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Developmental
Neuropsychology
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Gender Differences in
Relations of Mental Rotation,
Verbal Fluency, and SAT Scores
to Finger Length Ratios as
Hormonal Indexes
Leslie A. Burton , Debra Henninger & Jessica Hafetz
Published online: 08 Jun 2010.

To cite this article: Leslie A. Burton , Debra Henninger & Jessica Hafetz (2005)
Gender Differences in Relations of Mental Rotation, Verbal Fluency, and SAT Scores
to Finger Length Ratios as Hormonal Indexes, Developmental Neuropsychology, 28:1,
493-505, DOI: 10.1207/s15326942dn2801_3

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2801_3

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DEVELOPMENTAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY, 28(1), 493–505
Copyright © 2005, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Gender Differences in Relations


of Mental Rotation, Verbal Fluency,
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and SAT Scores to Finger Length Ratios


as Hormonal Indexes
Leslie A. Burton
Psychology Department
Fordham University

Debra Henninger and Jessica Hafetz


Psychology Department
Fordham University

One hundred thirty-four university students (93 women, 41 men) were adminis-
tered the Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test and the Thurstone Word Fluency Test,
and they were asked to report their Scholastic Achievement Test scores. Finger
lengths were measured, because literature has reported gender differences in the
ratio of the 2nd to 4th, 2nd to 3rd, and 2nd to 5th finger lengths, such that the ratio
is larger in women than in men. The goal of this study was to evaluate the relations
between finger-length ratios and cognitive skills, such as spatial skills and verbal
fluency, which have shown gender differences and direct relations to hormonal
effects.
Gender differences were found in the expected directions, such that the men per-
formed better than the women for mental rotation, the women performed better than
the men for verbal fluency, and the finger-length ratios were in the directions reported
in the literature. The finger-length ratios showed an interesting relation with the cog-
nitive variables for the men and women. For the men, better performance on the mea-
sures, including mental rotation, verbal fluency, and verbal Scholastic Achievement
Test score was associated with less of a male-typical finger-length ratio pattern, or
higher ratios. For the women, better performance for mental rotation and verbal flu-
ency was associated with less of a female-typical finger-length ratio pattern, or lower

Requests for reprints should be sent to Leslie A. Burton, Psychology Department, Fordham Univer-
sity, 441 E. Fordham Rd., Bronx, NY 10458. E-mail: burton@fordham.edu
494 BURTON, HENNINGER, HAFETZ

ratios. Thus, in this group of college students, better cognitive performance was asso-
ciated with a less gender-typical finger-length ratio, for both men and women. These
findings are discussed in the context of other similar reports and a possible curvi-
linear relation between hormones and cognition in normal populations.

Gender differences have consistently been reported such that boys and men per-
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form better on a variety of spatial tasks than girls and women, and girls and women
are more verbally fluent than boys and men (reviewed in Halpern, 2000; Hyde &
Linn, 1988; Linn & Petersen, 1985; Masters & Sanders, 1993; Voyer, Voyer, &
Bryden, 1995). There is much evidence that steroid hormones may influence spa-
tial skills, and a smaller amount of data suggest hormonal effects on verbal skills
(reviewed in Collaer & Hines, 1995; Halpern, 2000; Hines, 2004). A few recent
studies have reported that finger-length ratios show consistent gender differences,
with evidence suggesting that these finger-length ratios are also related to hor-
monal effects, most likely occurring during prenatal development (reviewed by
Manning, 2002). This study addressed the question of whether finger-length ratios
may correlate with spatial ability in terms of mental rotation, and with verbal flu-
ency, because all have been linked to hormonal effects.
There is significant evidence that hormones, especially androgens, influence
mental rotation skills. Women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a syn-
drome marked by excess secretion of androgens starting prenatally, show better
performance than controls on the Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test and the Card
Rotations Test (Hampson, Rovet, & Altmann, 1998; Resnick, Berenbaum,
Gottesman, & Bouchard, 1986). Resnick et al. (1986) reported no differences be-
tween CAH boys and unaffected relatives, but the CAH girls scored higher than
unaffected relatives on three of five spatial skill measures and also showed more
physically aggressive play behavior
Congenital idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (IHH) is marked by
decreased activity of the testes early in development, resulting in lower androgen
levels. Men with IHH perform more poorly than controls on tests such as the Space
Relations subtest of the Differential Aptitude Test (Hier & Crowley, 1982). In
complete androgen insensitivity syndrome, genetic males are insensitive to the ef-
fects of their own androgens and appear and are raised as females. These individu-
als have been shown to have IQs in the normal range, but their own Performance IQ
is lower than their Verbal IQ, and lower than the performance scores of control
males and females (Imperato-McGinley, Pichardo, Gautier, Voyer, & Bryden,
1991; Masica, Money, Ehrhardt, & Lewis, 1969; Perlman, 1973). Although boys
exposed prenatally to diethylstilbestrol (DES) show reduced spatial skills, girls do
not differ from controls, and neither girls nor boys show effects on verbal skills
(Hines & Sandberg, 1996; Hines & Shipley, 1984; Reinisch & Sanders, 1992).
DES typically increases male-typical sexual behavior and is thought to have
GENDER DIFFERENCES 495

