ANSI/I EEE C57.

91-1981
(Revision of ANSI C57.91-1974)

guide for loading

mineral-oil-immersed overhead a n d pad-mounted
d i st ribution tra nsf or me rs
rated 500 k V A and less with
6 5 "C or 5 5 "C average winding rise

July 31, 1981 SH08177

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Authorized licensed use limited to: Northeastern University. Downloaded on October 27,2014 at 00:39:56 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 An American National Standard
IEEE Guide for Loading
Mineral-Oil-Immersed Overhead and Pad-Mounted
Distribution Transformers
Rated 500 kVA and Less with
65 O C or 55 "C Average Winding Rise
1. Scope
1.1 This guide covers general recommenda-
tions for loading 65 "C rise mineral-oil-
immersed overhead and pad-mounted distribu-
tion transformers described in American
National Standards and rated 500 kVA and
less. (For transformers rated 501 kVA and
larger, see ANSI/IEEE C57.92-1981, [31')
Recommendations for 55 "C rise transformers
are included in this guide because a substan-
tial percentage of these transformers are still
in service.
1.2 Loading recommendations in tabular form
are contained in Section 5 of this guide. A
method to establish winding temperature and
loss of life by nomographs is also given in Sec-
tion 5.
1.3 The method used for the calculation of
the loading guide tables in Section 5 is given
in Section 6 of this guide.
1.4 The recommendations of this guide are
based on winding hottest-spot calculations
only. Other factors such as listed in 3.6.1 may
limit the permissible load to lower values.
2. References
When the following ANSI standards and
guides referred to in this guide are superseded
by a revision approved by the American
National Standards Institute, the latest revi-
sion shall apply.
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[11 ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00-1980, General Re-
quirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution,
Power, and Regulating Transformers.
121 ANWIEEE C57.12.90-1980, Test Code for
Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and
Regulating Transformers and Guide for Short-
Circuit Testing of Distribution and Power
Transformers.
[31 ANSMEEE C57.92-1981, Guide for Load-
ing Mineral-Oil-Immersed Power Transform-
ers up to and Including 100 MVA with 55 "C
or 65 "C Winding Rise.
[41 ANSI/IEEE C57.100-1972, American Na-
tional Standard Test Procedure for Thermal
Evaluation of Oil-Immersed Distribution Trans-
formers
3. General
3.1 Transformer Rated Output
3.1.1 The terms rated output or rated load
used in this guide refer to nameplate rating as
defined in ANWIEEE C57.12.00-1980 111.
3.1.2 The temperature rise on which the
rating of a transformer is based takes into
consideration the experience of the industry
regarding:
(1) Insulation life a s affected by operating
temperature
(2) The ambient- temperature assumed to
exist throughout the life of the transformer
'The numbers in brackets correspond to the references
listed in Section 2 of this guide.
 ANSI/IEEE
C57.91-1981
3.1.3 The actual output which a trans-
former can deliver at any time in service
without undue deterioration of the insulation
may be more or less than the nameplate kVA
rating, depending upon the ambient tempera-
ture and other attendant operating conditions.
3.2 Transformer Temperature Rises
3.2.1 65 "C Rise Transformers. Trans-
formers with an average winding rise of not
more than 65 "C and hottest-spot winding rise
of not more than 80 "C will be referred to as
65 "C rise transformers.
3.2.2 55 "C Rise Transformers. Trans-
formers with a n average winding rise of not
more than 5 5 "C and hottest-spot winding rise
of not more than 65 "C will be referred to as
55 "C rise transformers.
3.2.3 In the text of this guide values for
65 "C rise transformers will apvear first fol-
lowed by values for 55 "C rise transformers in
parentheses, that is, 65 (55) "C.
3.3 Factors Affecting Transformer Cooling.
In daily operation the ambient temperature,
the altitude, and the transformer's exterior
finish may be different than is assumed for
the basis of rating. These departures may
influence the thermal performance of a trans-
former as follows:
3.3.1 Influence of Ambient Temperature
on Loading. The ambient temperature is an
important factor in determining the load capa-
bility of a transformer since the temperature
rise for any load must be added to the ambient
to determine operating temperature. Wher-
ever the actual ambient temperature can be
measured, such ambient should be used in
determination of winding hottest-spot tem-
perature and the load capability of the trans-
former.
Average ambient temperatures should cover
periods of time not exceeding 24 h with max-
imum temperatures not more than 10 "C
greater than average temperatures for air.
Table 1 gives the increase or decrease in rated
loads for other than average daily ambients of
30 "C for air. It is recommended that the 5 "C
margin described in 3.3.2 be used when apply-
ing the factors from Table 1. It should be
pointed out t h a t the increase or decrease
obtained from Table 1 is more conservative
than the corresponding calculated values.
Table 1 is used for quick approximations.
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IEEE GUIDE FOR LOADING MINERAL-OIL-IMMERSED OVERHEAD
Table 1
Loading on Basis of Ambient Temperature
Other Than 30 "C
(for Quick Approximation, 0 "C-50 "C)
% of
Rated kVA
Decrease load for each "C
the ambient temperature exceeds 30 "C 1.5
Increase load for each "C
the ambient temperature is below 30°C 1.0
Loading on the basis of ambient tempera-
ture with loads permitted by Table 1 will give
approximately the same life expectancy as if
transformers were operated at nameplate rat-
ing and standard ambient temperatures over
the same period.
Table 1 covers a range in ambients of 0 "C
to 5 0 ° C for cooling air. A check should be
made with the manufacturer before loading on
the basis of cooling air ambient less than 0 "C
or greater than 50 "C.
Since ambient temperature is a n important
factor in determining the load capability of a
transformer, it should be controlled for indoor
installations by adequate ventilation and
should always be considered in outdoor instal-
lations.
3.3.2 Approximating Ambient Tempera-
ture. It is often necessary to predict the load
which a transformer can safely carry at some
future time when the ambient temperature is
unknown. The probable ambient temperature
for any month may be approximated as follows
from reports prepared by the Weather Bureau
of the US Department of Commerce which are
available for various sections of the country:
(1) Average Temperature. Use average daily
temperature for the month involved, averaged
over a number of years
(2) Average of Maximum Daily Temperatures.
Use average of the maximum daily tempera-
ture for month involved, averaged over several
years
These ambients should be used a s follows: for
loads with normal life expectancy, use item Cl!
a s the ambient for the month involved; for
10

