Sec. 6.
2] Combustion in CI Engines
6 piston diameters vary from about 50 mm to 900 mm, speeds range from 100
COMBUSTION IN
CI ENGINES
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The development of the compression-ignition (CI) engine, also known as
Diesel engine, was mainly due to the work of Dr. Rudol Diesel, who got a
patent of his engine in 1892 (see Historical survey, Chapter 1). Today the
CI engine is a very important prime mover, being used in buses, trucks,
locomotives, tractors, pumping sets and other stationary industrial
applications, small and medium electric power generation and marine
propulsion. The importance of CI engines is due to
(i) its higher thermal efficiency than SI engines, and
• (ii) CI engine fuels (diesel oils) being less expensive than SI engine
fuels (petrol or gasoline). Furthermore, since CI engine fuels have a higher
specific gravity than petrol, and since fuel is sold on the volume basis (litres)
and not on mass basis (kg), more kg of fuel per litre are obtained in
purchasing CI engine fuel. .
These factors make the running cost of CI engines much less than SI
engines and hence make them attractive for all industrial, transport and
other applications. However, the passenger cars it has not found much.
favour because of the four main drawbacks of a CI engine in relation to SI
engine - heavier weight, noise and vibration, smoke and odour. Because of
the utilization of higher compression ratios (12 : 1 to 22 : 1 compared to
6: 1 to 11 : 1 of SI engines) the forces coming on the various parts of the
engiJIe are greater and therefore heavier parts are necessary. Also because
of heterogeneous mixture, lean mixture (large air-fuel ratio) is used. Both
the factors result in a heavier engine. The smoke and odour are the result
of the nature of diesel combustion phenomenon, i.e., incomplete com-
bustion of a heterogeneous mixture, and droplet combustion.
214
215
Compression-ignition engines, because of their varied applications,
are manufactured in a large range of sizes, speeds, and power outputs. The
to 4400 rpm and power output· ange from 2 to 40000 bnp.
6.2 COMBUSTION IN THE CI ENGINE
The process of combustion in the compression-ignition
fundamentally different from that in a spark-ignition engine. In the SI
engine is
engine a homogeneous carburetted mixture of petrol vapour and air, in
nearly stoichiometric or chemically con-ect ratio, 'is compressed in the
compression stroke through a small compression ratio (6: 1 to 11 : 1) and
the mixture is ignited at one place before the end of the compression stroke
(say 30 deg before tdc) by means of an electric spark. After ignition a single
definite flame front progresses through the air-fuel mixture, and entire
mixture being in the combustible range. For a given speed the quantity of
charge (both air and fuel) depend on load.
In the CI engine, air alone is compressed through a large compression
ratio (12 : 1 to 22 : 1) during the compression stroke raising highly its
temperature and pressure. In this highly compressed and highly heated air in
the combustion chamber (well above ignition point of fuel) one or more jets
of fuel are injected in the liquid state, compressed to a high pressure of 110 to
200 bar by means of a fuel pump. Each minute droplet as it enters the hot air
(temperature 450-55O"C and pressure 30-40 bar) is quickly surrounded by an
envelope of its own vapour (Fig. 6.1) and this, in turn, and after an appreciable
interval, is inflamed at the surface of the envelope.'
To evaporate the liquid, latent heat is abstracted from the surrounding
air which reduces the temperature of a thin layer of air surrounding the
droplet and some time must elapse before this temperature can be raised
again by abstracting heat from the main bulk of air in its vicinity. As soon
as this vapour and the air in contact with it reach a certain temperature and
the local air-fuel ratio is within combustible range, ignition takes place
(t"hrough the core is still liquid and relatively cold). Once ignition has taken
place and a flame established, the heat required for further evaporation
will be supplied from that released by combustion. The vapour would be
burning as fast as it can find fresh oxygen.
Thus we see that at first there is a delay period before ignition takes
place. (The study of delay period phenomenon is very important in the CI
engine combustion and is discussed in detail later). The duration of delay
period depends, among other factors, on temperature and pressure of the
• The disintegration of jet and the effect of air swirl on it is discussed later.
216 Internal Combustion Engines [Sec. 6.2
Combustion in CI Engines 217
Sec. 6.2]

