a space to maintain the temperature and RH
at design values

46
 Heat gain is not equal to cooling load,
because (1):
  Solar radiation and radiation from interior objects
do not heat air directly
  First the radiation is absorbed by floors, walls, furniture,
etc. increasing their temperature, then these objects
lose their heat by convection.
  Heat storage characteristics of the structure and the
objects in the space determine the thermal lag, affecting
the relationship between heat gain and cooling load (the
heavier the structure, the longer the time lag).

47
 Heat gain is not equal to cooling load,
because (2):
  Heat conduction through the building envelope is
highly variable because outdoor temperature and
solar radiation are highly variable.
  Envelope components are non-homogeneous; so
storage effects are non-linear
  Incident solar radiation and outdoor temperature
are variable.
All of these result in a highly non-linear heat
transfer problem which is difficult to tackle.

48
 HEAT GAIN AND COOLING LOAD
Instantaneous Convective Component
Instantaneous Heat Extraction
Heat Cooling by
Gain Load Cooling Equipment

Radiative Convection with

Component Time Delay

Thermal Mass of
Building Components
And Furnishings

49
COOLING LOAD
  Solar for a S-E corner zone
  Delays are significant
  Areas under the curves are equal
  Each requires different equipment size

50
SOLAR RADIATION
  RAYS ENTER ATMOSPHERE
  Some scattered by gas, particles and water vapor
(clouds)
  Some absorbed by ozone

  Some absorbed by water vapor near the surface

That which gets through – DIRECT RADIATION and

is accompanied by radiation that has been
scattered - called DIFFUSE.
Radiation may also be reflected.

51
 SOLAR RADIATION

Total radiation received =

Direct +
Diffuse +
Reflected

52
Distribution of solar radiation falling on a glass

53
54
COOLING LOAD FROM FLUORESCENT LIGHTS

55
HEAT EXTRACTION RATE (HER)
  Rate at which energy is removed by
cooling and dehumidifying equipment.
  HER = CL when space conditions are
constant & equipment is operating.
  THIS IS RARELY THE CASE
  Room temp. fluctuates due to controls.
  Equipment operation is intermittent as
usually not at peak load.

56
 CALCULATION OF COOLING LOAD -
AN OVERVIEW OF METHODS
  Total Equivalent Temperature Differential (TETD)
method
  1972 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals
  instantaneous total rate of space heat gain converted to an
instantaneous space cooling load through the use of weighting
factors
  Transfer Function Method
  1972 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals
  a set of coefficients that relate an output function at some specific
time to the value of one or more driving functions at that time and to
previous values of both the input and output functions -
computationally intensive; requires computer

57
 CALCULATION OF COOLING LOAD -
AN OVERVIEW OF METHODS
  Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD), Solar Cooling
Load (SCL) and Cooling Load Factors (CLF) Method
  (ASHRAE 1980) Manual method based on Transfer Function Method

  Heat Balance Method (HBM)

  (ASHRAE 1998) requires computer
  Radiant Time Series Method (RTSM)
  (ASHRAE 1998) - spreadsheet

58
 CALCULATION OF COOLING LOAD -
AN OVERVIEW OF METHODS
See detailed review and references in:
http://www.hvac.okstate.edu/research/Documents/
RTS_Overview_Montreal_ASHRAE_Chapter_6Oct_03.pdf

Also see:
J.D. Spitler (2010) Load Calculation Applications Manual SI Version, ASHRAE (ISBN:
9781933742724)
Spitler, McQuiston, Lindsey. 1993; http://www.hvac.okstate.edu/research/Documents/
ASHRAE/Spitler_McQuiston_Lindsey_93_2.pdf
Spitler, Fisher, Pedersen. 1997;
http://www.hvac.okstate.edu/research/Documents/Spitler_Fisher_Pedersen_97.pdf

59
 DOMESTIC HOT WATER (DHW)
DHW Design Load =
(Max. flow rate)(SpHtw)(Thot - Tcold)

  Max. flow rate: depends on type of usage and number

of users (see Ch. 49 - Service Water Heating, ASHRAE
Handbook of Applications, 2007)
  Thot= Hot water supply temp. (~60°C to avoid
Legionella disease)
  Tcold = Cold water temperature (~ ground temperature)

60
LIGHTING
  To provide the necessary illumination level
and quality for the occupants to perform their
tasks
  Insufficient light reduces productivity
  Too much light => energy waste
  Optimum lighting levels for various tasks and
environments:
  Lighting Handbook, Illuminating Engineering
Society of North America (IESNA), published
annually (Rea, M.S. (Editor in Chief)

