Dual Coding and Common Coding Theories of

Memory
The Dual Coding Theory of memory was initially proposed by Paivio (1971) in order to
explain the powerful mnemonic effects of imagery that he and others had uncovered, but its
implications for cognitive theory go far beyond these findings. It has inspired an enormous
amount of controversy and experimental research in psychology, and played a very large role
in stimulating the resurgence of scientific and philosophical interest in imagery. Indeed, it
has been described as “one of the most influential theories of cognition this [20th] century”
(Marks, 1997), and has been fruitfully applied to a wide range of psychological issues,
including: thinking processes (Paivio, 1975a); individual differences in thinking styles
(Paivio & Harshman, 1983); language understanding (Paivio & Begg, 1981); bilingualism
(Paivio & Desrochers, 1980; Paivio, 1986); metaphor (Paivio, 1979); creative thinking
(Paivio, 1983b); the observational/theoretical distinction in science (Clark & Paivio, 1989);
the psychology of reading and writing (Sadoski & Paivio, 2001); and even the use of
visualization to enhance athletic performance (Paivio, 1985; Hall et al., 1998; Munroe et al.,
2000).
The more intricate details of Dual Coding Theory are beyond our scope here, but the core
idea is very simple and intuitive. Paivio proposes that the human mind operates with two
distinct classes of mental representation (or “codes”), verbal representations and mental
images, and that human memory thus comprises two functionally independent (although
interacting) systems or stores, verbal memory and image memory. Imagery potentiates recall
of verbal material because when a word evokes an associated image (either spontaneously, or
through deliberate effort) two separate but linked memory traces are laid down, one in each
of the memory stores. Obviously the chances that a memory will be retained and retrieved
are much greater if it is stored in two distinct functional locations rather than in just one.
The laboratory evidence favoring the theory goes well beyond the original context of verbal
learning experiments, however. For example, it is claimed that it finds experimental support
in studies of memory for pictures (Richardson, 1980 ch.5) and in chronometric studies of
mental comparisons of sizes, distances and other dimensions of variation (Paivio, 1975,
1978a, 1978b; Kosslyn, Murphy, Bemesderfer, & Feinstein, 1977; Moyer & Dumais, 1978).
Perhaps the most direct experimental support comes from work on the so called selective
interference effect, which occurs when a person tries simultaneously to do two mental tasks
both of which call for manipulation of representations from the same code (i.e., two verbal
tasks, or two imagery/visuo-spatial tasks). In such circumstances, experimental subjects
perform measurably more poorly (i.e., slower and/or with more errors) than they do when
attempting either task together with one that calls upon the other code (i.e., a verbal and a
simultaneous imagery/visuo-spatial task) (Brooks, 1967, 1968; Atwood, 1971; Segal &
Fusella, 1971; Baddeley et al., 1975; Janssen, 1976a, 1976b; Baddeley & Lieberman, 1980;
Eddy & Glass, 1981; Hampson & Duffy, 1984; Logie & Baddeley, 1990; De Beni & Moè,
2003). Provided one interprets the imagery code primarily as a system for the representation
of shape and spatial and spatio-temporal relationships (rather than as specialized for
encoding purely visual properties such as color or brightness) these results find a very natural
interpretation in Dual Coding terms: two tasks that use the same code interfere strongly with
one another because they call upon the same representational and processing resources.[1]
Nevertheless, the proper interpretation of these experiments (and all the other multifarious
relevant laboratory findings) and thus the empirical status of Dual Coding Theory itself,
remains controversial. Throughout its history, the theory has been developed and interpreted
in the context of opposition to various forms of what have come to be known as common
coding theories of memory: Theories committed to explaining all the relevant phenomena in
terms of just one type of code (representational format) common to all memories. Thus, to
properly understand Dual Coding Theory and the controversies that have surrounded it, it is
important to be aware that the prevailing conception of the nature of this common code have
changed quite radically over the course of the dual coding versus common codingcontroversy.
It is also important to distinguish the dual/common coding debate from the better known (at
least to philosophers), and ongoing, analog versus propositional debate about imagery,
which arose a few years later, in the early 1970s (and will be covered in section 4.4).
Although these two controversies did become very entangled, the main points at issue are
quite different, and an explicit awareness of this may help us avoid some of the confusions
that arose from the entanglement. The analog/propositional debate concerns the nature of