air and the self-ignition temperature of the fuel. The higher the air tempe- Depth of jet
rature or the lower self-ignition temperature, the shorter the delay. Higher
Periphery of jet
pressure also results in shorter ignition delay because of increase in the rate
of heat transfer and more intimate contact between the hot air and the cold
fuel. Once the delay period is over and the ignition is established, the rate
of burning depends on the ability of the droplet to find fresh oxygen, i.e. on
the rate of which it is moving through the air or the air is moving past it.
In the CI engine the fuel is not injected at once, but is spread over a definite
period of time corresponding to 20-40 degrees of crank travel. (This period is,
in most cases, greater than the ignition delay period). The initial fuel droplets
meet air whose temperature is only little above their self-ignition temperature
and they ignite after the ignition delay. The subsequent fuel droplets find air
No air swirl
already heated to a much higher temperature by the ,burning of initial droplets
<lnd, therefore, light up much more quickly, almost as they issue from the
injector nozZle, but their subsequent progress is handicapped because of less
quantity of oxygen available.
As it is impossible to inject the fuel droplets so that they distribute
uniformly throughout the combustion space, the fuel-air mixture formed in the
combustion chamber is essentially heterogeneous. Under these conditions if
With air swirl
the air within the cylinder were motionless, only a small proportion of the fuel
would frod sufficient oxygen and even burning of this fuel would be slow or Fig. 6.1. Schematic representation of disintegration of fuel jet in CI engine.
even chocked as it would be surrounded by its own products of combustion. S\art of combustion
a.. •.. 30
:J 90
50
20 ---+
It is, therefore, essential to impart an orderly and controlled movement to air .D t>I
1Il 1Il
t>I Injection starts
rv4' •..
and fuel so that a continuous supply of fresh air is brought to each burning 70
60
80
droplet and the products of combustion are swept away. The effect of this' air
motion, called air swirl, on the fuel jet is shown in FIg. 6.1.
It may be recalled here that in the SI engine combustion also motion
of the air is essential to speed up the combustion. However, there is a basic
difference in the air motions required in SI and CI engines. In SI engines
we call it turbulence and in CI engines we call it swirl. Turbulence which is
required in SI engines implies disordered air motion with no general
direction of flow, to break up the surface of the flame front and to distribute
the shreds of flame throughout an externally prepared homogeneous
combustible mixture. Swirl which is required in CI engines implies an
orderly movement of the whole body of air wit!t a particular direction of
flow, to bring a continuous supply of fresh air to each burning dropleLand
sweep away the products of combustion which otherwise would suffocate it.