61
LIGHTING
  Luminous flux: output of a light fixture,
measured in lumens (lm)
  Luminous efficacy efficiency of a light,
is the ratio of the light output to the
energy input, measured in lumens per
watt (lm/W)

62
LIGHTING

63
ESTIMATION OF ANNUAL
ENERGY USE

64
 Need for energy estimation
  Minimization of energy use in buildings
  New buildings: pre-design analysis/optimization
  Orientation
  Performance of different architectural features
  Performance of different HVAC systems
  Post construction assessment and trouble shooting
  Existing buildings - Retrofit:
  Assessment of energy saving measures/options
  Choosing complementary measures as a package

65
Evolution of Building Energy Use
Estimation
Energy estimation methods became more
sophisticated as computation and storage
capabilities of computers improved, and
costs decreased.

66
 History of Building Energy Use
Estimation
  Degree-day (DD) method
  DD: difference of one degree between the
mean outdoor temperature on a certain day
and a reference temperature 365
  Heating degree-days (HDD) = " (Treference - Taverage )
i=1

365
  Cooling degree-days (CDD) = " (T average - Treference )
i=1
!

67
!
 Degree-day (DD) method
  Annual energy requirement =
#n &
%" U i Ai + ( m˙ inf + m˙ vent )c p (( HDD)(24 )
$ i=1 '
  Inaccurate
  Not used any more

68
 Degree-day
  Annual HDD/CDD provide a measure of the
severity of the heating and cooling seasons
  The higher the DD, the higher would be the
space heating and space cooling energy
consumption of a building.
  Thus, annual degree days are used to monitor,
target and normalize space heating and space
cooling energy consumption.
  Degree day data for many locations are given in
http://www.degreedays.net/
69
Bin Method
  Number of hours in each temperature bin of
5°C
  Annual energy requirement =
m #n &

(
" %" U i Ai + (m˙ inf + m˙ vent )c p ( Tin ) T j )
j =1 $ i=1 '
For m bins

 ! Inaccurate
  Not computationally intensive
  Not used any more
70
Average hourly monthly
weather
  Use weather data one average day
(average 24 h data) for each month
  Conduct hourly simulations for
12x24=288 unique hours
  Not computationally intensive
  Inaccurate
  Not used any more

71
Hour-by-hour simulation
  Conduct hourly simulations for
24x365=7860 unique hours
  Computationally intensive
  Accurate
  Current norm
  Simulation software available for
smaller time-steps than one hour

72
 Building energy simulation
software
  Building Energy Software Tools Directory
U.S. Department of Energy
http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/tools_directory/

73
 HVAC systems for buildings
  All-air systems
  Air-and-water systems
  Reversible heat pumps
  Passive solar systems
  Heat recovery potential

74
 HVAC Systems
All of the equipment necessary to provide the desired
environmental conditions in a building or its parts"
"
Factors to be considered when selecting a system"
  performance"
  fit into available space"
  give the owner the best combination of:"
  first cost"
  operating cost"
  reliability"

75
 HVAC Systems
  Primary systems: to convert the energy in a
fuel or electricity to thermal energy for
heating or cooling"
"
  Secondary systems: to distribute fresh air,
heating and cooling to the spaces in a
building (ducts, fans, pipes, pums, dampers,
etc.)

76
 Primary systems
  Conventional systems (boilers,
furnaces, chillers, cooling towers)
  Heat pump systems (air-source, ground
source)
  Co-generation systems
  Solar thermal (air and water based)
  PV, Building Integrated PV (BIPV)
  Thermal storage
77
 SECONDARY SYSTEMS
ALL-AIR SYSTEMS
  SINGLE PATH SYSTEMS
Single zone constant volume (SZCV), Constant volume reheat, Variable
air volume (VAV), Variable volume variable temperature (VVVT)

  DUAL PATH SYSTEMS (Dual duct)

78
SECONDARY SYSTEMS
AIR-AND-WATER SYSTEMS
2, 3 OR 4-PIPE SYSTEMS, FAN-COIL SYSTEMS

ALL-WATER SYSTEMS
UNIT VENTILATORS, FAN-COILS, BASEBOARD
CONVECTION

PACKAGED (UNITARY) SYSTEMS

WINDOW AIR CONDITIONERS, ROOF-TOP
SYSTEMS
79
ALL AIR SYSTEMS

80
Single Zone, Constant Volume (SZCV)
HVAC System (Source of figure: www.fpemag.com/pop.asp?i=280)

81
 Mass Flow Rate Balances

Room level E/A

Exfiltration (EXF)