AND PAD-MOUNTED DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
short-time loads with moderate sacrifice of life
expectancy, use item (2) for the month involved.
During any one day the average or max-
imum temperatures may exceed the values
derived from (1) or (2) above. To be conserva-
tive, it is recommended t h a t these tempera-
tures be increased by 5 "C since aging at
higher than average temperature is not fully
offset by decreased aging a t lower than aver-
age temperature. With this margin the
approximated temperature will not be ex-
ceeded on more than a few days per month
and, where it is exceeded, the additional loss
of life will not be serious.
3.3.3 Influence of Altitude on Loading.
The decreased air density due to high altitude
increases the temperature rise of transformers
since they are dependent upon air for the dis-
sipation of heat losses.
3.3.3.1 Operation at Rated LVA. Trans-
formers may be operated at rated kVA a t alti-
tudes greater than 1000 m (3300 ft) without
exceeding temperature limits provided the
average temperature of the cooling air does
not exceed the values of Table 2 for the
respective altitudes.
3.3.3.2 Operation at Less than Rated
kVA. Transformers may be operated a t alti-
tudes greater than 1000 m (3300 ft) without
exceeding the normal temperature limits pro-
vided the load to be carried is reduced below
nameplate rating by 0.4% for each 100 m (330
ft) t h a t the altitude is above 1000 m (3300 ft).
The manufacturer should be consulted to
ascertain what influence the application of
fan cooling will have on the rating a t various
altitudes.
3.3.3.3 Recommended Calculation of
Average Temperature. I t is recommended
that the average temperature of the cooling
air be calculated by averaging 24 consecutive
hourly readings. When the outdoor air is the
Table 2
Maximum Allowable Average
Temperature of Cooling Air to
Permit Carrying Rated kVA
1000 m 2000 m 3000 m
(3300 ft) (6600ft) (9900 ft)
~ ~~~~
30 "C 28 "C 25 "C
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ANSUIEEE
C57.91-1981
cooling medium, the average of the maximum
and minimum daily temperature may be used.
The value obtained in this manner is usually
slightly higher than the true daily average by
not more than 0.3 "C.
3.3.4 Influence of Exterior Finish on
Loading. The thermal radiation characteris-
tic of a transformer is affected by its external
finish. Temperature limits and tests are based
upon the use of a pigment paint finish, which
is a standard finish for transformer tanks and
radiators.
Metallic flake paints, such as aluminum,
zinc, etc have radiation properties which
increase the temperature rise of transformers
except in direct sunlight. Particular note
should be made of a coating's radiation proper-
ties when a transformer is refinished in the
field.
3.4 Aging of Insulation
3.4.1 Aging or deterioration of insulation
is a function of temperature and the time it is
a t this temperature. Since, in most apparatus,
the temperature distribution is not uniform,
t h a t part which is operating at the highest
temperature will ordinarily undergo the
greatest deterioration. Therefore, in aging
studies it is usual to consider the aging effects
produced by the highest (hottest-spot) tem-
perature.
3.4.2 Much of the fundamental insulation
aging data at different temperatures has been
based on laboratory and model tests in which
the decrease in mechanical and electrical
strength has been measured. This has been
supplemented by a series of functional life
expectancy tests made under controlled condi-
tions on commercially produced distribution
transformers, under the auspices of the IEEE
Transformers Committee. For test procedures
see ANSI/IEEE C57.100-1972 [41.
Data from these tests, and judgment, has
resulted in the life expectancy curves shown
in Fig 1. This guide adopts these curves as the
normal life expectancy for distribution trans-
formers with average winding temperature
rises of 65 "C and 55 "C. The loss of life data
given in this guide are derived from these nor-
mal life expectancy curves. I t is the best dis-
4000 m tribution transformer life information
(13200 ft) currently available.
3.4.3 This guide assumes the insulation
23 "C
deterioration relationship with respect to tem-
 ANSMEEE
C57.91-1981 IEEE GUIDE FOR LOADING MINERAL-OIL-IMMERSEDOVERHEAD

500 000 50

200 000 20
C
I00 000
IO

50000 5
0
I

> 20000 2
0
z
2 10000
IIY
v)

a. a
W
2 5000 z
W
k
-1
J 2000
a
2
U
0 1000
z 0.I

500

200

IO0
300 260 220 180 140 120 I00 80
HOTTEST-SPOT TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES CELSIUS
(RECIPROCAL OF ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALE)

Fig 1
Life Expectancy Curve

perature and time follows a n adaptation of the
Arrhenius reaction rate theory which states
t h a t the logarithm of insulation life is a func-
tion of the reciprocal of absolute temperature:
B
Log,, life(h)=A + -
T
where
T = absolute temperature in
degrees kelvin, = Oh, 273
(as shown in Eq 14) where
O h , equals the temperature
a t the hottest-spot
A and B = constants for appropriate
life expectancy curve
For the 65 "C insulation systems
B 6328.8
A = -11.269 =
For the 55 "C insulation systems
(Eq 1) A = -11.968 B = 6328.8
3.5 Transformer Life Expectancy
3.5.1 Transformer life expectancy a t any
operating temperature is not accurately
known, but the information given regarding
loss of insulation life at elevated temperatures
+ is considered to be conservative and the best
t h a t can be produced from present knowledge
of the subject. The effects of temperature on
insulation life are being investigated continu-
ously, and new data may affect future revi-
sions of this guide. The word conservative as
used above is used in the sense that the