imagery itself (to put it very crudely, the analog side thinks mental images are inner pictures,
and the propositionalside think they are inner descriptions), whereas the dual/common
coding debate concerns the functional role played by imagery in the cognitive processes of
memory and thought. It may be true that that, amongst cognitive scientists, Dual Coding
Theory is most often associated with an analog conception of imagery, and common
coding is associated with the propositional conception. However, given that Paivio conceives
of his verbal code to be embodied as natural language, inner speech, there seems to be no
reason to think that it is incoherent to combine a propositional view of imagery with a form
of Dual Coding Theory, as Baylor (1972) and Kieras (1978) have proposed. There also
appear to be no prima faciereasons to think that the enactive theory of imagery (see §4.5.1 of
the main entry) might be inconsistent with Dual Coding. Furthermore, although perhaps no
contemporary theorists combine an analog theory of imagery with a common coding theory
of memory, it is arguable that this view was implicit in many of the cognitive theories of
former times. For instance, Empiricist philosophers such as Berkeley and Hume (and, very
arguably, Aristotle) thought of images as being picture-like (analog), and held that all
memories (indeed, all mental contents, all ideas) are images of some sort (common code)
(see §2.3 Images as Ideas in Modern Philosophy).
When Paivio initially developed Dual Coding Theory in the 1960s, however, psychological
thinking was still dominated by neo-Behaviorism, and the prevailing view was that human
memory (where it goes beyond the operant or classical conditioning also seen in animals)
depends entirely on words, on inner or subvocal speech in one's native tongue: the common
code was taken to be a verbal code. This, however, was soon to change. In the very same era
that Paivio's ideas were becoming influential, rapid developments in psycholinguistics, the
influence of Artificial Intelligence research, and the rise of the computational information
processing approach to cognition were profoundly affecting psychological conceptions of
mental representation. Although mainstream memory researchers still mostly focused on
memory for verbal material, many came to think of this as encoded in the mind in an abstract
format analogous to the “deep structures” of Chomskian linguistic theory or the nested data
structures of programming languages such as LISP (Collins & Quillian, 1969; Anderson &
Bower, 1973). Thus, by the mid 1970s a very different form of common coding theory had
become prevalent. Computationally oriented psychologists began to think of memories as
being stored as what they called “propositional representations”, or just “propositions”.
It is important to be aware that this use of the word ‘proposition’ differs, subtly but
significantly, from the well established philosophical use of the term, whereby propositions
are distinguished sharply from representations (mental or otherwise), and are considered
instead to be the underlying, entirely abstract meanings (truths or falsehoods) that
representations (such as sentences) may express (Gale, 1967). Thus, following the very
influential work of Fodor (1975), philosophers expounding computational theories of mind
have usually preferred to talk about “sentential” rather than “propositional” representations,
with the understanding that the relevant sentences are to be thought of as expressed not in
English (or any other natural, spoken, language) but in mentalese, a computational “language
of thought” that is (hypothetically) built into the brain, somewhat as a computer's machine
code is built into its CPU. But although it seems to capture their intentions quite well, this
philosophical terminology is not widely used by psychologists. In what follows, the
philosophical mentalese terminology will generally be favored, but readers should be aware
that most of the psychological authors discussed in fact speak of propositionalrepresentations.
It is very arguable that the “propositional” common coding theory of memory is more elegant
and parsimonious than Dual Coding Theory; certainly it coheres more readily with the
broadly computational conception to the mind that remains dominant in cognitive science.
Paivio argues, however, that parsimony in terms of representational formats is bought at the
cost of a need to posit more types of cognitive processes. He also makes a strong case that
Dual Coding Theory has the advantage in its ability to account for the broad range of
empirical evidence. The theory has stood up well over the decades both to vigorous
conceptual criticism and to many attempted experimental refutations, and Paivio has
continued to develop, elaborate, and defend it, periodically reviewing the relevant
experimental literature (Paivio, 1971, 1977, 1983a, 1986, 1991a, 1995, 2007; Paivio & Begg,
1981; Sadoski & Paivio, 2001 – for less partisan reviews see Morris & Hampson, 1983;
Thomas, 1987; Richardson, 1980, 1999).

