CHAPTER IL

STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES.

68. INTRODUCTORY. The theorems of Projective Geometry extended to

any number of dimensions can be deduced as necessary consequences of the
definitions of a positional manifold. Grassmann's ( Calculus of Extension' (to be
investigated in Book IV.) forms a powerful instrument for such an investigation ;
the properties also can to some extent be deduced by the methods of ordinary
co-ordinate Geometry. Only such theorems will be now investigated which
are either useful subsequently in this treatise or exemplify in their proof the
method of the addition of extraordinaries.
69. ANHARMONIC RATIO. (1) Any point p on the straight line ad
can be written in the form %a + f*'a', where the position of p is defined by the
ratio £/£'. If j>! be another point, ^a + %ia\ on the same line, then the
ratio ££I7£'ITI i s called the anharmonic ratio of the range (aa', pp^). It is to
be carefully noticed that the anharmonic ratio of a range of four collinear
elements is here defined apart from the introduction of any idea of distance.
It is also independent of the intensities at which a and a happen to repre-
sent their elements. For it is obviously unaltered if a, a are replaced by
aa, a!a', a and a' being any arbitrary quantities.
(2) If the anharmonic ratio of (ad, ) be — 1, the range is said to be
harmonic ; and p and pY can then be written respectively in the forms
%a + £ V and %a — £'d.
(3) Let p1} p2, p3, p4 be any four points, ^a + f/a', etc. Then
«=<&Pi-fikV(fifi');
where (^2) stands for the determinant f^' — %J£ì'
Similarly d = (£jp8 - ^ )-
Hence p3 = f3a + &a' = {(&&') p, - (f 8 f/) &}/(&&') ;
and p4= {( .-( .
Hence the anharmonic ratio of the range (p1p2> PsPé) is
68—71] HOMOGRAPHIC RANGES. 133

70. HOMOGRAPHIC RANGES. (1) Let

(bib2p1p2p3...) and (c^q^q^..)
be two ranges of corresponding points such that the anharmonic ratio of the
four points (&!&2, PpPp+i)> and that of the corresponding points ( 2) qPqp+i)
are equal, where p is any one of the suffixes 1, 2, 3, etc.
(2) I t can now be proved that the anharmonic ratio of any four points
(P\PH.,PPP<T) of the first range is equal to that of the corresponding points
(# 9 , .*) offche second range.
For let pp = Çpbj + £p'&2, qp = 7] + vP c a .
Then by definition fpf'p+1/fp+1fp' = vPv'P+i/vP+iVP'-
Now replace p in turn by / + 1 , /> + 2,... <x — 1, and multiply together
corresponding sides of the equations, so obtained. Finally we deduce
Çp&fêoÇp' = VpVv/VvVp ;
and hence by subtracting 1 from both sides,
( *)1 ? = (VpVo')/v*Vp-
It follows that the anharmonic ratio of any four points ( ^ , pPpa) of the
first range is equal to that of the four corresponding points (q^q^, qPq<r) of the
second range.
Such corresponding ranges are called homographic.

71. LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS. (1) Let and e2 be any two points, and let
di = 0L& + « i 4 , «2 = a 2 0i + «2^2, - = «361 + a3e2, p = %e1 + %'e2,
be three given points and any fourth point on one range of points ; also let
h = /3i£i + / 1 , b2 = ß2ex + ß 2 e 2 } b3 = ß3eY + ß3'e2, q = yeY + [ 2,
be the corresponding points on a second range homographic to the first
range.
Then («3*0 (?a/)/0W) ( = <&Ä') (vßzlKßsft) (vßi).
Therefore £/£' and 77/?/ are connected by a relation of the form
XCv+rfn'+H>'?V + b'?V=0 (A),
where X, / , / ', \ ' are constants depending on the arbitrarily chosen points
a1} a2, a3j bx> b2, b3.
This equation can also be written in the form
«11 g + «12 f flag+Oiaf / / .
V V
where a n , 12, a2i> 22 a r ^ constants which determine the nature of the trans-
formation, and p must be chosen so that the point
q = rie1 + 7}'e2
may have the desired intensity.
134 STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES. [CHAP. II.