12

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AND PAD-MOUNTED DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
expected loss of insulation life for a single
overload cycle will not be greater than the
amount stated.
3.5.2 Because the cumulative effects of
temperature and time in causing deterioration
of transformer insulation are not thoroughly
established, it is not possible to predict with
any great degree of accuracy the length of life
of a transformer even under constant or
closely controlled conditions, much less under
widely varying service conditions.
Deterioration of insulation is generally
characterized by a reduction in mechanical
strength and in dielectric strength, but these
characteristics may not necessarily be directly
related. In some cases, insulation in a charred
condition will have sufficient insulating quali-
ties to withstand normal operating electrical
and mechanical stresses. A transformer hav-
ing insulation in this condition may continue
in service for many months or even years, if
undisturbed. On the other hand, any unusual
movement of the conductors, such as may be
caused by expansion of the conductors due to
heating resulting from a heavy overload or to
large electromagnetic forces resulting from
short circuit, may disturb the mechanically
weak insulation such t h a t turn-to-turn or
layer-to-layer failure will result.
3.5.3 The recommendations of this guide
are based upon the life expectancy curves of
Fig 1 which relate to the insulation system,
but do not account for such factors as
deterioration of gaskets, rusting of tanks, etc.
which are induced by exposure to the elements
of the weather in normal operations.
3.5.4 Normal Life Expectancy.
(1) The basic loading of a transformer for
normal life expectancy is continuous loading
at rated output when operated under normal
service conditions a s indicated in 4.1.6(1) and
4.1.6(2) of ANSIIIEEE C57.12.00-1980 [ll.I t is
assumed that operation under these conditions
is equivalent to operation in a constant 30 "C
ambient. Normal life expectancy will result
from operating continuously with hottest-spot
conductor temperature of llO(95) "C or an
equivalent cycle.
(2) The hottest-spot conductor temperature
is the principal factor in determining life due
to loading. This temperature cannot be
directly measured on commercial designs
because of the hazard in placing any tempera-
ture detector at the proper location because of
13
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ANWIEEE
C57.91-1981
voltage. The indicated allowances have there-
fore been obtained from tests made in the lab-
oratory.
(3) The hottest-spot temperature a t rated
load is the sum of the average winding tem-
perature and a hottest-spot allowance, usually
15(10)"C. For mineral oil-immersed trans-
formers operating continuously under the fore-
going conditions this temperature has been
limited to a maximum of llO(95)"C.
(4) The normal life expectancy at a continu-
ous hottest-spot temperature of llO(9.5) "C is
20 years as shown in Fig 1.
3.5.5 The many variables and, particularly,
the many varying conditions of load and
ambient to which a transformer can be sub-
jected in service make it impossible to give
definite rules for the loading of transformers.
I t is possible to give only suggested loadings
under specified conditions, and look to the
user to make the best use of this information
for his particular problem.
3.6 Limitations
3.6.1 It must be recognized that when
loading transformers above nameplate rating,
other limitations may be encountered. Among
these limitations are: oil expansion, pressure
in sealed units, and the thermal capability of
bushings, leads, tap changers or associated
equipment such a s cables, reactors, circuit
breakers, disconnecting switches, and current
transformers. Any of these items may limit
the loading and manufacturers should, there-
fore, be consulted before loading transformers
above nameplate rating.
Operation at hottest-spot temperatures
above 140 "C may cause gassing in the solid
insulation and the oil. Gassing may produce a
potential risk to the dielectric strength
integrity of the transformer and this risk
should be considered when the guide is
applied.
3.6.2 Transformers are sometimes installed
in subsurface manholes and vaults of minimum
size with natural ventilation through roof grat-
ings. This type of installation results in a
higher ambient temperature than the outdoor
air. The amount of increase depends on the
design of the manholes and vaults, net opening
area of the roof gratings, and the adjacent sub-
surface structures. Therefore, the increase in
effective ambient temperature for expected
 ANSUIEEE
C57.91-1981
transformer losses must be determined before
loading limitations can be estimated.
3.6.3 The heating effects of loading a
transformer and of solar radiation, each may
result in an enclosure surface temperature
high enough to present a hazard to personnel
who might come in contact with the enclosure
surface where unlimited access to the trans-
former exists (such as certain pad-mounted
units).
4. Loading of Transformers
4.1 Loading f o r Normal Life Expectancy
U n d e r Specific Conditions. When the
ambient temperature is below the 30 "C
ambient used to establish the transformers'
rating, or when the transformers' temperature
rises a t nameplate rated load, a s determined
by test, are less than the normal limiting
values, some additional load beyond nameplate
rating is possible within normal life expecta-
tions.
4.1.1 Loading b y Oil Temperature. Oil
temperature alone should not be used as a
guide for loading transformers. The hottest-
spot winding rise over top-oil temperature a t
full load should be determined from the fac-
tory tests and Eq 7 and should then be
corrected for the actual load carried, using Eq
5 or Fig 10. This hottest-spot rise over top-oil,
subtracted from llO(95) "C, will give the max-
imum permissable top-oil temperature for nor-
mal life expectancy. It should be recognized
that, due to the thermal lag in the oil tem-
perature rise, time is required for a trans-
former to reach a stable temperature for any
change in load. Therefore, higher peak loads
may be carried for a short duration. This is
reflected in the loading tables.
If the transformer characteristics are not
accurately known, maximum top-oil tempera-
tures derived from Fig 2 may be used a s a n
approximate guide. Figure 2 is based on a
difference between hottest-spot temperature
and top-oil temperature of 25(20)"C a t rated
load.
4.1.2 Continuous Loading Based on Aver-
age Winding Test T e m p e r a t u r e Rise. For
each "C in excess of 5 "C that the average
winding test temperature rise is below
65(55) "C, the transformer load may be
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IEEE GUIDE FOR LOADING MINERAL-OIL-IMMERSED OVERHEAD
2.0
a
3 1.8
0
1.6
a
t
z
v) 1.4
W
r
+
1.2
1.0
-
0 0 20 30 40 50 60 7 0 80 90
1
MAXIMUM TOP-OIL
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES CELSIUS
Fig 2
Approximate Continuous Loading for
Normal Life Expectancy Based on
Maximum Top-Oil T e m p e r a t u r e
increased above rated kVA by 1.5%.The 5 "C
margin is taken to provide a tolerance in the
measurement of temperature rise. The load
value thus obtained is the kVA load which the
transformer can carry a t 6 5 6 5 ) "C rise. Since
this may indicate a load capability beyond
t h a t comtemplated by the designer, the limita-
tions given in 3.6.1 should be checked before
taking full advantage of this increase.
The above is not applicable to all transform-
ers; some transformers are designed to have
the difference between the hottest-spot and
average winding temperatures greater than
the 15(10) "C allowance. This will result in an
average winding temperature rise of less than
65(55) "C, while the hottest-spot winding rise
may be a t the 80(65) "C limiting value. This
condition may exist in transformers with large
differences between top and bottom oil tem-
peratures.
The manufacturer should be consulted for
information on the hottest-spot allowances
used for these designs.
4.1.3 Loading on Basis of Short-Time
Loads Above Rating. Transformers may be
operated above llO(95) "C average continuous
hottest-spot temperature for short periods pro-
vided they are operated for much longer
periods a t temperatures below llO(95) "C. This
is due to the fact that thermal aging is a
cumulative process. This permits loads above
the rating to be safely carried under specified
conditions without encroaching upon the nor-
mal life expectancy of the transformer.
14
 ANSUIEEE
AND PAD-MOUNTED DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS C57.91-1981