Infiltration (INF)

R/A - E/A + O/A = M/A = S/A

S/A + INF = RL(E/A) + EXF + R/A
If S/A = R/A, then:
INF = RL(E/A) + EXF
and if RL(E/A) = 0, then
INF = EXF

82
CV Reheat System
(Figure from: www.betterbricks.com/building-operations/tools/common-opportunities-0)

83
VAV System
(Figure from: www.betterbricks.com/building-operations/tools/common-opportunities-0)

84
Dual Duct System
(Figure from: www.betterbricks.com/building-operations/tools/common-opportunities-0)

85
 AIR-AND-WATER SYSTEMS
HEATING AND COOLING PERFORMED BY BOTH AIR
AND WATER SUPPLIED TO THE SPACE

ADVANTAGES:
  LESS SPACE REQUIREMENT SINCE cp,water >> cp,air

  PUMPING POWER << FAN POWER

  QUANTITY OF AIR SUPPLIED = VENTILATION REQUIREMENT
  IF THIS AIR IS EXHAUSTED DIRECTLY AT THE ZONE LEVEL =>
NO R/A SYSTEM NEEDED

86
FAN COIL SYSTEM
(VENTILATION DUCT NOT SHOWN)

87
FAN COIL
2-PIPE CHANGEOVER SYSTEM

88
FAN COIL
4-PIPE SYSTEM

89
FAN COIL
4-PIPE SYSTEM

90
 REVERSIBLE WATER SOURCE HEAT
PUMP SYSTEM
Consider a building with an inner core
operating in winter:
-  The perimeter zones will be in heating
mode Perimeter Zone
-  The core zone will be in cooling mode
(no heat loss)

This provides an opportunity for heat Core Zone

recovery using reversible water
source heat pumps .

91
REVERSIBLE WATER SOURCE HEAT
PUMP SYSTEM
(Figure from: http://elcca-exchange.blogspot.com/ Figure by: Hargis Engineers Inc.)

92
  All-water systems
  No possibility to provide ventilation,
threfore not used any more
  Packaged unitary systems
  All HVAC functions in one package
  Receive from supplier
  Hook up to electricity, fuel, drain and ductwork
  Operate

93
Passive Solar Design
  Orientation of long axis (E-W)
  Window placement, size and type
  External shading
  Trombe wall
  Thermal storage
  Natural ventilation/Solar chimney
  SolarWall
  Ventilation air pre-heating
  Building integrated photovoltaics/thermal (BIPVT)

94
Heat recovery potential
  Exhaust air heat recovery to preheat/precool
ventilation air
  Air-to-air heat exchanger
  Heat recovery ventilator
  Heat wheel (sensible and sensible+latent)
  Run-around glycol loop
  Heat pipe
  Grey water heat recovery
  Heat recovery from refrigeration equipment

95
GREEN BUILDINGS

96
 Green Building
is the practice of
  increasing the efficiency with which
buildings and their sites use
  energy
  water
  materials
and….

97
 Green Building
is the practice of
  reducing the building s impact on human health and the
environment through
  better siting

  design

  construction

  operation

  maintenance

  removal

(US Office of the Federal Environmental Executive)

98
A Green Building
  designed
  constructed

  operated

utilizing a whole-system design approach

(Greenbuilding.com)

99
SIMILAR CONCEPTS
  Green Building
  Net Zero Energy Building

  Sustainable Building

  Equilibrium Building

  Passivhaus

100
-  MANY COUNTRIES DEVELOPED
THEIR OWN BRAND GREEN
BUILDINGS

-  SIMILAR APPROACHES TO
ACHIEVEING SIMILAR OBJECTIVES

101
MISSION
  Ensure Green Building Councils are successful and
have the tools necessary to advance.
  Stand as the premier international voice for green
building design & development.
  Foster effective communications and collaboration
between Councils, countries, and industry leaders.
  Support effective green building rating systems.

