1

Seismic Instrumentation
Peter Zweifel, Swiss Seismological Service, ETH Zurich

The purpose of the seismic instrumentation is to monitor the seismic activity and to provide
seismologists with information about the physical processes by measuring seismic ground
motion from natural ground noise up to large amplitudes of strong earthquakes.

The seismic signals spars a wide frequency range from 10-3 Hz to 50 Hz and a very large
amplitude range of more than 1:1010.

Seismic signals are usually measured in three orthogonal directions: Vertical (Z), North-South
(N), East-West (E).

1 Sensor Technology
There are two basic types of seismic sensors:
! inertial seismometers which measure ground motion relative to an inertial reference (a
suspended mass)
! strain meters or extensometers which measure the motion of one point of the ground
relative to another.
Since the motion of the ground relative to an inertial reference is in most cases much larger
than the displacement of the ground, inertial seismometers are generally more sensitive to
earthquake signals.

1.1 Mechanical Vertical Pendulum

The simplest model of the mechanical part of the inertial seismometer is a spring-balance.

It consists of three different elements:

! mass
! spring
! damping mechanism
The mass is connected to a frame by a spring and the frame is fixed relative to the ground.
The movements of the mass are controlled by the sum of all forces acting on it: The inertia of
mass, the force exerted by the spring, and the frictional force caused by damping mechanism.
Figure 1: Model of a vertical pendulum seismometer(Scherbaum, F., 1996)

The equation of motion for the seismometer can be written:

xr distance to rest position x 0
&x&r (t ) + 2εx&r (t ) + ω xr (t ) = −u&&g (t )
2 ε damping factor
ug ground acceleration
k spring constant
ω 02 = k / m
h = ε /ω0 m mass
h damping constant
ω0 natural frequency of seismometer
 2

Important characteristics of the mechanical pendulum can be deduced from this basic
equation:
! For rapid movements of the mass, the acceleration will be high compared to the
velocity and the displacement. In this case &x&r will dominate the left hand side of the
equation and the seismometer measures ground displacement.
! For slow movements of the mass (small acceleration and velocity), the &x&r and x&r
become negligible and xr dominates the left hand side of the equation and the
seismometer measures ground acceleration.

1.2 Horizontal Pendulum

Figure 2: the horizontal “garden-gate” pendulum (Wielandt, E., 2000)

A simple physical model for a horizontal seismometer is the “garden-gate” pendulum. The
mass moves in a nearly horizontal plane around a nearly vertical axis.

Its free period is the same as that of a mass suspended from the point where the plumb line
through the mass intersects the axis of rotation.

The natural period is infinite when the axis of rotation is vertical, and is usually adjusted by
tilting the whole instrument.

1.3 Electromagnetic Velocity Sensor

A simple transducer to convert the motion of the seismometer into an electrical signal is the
electromagnetic transducer. It consists of a coil which moves in a field of a permanent
magnet. The motion induces a voltage in the coil. The current flowing in the coil produces a
force (like in a loudspeaker).

When such a transducer is loaded with a resistor and thus a current is permitted to flow, a
force is generated opposing the motion. This effect is used to damp the mechanical free
oscillation of passive seismic sensors (geophones).

The characteristics of passive sensors using electromagnetic transducers are:

! Above the natural frequency the sensor response is constant to the velocity of the
ground.
! Below the natural frequency the sensitivity decreases by 12 dB/octave.
! The seismometer is usually damped to 0.7 of critical damping.
Figure 3: Response to ground acceleration of the electromagnetic sensor (Willmore MK3)

Two sources of disturbance have to be considered:

! At large amplitudes the seismometer becomes non-linear
! At high frequencies interferences develop from resonance effects of the mechanical
system.
 3

A further disadvantage of the passive electromagnetic sensor is that the mechanics tend to be
unstable (shift in the natural frequency).

1.4 Capacitive Displacement Sensor

In high-quality sensors “Capacitive Displacement Sensors” (CDT) are used to sense the
displacement of the mass. The principle of CDT is that of the electrical property of
capacitance. A simple capacitor is formed by placing two metal plates parallel each other. The
capacitance is to

C = k / x0 ,

where k is a property of the material between the two plates and constant. By measuring the
capacitance one can determine x 0 , the spacing between the plates. An accompanying
electronic circuit converts the change in capacitance to a voltage proportional to the
displacement of the mass.