androgenic effects (Hines, Alsum, Roy, Gorski, & Goy, 1987). Women with
Turner syndrome (TS) have lower levels of circulating estrogens during prenatal
development, and studies have reported deficits in a variety of skills, including
spatial abilities (e.g., Money & Alexander, 1966; Waber, 1979). These studies may
generally suggest that in clinical populations, grossly lower than normal androgen
levels in men are associated with decrements in spatial skills, and higher than nor-
mal androgen levels in women are associated with spatial advantages.
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Women and girls have frequently been shown to surpass men and boys on a va-
riety of verbal tasks, including verbal fluency (reviewed in Hyde & Linn, 1988).
CAH female participants do not differ from controls for verbal fluency (Baker &
Ehrhardt, 1974; McGuire, Ryan, & Omenn, 1975; Resnick et al., 1986; Sinforiani
et al., 1994). The verbal fluency of IHH men has been shown to be lower than con-
trols (Cappa et al., 1988). Less than average verbal fluency has been reported in TS
(e.g., Bender, Linden, & Robinson, 1989, 1993; Waber, 1979). The latter studies
on IHH men and TS women may suggest that in clinical populations, lower
sex-typical hormones have a detrimental effect on verbal fluency, in both men and
women.
Some studies have evaluated relations between hormonal levels and cognitive
skills in normal populations. Two articles are notable for this study, relating
indexes of hormonal effects that most likely occurred prenatally to cognitive
performance. In a group of 7-year-old girls, Grimshaw, Sitarenios, and Finegan
(1995) reported a positive relation between mental rotation and testosterone
sampled in amniocentesis during the second trimester. In 6-year-old girls (but not
boys), Jacklin, Wilcox, and Maccoby (1988) reported that higher spatial ability
was associated with lower perinatal testosterone levels from the umbilical cord
(perinatal levels may not reflect second trimester levels, when androgens may
influence brain development).

A CURVILINEAR RELATION BETWEEN HORMONES


AND COGNITION?

Several researchers have proposed a curvilinear relation between hormones and


cognition, such that optimal levels are associated with optimal levels of cognitive
performance. Geschwind and Galaburda (1987) suggested a curvilinear relation
between spatial skills and prenatal androgens, such that optimal androgen levels
would be at the low end for males and the high end for females. Geschwind and
Galaburda thought that prenatal androgens slowed left cerebral hemisphere devel-
opment, allowing right hemisphere spatial skills to take the lead, with extremely
high androgen levels slowing development of both the left and right hemispheres.
Nyborg (1983, 1984, 1988, 1990) believed that estradiol is the important hor-
mone, because androgens may be aromatized into estradiol, that the
496 BURTON, HENNINGER, HAFETZ