10.00
8.00
6.00

4.00

2.00
c
2
W
U
E 1.00
't 0.80
W
& 0.60
-I

& 0.40
0.30
s 0.20

0.10
0.08
0.06

n
-.-n4.
95 110 I 2 0 130 140 I50 I60 170 180 190 200
HOTTEST-SPOT TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES CELSIUS

Time '% Loss of Life*

(h) 0.05 0.10 0.25 0.50 1.00 2.00 4.00

'h 171 180 193 *

U*
1 161 171 183 193 =*
*
2 153 161 174 183 193 *
U*
4 144 153 164 174 183 193 m*
*
8 136 144 155 164 174 183 193
16 128 136 147 155 164 174 183
24 124 131 142 150 159 168 178

NOTE: For explanation of limitations and accuracy, see 5.3.4.

* Calculated for one occurrence on the assumption t h a t the hottest spot temperature remains constant for the specified
time duration. Tables 5-7 list more accurate loss of life determinations in which the time-temperature response of the
transformer is taken into account. Refer to Section 6 for the time integration method used.
** Maximum permissible value is 200 "C, the underlined values permit interpolation.

Fig 3
Maximum Hottest-Spot Conductor
T e m p e r a t u r e in "C (65 "C Rise)

4.2 Short-Time Loading w i t h Moderate
Sacrifice of Life Expectancy (Operation
above llO(95) "C Hottest-Spot Tempera-
ture.
(1) When for any given period of time the
aging effect of one overload cycle or the cumu-
lative aging effect of a number of overload
cycles is greater than the aging effect of con-
tinuous operation a t rated load, the insulation
deteriorates a t a faster rate than normal. The
rate of deterioration is a function of time and
temperature and is commonly expressed a s a
percentage loss of life per incident. Charts and
tables showing relative loss of life for various
combinations of time and temperature are
given in Fig 3 for 65 "C rise and Fig 4 for
55 "C rise transformers.

15

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 ANSUIEEE
C57.91-1981 IEEE GUIDE FOR LOADING MINERAL-OIL-IMMERSED OVERHEAD

SIUS

Time % Loss of Life*

(h) 0.05 0.10 0.25 0.50 1.00 2.00 4.00

vi 150 159 171 180 -

190**
1 142 150 161 171 180 m**
2 134 142 153 161 171 180 m**
4 126 134 144 153 161 171 180
8 118 126 136 144 153 161 171
16 111 118 128 136 144 153 161
24 107 114 124 131 139 148 156

NOTE: For explanation of limitations and accuracy, see 5.3.4.

* Calculated for one occurrence on the assumption t h a t the hottest spot temperature remains constant for the specified
time duration. Tables 8-10 list more accurate loss of life determinations in which the time-temperature response of the
transformer is taken into account. Refer to Section 6 for the time integration method used.
** Maximum permissible value is 180 "C, the underlined values permit interpolation.

Fig 4
Maximum Hottest-Spot Conductor
T e m p e r a t u r e in "C (55 "C Rise)

(2) It should be clearly understood that, life expectancy of transformer insulation.

while the insulation aging rate information is
considered to be conservative and helpful in
estimating the relative loss of life due to loads
above nameplate rating under various condi-
tions, this information is not intended to fur-
nish the sole basis for calculating the normal
(3) The uncertainty of service conditions
and the wide range in ratings covered are rea-
sons why this loading guide is conservative in
its suggested loading schedule. Some of the
variables are: wide differences in ambient
temperature between localities; differences in