8 20TDC 20 100 12Q

Stages of Combustion
Time ,degrees of crankshaft rotat ion
Ricardo considered CI engine combustion as taking place in three distinct
stages (See Fig. 6.2): Fig.6.2. Stages of combustion in the CI engine.
 218
Internal Combustion Engines
[Sec. 6.3
1. First Stage. Ignition delay period during which some fuel has
been admitted but has not yet been ignited. The ignition delay is counted
from the start of injection to the point where the p-8 curve separates from
the pure air compre~sion curve. The delay period is a sort of preparatory
phase. The ignition delay is discussed in detail later.
2. Second Stage. Rapid or uncontrolled combustion (probable
premixed flame) following ignition. In this second stage the pressure rise
is rapid because during the delay period the fuel droplet have had time to
spread themselves over a wide area and they have fresh air all around them.
The period of rapid or uncontrolled combustion is counted from the end
of delay period to the point of maximum pressure on the indicator diagram.
About one-third of the heat is evolved during this period.
3. Third Stage. Controlled combustion (probable diffusion flame).
The second stage of rapid or uncontrolled combustion is followed by the
third stage - the controlled combustion. At the end of second stage the
temperature and pressure are so high that the fuel droplets injected during
the last stage burn almost as they enter and any further pressure rise can
be controlled by purely mechanical means, i.e. by the injection rate. The
period of controlled combustion is assumed to end at maximum cycle
temperature. The ~eat evolved by the end of controlled combustion is about
70 to 80 percent of iIie total heat of the fuel supplied during the cycle.
To these three stages of combustion, first proposed by Ricardo, a
fourth stage can be added -late burning or after-burning. This stage may
not be present in all cases.
4. Fourth Stage. After burning. Theoretically it is expected that
combustion process shall end after the third stage. However, because of
poor distribution of the fuel particles, combustion continues during part of
the remainder of the expansion stroke. This after-burning can be called the
fourth stage of combustion. The duration of the after-burning phase may
correspond to 70-80 degrees of crank travel from tdc and the total heat
evolved by the end of entire combustion process is 95 to 97% and 3 to 5%
of heat goes as unburnt fuel in exhaust.
6.3 AIR-FUEL RATIO IN CI ENGINES
In the CI engine, for a given speed, and irrespective of load, an approxima-
tely constant supply of air enters the cylinder. The CI engine, therefore, can
be termed constallt air supply engine. With change in load the quantity of
fuel is changed, which changes thc air-fuel ratio. The overall air-fuel ratio
may thus vary from about 100 : 1 at no load to 20 : 1 at full load. In the SI
engine, the air-fuel ratio remains nearly stoichiometric from no load to full
Sec. 6.4] Combustion in CI Engines 219
load. It has already been stated that the inflammability limit of hydro-
carbon fuels is from about 8 : 1 to 30 : 1. Then how does the combustion
occur in CI engi~e when the mixture is much leaner than 30 : 1? This
question sometimes baffles a student. The explanation is as follows.
Whatever may be the overall air-fuel ratio in a CI engine due to injection
of fuel, there is a heterogeneous mixture with air-fuel ratios varying widely
in different areas within the chamber. There may be some areas where there
is only air (local air-fuel ratio infinity) while there may be other areas where
there is only fuel (local air-fuel ratio zero). There would be other areas
where the mixture is very lean or very rich. In the areas mentioned above
no definite flame front can be sustained. However there would be certain
areas where the local air-fuel ratio is within combustible limits and there
under favourable conditions of temperature, ignition occurs. The ignition
may occur at many places, which are like a multitude of 'spark plug'
operating throughout the chamber. In contrast to SI engines there is no
definite flame front in CI engines.
Another point of difference between the SI engine and CI engine
combustion is in the air-fuel ratio used at full-load. Whereas in SI engines
it is slightly richer than stoichiometric (say 13.5 or 14 : 1) in CI engine it is
leaner than stoichiometric (say 20 : 1). Though the indicated thermal
efficiency increases with leaner mixtures, the mep and power output
reduces, which results in larger size engine for a given power output. The
mep and power output is maximum in the vicinity of the chemically correct
ratio and it is the aim of the CI engine designer that the air-fuel ratio should
be as near the chemically correct ratio as possible, when operating ~t full
load. However, the poor distribution of fuel and its limited intermixing with
air results in objectionable smoke if operated near chemically correct ratio,
and hence the CI engine must always operate with excess air (air-fuel ratio
20 to 23, i.e., excess air 35 to 50%). The effect of air-fuel ratio on power
output of aCI engine is shown in Fig. 6.3. The figure shows that though the
power continuously increases as the air-fuel ratio is reduced towards
stoichiometric A/F ratio is absolut.e minimum because of production of
undesirable quantity of smoke. Thus power 6f the diesel engine is limited
by smoke. Because of incomplete util}zation of air 'the power of diesel
engine per litre of swept volume is less than that of petrol engines (See
Table 7.1). It means that for the same'power dies~l engine is bigger in size.
6.4 DELAY PERIOD OR IGNITION LAG
The first stage of combustion in the CI engine, i.e. the delay period, exerts
a very great influence on both engine design and performance and,
therefore, needs a detailed study. In Fig. 6.4 the delay period is shown on
 220 lntemal Combustion Engines [Sec. 6.4 221
Sec. 6.4] Combustion in CI Engines

Ignition
Constant - speed - operation
Chemical
delay
Delay period

Mixlure of
::J products of partial
o owidation or of-
thermaf decom~silion
L. with air
•••

~
o
a. Temperature
Tempeiature and
o"ygen and o"ygen
concentration concentration
Products
unfal/Ourable favourable for
10 15 18 20 25 45 of
for complete complete
A ir- fuel ratio complete
combustion combustion
combustion
Decreased by
(Chilling.
Fig. 6.3. Effect of air-fuel ratio on power output of a CI engine. over lean and
over rich mixture)

Fig. 6.5. Combustion in tlte CI engine.