androgen–estrogen balance is the critical variable, and that prenatal hormones de-
termine the body’s later sensitivity at puberty. Nyborg’s model postulated that
higher levels of estradiol in males, and lower levels of estradiol in females are asso-
ciated with optimal spatial abilities.
Petersen (1976) reported that in healthy females, a more masculine body type
was associated with higher spatial scores (Wechsler Block Design and Primary
Mental Abilities [PMA] Space factor); verbal fluency (PMA Word Fluency) was
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unaffected. In males, a more masculine body type was associated with lower spa-
tial than fluency scores, and a less physically masculine body type was associated
with higher fluency than spatial scores. Similarly, some studies have reported that
higher levels of circulating testosterone were associated with lower spatial ability
in male participants (Gouchie & Kimura, 1991; Shute, Pellegrino, Hubert, &
Reynolds, 1983). Maccoby (1966) found that in boys higher spatial ability was as-
sociated with lower peer ratings of masculinity. Broverman, Klaiber, and col-
leagues (Broverman, 1964; Broverman & Klaiber, 1969; Broverman, Klaiber,
Kobayashi, & Vogel, 1968; Klaiber, Broverman, & Kobayashi, 1967; Klaiber,
Broverman, Vogel, Abraham, & Stenn, 1971; Mackenberg, Broverman, Vogel, &
Klaiber, 1974) reported that in men a more masculine appearance was associated
with a pattern of proficiency at verbal tasks (object and color naming, rapid read-
ing) and less proficient on spatial tasks (Wechsler Block Design, Object Assembly,
Embedded Figures). Klaiber and colleagues (Klaiber et al., 1971, Mackenberg et
al., 1974) also reported data that suggest that a curvilinear relation may occur at an
activational level. They found that the best performance on a serial subtraction task
was associated with intermediate levels of administered testosterone; poorer per-
formance was seen at high and low levels.
In a group of gifted children (Ostatnikova, Laznibatova, & Dohnanyiova,
1996), higher spatial reasoning was associated with lower salivary testosterone,
and the effect was strongest for the boys. The gifted children scored better on the
spatial reasoning test than a group of nongifted controls, and the gifted group also
had lower testosterone levels than the controls. Tan and Tan (1998) reported that
scores on the Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test had a curvilinear relation be-
tween blood testosterone levels, in both men and women.

FINGER-LENGTH RATIOS

Finger-length ratios have recently been shown to differ for male and female partic-
ipants from age 2 and older, such that a smaller ratio of the second to fourth finger
is found in men compared to women (Ecker, 1875; George, 1930; Phelps, 1952;
see Manning, 2002, for a review). Additional gender differences are found in the
ratio of the second to fifth finger, and of the third to fourth finger, all in the same di-
rection as the second to fourth finger, such that the ratio is larger for women than
GENDER DIFFERENCES 497

for men (McFadden & Shubel, 2002). Consistent sex differences in digit length ra-
tios have also been found in mice, baboons, gorillas, and chimps (Brown, Finn, &
Breedlove, 2001, McFadden & Bracht, 2000a, 2000b).
These gender differences in finger-length ratios are thought to reflect effects of
hormones. Homosexual men and women show finger ratio patterns in between that
of heterosexual men and women (McFadden & Shubel, 2002). Further, female par-
ticipants with CAH show a finger-length pattern in the direction of the male pattern
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(Brown, Hines, Fane, & Breedlove, 2002). Finger-length ratios may be influenced
by prenatal hormones (Manning, 2002), because hand patterns are set prenatally
(see Garn, Burdi, Babler, & Stinson, 1975; Manning, 2002) and the ratio difference
has been reported at such a young age.

THIS STUDY

The goal of this study was to evaluate the relations between finger-length ratios
and cognitive skills, which have shown gender differences and direct relations to
hormonal effects.

Method
Participants
One hundred thirty-four university students were evaluated. This sample in-
cluded 93 female and 41 male participants. The mean age of the male participants
(19.3 years, SD of 1.1) did not differ from the mean age of the female participants
(20.0 years, SD of 4.4). Fordham University is a private, Catholic university with
students from a predominantly middle-class socioeconomic status. Students were
recruited from Introduction to Psychology classes, in which participation in a re-
search study is one way to fulfill a research requirement. Introduction to Psychol-
ogy is a core course, and most students take it in their freshman or sophomore year.
The 25 to 75 percentile of Scholastic Achievement Test (SAT) scores of Fordham
students range from 1070 to 1260, and the student body is 60% female and 40%
male. Participants were excluded if they were not fluent in English.

Instruments
Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test. This test (Vandenberg & Kuse, 1978)
involves two 3-min sections consisting of 10 items each. For each item, the partici-
pant must choose which two of four choices represent forms into which a target
can be mentally rotated. Male participants frequently do better than female partici-
pants for this task (see Halpern, 2000; Linn & Petersen, 1985). Two scores can be
498 BURTON, HENNINGER, HAFETZ

generated from this task, a raw score of number correct and a percentile score that
is only available for comparison with members of the same gender.