A dual capacitor system is used in the CSEM semiconductor accelerometer:

Figure 4: CSEM triaxial capacitive solid state accelerometer

1.5 Force-balance Principle

The force-balance design principle is today more or less the standard in high-performance
seismometers and accelerometers. It means that the mass is always kept close to its center
position by an electrically generated restoring force. While in conventional seismometers the
deviation of the mass from its center position represents the seismic signal, in a force-balance
sensor the output signal is derived from the electric current that is required to keep the mass
centered. In this way problems of linearity, dynamic range and stability are transferred from
the mechanical system to the electronic feedback circuit where they are much easier to solve.
Only the resolution still depends on the mechanical part.
Figure 5: Force-balance broad band seismometer feedback circuit (Wielandt, E., 2000)

1.6 Force-balance Accelerometers

The force-balance accelerometer (FBA) is widely used for earthquake strong-motion
recording, for measuring tilt, and for inertial navigation. FBAs work down to zero frequency
but the servo loop becomes ineffective at some high frequency, above which the arrangement
acts like an ordinary inertial displacement sensor. FBAs are, therefore, low-pass filters for
ground acceleration and high-pass filters for ground displacement.

Example of the characteristics of a modern force-balance accelerometer (Terra SSA-320):

! Maximum acceleration hardware selectable from 0.25 to 4 g
! Dynamic Range >100 dB
! Flat acceleration response from DC to 50 Hz
! Damping 0.7
 4

Figure 6 shows the comparison of the different sensors used in the Swiss Strong Motion
Network SSMNet.

Figure 6: Normalized response to acceleration of strong motion sensors (Smit, P., 1999)

1.7 Very Broad Band Seismometer

For broadband seismic recording with high sensitivity an output signal proportional to ground
acceleration is unfavorable. At high frequencies sensitive accelerometers are easily saturated
by traffic noise or impulsive disturbances.

The force-balance very broad band seismometers shows a response flat to velocity like a
normal electromagnetic sensor but extended to a lower corner frequency.

Example of the characteristics of a broad band seismometer ((Streckeisen, G., 1996):

! Flat velocity response from 8 mHz to 40 Hz

! Sensitivity 1500 V/ms-1
! damping 0.7
! Sensors self noise is below the lowest observed vertical seismic noise levels
throughout the seismic frequency band (USGS Low Noise Model)
! High acceleration-equivalent saturation level of up to > 0.1 g at 10 Hz.

Figure 7: Operating range of a very broad band seismometer (Streckeisen, G., 1996)

The STS-2 uses 3 identical obliquely-oriented mechanical sensors rather than the traditional
vertical and horizontal sensors.

2 Seismic Recording Systems

2.1 Components of a Seismic Acquisition System
A seismic recording system, whether it is a network or a single instrument, consists typically
of the following function blocks:

! Sensors
! Analog-to-Digital Converter (Digitizer)
! Time Signal Receiver
! Data storage medium
! Communication
! Trigger and Event Detection
 5

2.2 Time Signal Receiver

Today two timing systems are available to get accurate time for time stamping of the acquired
seismic data:

! Global Positioning System GPS. The space based and, therefore, globally accessible
GPS system provides beside the position an accurate time reference. If at least three
satellites of presently total 24 are visible the GPS receiver provides a time marker with
an accuracy better 10 µsec with the according time/date information. Most of the
modern seismic acquisition systems are equipped with GPS receivers.

! DCF77 time signal (D=German; C=long wave signal; F=Frankfurt; 77=frequency)

The DCF transmitter is located near Frankfurt. The signal carrier is transmitted with a
frequency of 77.5 kHz and modulated by means of second pulses with the exception
of the 59th second, which signifies that the next pulse will be a minute pulse. The
reception depends largely on the limited bandwidth of the time signal transmitter and
other natural interferences. At a distance of some 100 kilometers, a time signal
uncertainty of less than 0.1 ms is achievable.

2.3 Analog-to Digital Converter

The Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC) build in the seismic recorders or digitizers converts
the analog sensor signals to a sequence of digital samples for further processing and storage.

Important characteristics of ADC are among others:

! Sampling Rate: The sampling rate determines the limit of the frequencies that can be
reproduced digitally. One of the most important rules of sampling is called the Nyquist
Theorem, which states that the highest frequency which can be accurately represented
is less than one-half of the sampling rate. Because of this, ADCs must use low-pass
filtering to remove all signals above the Nyquist frequency (Anti-Alias filter).

! Resolution: The smallest analog increment corresponding to 1 LSB (Least Significant

Bit). For converters, resolution is normally expressed in bits, where the numbers of
analog levels is equal to 2n bits.