Ignition delay U (i) Physical delay. The pe:iod of'phy~cal delay is the time between
"'I ~Ol,I-I
'y '
Starl of the beginning of injection and the attainment of chemical reaction
Star t of ----! ~mbustion (b) Injection delay I conditions. In the' physical delay period the fuel is atomized, vaporized,
mixed with air, and raised in temperature.
I '
•••
injection (a) : :
II r--~-\. "'f'\
L.
::J
1Il
1Il
: I Area
---' IIII
A I Ib I
I' , , (ii) Chemicallydelay. The second part of the delay is called chemi-
cal delay in which preflame reactions start slowly and then accelerate until
C>i
L. A rea A---J".J_I a I I " local inflammation or ignition takes place. Generally chemical delay is
I II I
J
a.
J I I ,,-,
}{.
-l-~
" II)
•••. --1~i-...J longer than the physical delay. However, it depends on temperature. At
of
LL:...l
[1
Time
Mixing period
~: high temperatures chemical reaction is quicker and physical delay is longer
than chemical delay. The delay period refers to the sum of physical and
I \
chemical delay. In most CI engines the ignition delay is shorter than the
Interaction period:
duration of injection. _
Fig. 6.4. Pressure-time diagram illustrating delay period,
The entire process of combustion in CI engine, including delay period,
pressure crank angle (or time) diagram between points 'a' and 'b'. Point 'a'
is shown in Fig. 6.5 ..
represents the time of injection and point 'b' represents the time at which
In the previous chapter we have discussed the ignition lag in SI engines
the pressure curve (caused by combustion) first separates from the
and many students confuse the ignition lag in SI engines with delay period
compression curve (non-firing or motoring) curve. This ignition delay
ill CI engines. In fact the ignition lag in the SI engine is basically equivalent
period can be roughly divided into two parts (see Figs. 6.4 and 6.5).
to the chemical delay in the CI engine. There is no component iike physical " .
 223
222 Sec. 6.5]
Combustion in CI Engines
Internal Combustion Engines [Sec. 6.

delay in the 51 engine as the charge consists of homogeneous mixture III time taken to form an envelope of 100
vaporised fuel and air. vapour. The viscosity and surface
tension influence the fineness of 80
The delay period in CI coQlbustion affects rate of pressure rise and,
atomization.
hence, knocking. It also affects engines startability.
It is clear that the pressure reached during the second stage will 2. Injection pressure or L. 60
depend on the duration of the delay period (the longer the delay period size of droplet. It seems that in 2l

the mor~ rapid and higher is the pressure rise, since more fuel will b the CI engine in order to achieve
-present in the cylinder before the rate of burning comes under control. This comp Iete com b,'ushon tn, t h e very ~40
~
~ causes rough running and may cause 'diesel knock'. (The diesel knock is short time available, the liquid ~
discussed in detail later). Therefore the diesel engine designer aims to keep fuel should be injected in drop- ~ 20
the delay.period as short as possible, both for smooth running and to lets of smallest size to obtain
largest surface-volume ratio. But 0- 20 40
maintain control over the pressure changes. But some delay period is
. s hou Id be borne m
It .. mm d t hat 40 20Crank TOe
angle
necessary othe~se ~e droplets would not be dispersed in the air for
complete combustion. This will result. in high smoke and high fuel the rate of burning depends
consumption. In practice, however, the delay period is more than required primarily upon the rate at which Effec~of.cetanenumberof fuelon the
Fig. 6.6.
and the designer's efforts are always devoted towards shortening it as much the products of combustion can mdlcatordiagram.
as possible. be removed from the surface and replaced by fresh oxygen, i.e. it depends
upon the rate at which the burning droplet can move relative to the
6.5 VARIABLES AFFECTING DELAY PERIOD surrounding air. A smaller droplet will have lesser momentum and hence
lesser relative velocity, and once its initial velocity is lost it will travel in air
D,elay period is affected by the following factors :
with little relative velocity resulting in its partial suffocation by its won
1. Fuel. The most important property of fuel as far as delay period products of combustion. Secondly, as the pressure rise after ignition
is concerned is the self-ignition temperature. A, lower self-ignition
depends on the area of inflammation, the smaller the size and greater the
temperature means a wider margin between it and the temperature of the number of droplets the larger will be the aggregate area of inflammation
compressed air and hence lower delay period. Cetane number (CN) is a and therefore the greater the uncontrolled pressure rise. The disadvantage
scale for comparing the ignition delay angle of various diesel fuels. A higher of larger droplet is of course that subsequent rate of burning is too slow
cetane number means a lower delay period, and smoother engine and hence a compromise is to be struck. As the size of the droplet depends
operation. The cetane number depends on the chemical composition of on the injection pressure, it can be 100 I
fuel. The more parafftnic hydrocarbons are contained in the fuel, the higher said that lower the injec- tion I :31·-1
will be its cetane number (see Chapter 8 for more details). pressure the lower the rate of W I 18,51
Fig. 6.6 shows three indicator diagrams for a diesel engine using fuels pressure rise during the un- 1 19°.1
of 52, 42 and 29 CN respectively with injection beginning at the same controlled phase and smoother the ~ 60 .
moment in each case. For fuels with eN 52 the delay period is shortest, the numing .. ~![)
pressure rise is smoothest and the maximum value of pressure is least since 3. Injection advance angle. ~VI
most of the fuel burns in the third phase (controlled combustion). The fuel
The delay period increases with ~ 20
with CN 29 has maximum pressure rise and maximum rate of pressure rise. increase in injection advance tt
Other properties of fuel which affect delay period are volatility, latent angle as shown in Fig. 6.7 for a 0
heat, viscosity, and surface tension. The volatility and latent heat affect the high speed diesel engine. The 40 ll)
ignition advance angle as shown ~
• In the older design when air blast instead of pump was used for injection, no are 31°, 18.5", and 9°, the delivery FIg.6.7. Effectof ignitionadvanceangle
delay period was necessary as the air blast itself distributed the droplets on indicatordiagram.
of fuel per cycle being constant.
tlfroughoiJt the combustion chamber.
224
Internal Combustion Engines Sec. 6.5] Combustion in CI Engines 225
[Sec. 6.5