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature

The National Reading Panel defines vocabulary as instruction in word meanings and

recognition (National Institute of Child Health and Development [NICHD], 2000). Recurring

themes have been discovered that could have implications for future studies. Research has been
conducted in vocabulary instruction with elementary students, particularly in the areas of special

education. Pertinent studies include themes on the importance of teaching vocabulary, visual

vocabulary instruction and successful teaching strategies in vocabulary for varied populations of

students. All of these themes have relevance for teachers in any setting, including general

education, inclusive environments, and particularly students with autism spectrum disorder. This

paper will discuss the importance of teaching vocabulary as it relates to students of elementary

school age, particularly those in special education classes. In addition, this paper will explore the

techniques through which one can teach vocabulary using visual strategies. Lastly, this paper

will also explain vocabulary-teaching strategies that appeal to different populations of learners.

A Rationale for Vocabulary Instruction

There are several theories on the importance of vocabulary on an emerging

reader. Learning new words has been found to affect the reading comprehension and ability of

students (NICHD, 2000). Comprehension is important for understanding and applying

information learned to new situations. Students who have more vocabulary understanding are

likely to comprehend more text and learn new concepts (NICHD, 2000). Those who lack

vocabulary are likely to struggle in reading as their school years continue and subjects become

more complex.

According to the National Reading Panel, instruction in vocabulary had a profound

effect on the reading achievement of students when measured by reading comprehension tests

Running Head: EFFECTS OF VISUAL VOCABULARY STRATEGIES 9

(NICHD, 2000). The studies reviewed found that explicit and implicit methods of teaching

vocabulary were effective. The panel calls for increased vocabulary instruction in both direct and

indirect ways to provide students with word meanings as well as understanding of word

relationships (NICHD, 2000).

The report means that while directly teaching definitions is important, giving the word a
context such as explaining, connecting it to other words or a mental picture can further help the

student recall of the vocabulary (NICHD, 2000). Strategies that use both visuals and meanings

are more easily recalled than just one of these. It is clear from the research that the instruction of

vocabulary is crucial. As such, instructors are forced to find ways to teach vocabulary that are

meaningful, useful, and worth teaching to their students to further their comprehension skills.

One such way is by using visual vocabulary instruction.

Visual Vocabulary Instruction

One method of teaching vocabulary is by utilizing the visual modality. An instructor

needs to choose a manner that suits his or her own classroom and the learning styles of the

students in that room. Some teachers simply have students read or copy out definitions of the

vocabulary to be taught, or have students memorize the word and meaning. In fact, studies

propose a multitude of techniques for teaching vocabulary. But not all of those techniques are as

conducive to capturing the attention of students or retention of material as that of visual

vocabulary instruction.

One visual method involves addition of pictures or diagrams; another is teaching using

visual strategies such as mapping. Visually teaching vocabulary has been shown to have benefits

for learners.

Running Head: EFFECTS OF VISUAL VOCABULARY STRATEGIES 10

For example, students with autism spectrum disorders have been found to be visual

learners. It is considered by many professionals to use visual schedules, cueing, and pictures in

lessons to better teach students with autism (Heflin & Alaimo 2007). Visual schedules are

pictures for each part of the school day; this could be a picture of food next to the word lunch, or

a picture of a toilet next to the label a bathroom break. These are used often for students who

have autism spectrum disorders (Heflin & Alaimo 2007). Effectiveness rests on the visual.

Students with autism tend not to make eye contact, and using visual and highly colored materials
can draw their attention into the lesson (Heflin & Alaimo 2007). This style could work for

multiple types of learners to create a more inviting lesson format.

In a study by Carpenter and Olson, use of visuals such as pictures when teaching

vocabulary in a foreign language was found to be both effective and more easily remembered

than independent use of words (Carpenter & Olson, 2012). While this particular study was used

with adults, the strategy has been applied to a wider population of learners, and has often been

successful.