! Dynamic range: The ratio between the largest and smallest amplitude which can be
converted by the ADC and is commonly expressed in Decibel (dB). A conventional n-
bit ADC has a dynamic range of ! n*6, e.g. 96 dB for a 16-bit ADC. For
oversampled ADCs (see below) the dynamic range (sometimes also called effective
resolution) is dependent on the ratio of the actual sampling rate and the decimated
output word rate.

Conventional ADCs with sampling rates suitable for seismic instruments have a dynamic
range of 16 bit, i.e. 96 dB. This is too small regarding the dynamic range of > 120 dB of very
broad band sensors and force-balance accelerometers. To increase dynamic range and
resolution of ADCs two different methods are used:
 6

! Gain Ranging: A gain ranging system consists of a conventional ADC and a

programmable pre-amplifier. If the input signal exceeds a certain level, the pre-
amplifier decreases automatically the gain. On the other hand, if the signal amplitude
is below a certain threshold the gain is increased accordingly. The output words of the
ADC and the gain value of the pre-amplifier is recorded. Disadvantage: The increase
in dynamic range is accompanied by gain dependent loss of resolution.

! Oversampling: The seismic signals are sampled at much higher sampling rates than
finally desired. The sampled signals are subsequently digitally low-pass filtered and
down-sampled (decimated). The resolution of the analog-to-digital conversion
increases by reducing the level of quantization noise within the final frequency band.

The Delta-Sigma A/D converters have become widely accepted by data acquisition designers
because of their high performance. Delta-Sigma modulation utilizes oversampling and digital
filtering to achieve high performance A/D conversion and filtering at low cost. They are used
in all modern seismic recorders and acquisition systems. It is important to note that the
effective resolution of a Delta-Sigma ADC is dependent on the sampling rate.
Figure 8: Dependence of dynamic range on output sampling rate (Crystal Semiconductor)

2.4 Digitizers
As an example of a state-of-the-art digitizer the characteristics of the Nanometrics HRD24
are shown:
! Sensor channels 3 standard / 6 optional
! Differential Input
! Hardware programmable pre-gain
! ADC type: 24-bit Delta-Sigma
! Hardware sampling rate: 256 ksps
! Output sample rates: 20, 40, 60, 120 sps (other sampling rates on request)
! Dynamic range: >125 dB @ 120 sps
! State-of-health channels: Temperature, Supply voltage, mass position, 3 auxiliary
channels
! Remote control functions: Mass centering, calibration
! GPS receiver, external with serial interface RS232
! Ring buffer memory: 3.4 Mbytes (approx. 1.5 hours of 120 sps data / 3 channels)
! Interface: Serial RS232

2.5 Communication
The components of seismic instruments and networks are configurated differently depending
on the type of communication used:

! In traditional analog networks, the sensor signals are transmitted in real time to
a central acquisition system. All building blocks except the sensors are located
at the central site. Example: Swiss Short Period Analog Network. This type
 7

network with a 30 years old technology is still widely used in the world.
Disadvantages:
" The frequency bandwidth of only 25 Hz and the dynamic range of less
than 60 dB does no more satisfy the requirements of seismology.
" Electromagnetic interference to the communication links directly
disturb the seismic signals.
Figure 9: Analog seismic network configuration (Short period network of SED)

! In modern digital networks with continuous data transmission, the sensor

signals are digitized and time stamped at the sensor site. The digital data is
transmitted in quasi-real-time to a central acquisition system, which contains
the data storage and the trigger & event detection. Example: Swiss Digital
Seismic Network SDSNet. Advantages of a digital network are:
" The full bandwidth and dynamic range of the sensors can be recorded
" Re-transmitting of lost or garbled data (digitizer memory required), i.e.
no data gaps.
" Very reliable operation thanks to redundant communication paths.
" Newest communication technologies can be used, such as computer
networks, fiber optic links, satellite links.
" The continuous data transmission provides excellent network status
monitoring.
Figure 10: Digital seismic network configuration (SDSNet of SED)

! In digital networks with dial-up data retrieval, all functions as digitizing the
sensor signals, triggering, time stamping and storing the data are performed by
the instrument at the sensor site. The configuration and the data retrieval is
done by dial-up modem links. Example: Swiss Strong Motion Network
SSMNet. Advantages/disadvantages are:
" Data transmission only when needed, therefore less expensive
operation than the continuous data transmission.
" Not that reliable because of occasional hang-ups of modems or
instruments.
" Limited data storage
! In aftershock measurements and temporary scientific experiments the
instruments used are required to operate fully autonomous. Therefore they
contain all components mentioned above.
 8