The reason for increase in delay period with increase in injection advance
angle is that the pressures and temperatures are lower when the injection
begins. When the injection advance angles are small, the delay period
reduces and operation of the engine is smoother but the power is reduced
because larger amount offuel burns during expansion (after-bUl:ning). The
optimum angle of injection advance depends on many factors, bui'g~nerally
it varies between ]20 to 20° btdc. This would cause peak pressure to occur 10°
to 15° after top dead centre.
The duration of injection and the delivery law (change in the quantity
of fuel supplied with the angle of crank travel) also affects the combustion
process. When duration of injection is decreased with the same fuel
delivery per cycle, the delay period remains the same, but'~. rate of
pressure rise increases, since more fuel is supplied into the cylinder by the
moment of ignition.
4. Compression ratio. Increase in compression ratio reduces the
delay period as it raises both temperature and density. Fig. 6.8 shows that
with increase in compression ratio the temperature of the air increases
(curve a). At the same time the minimum auto-ignition temperature
decreases due to increased density of the compressed air, resulting in closer
contact of the molecules which, thereby, reduces the time of reaction when
fuel is injected. As the difference between compres' ed temperature
\)(l/. (a)
1250r I I~-- l/.(a~
\l/.((\~
10001 I i\~
~.
Q. 500
E 7. Fuel temperature.
.~ auto -ignition te mp. (b)
•.....
the mir,imum auto-ignition temperature increases, the delay period
decreases.
The above theoretical analysis may suggest that in diesel engines the
highest possible compression ratio should be used to achieve the lowest
delay period. However, there are practical disadvantages of using very high
compression ratios. In CI engines die compression space is already very.
small and the necessity of providing working clearance between the piston
and the cylinder head and around the valves compels us to leave thin layers
or pockets of air to which the fuel cannot reach. With a compression ratio
of 16 the unused air is already about 20 per cent. With increase of
compression ratio the unused air would be much more decreasing the
volumetric efficiency and power. Another disadvantage of high
compression ratio is lower mechanical efficiency due to increases in weight
of reciprocating parts. Therefore, in practice the engine designer uses the
lowest compression ratio which would satisfy the needs of easy cold starting
and light load running at high speeds. Note that this practice is opposite of
the SI engine design practice where the en devour is to use highest possible
compression ratio, only limited by detonation.
The maximum peak pressure is only marginally affected by the
compression ratio, because 'with higher compression ratio delay period is
shorter and therefore the rise of pressure on ignition is lower.
and
5. Intake temperature. Increasing the intake temperature would
result in increase in the compressed air temperature, which would reduce
the delay period. However, increasing the intake temperature, say by
preheating, would be most undesirable because it would reduce the density
of air and hence volumetric efficiency and power output. This loss would
be much greater than the small gain in reduction of delay period.
Preheating the air by 100° C reduces the delay angle by barely 2°.
6. Jacket water temperature. Increase in jacket water temperature
also increac;es com pressed air temperature and hence delay period ic;reduced.
Increase in fuel temperature would reduce-
both physical and chemical delay period.