It has been established that visuals are useful for the autism community. For some

students with autism, highly visual and inviting computer programs have been developed for use

in the classroom and at home. These have made learning not only visual, but also interactive with

diagrams, sounds, and motion. In a study conducted by Moore and Calvert, students with autism

were taught vocabulary by computer programs or by a teacher. The computer programs featured

sounds, movements on the screen and bright visuals. The students were more attentive and

learned more vocabulary on the computer program with visuals than the students who were

taught solely by the instructor (Moore & Calvert, 2000).

Running Head: EFFECTS OF VISUAL VOCABULARY STRATEGIES 11

Computer programs are not the highlight of this research; however, the program used

visual strategies to help the child learn. This study, while giving implications for computer

programs for students with autism spectrum disorder, furthers the argument for teaching students

with autism vocabulary words and meanings with visual strategies. It shows that the use of

visuals in the program worked for that group of learners.

As an instructor, it is important to teach to the strengths of the students. It would only be

logical to teach anything, including vocabulary, in the manner that is best for the child. For

many, this style of learning is visual. The next step for teachers is to find visual strategies for the

child to find success in vocabulary.

Picture-Word Pairing

One visual strategy to teach vocabulary is picture-word pairing, or the use of picture aids

alongside a vocabulary word, which has been used in a variety of environments and populations.

This simple strategy can help the visual learner or student with autism create a mental picture for

the vocabulary learned to reinforce the learning.

In a case study by Lindsey-Glenn and Gentry, a student with autism is given a variety of

assistive technologies for use in vocabulary interventions to reach a goal of reading an entire

story with 100% accuracy (Lindsey-Glenn & Gentry, 2008). One of the assistive technologies

used was a game using the cloze procedure, in which a picture replaces the noun in a sentence.

The instructors also used picture to vocabulary flash cards to reinforce the vocabulary lessons

(Lindsey-Glenn & Gentry, 2008). The researchers found that with the technologies in place

along with these vocabulary games, their student was able to read the story with 100% accuracy

at the end of the case study (Lindsey-Glenn & Gentry, 2008). This study, while not quantitative,

shows that using visual supports when teaching a student with autism can offer a more

Running Head: EFFECTS OF VISUAL VOCABULARY STRATEGIES 12

multifaceted and rich literacy practice. It furthers the support for teaching vocabulary with the

aid of visual supports.

In a different study by Kim and Gilman, South Korean middle school students learned

English vocabulary using a variety of methods, including text only, visual text with graphics,

visual text with audio of the word spoken, or mixtures of all three methods in varying degrees

(Kim & Gilman, 2008). After testing, the groups who remembered the most vocabulary words

were those who experienced visual text and graphics, and visual text with audio and added

graphics (Kim & Gilman, 2008). While the population did not include students with autism, this

visual strategy was effective for the middle school population of English language learners. This

study gave weight to the theory that words alone do not always appeal to learners, and that
teachers should rethink their use of pictures as well as multimedia in lessons. The research also

supports the notion that graphics and visuals should be appropriate and relevant to the

vocabulary words they represent (Kim & Gilman, 2008).

Overall, all of these studies display success when using picture word pairing to teach

vocabulary meanings. While they deal with different populations, the studies did have success,

which means that the strategy worked for adults, middle school students, and children with

autism.

Semantic Mapping Vocabulary Instruction

While picture word pairing is one visual strategy used to teach vocabulary, there are more

that are just as effective. Semantic mapping vocabulary instruction is a visual strategy that

applies well in a number of learning settings. Semantic mapping is the use of a web to visually

show relationships between words, including synonyms, antonyms, and related words. The

semantic mapping strategy is versatile enough to be used in a whole group, in pairs, for

Running Head: EFFECTS OF VISUAL VOCABULARY STRATEGIES 13

individual work, or even as a game. Semantic mapping and similar strategies have been the topic

of many studies on their effectiveness in teaching vocabulary and comprehension. It uses schema

to bring a deeper meaning to a new word, while still visually showing the relationships.

In a study by St. John and Vance, an attribute web similar to a semantic map is used as

an activity with a small group of five and six year olds, most of whom have been identified as

either learning English as a second language or students with poor language development (St.

John & Vance, 2014). The activity included a new word in the center with various attributes of

the word around it, including questions like: What does it look like? Can you show an action?