Such transformations as those represented algebraically by equations (A)

or (A') are called linear transformations. Only real transformations will be
considered, namely those for which the coefficients a n , a12, a^, i22 of equation
(A') are real.
(2) There are in general two points which correspond to themselves on
the two ranges. For by substituting £, f' for 77, rf in the above equations
and eliminating we find
(an-p)(a22-p)-ai 2 a2i = 0 (B),
an equation which determines two values of p real and unequal or real and
equal or imaginary ; and each value of p determines £ : £' and rj : rj' uniquely.
(3) Let p1 and p2 be the two roots of this quadratic, and first let them
be assumed to be unequal.
Then by substituting in one of the equations (A') a self-corresponding
point dx is determined by
a
= «u/(pi - n ) = (Pi - « ) / « -
Similarly a self-corresponding point d2 is determined by
= «l*/0>2 « «ll) = (p2 - « ) / « * .
Let these self-corresponding points be the reference points, so that any
point is determined by ^d± + £'d2.
Then the equations defining the transformation take the form

fiÉ-*£-p ( ).
V V
By putting v for pi/pz, this equation can be written
vlv' = v№' (C)-
(4) Linear transformations fall into three main classes, according as the
roots are (1) real and unequal, (2) imaginary, (3) equal.
In transformations of the first class the two points dx and d2 are real.
Then v is real, and is positive when any point in the first range and its
corresponding point on the second range both lie between d1 and d2.
(5) In transformations of the second class the two points dx and d2 are
imaginary. Then v is complex, and it can be proved that mod. v—\y assuming
that real points are transformed into real points.
For p1 and p2 are conjugate complexes, and can be written
ere** and < ~ .
Accordingly v = pjp2 = e**.
Hence mod. v = 1, and log v = 2 8 ; where 8 is real.
(6) The linear transformations of the first class are called hyperbolic ;
and those of the second class elliptic.
71] LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS. 135

(7) The third special class of linear transformations exists in the case
when the roots of the quadratic are equal, that is to say when the two points
dj and a2 coincide. Linear transformations of this class are called parabolic.
The condition for this case is that in equation (A), modified by substituting
| and f' for 7j and rf respectively, the following relation holds between the
coefficients,
4 / = (fi + / ')».
Let be the double self-corresponding point and e other point, and
let these points replace ex and e2 in subsection (1) above. Then the modified
equation (A), regarded as a quadratic in £ : £', must have two roots infinite :
hence
X = 0, / + / / = 0.
Therefore if a point

be transformed into q (= rju + rj'e),

equation (A) takes the form

that is £/f' = rfjrf -f constant (D).

(8) By a linear transformation a series of points pu p2) p3 ... can be
determined with the property that the range (p1} p2, p3...) is homographie
with the range ( p2, p3, p^.. .)•
Firstly, let the linear transformation be elliptic or hyperbolic and let the
co-ordinate points e1} e2 be the pair of self-corresponding points of the two
ranges.
Let px = fa + %%.
Then if v be any arbitrarily chosen constant, the points
= vfa + %e2i pz = ififa + %'e2,... pp = v^fa + Ç'e2
satisfy the required condition.
(9) Secondly, let the linear transformations be parabolic. Let be the
double self-corresponding point, und let e be another arbitrarily chosen
reference point.
Let = ^u + e, and let S be the arbitrarily chosen constant of the trans-
formation.
Then by equation (D) the other points of the range are successively
given by
2 = ( + 8) + , #$ = ( £ + 2S)i£ + e, ...
pp = (£ + p -1.8) + e.
These results will be found to be of importance in the discussion in
Book vi., chapter I., on the Cayley-Klein theory of distance.
136 STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES. [CHAP. II.

72. ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES. (1) Let the v independent elements

0i, e 2 ,... e„ define the complete region of v — 1 dimensions. Then the p
elements el9 02, ... ep (p < v) define a subregion of p — 1 dimensions, Any point
in this region can be written in the form
f1^1 + £ 0 + --. + |>0 -
Thus any point on the straight line defined by e1} e2 can be written
f 101 + &02 ;
and any point on the subregion of two dimensions (or ordinary geometrical
plane) defined by
0i j 02 ? 03 c a n be written
ÇTl01 "f" f2 02 ~t~ ^303'
(2) Any / + l points #!, a?2...a?p+1 in the subregion 02, 0 2 ...0 P can be
connected by at least one equation of the form

Let such an equation be called the addition relation between the de-
pendent points a?!, œ2, ... # p+1 .
Thus any three points ? , #2, #3 on a straight line satisfy an equation of
the form
£i#i + £ A + £ A = 0 ;
and similarly for any four points on a two-dimensional subregion.
(3) If 0i, 0 2 ...0^ be the independent reference units of the complete
region, and any point be written in the form ££0, then the quantities
Çl> Ç2> "'Cv

are called the co-ordinates of the point.

The locus denoted by

is a plane (i.e. a subregion of v — 2 dimensions).

The intersection of the p planes (p < v)
\\ £1 + ^21 £2 + . • • + Ki %v = 0,
^12 Çl + ^22 ?2 + • • • + ^v2 %v — 0 ,

\p%i + ^2P?2 4- ... + X„p£„ = 0,

is a subregion of v — p — 1 dimensions.
(4) The intersection of v — 1 such planes is a single point which can be
written in the form
01 j 02 > • . . 0y,

, A21, . . . A.„i,

^12 > ^22 J • • • A,V2 ì

I Aj t v—i, A 2} „ _ i , . . . A ^ ,,_! I
72] ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES. 137

For instance, in the region e^e2e^ of two dimensions, the two straight
lines
^11 Ç1 + ^21 f 2 + ^31 £3 = 0 ,

^•12 f i + ^-22 2 + ^-32Ç3 = 0,

intersect in the point

(^•21^-32 ~ - ^ 3 1 ^ 2 2 ) #1 "•" ( ^ 3 1 ^ 1 2 ~ " ^-11^-32.) #2 + ( ^ 1 1 ^ 2 2 " " ^ 2 1 ^ 1 2 ) # 3 '

R e t u r n i n g to t h e general case of v— 1 planes, i t is obvious t h a t their point

of intersection lies on t h e plane
a i ^ i + a 2 | : 2 + -.. + « „ £ , = (>,
if t h e determinant
I ai> «2> ••• « j
J Xu, 21, ... ,,!,

! »1} „ _ i , 2} i/_i,... ,,,},,_! i

vanishes.
(5) To prove that it is in general impossible in a complete region of
v — 1 dimensions to draw a straight line from any given point to intersect
two non-intersecting subregions of p - 1 and a — 1 dimensions respectively,
where p and cr are arbitrarily assigned ; and that, when it is possible, only
one such straight line can be drawn. Since the subregions are non-inter-
secting [cf. § 65 ( )]
p + < < v.
Of the reference elements let p be chosen in the subregion of p — 1
dimensions, namely j1}j2,... j p , and let <r be chosen in the subregion of a — 1
dimensions, namely k1} k2)... ka, and v — p — <r must be chosen in neither
region, namely ely e2)... e„_p_ff.
Let the given point be p = Saj + 2/3& + £70.
Let 2£? be any point in the subregion ji---jP- Then jp + X S 0 can be
made to be any point on the line joining p and X%j by properly choosing \.
But if this line intersect the subregion hx...kai then for some value of X,
say Xj, p + ^ 2 ^ / depends on ^ ... ha only.
Hence either yx = <y2 = ... = yv-p-„ = 0, in which case p cannot be any
arbitrarily assigned point ; or p + a = v, and there are no reference points of
the type
elf e2f... ev—p—a.
Hence we find the condition p + <r = v.
Again p 4- \ ^ j = 2/3&.
Hence also ^ = alf £2 = a2) ... (•„ = «„, and A* = — 1.
Thus the line through p intersecting the two regions intersects them in
%-AJ and 2/3& respectively. Accordingly there is only one such line through
any given point p.
138 STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES. [CHAP. II.