250 8. Intake pressure or supercharging. Increase in intake pressure

or supercharging reduces the auto-ignition temperature and hence reduces
delay period. Since the compression pressure will increase with. intake
o pressure, the peak pressure will be higher. Also the power output will be
o 4 8 12 16 20 24 more as cylinder will contain more air and hence more fuel can be injected
Compression ratio per stroke.
Fig. 6.8. Effect of compressioll ratio on maximum air temperature and minimum' 9. Speed. The delay period can be given either in terms of absolute
auto-ignition temperat~e. time (in milliseconds) or in terms of crank angle rotation. At constant
 226
Internal Combustion Engines [Sec. 6.5 Sec. 6.5] Combustion in CI Engines 227

speed, delay time is proportional to delay angle. Hence with reference to 11. Engine size. The engine size has little effect on the delay period
constant speed operation it is not necessary to mention whether we m,'an in milliseconds. As large engines operate at low rpm because of inetti~-
delay period in terms of milliseconds or crank angle. But in variable speed stress limitations, the delay period in terms of crank angle is smaller and
. operation delay period may decrease in terms of milliseconds (see Fig. 6.9) hence less fuel enters the cylinder during delay period. T!J.uscombustion
: but increase in terms of crank angles. in large slow speed CI engines is smooth.
2'0 12. Type of combustion chamber. Types of combustion chambers
>-
.!J VI
are discussed later. In general, a pre-combustion chamber gives shorter
~ -g"5 delay compared to an open type f combustion chamber.
o
c: 0 Table 6.1 gives the summary of the effect of variables on delay period.
o VI
._
t>I

~ :.:: 1'0 Table 6.1. Effect ofvariables on delay period

c: :=
.2'E
S. Fuel
Jacket
Cetane
Engine
Load water
number
Increases
Intake
Speed Variable
Injection
Type (fuel-air-
size
temp- Reduces
Greater
combustion
Decreases
Reduces
Increases
Littie
inOperating
pressure
of combus-
Compression Increases
Better
aLowrpm.
Less
Pressures
given
Lower
Effect
period in
effect
inmilli-
surface in
Reason
vaporisation
loss
Reduces wall'
air
time.
onfor ofand
delay erature.
chemical
volume
less
density
ignition
when
reduces
temperatures.
heatand
self-ignition
temperature
pre- and
hence
temperature
temperatures
more
ssure
crank reaction.
physicaldelay.
ratio hence
injection
.temperature.
auto-
increases
air
and
and begins.auto-ignition
temp-
angle
lower
reduces
temperature.
increases.pre~
in
O·S
600 800 1. No. 7.
4.
9.
5.
3.
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 erature
of
ratio
temperature
advance 12.
fuel angle.
(Superchargil1g)
8. 2200
ratio)
pressure tion chamber
to. seconds,
milli-seconds 6.
but
11. chamber.
creases.
2. crank
increases
in crank angle. temperature.
angle de-
Engine speed. RP M

Fig. 6.9. Effect of speed on ignition delay in a GM diesel engine.

As the engine speed increases, the loss of heat during compression

decreases with the result that both the temperature and pressure of the
compressed air tend to rise, thus reducing the delay period in milliseconds,
(The increase in turbulence, however, may tend to increase the heat loss in
some c,,"ses).However, if degrees of crank travel the delay period increases.
Since the amount of fuel injected during delay period degends on crank
degrees and not on absolute time bec.ause the fuel pump is geared to the
engine at high speeds there will be more fuel present in the dylinder to take
part in the second stage of uncontrolled combustion resulting in high rates
of pressure rise and high maximum pressures. This factor has caused
difficulties in the development of very high speed Cl engines. Very high speed
CI engines, therefore, required greater angle of injection advance, high
ignition quality fuel (high cetane number which gives reduced ignition
delay) and a special design for combustion chamber.
It should be mentioned here that the effect of speed on different
designs of diesel engine may be different, because many fattors other than
delay period change with speed. Among these are spray characteristics.
turbulence, chamber wall temperatures and volumetric efficiency.
10. Air-fuel ratio (load). With increase in air-fuel ratio (leaner
mixture) the combustion temperatures are lowered and cylinder wall
temperatures are reduced and hence the delay period increases. The rate
of pressure rise is unaffected but the maximum pressures may be lowered.
With increase in load, air-fuel ratio decreases, operating temperature
increase and hence, delay period decreases.
 228. 229
Internal Combustion Engines [Sec. 6.6 Sec. 6.6] Combustion in CI Engines