Can you put the word in a sentence? (St. John & Vance, 2014). The researchers found that the

students who received this semantic mapping technique had significant improvement on words

taught, as well as overall improvement on the standardized measurement of vocabulary (St. John
& Vance, 2014). The findings of the study support the theory that focusing on semantics is a

successful strategy and could be used in other populations of learners.

One study found that students who were taught with the semantic mapping technique had

a 40 percent increase in their vocabulary measure than students who used a strategy in which

they only used the word in a sentence (Boulware-Gooden, Carreker, Thornhill, & Joshi, 2007).

The students seemed to have a greater understanding of the word itself, which made their recall

of the word and concept easier. This supports the semantic mapping technique for use of

vocabulary instruction.

Another population with whom semantic mapping has been used with is middle school

science students. In an observational study by Mercuri, two teachers were observed using

graphic organizers in their middle school science classes in two different contexts (Mercuri,

2010). The researcher found that the teacher who used one graphic organizer in a manner like

Running Head: EFFECTS OF VISUAL VOCABULARY STRATEGIES 14

semantic mapping helped the students to gain higher-order thinking about the scientific terms

they were learning (Mercuri, 2010). This teacher also wanted the students to be able to use the

new terms while writing reports, speaking in class, and describing scientific occurrences they

encountered in class (Mercuri, 2010). While this study was not quantitative, it shows that the

semantic mapping strategy has been used widely in another different population, leading to

success in vocabulary instruction. The study supports semantic mapping use with any group of

learners. Taken together, this research shows that semantic mapping can be used in a variety of

populations as a visual way to teach vocabulary.

Overview

Reading comprehension is a skill which requires a student to recognize words in text and
understand their meanings. Vocabulary knowledge enables young students to read proficiently

and grasp the material. While there are a variety of methods for enhancing reading

comprehension, text simply cannot be understood without knowledge of the words it contains.

Vocabulary instruction helps students understand the meaning of words, and is crucial if students

are to learn content from their school curricula. Not only does vocabulary enable more proficient

reading, but the more reading a student does, the better his/her vocabulary.

Two main avenues of research with regards to vocabulary and reading comprehension

will be explored in this paper: the instruction of isolated vocabulary words, and the enhancement

of text comprehension through the imagery associated with the vocabulary. This is a preliminary

study that links these two areas in an effort to suggest ways to enhance the effectiveness of

classroom vocabulary instruction.

Background

Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension is the process of constructing and reconstructing meaning from

printed material (Miller, 1993). This meaning emerges from the interactions that occur between

reader and text, and between the knowledge, skill, and motivation of the reader (Aarnoutse &

The Effectiveness of

Schellings, 2003). Reading comprehension is an interactive process, which requires an individual

to access his/her prior knowledge.

Reading comprehension requires not only the skills associated with reading such as

accurate and fluent word recognition, but also the knowledge of syntax and vocabulary
(Goldenberg, 2008). Snow (1999) explains that productive reading comprehension can be

considered in terms of three factors: concept and vocabulary development, ability to understand

the linguistic structures of the text, and metacognitive control of comprehension. Knowledge of

vocabulary is very important for young readers as it enables them to read proficiently and

comprehend the material. There are many different methods for enhancing reading

comprehension, one of which is through vocabulary development.

Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary

Vocabulary instruction and reading comprehension are intertwined. Enhancing the

development and growth of the vocabularies of children enables them to better comprehend what

they read, as struggling readers’ comprehension improves with vocabulary instruction (Rupley,

2005). Furthermore, Cunningham and Stanovich (1997) have shown that knowledge of

vocabulary assessed in the first grade predicts over 30% of reading comprehension variance in

the 11th grade.

Not only are these two constructs related, but there is a unique reciprocal relationship

between reading comprehension and vocabulary. Vocabulary knowledge is a significant

predictor of comprehension, as knowing the meaning of the words in a text is necessary for

understanding it (Braze, Tabor, Shankweiler, & Mencl, 2007). While a good vocabulary base is

needed to comprehend the text one reads, the more reading an individual does, the better his/her

vocabulary becomes. Vocabulary and reading comprehension ‘…share a nurturing relationship,

The Effectiveness of

each supporting the growth and development of the other’ (Rupley, 2005, p. 203). It has also

been found that vocabulary growth and development of reading comprehension are mutually
reinforcing between the second and sixth grade (Aarnoutse & van Leeuwe, 1998).