  Share best practices globally.

www.worldgbc.org
102
 World GBC Member Councils

May 11, 2012 Established GBCs Emerging GBCs Prospective GBCs Associated Groups Total

Africa South Africa (2008) Ghana Botswana 8

Kenya Mauritania
Mauritius Namibia
Nigeria
Americas Argentina (2009) Chile Bolivia Ecuador 19
Brazil (2007) Guatemala Dominican Rep El Salvador
Canada (2002) Panama Costa Rica Paraguay
Colombia (2009) Trinidad & Tobago Venezuela
Mexico (2005) Uruguay
Peru (2011)
USA (1993)
Asia Pacific Australia (2002) Hong Kong Pakistan Bangladesh 17
India (2001) Indonesia Philippines Brunei
Japan (2001) Malaysia South Korea China
New Zealand Sri Lanka Vietnam
Singapore (2010)
Taiwan
Europe Dutch (2010) Bulgaria Austria Denmark 32
France (2011) Croatia Czech Republic Iceland
Germany (2007) Hungary Finland Ireland
Israel (2011) Italy Georgia Latvia
Poland (2010) Russia Greece Luxembourg
Romania (2009) Turkey Montenegro Norway
Spain (2010) Serbia Slovakia
Sweden (2011) Slovenia
United Kingdom Switzerland
(2007) Ukraine
MENA Emirates (2006) Qatar Bahrain Egypt 14
Jordan (2012) Kuwait Libya
Lebanon Oman
Morocco Tunisia
Palestine
Saudi Arabia
Syria
Total 25 13 30 22 90 103

World GBC terms and definitions:

Established GBC – a Green Building Council with World GBC Established Member status.
 GREEN BUILDING STANDARDS
  SOUTH KOREA
  Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs
  Ministry of Environment
  Green Building Certification System

  AUSTRALIA
NEW ZEALAND
SOUTH AFRICA
  Green Building Council
  Green Building Standard - GREEN STAR
104
 GREEN BUILDING STANDARDS
  UNITED KINGDOM
  BRE Environmental Assessment Method

  GERMANY
  Passivhaus

  SWITZERLAND
  Minergie

105
 GREEN BUILDING STANDARDS
  SINGAPORE
  Building and Construction Authority

  BCA Green Mark Scheme

  CANADA
  Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation

  EQuilibrium™ Housing

  USA
  United States Green Building Council (USGBC)
  Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)

106
GREEN BUILDING STANDARDS

KEY CRITERIA

107
 Management
  Sustainable development principles
  Project conception
  Design

  Construction

  Commissioning

  Tuning

  Operation

108
 Indoor Environment
  Thermal comfort and health
  Natural cooling/ventilation
  Heat recovery ventilator
  Day-lighting
  Low/no VOC
  Paints
  Coatings
  Adhesives
  Carpets
  Composite woods

109
 Energy efficiency
  Highly insulated building envelope
  Airtight

  High efficiency windows & daylighting

  Energy-efficient appliances & lighting

  Passive & active solar heating & cooling

  PV & heat recovery PV

  Geothermal heat pump

110
 Energy efficiency
  Air and grey water heat recovery
  Embodied energy strategy

  On-site electricity generation

  Renewables
  Cogen

  Thermal and electrical storage

111
 Transport

  Discourage use of private car

  Alternative transportation
  Close proximity of commuter rail or bus
lines

112
 Water Efficiency
  Water-efficient or low-flow equipment and
appliances
  Water-efficient irrigation, captured rain, or
site-recycled water for landscaping
  Grey-water flushing

113
 Resource Conservation
  Sustainable materials & recycled content
  Regionally produced materials & products
  Rapidly renewable materials
  bamboo flooring
  wool carpet
  strawboard
  cotton ball insulation
  environmentally responsible wood products

114
 Environmental Impact
  Storm and waste water management
  Solid waste management
  Reduction/recycle/salvage of wastes
  Air pollution emissions
  Build small
  Efficient and multiple use of space

115
 Land-use & Ecology

  Preserve natural habitats and resources

  Maintain or reduce storm-water runoff
  Increased population density

116
  Innovation
  To foster transition to sustainable
buildings

  Affordability
  Financing
  Marketability

117
MAIN BENEFITS

118
•  Lower energy bills
•  Lower maintenance costs
•  Improved occupant comfort and health
•  Greater longevity and durability
•  Smaller environmental footprint
•  Designed to fit the surrounding climate
•  Reliable source of energy
•  Reduced pollution and CO2 emissions
•  Affordable sustainable development
119
120
CHALLENGES

121
 Regulatory policies that penalize
green buildings

  Obstacles to net metering

  Not putting a value on clean environment
  Not accounting for the cost of the environmental
damage by conventional energy
  Implicit and explicit subsidies on conventional
energy