6~6 DIESEL KNOCK

We have already discussed that if the delay period is long a large amount
of fuel will be injected and accumulated in the chamber. The auto-ignition
of this large amount of fuel may cause high rate of pressure rise and high
maximum pressure which may cause knocking in diesel engines. A long
delay period not only increases the amount of fuel injected by the moment
of ignition, but also improves the homogeneity of the fuel-air mixture and
its chemical preparedness for explosion-type self-ignition similar to
detonation in SI engines.
It is very instructive to compare the phenomenon of detonation in SI
engines with that of knocking in CI engines. There is no doubt that these
two phenomena are fundamentally similar. Both are processes of
auto-ignition subject to the ignition time-lag characteristics of the fuel-air
mixture. However, differences in the knocking phenomena of the SI engine
and the CI engine should also be carefully noted:
(1) In the SI engine, the detonation occurs near the end of
combustion whereas in the CI engine detonation occurs near the beginning
of combustion as shown in Fig. 6.10.
(2) The detonation in the SI engine is of a homogeneous charge
causing very high rate of pressure rise and very high maximum pressure. In
the CI engine the fuel aild air are imperfectly mixed and hence the rate of
pressure rise is normally lower than that in the detonating part of the charge
in the SI engine.
(3) Since in the CI engine the fuel is injected into the cylinder only
at the end of the compression stroke there is no question of 'pre-ignition'
or 'premature ignition', as in thl' 51 engine.
(4) In the SI engine it is relatively easy to distinguish between
knocking and non-knocking operation as the human ear easily finds the
distinction. However, in the case of the CI engine ~he normal ignition is
itself by auto-ignition and hence most CI engines have a sufficiently high
rate of pressure rise per degree of crank angle to cause audible noise. When
such noise becomes excessive or there is excessive vibration in engine
structure, in the opinion of the ob;;erver, the engine is said to knock. It is
clear that personal judgment is involved here. Thus in the CI engine there
is no definite distinction between normal and 'knocking' combustion. The
maximum rate of pressure rise in the CI engine may reach as high as 10 bar
per crank degree angle.
ILis most important to note that factors that tend to reduce detonation
in the SI engine increase knocking in the CI engine and vice versa because
of the following reason. The detonation or knocking in the SI engine is due
to simultaneous auto-ignition of the last part of the charge. To eliminate
detonation in the SI engine we want to prevent altogether the auto-ignition
of the last part of the charge and therefore dcsire a long delay period and
high self-ignition temperature of the fuel. To eliminate knock in the Cl
engine we want to achieve auto-ignition as early as possible and therefore
desire a short delay period and low self-ignition temperature of the fueL
Table 6.2 gives the factors which reduce knocking in the SI and CI engines.
Table 6.2. Factors tending to reduce knocking in SI and CI engines.

Inlet
Time
Speed
Compression
Cylinder Short
S.No. Self-ignition
Low
temperature
Combustion High
pressure
lag size
or delay Factors
temperature
Large
CI chamber
ratioperiod
engine wall
SIfor
oftemperature
fuel
fuel
engine Small
Low
High
Long
s.
3.
4.
6.
8. 1.
2.
7.