Thurstone Written Verbal Fluency. This test, also known as the Chicago
Word Fluency Test (Thurstone & Thurstone, 1962), requires the participant to first
write as many words in 5 min as he or she can that begin with s, then to write as
many four-letter words in 4 min that begin with c. Female participants produce
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more words than male participants (Heaton, Grant, & Matthews, 1991; Kolb &
Whishaw, 1996).

SAT scores. SAT scores were obtained by asking students to fill out a par-
ticipant information sheet requesting information on age, birth date, and SAT
scores, including verbal and quantitative scores. All of the students did not re-
member their scores, so the calculations using SAT scores reflect 71 women and
37 men.

Finger-length Ratios. Photocopies of both hands with fingers together and


rings removed were obtained. The length in millimeters was measured from the
proximal crease at the base of the digit to the tip of the finger. Interrater reliabilities
for two raters were calculated for a subset of 60 participants, and correlations be-
tween raters for the 10 fingers ranged from .94 to .99. Given this very high reliabil-
ity, subsequent calculations just used one of the raters. The ratio of the length of the
second to fourth finger of the right (R24) and left (L24) hands, of the third to fourth
finger of the right (R34) and left (L34) hands, and of the second to fifth finger of
the right (R25) and left (L25) hands were calculated.

Results
The means and standard deviations for all the measures are shown in Table 1,
along with the results of a multivariate analysis of variance for the cognitive
variables of the Thurstone Verbal Fluency sum, words produced for c and for s,
and the Vandenberg Mental Rotation number correct (percentile comparisons
were not possible, as the percentile tables were for number correct within gen-
der). Another multivariate analysis of variance was done for the six finger-length
ratios. As can be seen, the women outperformed men for total verbal fluency and
number of responses beginning with s. The men performed better than the
women in terms of number correct on the Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test. The
finger ratios for the right and left hand, second to fourth finger and second to
fifth finger length, differed in the expected way, such that these ratios were lon-
ger for women than for men.
Table 2 shows the results of the Pearson correlations with two-tailed probability
values between the finger-length ratios and the cognitive variables. For the female
TABLE 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Gender Differences for Measures

Male Female

Variable M SD M SD F p

Thurstone Verbal
Fluency
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Sum 60.5 18.7 68.2 17.9 5.18 .024


c 15.4 5.8 17.6 7.3
s 44.8 15.0 52.4 13.6 8.16 .005
Vandenberg
Mental Rotation
Number correct 15.9 9.1 11.7 7.5 7.76 .006
SAT Verbal 617 66 610 67
SAT Quantitative 590 64 588 66
FINGER RATIOS
R24 .957 .037 .971 .045 4.27 .041
R34 1.073 .030 1.071 .033
R25 1.163 .066 1.195 .073 6.88 .010
L24 .949 .036 .977 .043 10.29 .002
L34 1.064 .042 1.073 .040
L25 1.175 .070 1.211 .067 8.31 .005

Note. SAT = Scholastic Achievement Test.

TABLE 2
Correlations (p Values)

Variable R24 R34 R25 L24 L34 L25

Female participants
Thurstone Verbal Fluency –.24 (.030) –.26 (.019)
Sum
s –.23 (.040) –.25 (.024)
Vandenberg Mental
Rotation
Female percentile –.25 (.024) –.30 (.006)
Male participants
Thurstone Verbal Fluency
Sum
c –.32 (.042) .41 (.009)
Vandenberg Mental
Rotation
Number correct .37 (.021)
Male percentile .35 (.032)
SAT Verbal .40 (.015)

Note. SAT = Scholastic Achievement Test.

499
500 BURTON, HENNINGER, HAFETZ

participants, significantly higher total production of words was associated with


lower, more male-typical finger-length ratios (R25, L25). This same pattern was
found for words beginning with s alone (R25, L25). For the Vandenberg Mental
Rotation Test female percentile score, better mental rotation was also associated
with the lower, more male-typical finger-length ratio pattern (R24, R25).
For the male participants, the reverse pattern was seen, such that better cogni-
tive performance was associated with a higher, more female-typical finger ratio
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pattern. This pattern was seen for higher production of words beginning with c to
be associated with the higher, female-typical finger ratio pattern (R34, L24). On
the Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test, a higher male percentile score and raw score
were associated with higher, more female-typical finger-length ratios (L34). A
better Verbal SAT score was associated with a higher, more female-typical fin-
ger-length ratio (L24). Appendixes A and B (Figures 1 & 2) show sample scatter
plots for the relations between the cognitive variables and finger-length ratios.