16

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 ANSI/IEEE
AND PAD-MOUNTED DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS C57.91-1981

elevation; restricted air circulation caused by Table 3

buildings, fire walls, etc; previous emergency Assumed Transformer Characteristics
loading history which may not be known to at Rated Load
the operator; and variations in design charac- (Based on 30 "C Ambient)
teristics from those in Table 3. As a guide,
65 "C 55 "C
many users consider a n average loss of life of Rise Rise
1% per year or 5% in any one emergency
Maximum allowed hottest-spot conductor
operation to be reasonable. temperature rise above ambient, "C 80 65
Hottest-spot conductor temperature
rise (above ambient), "C 75 65
Top-oil temperature rise (above
5. Determination of Temperature ambient), "C 55 45
and Loss of Life Top-oil time constant, h 3.5 3.0
Hottest-spot conductor time constant,
5.1 General. It is possible to study the h 0.0834 0.0834
effects of a particular load cycle on a trans- Ratio of load loss a t rated load to
former by dividing the cycle in a large number no-load loss 2.7 3.0
of short intervals and to study each interval n' 0.8 0.8
separately. Further details on this type of cal-
culation are presented in Section 6. *n is the exponential power of loss versus temperature rise
The calculation approach, particularly use-
ful when the transformer characteristics are
known, is time-consuming when the calcula-
tions are to be made by hand. The effort will
be much reduced when the shape of the load 5.2.1 Method of Converting Actual to
curve can be simplified to a constant load with Equivalent Load Cycle. A transformer sup-
a superimposed peak load. A method to plying a fluctuating load generates a fluctuat-
achieve this result is given in 5.2. ing loss, the effect of which is about the same
Whenever possible, hottest-spot and top-oil as t h a t of a n intermediate load held constant
temperature rises obtained from factory tem- for the same period of time. This is due to the
perature tests should be used in determining a heat storage characteristics of the materials
transformer's load capability or when calculat- in the transformer. A constant load which
ing winding temperatures for loads above generates losses at the same rate as the aver-
nameplate rating. age rate caused by a fluctuating load is a n
When the transformer characteristics are equivalent load from a temperature stand-
not known, typical values have to be assumed. point. Equivalent load for any part of a daily
Characteristic values used in the following load cycle may be expressed by Eq 2.
sections are given in Table 3. Tables 5-10
present in tabular form the peak loads of a Equivalent load or rms value =
number of simplified load cycles and resulting
loss of life. Nomographs to determine loss of
life during various load cycles are given in 5.4.

5.2 Load Cycles. Transformers usually oper-

ate on a load cycle which repeats every 24 h. (Eq 2)
A typical load cycle such as shown by the solid
line in Fig 5 consists of load fluctuations where
throughout the day.
=
There is usually one period in the daily load L,, L,, L3, . * * various load steps in %, per
cycle when the load builds up to a consider- unit, or in actual kVA or
ably greater value than any reached at other current, and,
times. Generally, the maximum value or peak
load is not reached and passed suddenly, but t,, t,, ... = respective durations of
builds up and falls off gradually. these loads

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 ANSMEEE
C57.91-1981
Actual Load Cycle a n d
Equivalent Load Cycle
5.2.2 Equivalent peak load for the usual
load cycle is the rms load obtained by Eq 2 for
the limited period over which the major part
of the actual irregular peak seems to exist.
The estimated duration of the peak has con-
siderable influence over the rms peak value. If
the duration is overestimated, the rms peak
value may be considerably below the max-
imum peak demand. To guard against
overheating due to high, brief overloads dur-
ing the peak overload, the rms value for the
peak load period should not be less than 90%
of the integrated half-hour maximum demand.
5.2.3 Equivalent continuous load is the
rms load obtained by Eq 2 over a chosen
period of the day. Experience indicates that
quite satisfactory results are obtained by con-
sidering the 12 h periods preceding and follow-
ing the peak and by selecting the larger of the
two rms values so produced. Time intervals (t)
of 1 h are suggested as a further simplifica-
tion of the equation which for a 12 h period
becomes Eq 3.
Equivalent continuous load =
oadLp+Lg+- - -
where:
L,, L,, ... L,, = average load by inspection
for each 1 h interval of
the 12 h period adjacent
to the peak load
The dashed line in Fig 5 shows the
equivalent load cycle const~ucted from the
actual load cycle.
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IEEE GUIDE FOR LOADING MINERAL-OIL-IMMERSED OVERHEAD
Fig 5
5.3 Tables to Determine Peak Loads for
Normal Life Expectancy and Moderate
Sacrifice of Life Expectancy. Calculations
have been made to establish peak load values
which will result in normal life expectancy
and also peak load values which will result in
discrete steps of greater than normal loss of
life. Results are shown in Tables 5-10; the
method used is described in 6.5.
5.3.1 Transformer Characteristics. The
calculations were made for transformers with
characteristics as given in Table 4.
5.3.2 Table Load Cycles. The calculations
are based on a load cycle similar to the cycle
shown in Fig 6. The continuous load portion
was assumed to be 50%, 75%, and 90% respec-
tively and peak load durations of l h , 2h, 4h,
8h, and 24 h were used.
5.3.3 Normal Life Expectancy. The nor-
mal life expectancy a t a continuous hottest-
spot temperature of llO(95) "C is 20 years as
determined from Fig 1. The normal life expec-
tancy corresponds to a 0.0137% loss of life per
day.
5.3.4 T e m p e r a t u r e and Load Limits.
Temperature and load limits used in preparing
'" Tables 5-10 are given in Table 4. Loading in
excess of 250% of nameplate rating should be
avoided except under emergency conditions.
(Eq 3)
Table 4
Limiting Values of Temperature a n d Load
Incorporated in Tables 5- 10
65 "C 55 "C
Top-oil temperature 120 "C 110 "C
Hottest-spot conductor temperature ZOO oc 180 "C
Short-time loading ('h hour or less) 300% 300%
18