.. ---------
(co ,

(a) SI engine (b) CI engine It is also clear from the above table and discussion that a good CI
Fig. 6.10. Detonation in the SI engine compared willi knocking
in the CI engine. engine fuel is a bad SI engine fuel and a good SI engine fuel is bad CI engine
fuel. In other words, diesel oil has low seW-ignition temperature and short
230 Internal Combustion Engines [Sec. 6.7 Combustion in CI Engines 231
Sec. 6.8]

time lag whereas petral has high self-ignitian temperature and lang ignitiDn fuel callects in the delay periad. It can be reduced by arranging the injector
lag. In terms 'Offuel rating diesel 'Oilhas high cetane number (40-60) and sa that 'Only a small amDunt 'Offuel is injected at first. DDxfDrdsachieved
la'Y octane number (abaut 30) and petral has high 'Octanenumber (80-90) this by emplDyingtwa injectars, slightiy 'Out 'Ofphase. But a lang cambustian
and low cetane number (18). wauld reduce the thermal efficiency.
Fig. 6.11 shaws typical indicatDr diagram 'Ofa diesel engine with sharp
6.8 THE CI ENGINE COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
.pressure 'Oscillatingduring combustian caused by shack waves when using
petrol. We have seen, in chapter 5, that the design 'Ofcambustian chamber is very
impart ant in the SI engine. In the CI engine alsa the design 'Ofcambustian
chamber is equally impDrtant, if nat mare. It is because in the SI engine the
fuel and air are mixed 'Outsidethe cambustiDn chamber (in the carburettor)
whereas in the CI engine the mixing 'Offuel and air takes place inside the
cambustian chamber when the fuel is injected near the end 'Of campressian
'" strDke ('Onlyair being cDmpressed) during a periDd 'Of SDme20 tD 35 degrees
L.
::J 'Ofcrank angle. In this shart periDd 'Of time fuel and air must be mixed: Thus
1Il
III
'" the mixing part 'Of the SI engine carburettar's duties are performed within
L-
0.. the cambustian chamber in the CI engine.
The mast impart ant functian 'Ofthe CI engine cambustian chamber,
therefare, is ta IXavide praper mixing 'Of fuel and air in a shart time. Far
this purpQse an arganised air mavement, called air swirl, is provided ta
eo 60 40 20 TOC 20 40 60 eo 100 praduce high relative velacity between the fuel draplets and air. The fuel
Crank angle in injected inta the cambustian chamber by an injectar having single or
multiple 'Orifices.If a single 'Orificeinjectar is used, at the maximum delivery
Fig. 6.11. Indicator diagram of diesel engine when usin,gpetrol.
I
the air mavement shauld be sa\\adjusted that the whale 'Of the air in the
6.7 METHODS OF CONTROLLING DIESEL KNOCK cambustian space is swept 'Oncepast the fuel jet during the process 'Of
(REDUCING DELAY PERIOD) cambustian. This invalves a very high rate 'Of air swirl. If twa jets 'Offuel at
1800 apart are used then air need make 'Onlyhalf a revalutian during the
1. The abave discussian 'Of delay periad suggests design and cambustian process, and far faur jets ane-faurth revalutian and sa 'On. Thus
'Operatingfactars far reducing the delay periad. increasing the number 'Ofjets induces the intensity 'Of air swirl needed.
The delay periad can alsa be reduced by reducing the degree 'Of
Methods of generating air swirl in the CI engine
t.urbulence as it will reduce heat lass. Haweyer, it will increase the
{;umbustion/periad and thus reduce tarque and thermal efficiency. There are three basic methads 'Of generating swirl in a CI engine
2. The delay angle is reduced (i.e. cetane number is increased) by cambustian chamber: '
adding chemical elapes, called ignition accelerators. The twa chemical 1. By directing the flaw 'Of the air during its entry ta the cylinder,
dapes used are ethyl-nitrate and amyl-nitrate ,in cancentratians 'Of 8.8 knawn as induction swirl. This methad is used in open combustion cha'1lbers
gm/litre and 7.7 gmIlitre, respectively. (Fig. 6.15)
The chemical dapes increase the preflame reactians and reduce the 2. By farcing the air through a tangential passage inta a separate swirl
flash paint. These chemicals increase the cetane rating 'Ofdiesel fuel by chamber during the campressian stroke, knawn as compression swirl. This
autDignitian at lawer temperatures. Unfartunately, these are expensive and met had is used in swirl chambers.
because they cantain nitragen, they increase NOz emissians dramatically. 3. By use 'Ofthe initial pressure rise due ta partial cambustian ta
3. There would be high rate 'Ofpressure rise and high maximum create swirl turbulence, knawn as combustion induced swirl. This methad
pressure in the secand stage (uncantralled cambustiDn) if large amDunt 'Of is used in pre-combustion chambers and air-cell chambers.