DISCUSSION

Gender differences were found in the expected directions, such that the men per-
formed better than the women for mental rotation, the women performed better
than the men for verbal fluency, and the finger-length ratios were in the directions
reported in the literature. The finger-length ratios showed an interesting relation
with the cognitive variables for the men and women. For the men, better perfor-
mance on the measures, including mental rotation, verbal fluency, and the Verbal
SAT score was associated with less of a male-typical finger-length ratio pattern, or
higher ratios. For the women, better performance on these measures of mental ro-
tation and verbal fluency was associated with less of a female-typical finger-length
ratio pattern, or lower ratios. Thus, in this group of college students, better cogni-
tive performance was associated with a less gender-typical finger-length ratio, for
both men and women. As discussed, finger-length ratios are believed to reflect hor-
monal influences occurring prenatally.
These data are quite striking for a variety of reasons. First, there were several
gender differences in the cognitive variables, and all were consistent with existing
literature; this lends this data set a certain level of credibility. Second, the gender
differences in the finger-length ratios were also consistent with the existing stud-
ies, also lending credibility. Third, although some of the correlations between the
cognitive variables and finger-length ratios were not expected, they were striking
in their consistency. When effects were found for male or female participants, they
indicated an association of higher cognitive performance with less gender-typical
finger-length ratios in 10 of 11 cases. This is most strikingly apparent in Table 2,
GENDER DIFFERENCES 501

where all correlations for the female participants are negative, and four of the five
correlations for the male participants are positive.
These data are best interpreted with the idea of a curvilinear relation between
cognitive variables and hormones. In this group of healthy participants, with pre-
sumably normal variations of prenatal hormonal levels, there may be an optimal
hormonal level in the middle of the male–female hormonal continuum that is asso-
ciated with optimal cognitive performance. Thus, women with more masculine
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finger-length ratios perform better on both verbal and spatial tasks than women
with highly female-typical finger-length ratios, and men with more feminine fin-
ger-length ratios perform better on both verbal and spatial tasks than men with
highly masculine finger-length ratios.
This fits with the studies and ideas of Geschwind and Galaburda (1987),
Petersen (1976), Nyborg (1983, 1984, 1988, 1990), and the many empirical studies
reported earlier. As reviewed earlier, these studies have reported a curvilinear rela-
tion between spatial abilities and hormones, usually testosterone, but some of the
studies reported relations between spatial abilities and estrogens. The only study
known to us reporting a similar relation between verbal fluency and hormonal in-
dexes was the Petersen (1976) finding in females of a more masculine body type
being associated with higher spatial skills and higher verbal fluency. The relations
for men and women are undoubtedly complex at a biochemical level, because an-
drogens may be aromatized into estradiol; it is beyond the scope of this study to
address what the critical hormone might be.
More studies evaluating intraindividual relations between variations in hor-
monal levels within the normal range and cognitive variables would be of great in-
terest. If a curvilinear relation between cognition and hormones within the normal
range does exist, it is important to evaluate male and female groups carefully. For
example, in this study, in the correlations combining men and women, relations be-
tween cognitive variables and hormonal indexes were almost obliterated, because
they were working in opposite directions.
Finger-length ratios may be a sensitive and useful means of evaluating hor-
monal effects on a variety of variables. They were able to reflect subtle variations
within the normal range in this study. As mentioned, it is thought that finger-length
ratios reflect prenatal hormonal effects, but the mechanism and specific hormones
involved remain to be delineated. A more direct measurement of prenatal hormone
levels and later cognitive skills using a longitudinal design would be of great inter-
est and would bolster these inferential findings. Further research elucidating these
mechanisms is needed.
Additional limitations of this study include the fact that the SAT scores re-
flected self-report (confidential, on a questionnaire) rather than being obtained
from records directly. Further, the sample, especially the male participants, was
somewhat small. Future work is needed to strengthen and elaborate these findings.
502 BURTON, HENNINGER, HAFETZ

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APPENDIX A
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FIGURE 1 Scatterplot for female participants: Verbal fluency (sum) and R25.

APPENDIX B

FIGURE 2 Scatterplot for male participants: Mental rotation (number correct) and L34.
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