73. REFERENCE-FIGURES. (1) The figure formed in a region of v-l

dimensions by constructing the straight lines connecting every pair of v
independent elements is the analogue of the triangle in plane geometry
and of the tetrahedron in space of three dimensions, the sides of the triangle
and edges of the tetrahedron being supposed to be produced indefinitely.
Let such a figure be called a reference-figure, because its corner points can
be taken as reference points to define the region. Let the straight lines be
called the edges of the figure.
(2) Let eu e2,... ev be the corners of such a figure, and let them also be
taken as reference points. Consider the points in which any plane, such as

cuts the edges. The point in which the edge 2 is cut is found by putting
£ = 0 = £ 4 = . . . = £,.
Hence the point is axex — a2e2. Similarly the point in which the edge epea
is cut is apep — a0ea.
(3) Consider the points of the typical form apep + 0Laeo,
Then the range
@p) @<T) &P&P < ^( > &p@p "I öt(r^<r

is harmonic. Also any point on the plane defined by the point -f a2e2
and the remaining corners of the reference-figure, namely by e3, e4,... e„, is
a^! + a2e2 + £$0 + ... + %vev.
Hence all such planes pass through the point
«i^ + aa^-f a 3 e 3 +... + <xvev.
And conversely the planes through this point and all the corners but two cut
the edge defined by the remaining two corners in the points
«101 + , • • • apep + < <-
The harmonic conjugates of these points with respect to the corresponding
corners are of the typical form apep — a^e^, and these points are coplanar
and lie on
fi/«i + f ^ + . . . + ?,/«r = 0.
(4) The point 2ae may be called the pole of the plane 2£/a = 0 with
respect to the given reference-figure, and the plane may be called the polar of
the point.
These properties are easily seen to be generalizations of the familiar
properties of triangles (cf. Lachlan, Modern Pure Geometry, § 110).
(5) Let points be assumed one on each edge, of the typical form

It is required to find the condition that they should be coplanar.

Consider the v— 1 edges joining the corner e1 to the remaining corners.
There are v—\ assumed points of the typical form
«1*01 + «ai^a
73, 74] REFERENCE-FIGURES. 139

on such edges, and these points define a plane. It remains, therefore, to

determine the condition that any other point of the form

(where neither X nor fi is unity) lies on this plane. It must be possible to

choose £2, £ 3 ,,.. £„ and rj so as to fulfil the condition
V

< =2
This requires that the coefficients of elt e2,...ev should be separately zero.
Hence if er be not equal to X or //,, we find %a = 0 ; and also the three
equations

Hence a^fl^ow = - «AI«^«/*.

But this is the condition that three points on the edges joining eli eA> e^
should be collinear. Hence since elt eky e^ are any three of the corners of the
given reference^figure, the necessary and sufficient condition is that the
assumed points lying on the edges which join any three corners in pairs
should be collinear.
(6) It follows from (3) of this section that the condition for the con-
currence of the planes joining each assumed point of the form

with the corners, not lying on the edge on which the point itself lies, is for
the three points on the edges joining in pairs e^^e^

Hence if any three edges be taken forming a triangle with the corners as
vertices, the three lines joining each assumed point with the opposite vertex
are concurrent.
74. PERSPECTIVE. (1) The perspective properties of triangles can be
generalized for reference-figures in regions of v — 1 dimensions *.
Let exe2... ev and e^e£... e J be two reference-figures, and let the v lines

be concurrent and meet in the point g. Then it is required to show that the
corresponding edges are concurrent in points which are coplanar.
Since g is in ^ e / , e2e2', ... evev\ it follows that
A-j^i + X/e/ = X2e2 + ^ * = ... = X„e„ + \JeJ = g.
Hence Xj^j — X2e2 = X2/e2/ — X/e/, with similar equations.
But \1e1 — \2e2 is on the edge e^, and X/e/ — X/^' i s o n the edge e/e/-
But these are the same point. Hence the edges 2 and e^e^ are concurrent
in this point.
* The theorems of subsections (1) to (4) of this article, proved otherwise, were first given by
Veronese, cf. "Behandlung der projectivischen Verhältnisse der Räume von verschiedenen Dimen-
sionen durch das Princip des Projicirens und Schneidens," Math. Annalen, Bd. 19 (1882).
 140 STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES. [CHAP. II.