3 Examples of Seismic Instrumentation

3.1 Swiss Digital Seismic Network
Summery of key features of the SDSNet:
! Total 27 very broad band stations, equipped with STS-2 sensors
! High resolution digitizers Nanometrics HRD24:
o Dynamic range of >125 dB, sampling rate 120 sps
o 3 or 6 channels
o local ring buffer data capacity of 1.5 h
o re-transmit capability
! Digitizer always close to sensor (<15 m)
! Digitizer backup power supply for >2 hours
! GPS Time reference
! Serial data transmission locally via fiber optics links (distance < 1 km) or base band
modems for longer distances.
! Data transmission continuously via governmental Wide Area Network (KOMBV) or
military network (5 stations), in addition 1 station is connected via satellite link to the
CTBTO center in Vienna.
! 2 redundant central data acquisition systems (Nanometrics NAQS), located at different
sites (ETH and NAZ)
o ring buffer of >10 days for all channels
o trigger and event detection
o connected via 2 different firewalls to the SED system

3.2 Swiss Strong Motion Network

Summery of key features of the SSMNet:
Free-field Instrumentation
! Total 59 stations
! Geophone based accelerometers
o Max. acceleration of 0.5 g
o Bandwidth of 0.2 / 0.4 Hz to 80 Hz
! Strong motion instruments GeoSIG Smach
o 3 channels
o Dynamic range 12 bit (50 stations), sampling rate 128 sps
o 16 bit resolution (9 stations), sampling rate 200 sps
o capacity of about 20 events of ca. 40 sec duration
! DCF77 time reference
! Data retrieval and remote configuration via dial-up modem communication

Dam Site Instrumentation

! Total 5 dams equipped with strong motion arrays, total 34 stations
! A strong motion array consist of following instruments
o Force-balance accelerometer
" Max acceleration 0.5 g
 9

" Bandwidth DC to 50 Hz
o Strong motion instruments Syscom MR2002
" Dynamic range of 12 bit, sampling rate of 200 sps
" 3 channels
" Memory capacity for 18 min event recording
o Control center Syscom MCC2002
" Control of up to 16 MR2002 recorders in a star topology
" Serial data transmission via fiber optics links
" DCF77 time reference, time marks distributed to recorders
" Common triggering
" Data retrieval and remote configuration via dial-up modem
communication

3.3 Task Force Instruments

! Total 6 instruments
! Force-balance accelerometers Terra SSA-320
o Max. acceleration of 1 g
o Bandwidth of DC to 50 Hz
! Strong motion instruments Syscom MR2002
o 3 channels
o Dynamic range 16 bit, sampling rate 200 sps
o capacity of about 20 events of ca. 40 sec duration
! GPS reference
! Data retrieval and remote configuration via serial interface by laptop computer

Bibliography:

Scherbaum, F., 1996 Of Poles and Zeros, chapt. 4, pp. 48-65

Kluwer Academic Publishers
ISBN 0-7923-4012-4
Smit, P., 1999 Datenerfassung und Bestimmung der Abminderung der
Bodenbewegung bei Erdbeben in der Schweiz, pp. 21-40
Dissertation ETH Zürich
Streckeisen, G., 1996 Portable Very-Broad-Band Tri-Axial Seismometer, 50 p.
Manual, G. Streckeisen AG
Wielandt, E., 2000 Seismic Sensors and their Calibration,
http://www.geophys.uni-stuttgart.de/seismometry/man_html/
 10

Figure 1: Model of a vertical pendulum seismometer(Scherbaum, F., 1996)

Figure 2: the horizontal “garden-gate”

pendulum (Wielandt, E., 2000) Figure 3: Response to ground acceleration
of the electromagnetic sensor
(Willmore MK3)
 11

Figure 4: CSEM triaxial capacitive solid state accelerometer

Figure 5: Force-balance broad band seismometer feedback circuit (Wielandt, E., 2000)
 12

Figure 6: Normalized response to acceleration of strong motion sensors (Smit, P., 1999)

Figure 7: Operating range of a very broad band seismometer (Streckeisen, G., 1996)
 13

Figure 8: Dependence of dynamic range on output sampling rate (Crystal Semiconductor)

 14

V
A
f

Sensor Amplifier
Time Receiver
TCU DCF
Site
Mixer

f A
Analog Data Transmission
V D
•Leased analog lines
•Radio links
Archiv
DAS
DPS

Data Data
Acquisition Processing
System System

Central Site

Figure 9: Analog seismic network configuration (Short period network of SED)

Figure 10: Digital seismic network configuration (SDSNet of SED)