AND PAD-MOUNTED DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
2 HOURS
0'
5.4 Determination of Temperatures and
Loss of Life by Nomograph Method. Fig-
ures 7, 8, 9, and 10 can be used to determine
the winding hottest-spot temperature for
transformers with characteristics different
from Table 3.
To illustrate the use of the nomographs, the
hottest-spot winding temperature and insula-
tion aging of a 65 "C rise transformer nor-
mally loaded to 33% of the nameplate rating
and with a 2 h load of 167% will be worked
out.
Assumed transformer characteristics at
nameplate rating and 30 "C ambient are:
Ratio of losses (R)
Full load top-oil rise
Time constant
Hot tes t-spot conductor
rise over oil
5.4.1 Top-Oil Rise Determination.
(1) On Fig 7, start at initial percent kVA
(33%)and move horizontally to the curve of
ratio of losses (R = 3.2). Go down to the line
for full-load oil rise (50 "C). Move horizontally
to read initial oil rise (21 "C).
(2) Determine the ultimate top-oil tempera-
ture for the short-time load in question
(167%).On Fig 9, locate 167% on right side of
graph and move horizontally across to ratio of
losses curve (R = 3.2). Move down to the
full-load oil rise curve (50 "C). Move horizon-
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ANSMEEE
C57.91-1981
50% CONTINUOUS LOAD
I I I I
6 12 I8 24 HOURS
Fig 6
Equivalent Load Cycle
tally and read ultimate oil rise (99 "C) a t left
of graph.
(3) On Fig 8, set a straight edge a t the ini-
tial oil temperature rise on left scale (21 "C)
and a t the ultimate top-oil rise on right scale
(99 "Cl. A t the intersection of the line so
determined and the vertical line through the
intersection of line for the desired time (2 h)
and time constant (3.5 h), determine the top-
oil temperature rise (54 "C) a t the end of the
assumed time (2 h).
5.4.2 Hottest-Spot Conductor Rise Over
Top-Oil Temperature. On Fig 10, start a t
percent load (167%) on the horizontal scale
and go up the curve for full load hottest-spot
3.2 conductor rise (30 "C). Go to the left and read
hottest-spot conductor rise (68 "C) for the per-
50 "C cent load in question.
5.4.3 Hottest-Spot Conductor Tempera-
3.5 h ture. Obtain the hottest-spot conductor tem-
perature by adding ambient temperature (30
"C), top-oil rise (54 "C), and hottest-spot rise
30 "C over top-oil temperature (68 "C), giving 152
"C.
5.4.4 Percent Loss of Life. From Fig 3,
obtain the loss of life (0.045%)for the hottest-
spot temperature (152 "C) and the duration of
the load (2 h). In using this simplified pro-
cedure, i t is assumed that the hottest-spot
temperature is constant a t its final value
throughout the peak load period. When this
assumption is made, the loss of life during the
periods prior to and following the peak load
are ignored. Thus, this is only a convenient
and simplified procedure for estimating the
loss of life for the assumed loading conditions.
19
 ANSUIEEE
C57.91-1981 IEEE GUIDE FOR LOADING MINERAL-OIL-IMMERSED OVERHEAD

U3
3

w m w m
v
0 ewc-m
i , 4 - 1

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20

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 ANSI/IEEE
AND PAD-MOUNTED DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS C57.91-1981

e m m
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mm- o m e m
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21

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 ANSIIIEEE
C57.91-1981 IEEE GUIDE FOR LOADING MINERAL-OIL-IMMERSED OVERHEAD

I I

m
0 I I Z 5 I I I

m w m
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m m m1o

m m m o
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r
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m w m m
t-mmm

U3t-rnC m m m o - com-
C mt-a01 d W t - 0 - e1 w w m
- 1 -NI - - - N N - 3 1

cf, d
N

22

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 ANSI/IEEE
AND PAD-MOUNTED DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS c57.91-1981

m w m w
x m m z

mmmm w w m e
m*mt- -mww
3 - 3 3 3 3 - 3

* o m 0 mt-3 t-mm-e m m m o a
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*
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23

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 ANSI/IEEE
C57.91-1981 IEEE GUIDE FOR LOADING MINERAL-OIL-IhlMERSED OVERHEAD

I I I :-
I
m m c
I

m-o
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0
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r-t-0
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m m m m b

mr-dmm
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3 3 3 3 3

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3 -

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24

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 ANSUIEEE
AND PAD-MOUNTED DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS C57.91-1981

w m m
10'2z!
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t-t-w
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wmt- mm* I a
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N

25

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 ANSMEEE
C57.9 1- 1981 IEEE GUIDE FOR LOADING MINERAL-OIL-IMMERSED OVERHEAD

140

I30

120

I IO

I00

50

40

30

20

IO

0
PERCENT OF FULL LOAD TOP-OIL RISE
n = 0.8

Fig 7
Initial Top-Oil Rise

Fig 8
Top-Oil Temperature at End of Specified
Load Period

26

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 ANSI/IEEE
AND PAD-MOUNTED DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS C57.91-1981

m
2
VI

U
W

m
W
a
0
W
a
f
W
%?
W
a
I-
a
W
a
Bc
2
8
e
W
a
9
3

320 300 280 260 240 220 200 I80 160 140 120 100
PERCENT OF FULL LOAD TOP-OIL RISE
n = 0.8

Fig 9
Ultimate Top-Oil Rise

0 40 80 I20 160 200 240

PERCENT RATEDhVA

Fig 10
Hottest-Spot Conductor Rise Over
Top-Oil Temperature

27

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 ANWIEEE
C57.91-1981 IEEE GUIDE FOR LOADING MINERAL-OIL-IMMERSEDOVERHEAD

6. Calculation of Temperatures and wr average winding temperature rise

Loss of Life over ambient a t rated load
C thermal capacity of the transformer
(watt-hours per degree Celsius)
K load expressed in per unit of trans-
6.1 General. The loading tables in this guide former nameplate rating
are based on average characteristics of a wide
range of transformer ratings and on a simpli- Pr
total loss a t rated load (watts)
fied load cycle. Transformer characteristics R ratio of load loss a t rated
taken from Table 3 and a load cycle similar to load to no-load loss
t h a t shown in Fig 6 were used in generating e base of natural logarithm = 2.71828
Tables 5-10. When the characteristics of a
particular transformer vary appreciably from n exponential power of loss versus
those in Table 3 or where more precise loading temperature rise
capabilities are desired, specific calculations t time interval in hours during which
should be made. load is, or is assumed to be,
constant
T thermal time constant of transformer,
6.2 List of Symbols hours
6.2.1 Subscripts.
Ths thermal time constant of hottest-spot,
a ambient hours
g hottest-spot temperature rise over
top-oil Tr thermal time constant, in hours,
of the transformer rated load,
hs hottest-spot temperature
i initial beginning with zero initial
o oil temperature rise
r rated
U ultimate 6.3 Equations for Hottest-Spot Tempera-
w winding ture and Percent Loss of Life
6.2.2 Main Symbols. All temperature val- 6.3.1 Ultimate Temperature Rises Due to
ues are in "C. Constant Loads.