122
Need for action at all levels
  Individual
  Society
  Government

123
Economic Challenges
  Upgrade cost: $113,000
  Annual savings: $2,800
  Return on Investment
  Simple ROI about 2.2% (46 year payback)
  Actual ROI about 3% with fuel price

escalation

124
Efforts to improve energy efficiency in the
residential sector - since early 1970 s

CARROTS:
  Government incentive programs

  Energy efficiency grants

  Demonstration projects

  Public education

  Improving technology

STICKS:
  Building standards

  Fuel prices

125
 Energy Efficiency Ratings for Houses
EnerGuide Rating System (ERS) of Canada

  New house built to building code standards

ERS: 65-72
  New house with energy-efficiency improvements
ERS: 73-79
  Energy-efficient new house
ERS: 80-90
  House requiring little or no purchased energy (NZEB)
ERS: 91-100

126
Improvement of energy efficiency of newly built
Canadian housing
(NRCan data, 2010)

127
Tough job ahead - new housing

128
Tough job ahead - new housing

129
 Existing Housing Stock

  Many options to reduce end-use energy

consumption and improve energy
efficiency
  Complex interrelated effects of energy
efficiency retrofits

130
 Strategies to reduce residential energy
131
consumption
Energy efficiency Alternative energy Renewable energy
upgrades technologies

Insulation Heat pumps Solar thermal/

electrical

Windows Co-generation Micro-wind

Air tightness Condensing furnaces Energy storage

Appliances

Thermostat

131
132
One strategy does not fit all
  Occupancy
  Building characteristics
  Energy sources
  Climate
Natural Gas Electricity Oil

Heating degree days

(NRCan)
132
 Existing Housing Stock

To identify feasible and effective options to

increase energy efficiency:

Accurate and versatile energy modeling

methods are required

133
GREEN BUILDING
EXAMPLES

134
135
136
137
138
MAKING OF A
GREEN HOUSE

139
Riverdale NetZero Home

Howell-Mayew Engineering
Edmonton, Canada

(www.riverdalenetzero.ca)

140
- Garage: 1 regular car or 4 Smart cars
- Integrated with city bus transportation
- Walking distance from downtown

141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
Heat Loss at Winter Design
Conditions (-32°C)
  Riverdale NZE: 6.6 kW
  90 s House: 20 - 26 kW

(3 times)
  70 s House: 29 - 35 kW
(5 times)

149
Space cooling
  Very small cooling requirement due to
high insulation envelope
  Passive cooling
  Openable windows
  Shading on south windows
  Tinted east and west windows
  Active cooling
  Ground loops under garage and next to
foundation

150
Solar Energy

151
152
153
GREEN BUILDING
DESIGN TOOLS

154
 Building energy simulation software

Building Energy Software Tools Directory

  US DOE
  361 building software tools
  energy efficiency
  renewable energy
  sustainability

155
 Environmental Impact Estimator
  Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
  Assemblies and buildings
  more than 400 assemblies
  Evaluates the environmental impacts of
  Material manufacturing & related transportation
  On-site construction
  Maintenance, repair and replacement
  Demolition and disposal
  Operating energy emissions
  ATHENA Institute
  Free software (www.athenasmi.org)

156
 Clean Energy Project Analysis
Software

  RETScreen
  Developed by Natural Resources Canada
  Free software
www.retscreen.net

157
RETScreen
  renewable energy
  cogeneration and district energy,
  clean power
  heating and cooling technologies
  energy efficiency measures

158
RETScreen
  residential, commercial, institutional buildings
  communities
  industrial facilities and processes

159
 RETScreen

  Climate Database
  4,700 ground-station locations around the world
  Software and databases
  30 languages

www.retscreen.net

160
 DESIGN GUIDES
  ASHRAE GreenGuide
  ASHRAE High Performance Buildings
Magazine (Free)
www.ashrae.org
  The BRE Green Guide to Specification
www.thegreenguide.org.uk

161
TRULY GREEN BUILDINGS

162
Bedouin Tent
(Hand spun and woven goat hair or sheep s wool)

163
Stone House
(Locally quarried stone)

164
Mud House
(Mud and straw)

165
Tipi
(Animal hides and/or birch bark)

166
Igloo
(Ice blocks)

167
Adobe House
(Sun dried clay brick)

168
ENERGY AND EXERGY ANALYSIS OF
BUILDINGS…

WHAT ARE WE TALKING ABOUT??

FIRST:

THE BASICS

169
 BASICS #1

Buildings need to be maintained

at a comfort temperature,
commonly different than
the ambient
(dead-state)
temperature.
170
Therefore, buildings
lose heat
or
gain heat.

171
 Therefore, we must
supply heat to
or
extract heat from
buildings.

We must cause a HEAT FLUX.