Dual Coding

Whereas the idea that vocabulary instruction is essential to young learners is commonly

accepted, the ways in which interventions are implemented vary. There are a variety of

techniques based upon different theoretical accounts which can aid students in their development

of word knowledge and reading comprehension, one of which is the dual coding theory. The dual

coding theory suggests a link between vocabulary presentation and reading comprehension, and

as such is used to frame the design of a vocabulary intervention in the present study.

Paivio’s dual coding theory offers the most comprehensive account of the relation

between imagery and verbal processes. This theory posits that cognition consists of two separate,

but interconnected and interacting mental systems: a verbal system for language and a nonverbal

system for imagery. These systems are only partially connected and can function independently

or in an integrated fashion.

Dual coding theory assumes that information stored in two codes is better comprehended

and remembered than that which is stored in one code. This is because when information is

encoded verbally and nonverbally ‘...the information is elaborated, promoting increased

comprehension and a strengthened memory trace’ (Sadoski, Goetz, & Fritz, 1993, p. 291). There

is an additive effect of dually coded information, in that knowledge stored this way is

remembered twice as well. The ratio, however, is modified by factors such as readability, context

effects, and/or context familiarity (Sadoski, et al., 1993).

The Effectiveness of

Dual coding theory applies to reading as it explains the comprehension of words, phrases,
and sentences in different contexts. The self-generated images a reader forms may ‘…constrain

and specify the set of subsequent probable wordings by nonverbal means, and also expands the

episode inferentially’ (Sadoski & Paivio, 1994, p.587). Imagery helps reduce the uncertainty

when shaping meaning from reading a text. The images evoked depend upon a particular

individual’s past experiences and the situation that is described to them. This model also allows

for flexibility in responses to novel situations, as meaning is determined by both the term and its

connections to nonverbal world knowledge. Sadoski and Paivio (1994) offer an eloquent

explanation in that ‘…for language to make sense, it is necessary for it to be both semantically

and syntactically systematic and to conform to the nonverbal world in some imaginable way’ (p.

590).

Imagery

When examining vocabulary interventions and techniques to facilitate the comprehension

of reading passages, it is important to discuss research on the formation of images by students.

The creation of images while one reads text serves as an aid to understanding and remembering

(Sadoski, Goetz, & Kangiser, 1988). Individuals asked to create mental images of events

described in sentences learn two to three times as much as those who just read the sentences

aloud (Anderson, 1971). As shown by the previous section, images serve as one of the codes in

the dual coding theory; however, the importance of imagery and its strong research base warrants

its own detailed discussion.

There is a close relationship between imagery and reading comprehension, as the

understanding of sentences, paragraphs, and passages is increased when mental images are

formed (Anderson & Kulhavy, 1972; Pressley, 1976). Imagery can aid readers in making

The Effectiveness of
7

inferences and organizing information. It has also been shown to be related to the perceptual,

affective, and experiential components of prior knowledge that affect the readers’ responses to

text (Long, Winograd, & Bridge, 1989).

Various studies by Sadoski (1983, 1985) which examined the recall of entire stories by

children in grades 3 to 5 found that there were relationships ‘…among reporting an image of the

story’s climax, the theme retelling score, and total retelling score’ (Sadoski & Paivio, 1994, p.

593). This is most likely because imagery serves as a way to recollect the story as a whole. Due

to these findings, it is apparent that the more imagery that is associated with a particular

vocabulary word or text, the better the comprehensibility.

Imagery training or inducement can influence performance on reading tasks as well

(Sadoski, 1998). It has been shown that students who are induced via pre learning instructions to

generate either verbal or imaginal schemas outperform subjects who are not (Levin, Davidson,

Wolff, & Citron, 1973). Teaching children to construct mental images as they read has also been

shown to enhance their abilities to make inferences, predictions, and to remember what has been

read (Gambrell, 1983; Pressley, 1976). In the current study, in one condition, students are

instructed to create images to help them remember vocabulary words. In another condition, they

are provided with the image by the researchers.