ambient temperature
hottest-spot conductor rise
over top-oil a t end of time t
initial hottest-spot conductor rise
over top-oil a t start of time inter-
val
hot test-spot conductor rise over
top-oil a t rated load n = 0.8 (Eq 6 )
ultimate hottest-spot conductor
rise over top-oil for any load K
hottest-spot winding temperature
top-oil rise over ambient temperature
a t end of time t 6.3.2 Determination of Top-Oil Time
Constant.
initial top-oil rise over ambient a t
start of time interval
top-oil rise over ambient a t rated load @or
T, = C- (Eq 8)
ultimate top-oil rise over ambient for p,
any load K where

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 ANWIEEE
AND PAD-MOUNTED DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS C57.91-1981

C = 0.06 .(weight of core and coil assembly (1) Time constant

in pounds) (2) Ultimate conductor loss a t end of load
+ 0.04 .(weight of tank and fitting period
in pounds) (3) Oil viscosity
+ 1.33 .(gallons of oil), (Eq 9)
NOTE: This equation is applicable to transformers with
either copper or aluminum windings. In making general calculations based on
assumptions of transformer characteristics
6.3.3 Calculation of Transient Tempera- and maximum hottest-spot conductor tempera-
tures at End of Time Interval t with Load tures which generally have a large factor of
Constant Throughout Time Interval. safety, results close enough for all practical
purposes are obtained if all of these correc-
-t I T,
] + OOi (Eq 10)
tions are omitted, and the simpler formulas
are used.
The peak load values given in Tables 5-10
were calculated using the equations without
0
g l
= Ogu-Ogi
I[ 1- e
- t 1 Th
]+agi (Eq 11) corrections.
6.4.1 Time Constant. The time constant is
the length of time which would be required for
the temperature of the oil to change from ini-
tial value to the ultimate value if the initial
NOTE: The initial temperature rises WO and (3 . at the
rate of change were continued until the ulti-
beginning of the interval are the (-)o and (4 resgectively mate temperature was reached.
calculated for the preceding interval. The iltimate tem- If n (the exponential power of loss versus
perature rises (*)ou and are the ultimate temperature
rises corresponding to the load K for the interval. When
temperature rise) equals unity, 63% of t h e
the interval load K is less than the load in the preceding temperature change occurs in a length of time
interval, the ultimate temperature rises (-)ou and We may equal to the time constant regardless of the
be less than the respective initial temperature rises, (-))oi
and(-) ..
relationship of initial temperature and ulti-
mate temperature. If n is not unity, the per-
6.3.4 Calculation of Percent Loss of Life centage varies and is a function of both initial
During Time Interval t. temperature rise and ultimate temperature
rise. If n equals 0.8, the percentage is 67 if the
initial temperature rise is zero.
If the initial temperature rise is greater
than zero, the percentage is lower than 67%
with and approaches 63%a s the initial temperature
rise approaches the ultimate temperature rise.
If the initial temperature is greater than t h e
T = (9,,+273 (Eq 14)
ultimate temperature, the percentage is less
than 63.
and A and B are the constants from the Since evaluation of the exact percentage for
appropriate life expectancy curve (3.4.3). cases where n is not unity and the initial tem-
The loss of life in percent for each interval perature rise is not zero becomes very labori-
can then be summed over the 24 h cycle. ous, it is frequently advisable to use the value
of 63%as a n approximation. In the more fre-
NOTE: Equation 13 assumes H h S at end of each interval t quently encountered cases where n is approxi-
to be continuous for the entire interval so increment time
intervals for any load K must be selected which are small mately 0.8, the error resulting from this pro-
enough to avoid serious error. cedure is not large compared to the expected
error in transient thermal calculations.
6.4 Equation Corrections Theoretically, If n = 1, Eq 8 is correct for any load and
several corrections should be made when using any starting temperature. If n is not = 1, t h e
the foregoing equations in calculating tran- time constant for any load and for any start-
sient oil rises, such as corrections for change ing temperature for either a heating cycle or
in : cooling cycle is given in Eqs 15 and 16.