But taking 2... ev as reference points,it has been proved that the points
of the typical form \1e1 — \2e2 are coplanar and lie on the plane, 2£/ , = 0.
Hence the theorem is proved.
(2) Conversely, if the corresponding edges, such as and e/e/» intersect
in coplanar points, then the lines ', e2e2ì ... evev' are concurrent.
For let two edges such as , e-[e2ì intersect in the point d12. Let the
plane, on which the points such as d12 lie, have for its equation referred to
6l62 . . . 6V

£/\i + f A + • • • + £/*., = <>,

and referred to eìe2 ...ej let it have for its equation

Then any such point d12 can be written

\1e1 — \2e2 or X/e/ — \2e2.
But it has not yet been proved that these alternative forms can be assumed
to be at the same intensity. Now consider any corresponding triangles with
corners such as eYe2ez and e^e2e^. Write
= ==
(l\2 K\6\ ,2 2 ^12 \ ^ 1 ^1 ^ 2 ^2 )>

=
#23 ~ -2^2 ^^ ^23 \A*2 ^2 " &3 )>
=
^31 A3e3 Ai^! = /CSi {\$ e$ A i #i ) .

Hence dl2 + d22l + d31 = 0, d12/fc12 + 23/*2 + ^ i / ^ i = 0.

Bat if these relations are independent, the three points d12, d23) dsl must
coincide, which is not true. Hence 12 = K2S = 31 ; and by altering the in-
tensity of all the points e(e2' ... ej in the same ratio, each factor such as
can be made equal to — 1.
Hence d12 = \le1 — \2e2 = \2'e2' — \1'ei (A).
Thus X^-hX/ei =\2e2 + \2e2 = ... = \„ „ + ,|/ „ / = g (B).
Hence the point g is the point of concurrence of
\ - , 6262 > • • • &V&V •

(3) Let the point g be called the centre of perspective and the plane of
the points, dp(T, the axal plane of perspective of the two reference-figures.
The equation of the axal plane referred to e±e2... ev is with the previous
notation 2 £ / \ = 0 : its equation referred to eie2'... ej is XgjX' = 0. Let g, the
centre of perspective be expressed in the form
= 1 1 1+\2 2 2+ ... +\vavev.
Then by eliminating e1} e2... ev by means of equations (B) above,
/ ' + \2CL2e2' + ... + \,' , ¥' = ( 1 + 2+...4 ,-1)^.
Hence g, though of different intensities, can be expressed in the two forms
2 \ a e and IXae.
74] PERSPECTIVE. 141

Since « a 2 ...a„ can be assumed in independence of Xb X2, ... X„, it

follows that, given one reference-figure, it is possible to find another reference-
figure in perspective with it having any assigned centre of perspective and
axal plane of perspective.
(4) Suppose that the corresponding edges of three reference-figures
6\ 6% • . . (sp , 6\ 62 • * • @v y #1 #2 • • • @v

intersect in coplanar points, so that each triad of corresponding edges is

concurrent; and let g, g\ g" be the three corresponding centres of per-
spective.
Consider the three edges epeai ', ej'ej'. Then we may assume that
\ep — \<Tea = \pep — \JeJ — \"ep" — Xj'eJ' = dp<T\
and hence that
g = \'ep - V V > 9 =" V V - XpeP' 9" =\ep- \'ep'.
Hence g + g + g" = 0.
Hence the three centres of perspective are collinear.
(5) Let there be v reference-figures such that each pair is in perspective,
all pairs having the same centre of perspective g. It is required to show that
all the axal planes of perspective are concurrent.
Let the reference-figures be
#11612613 • • • 61 y y 621622 • « • 6 2 ( /, • . . , 6 „ i 6^2 • • • &vv*

Consider the v — 1 pairs of figures formed by taking the first reference-

figure successively with each of the remainder. Let g be the given centre of
perspective, and let the equation of the axal plane of perspective of the pair
comprising the first and the pth figure be, referred to the first figure,
&/i4 + f ^ 4 + - " + & / ^ P = 0 (!)>
and referred to the pth figure,
fi/iV + f ^ V + - + &AV = o (2).
Hence two typical sets of equations are
Aip #n + i \ > i # p i = 2^ip#i2 + 2^pi#p2 = . . . = iAip61(/ + Api6pi, = g = Kjpg) .„.
= K
1X10-611 + 1X0-160-1 = 2X10-612 "T" 2X0-16^2 = ... = iAio-6!!/ 1 v^cl^av = ff l<r9)

From equation (1) the point (p) of concurrence of the v - 1 planes of this
type is, when referred to the first figure, given by
p = \ #11 j #12 > ••• 6i„, :

I/1X12, I / 2 X 1 2 , . . . 1/1 12, I

I l/iXi„, 1/2X1,,,... l/v\lv J

B u t by t h e first of t h e set of equations (3),
6 = /clpg/i\ip — iXpi6pi/iXip,... elv = #ipS7iAip ~~ v^-pi^pv/v^ip*
142 STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES. [CHAP. II.