172
 BASICS #2

HEAT FLUX
is measured using two metrics:

•  Quantity (=> energy flux)

•  Quality/temperature (=> exergy flux)

173
 BASICS #3

Consider a building:
•  in a specific location (fixed dead state, T0),

•  with a specific geometry (fixed envelope area, A),

and
•  a specific indoor environment (fixed indoor temp, Tin)

174
 BASICS #4

Design parameters and Dependent parameters

- Choose envelope characteristics Get quantity of heat flux

- Choose quantity of heat flux Get envelope characteristics

- Choose equipment characteristics Get heat supply temp.

- Choose heat supply temp. Get equipment characteristics

175
 In a sophisticated (i.e. proper) design process, these
relationships become circular:

Choose envelope characteristics Get heat flux

Adjust envelope characteristics Adjust heat flux

Get envelope characteristics

Commonly, “equipment characteristics” and “supply

temperature” get introduced in this recursive process.
176
 BASICS #5

Envelope characteristics/heat flux

determine
Energy flux required
Equipment characteristics and heat
supply temperature determine
Energy flux required
Exergy flux required
177
 BASICS #6

Exergy measures the work potential

of a heat flux, which is a function of
the quantity and quality of the energy
available in the heat flux relative to
its environment.

178
 .
( )
The exergy flux Ex
.
of a heat flux (Q)
at temperature (TH )
and ambient temperature (T0) is:

. " T0 %
.
Ex = Q $1! '
# TH &
179
 ENERGY FLUX
EXERGY FLUX

. " T0 %
.
Ex = Q $1! '
# TH &
180
 BASICS #7
We wish to minimize
  energy requirement (i.e. energy flux)

  exergy requirement (i.e. exergy flux)

of a building.

181
 How to reduce the energy
requirement of a building?

Remember:
-  ENERGY FLUX is associated with the
QUANTITY of the heat flux,
and:
-  QUANTITY of the heat flux is associated with

ENVELOPE CHARACTERISTICS

182
 How to reduce the energy
requirement of a building?

Remember:
-  ENERGY FLUX is associated with the QUANTITY of the heat

flux,
and:
-  QUANTITY of the heat flux is associated with ENVELOPE

CHARACTERISTICS
THEREFORE:
Theorem 1.
IMPROVE ENVELOPE CHARACTERISTICS
183
 How to “improve envelope
characteristics”?
“Improve” such that heat flux is reduced:
•  increase insulation

•  reduce infiltration

•  in heating season, increase solar heat gain

•  in cooling season, decrease solar heat gain

184
 How to reduce the energy
requirement of a building?

If there are energy conversion processes

involved in the provision of the heat flux to the
building, then clearly:

Theorem 2.
IMPROVE EFFICIENCY OF ENERGY
CONVERSION
185
 How to “improve efficiency of
energy conversion”?
“Improve” such that more of the energy input to
the energy conversion equipment ends up in
the space:
•  high efficiency boilers, furnaces,

•  high COP cooling equipment,

•  low friction distribution systems,

•  high efficiency motors, etc.

186
 How to “improve efficiency of
energy conversion”?
“Improve” to
  minimize energy losses to the ambient
from the energy conversion equipment
(e.g. stack losses) and energy distribution
system (e.g. losses from piping, ducting,
etc. systems)
  maximize fuel conversion (e.g. reduce
unburned fuel emissions)
187
 How to reduce the exergy
requirement of a building?

Remember:
-  EXERGY FLUX is associated with the
QUALITY of the heat flux,
and:
-  QUALITY of the heat flux is associated with

HEAT SUPPLY TEMPERATURE

188
 How to reduce the exergy
requirement of a building?
Remember:
-  EXERGY FLUX is associated with the QUALITY of
the heat flux,
and:
-  QUALITY of the heat flux is associated with HEAT

SUPPLY TEMPERATURE
THEREFORE:
Theorem 3.
IMPROVE HEAT SUPPLY TEMPERATURE
189
 How to “improve heat supply
temperature”?
“Improve” to make heat supply temperature as
close to the ambient (dead state) temperature
as possible while providing the heat flux
required by the building.
For example, instead of using a combustion
source at 2,000°C to provide the heat flux, use a
low temperature heat source. Such as:
•  Ground source energy for a HP

•  Solar collector
190
 SUMMARY OF BASIC RULES
  Reduce heat flux requirements
  Use energy sources as close to the
dead state as possible
  Increase efficiency of energy conversion

191
192