29

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 ANSUIEEE
C57.91-1981 IEEE GUIDE FOR LOADING MINERAL-OIL-IMMERSED OVERHEAD
T=
(Eq 15)
If starting cold, as @oi = 0, Eq 15 reduces to:
(Eq 16)
6.4.2 Load Loss. The resistance of the
windings increases with temperature. Nor-
mally, the effect of this resistance change is
considered to be offset by the effect of the
reduced oil viscosity as the oil temperature
increases. If it is desired to include a
resistance-temperature correction factor in
Eqs 4 and 5, then the necessary equations,
revised exponent, Z2Rloss and stray loss must
be obtained from the transformer manufac-
turer for the specific design.
6.4.2.1 Winding loss can be separated
into a n Z2R component that varies directly
with winding resistance and a stray com-
ponent that varies inversely with winding
resistance. The winding resistance at time t,
can be calculated by use of the following for-
mula:
(Eq 17)
where
R,, = winding resistance a t time t,
R,, = winding resistance a t time t,
Owl = average winding temperature a t
time t,
Ow, = average winding temperature at
time t2
0, = 234.5 "C for copper, 225.0 "C
for aluminum
6.4.2.2 Stray loss also occurs in metal-
lic structures other than the windings.
Theoretically, these losses should be adjusted
for variations in load current and resistance
30
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separately from the winding stray loss in
accordance with individual transformer design
characteristics. Because it is difficult to
separate the tested stray loss into its many
different components, ANSUIEEE C57.12.9&
1980 [21 allows for the assumption t h a t the
total stray loss varies inversely with winding
resistance.
6.4.2.3 If winding resistance correc-
tions to the load loss are desired, a n individual
breakdown of the 12R and stray loss is needed.
Also, one of the following additional adjust-
ments is required to ensure reasonably accu-
rate determination of top-oil rise and winding
rise over oil.
The empirical exponent n = 0.8 is based on
the assumption t h a t variations in winding
resistance are offset by variations in oil
viscosity. Manufacturers should provide the
user with the appropriate adjusted value of
exponent n if the winding resistance is to be
adjusted without regard to temperature
effects on oil viscosity.
The oil viscosity factor should be included in
calculations for both top-oil rise and winding
rise over oil. Manufacturers should provide the
user with the appropriate value of exponent n
and also the appropriate value of the exponent
associated with oil viscosity.
The equations which allow for resistance
and oil viscosity correction of the top-oil rise
and winding rise over oil are beyond the scope
of this guide. They can be obtained from the
individual transformer manufacturer along
with the other data required.
6.4.3 Viscosity of Oil. The ultimate tem-
perature rise of oil for a constant loss
decreases slightly as the temperature of the
oil increases. This is due to a decrease in the
viscosity of the oil. The viscosity change tends
to offset the effect of increased resistance.
6.4.4 Atmospheric Effects. The only at-
mospheric effect on loading capability con-
sidered in calculating the tables in this load-
ing guide is the effect of ambient tempera-
tures on the hottest-spot and top-oil tempera-
tures. The rated temperature rise under con-
tinuous nameplate load is based on tests in a
virtually still air environment, and no solar or
other radiation input to the transformer. I t
should be recognized that a typical outdoor
transformer installation will be normally sub-
jected to additional cooling caused by wind,
 ANSI/IEEE
AND PAD-MOUNTED DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS C57.91-1981

and occasionally heat input from solar radia-
tion. The simultaneous occurrence of still air,
maximum solar radiation, and maximum
ambient temperature conditions is of very low
probability, and when it does occur, will be of
relatively short duration in comparison to the
transformer's oil time constant. For these rea-
sons it is believed that the assumptions made
in generating the loading tables are conserva-
tive estimates for most outdoor installations.
A more conservative approach is warranted
when transformers are installed indoors, in
vaults, or other areas of restricted ventilation.
In the case of most vault installations, a
transformer with rated temperature rise 10 "C
lower than normal outdoor rating is recom-
mended.
6.5 Method Used for Computer Calculation
of Loading Capability Tables. The equa-
tions covered in 6.3 were used in the computer
program t h a t generated the data for Tables
5-10.
6.5.1 Method. The program computes the
maximum peak load that can be impressed on
a typical distribution transformer to meet
specified loss-of-life limitations within a 4%
tolerance.
Input to the program is as follows: a n
estimated allowable peak load, the continuous
equivalent load assumed before and after the
peak load G O % , 75%,or 90%of nameplate rat-
ing), ambient temperature (0 "C to 50 "C in
10 "C steps), peak load duration (1 h, 2 h, 4 h,
8 h or 24 h), specified percentage loss of life,
and the following transformer characteristics
a t rated load: loss ratio, top-oil rise over
ambient, hottest-spot rise over top-oil, top-oil
time constant and hottest-spot time constant.
The normal life expectancy curve constants
for the insulation system must also be pro-
vided.
The determination of the percent loss of life
for normal life expectancy is based on a 24 h
load cycle and a minimum transformer life
expectancy of 20 years of the daily cycle. The
daily loss of life would, therefore, be a t the
rate of 0.0137%of the 20 yr life. The loss of
life values listed in the tables are additional
loss of life above the normal basis of 0.0137%
per day; t h a t is, for a n extra loss of life of
0.05% the program converges on a peak load
that expends life at 0.05 +
0.0137 = 0.0637%
per daily cycle.
A two-step 24 h load cycle similar to Fig 6 is
assumed with the peak load starting a t time
zero, followed by the continuous equivalent
load from end of peak duration to end of t h e
24 h cycle. The initial top-oil rise Ooi and
hottest-spot rise 8 for the first time interval
are calculated as uvtimate top-oil rise Oou and
hottest-spot rise 0 for a load K equal to t h e
continuous equivaf&t load selected, t h a t is,
50%, 75%or 90%of nameplate rating.
A systematic converging method is used to
obtain the highest allowable peak load. The
* initial trial is made with a n assumed peak
load midway between the initial continuous
load before peak load and the maximum peak
load (300%).Using this peak load, temperature
calculations are made for varying time inter-
vals during the 24 h, according to Table 11.
The corresponding interval loss of life is then
calculated with Eq 13 and finally all interval
losses are summed over the 24 h cycle and
compared to the specified loss.
EXAMPLE: For a 2 h overload, temperatures will be cal-
culated every 0.2 h for the first 4 h, every 0.5 h from 4 h
on till 6 h and every hour from 6 h on till the end of the
24 h cycle.

Table 11
Calculating Intervals for Overload
Temperature Rise Calculation

Peak Load Elapsed Time Limits Calculating Interval

Duration (h) - s Lengths (h) - t
(h)

sl s2 s3 94 tl t2 t3 t4
1 2 3 5 24 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.o
2 4 6 24 - 0.2 0.5 1.0 -
4 6 9 24 - 0.2 0.5 1.o -
8 4 10 13 24 0.5 0.2 0.5 1.0
24 24 - - - 1 .o - - -

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 ANSVIEEE
C57.91-1981 IEEE GUIDE FOR LOADING MINERAL-OIL-IMMERSED OVERHEAD

Depending on the outcome a new estimated load and corresponding values of peak
peak load is tried. The process is repeated hottest-spot, top-oil temperature, total percent
until the calculated loss of life is within +-4% loss of life and the specified loss of life are
of the specified value. At this point, the peak printed.

32

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