2.

1 Classifying Compounds
Figure 1
Conductivity is used to distinguish between
aqueous solutions of ionic and molecular
compounds.
ionic compound: a pure substance
formed from a metal and a nonmetal
molecular compound: a pure sub-
stance formed from two or more different
nonmetals
electrical conductivity: the ability of a
material to allow electricity to flow through it
electrolyte: a substance that forms a solu-
tion that conducts electricity
There are many ways to classify substances. You are already familiar with several
of them. For example, you know that iron is a solid at SATP (not a liquid or a
gas), a metal (not a nonmetal), and an element (not a compound). Similarly,
water is a liquid and a compound. In this section, we will look at ways of further
classifying compounds.
One category of compounds includes table salt (sodium chloride), NaCl(s),
bluestone (copper(II) sulfate), CuSO4(s), and baking soda (sodium bicarbonate),
NaHCO3(s). If you think about their chemical formulas, you might notice that
each one is made up of a metal joined to a nonmetal. These compounds are
called ionic compounds.
A second category includes sulfur dioxide, SO2, carbon dioxide, CO2, and
ammonia, NH3. Look at their formulas. What do you notice? They are all non-
metals combined with nonmetals, and are called molecular compounds.
Many ionic and molecular compounds can be found within your own home.
For example, window cleaners, household bleach, antacid tablets, and milk of
magnesia contain ionic compounds. Vegetable oil, plastics, and sugar contain
molecular compounds.
We can use electrical conductivity—the ability to conduct electricity—to
distinguish between ionic and molecular compounds: Ionic compounds (many
of which dissolve readily in water) form solutions that conduct electricity.
However, molecular compounds (some of which dissolve in water) form solu-
tions that generally do not conduct electricity. Of course, there are exceptions to
this generalization.
Substances that form solutions that conduct electricity are called elec-
trolytes. Their solutions are called electrolytic solutions.
Substances that form solutions that do not conduct electricity are called
nonelectrolytes. Their solutions are called nonelectrolytic solutions (Figure 1).

INQUIRY SKILLS Investigation 2.1.1

Questioning Recording Comparing Ionic and Molecular Compounds
Hypothesizing Analyzing
Predicting Evaluating Just as a group of elements can share physical and chemical properties, so too can
Planning Communicating a class of compounds. For instance, solid ionic compounds generally have very
Conducting
high melting points and are brittle—they can often be crushed fairly easily into a
powder. Molecular compounds in solid form tend to have a softer or waxy texture,
and many have melting and boiling points so low that they are gases or liquids at
room temperature. If we can classify a substance as either ionic or molecular, we
should be able to predict some of its properties. Conversely, if we know some of the
properties of a substance, we can classify it as ionic or molecular.
There are several properties that we could take into account. Generally, the
simplest to investigate are physical properties, such as state at SATP, solubility in
water, and ability to conduct electricity in solution.
The purpose of this investigation is to test the generalizations you have
encountered about ionic and molecular compounds. Complete the
Hypothesis/Prediction, Analysis, Evaluation, and Synthesis sections of the lab
report.

66 Chapter 2
 2.1

Question
Which of the following substances are ionic, and which are molecular: sodium
nitrate, NaNO3(s); sucrose, C12H22O11(s); sodium chloride, NaCl(s); potassium
sulfate, K2SO4(s); ethanol, C2H5OH(l); sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3(s); and cal-
cium sulfate, CaSO4(s)?

Hypothesis/Prediction
(a) Answer the Question, considering the state of matter at room temperature
and the chemical formula of each substance. Provide your reasoning for
each decision.
(b) Based on your classification, predict whether each substance will dissolve in
water and whether any solutions formed will conduct electricity.

Experimental Design
The ionic or molecular nature of several compounds will be determined by
applying the tests of solubility and conductivity.

Materials Ethanol is flammable; do not

use near an open flame. Use
lab apron sodium nitrate, NaNO3(s) only low-voltage conductivity
eye protection sucrose, C12H22O11(s) apparatus.
8 50-mL beakers sodium chloride, NaCl(s)
distilled water potassium sulfate, K2SO4(s) Wear eye protection and an
wax pencil ethanol, C2H5OH(l) apron, and wash hands thor-
scoopula sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3(s) oughly at the end of the
medicine dropper calcium sulfate, CaSO4(s) investigation.
stirring rod low-voltage conductivity apparatus

Procedure
Part 1: Solubility
1. Obtain a small amount of NaCl(s). Observe and, in a table, record its state
at the ambient temperature.
2. Pour about 10 mL of distilled water into a 50-mL beaker. Add a small
quantity of the chemical to the water (Figure 2).
3. Use a stirring rod to stir the mixture. Note whether the chemical dissolves.
Record your observations. Label the beaker with the name of the chemical
and put it aside for the conductivity test in Part 2.
4. Repeat steps 1 through 3 for each of the other compounds.
Part 2: Conductivity
5. Obtain a small sample of distilled water in a beaker. Test the electrical conduc-
tivity of the sample. A reading of zero should be indicated by the apparatus.
6. Test the conductivity of the mixture of sodium chloride and water that was solid liquid
set aside in Part 1. Record your observations and rinse the probes in dis-
tilled water.
7. Repeat step 6 for each of the remaining mixtures. Figure 2
For a solid chemical, use a small quantity in a
8. Dispose of the mixtures in the appropriate disposal containers provided by scoopula as shown. If the chemical is a
your teacher. Rinse the beakers. liquid, use a dropper full of liquid.

Chemical Bonding 67
 Analysis
(c) Use the Evidence you gathered in this experiment to answer the Question
(classify each of the substances as ionic or molecular).

Evaluation
(d) Do you have confidence in your observations? Do you feel that they can be
used to accurately classify the substances? Explain.
(e) Compare your answer from the Analysis with the answer in your
Hypothesis/Prediction (question (a)). How do you account for any
differences?

Synthesis
(f) Were you able to accurately predict the properties of the substances based
on your initial classification? Why or why not?
(g) What assumptions are being made in this investigation?

Electrolytes and Classification

When table salt (sodium chloride), NaCl(s), dissolves in water it forms a solution
that conducts electricity: It is an electrolyte, and dissolving it forms an elec-
trolytic solution. Sodium chloride is a typical ionic compound: Its solution con-
ducts electricity. Sugar will also dissolve in water. However, the sugar solution
will not conduct electricity, so sugar is a nonelectrolyte. It is a typical molecular
compound: Its solution with water does not conduct electricity. In Unit 3, you
will learn more about conductivity and solutions. You will also find out more
about molecular acids: important exceptions to the rule that molecular solutions
do not conduct electricity.

Practice
Understanding Concepts
1. What types of elements combine to form
(a) an ionic compound?
(b) a molecular compound?
Table 1: Observations of Five
Unknown Compounds 2. Briefly describe a diagnostic test for an ionic compound, and give a
theoretical explanation for that test.
Compound State at Conductivity
SATP of solution Applying Inquiry Skills
A solid yes 3. A student hypothesizes that an unknown substance is composed of
B liquid no positive and negative ions held together by the attraction of their
opposite charges. Design an experiment that would allow the student
C gas yes
to test this hypothesis.
D solid yes
4. Use the evidence in Table 1 to classify each of the five compounds as
E solid no ionic or molecular. Provide your reasoning for each classification.

2.2 Ionic Bonding

When sodium (a metal) is put in a vessel containing chlorine (a nonmetal), the
two elements combine enthusiastically to form the compound sodium chloride,

68 Chapter 2