Present Study

Rationale

While the idea that vocabulary is essential to young readers is commonly accepted, the

types of interventions implemented vary. Research often fails to directly establish the

relationship between a theory and its implementation in the classroom. There are a variety of

The Effectiveness of
8

instructional techniques based upon different theoretical accounts, one of which is Paivio’s

aforementioned dual coding theory. This theory posits that information is processed along two

distinct channels: verbal and visual. Research has shown that memory for verbal information is

enhanced if the information is also presented visually, either real or imagined (Anderson &

Bower, 1973). A comparison of imagery interventions will be made in this study to determine

which is the most efficient for classroom use.

The present study focuses on three different interventions for presenting vocabulary to

second grade learners: a dual coding method, in which an index card with a picture depicting the

word is presented to the participants; an image creation method, in which the participants are told

to create an image of the word in their heads and to draw the picture on paper; and the verbal

presentation of a word. The purpose of this study is to investigate the practical significance of

imagery interventions in facilitating the vocabulary learning of second grade students.

Stahl and Fairbanks (1986) cited the need for researchers to examine the depth of

processing experimentally in relation to vocabulary instruction. The interventions used in the

present study increase the depth at which the vocabulary is processed, by adding an imaginal

component, and linking the verbal code to the visual code. Using this framework, the image

creation method would be the intervention which is processed at the deepest level as the

participant must become active in the process of forming an image and drawing it on paper. The

dual coding method would also require deep processing. However, since the picture is provided,

it does not reach the depth of processing of the image creation intervention. The shallowest level

of processing would occur in the word only presentation, as students are presented with a word

in the verbal pathway

Instruction in vocabulary is a crucial part of any reading curriculum, especially in the

case of improving comprehension (NICHD, 2000). Vocabulary can help students to generalize

words to other subjects, increase fluency, and overall improve literacy for the student. The

concept of vocabulary should be taught to learners of all backgrounds and populations, in both

special and general education. The concepts should be taught to the learning style of each group

of students, which will be different in varying populations. For many students, teaching visually

is effective and engaging. It is seen as a best practice for special educators to utilize visual

schedules and pictures for communication with children who have autism spectrum disorder

(Heflin & Alaimo 2007).

The instruction of vocabulary is imperative for all learners, and using visual strategies has

been viewed as a good practice for certain populations. There are various strategies to teach

vocabulary visually; these include semantic mapping and picture-word pairing.

Semantic mapping is a graphic organizer that helps students “map” the relationships

between words they already know and the new, lesser-understood word. This method has had

Running Head: EFFECTS OF VISUAL VOCABULARY STRATEGIES 15

success as shown in the research (St. John & Vance, 2014). It incorporates both prior knowledge

and a visual map for the students to help visualize the connections between various terms.

Semantics has been seen as a useful strategy for a variety of populations.

Picture-word pairing is the use of visual support or pictures alongside a vocabulary word

illustrating the use of the word or a graphic explaining the meaning further. In several studies,

this method has shown success in word knowledge for students with autism, English language

learners, and even adult learners (Lindsey-Glenn & Gentry, 2008; Kim & Gilman, 2008;

Carpenter & Olson, 2012). The use of pictures helps visual learners to remember the word,

meaning, and sometimes context--all of which can help students to better understand when

reading.
All of this research supports the use of visual support strategies when teaching

vocabulary, including studies on visual strategies such as picture word pairing and semantic

mapping. The studies have worked with various children, strategies, and instructors. The

National Reading Panel (2000) posed one thought: it asked what the overall effects of vocabulary

instruction could be spanning all grades. Could more meaningful vocabulary instruction create

better learners? Is it more important in a certain time in an academic career? These questions

resonate with the reading teacher striving to find strategies to work in his or her own classroom.

This researcher is proposing to work with second graders in a parochial school as a population

that was not addressed in the studies previously discussed. Does the use of semantic mapping or

picture word pairing improve the vocabulary of second graders? This study will investigate the

success of the two visual vocabulary strategies, picture-word paring and semantic mapping on

students in a second grade Catholic school classroom.