Hence substituting in the expression for py and noticing that the co-
efficient of g vanishes, we obtain
P == j l A ' p l ^ p l / l A ' l p j 2^piep'2J2^lpi • • • ) lApl^pi//i/A-1 p> j

l/l\l2. 1/2^121 •••» 1/1/^12»

I 1/l^lfJ 1/2^11/^ •••» l/i/A-lJ' j

This is the point of concurrence of the v — 1 planes, referred to the pt\\

figure.
Now by eliminating eu, eV2, ... £i„ from equations (3), we obtain
l\pl i X l o . e p l — i^al lA-lp^o-1 2 ^ p l 2^1<r^p2 ~~ 2^0-1 2^-ip ^

\ \< — Kl<r lA-ip Kip 2^1o- ^lcr 2^-lp

e
*A*p\ lAl<T pV lAcrl *\

*âp v Aio- ^lcr c ^ l p

Hence the equation of the axal plane of perspective of the pth and ath
figures is, referred to the pth figure,
£ ( Klp _ Kl(r lfi
i i t f KlP _ Kl<T 2 X
P A _4_
\lApi i A p l {kiu/ \-P^pl 2Api 2Aio-/

i £ [ ^lp /Cip- yAip \ ^

Vi'Api 1 i/Aia/

Now by § 72 (4) the point p lies on this plane, if the determinant formed
by substituting the coefficients of £x> £2> ••• £*> in this equation for
£pl> 0p2> • • •

in the determinant, which is the expression for p} vanishes. The determinant

so formed can be expressed as the sum of two determinants, one wTith 1 as a
factor, the other with K\u as a factor. The determinant with 1 as a factor
vanishes because it has two rows of the form
1/Aip> l/2^ap> ••• l / ^ i p -
The determinant with fCifj- a s a factor vanishes because it has two rows of
the form
1/Aio-j 1 -> ••• l/Aio-*
Hence all the axal planes are concurrent in the same point.
The particular case of this theorem for triangles in two dimensions is
well-known.

75. QUADRANGLES. (1) As a simple example of this type of reasoning,

let us investigate the properties of a quadrangle in a two-dimensional region.
Any four points a, 6, c, d are connected by the addition relation

Hence aa + ßb and yc + Sd represent the same point, namely the point of

intersection of the lines ab and cd.
75] QUADRANGLES. 143

(2) Consider the six lines joining these four points. Let the three pairs
which do not intersect in a, 6, c, d, intersect in e, ƒ g. Then
e = yc + aa = — (ßb + Sd),
f=aa + ßb = -(yc+8d)>
<7 = /86+ yc = — (Sd + ad).
Hence ƒ — g = aa — yc;
and f+g=ßb-8d.
From the form of these expressions it follows that f — g is the point where
f g intersects .
Also it follows that e aüd f— g are harmonie conjugates with respect to a
and c.
Similarly f+ g is the point where y# intersects bd ; and ƒ + # and e are
harmonic conjugates with respect to b and d.
Furthermore f- g and ƒ + # are harmonic conjugates with respect to
ƒ and g.
The points g ± e, and e ±f, have similar properties.
Thus the harmonic properties of a complete quadrilateral are immediately
obvious.
(3) Again the six points ƒ + g, g ± e, e ± ƒ lie by threes on four straight
lines. For identically
(f-g) + (ff-e) + (e-f) = 0,
(f-g) + (ß + e)-(e+f) = 0,
(f+g)-(9-e)-(e+f) = 0,
(f+g)-(g + e)+(e-f) = o.
In the accompanying figure h and stand for ƒ T g respectively, I and m
for e + ƒ respectively, n and j? for g ± e respectively.

a P b ƒ