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•Line-of-Sight (LOS)
• Obstructed by buildings, mountains and foliage
1. Reflection
2. Diffraction
3. Scattering
Radio Propagation Mechanisms
Radio Propagation Mechanisms
Reflection:
Occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave strikes an object
which has very large dimensions when compared to the wavelength of
the propagating wave
Occurs from the surface of earth and from the buildings and walls.
Diffraction:
Occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is
obstructed by a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges).
Radio Propagation Mechanisms
Scattering:
Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travels
consists of objects with dimensions that are small compared to the
wavelength.
In practice street signs, and lamp posts etc induce scattering in mobile
communication system.
Radio Propagation Mechanisms
If a mobile does have a clear line of sight path to the base-station, than
diffraction and scattering will not dominate the propagation.
As the mobile moves away from the transmitter over larger distances,
the local average received signal will gradually decrease. This is called
large-scale path loss.
Typically the local average received power is computed by averaging
signal measurements over a measurement track of 5 to 40 . (For PCS,
this means 1m-10m track)
The models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary-
receiver transmitter (T-R) separation distance are called large-scale
propagation models
The reason is that the signal is the sum of many contributors coming
from different directions and since the phases of these signals are
random, the sum behave like a noise (Rayleigh fading).
In small scale fading, the received signal power may change as much
as 3 or 4 orders of magnitude (30dB or 40dB), when the receiver is
only moved a fraction of the wavelength.
Free-Space Propagation Model
• Pt is transmitted power
• Pr (d) is the received power
• Gt is the transmitter antenna gain (dimensionless quantity)
• Gr is the receiver antenna gain (dimensionless quantity)
• d is T-R separation distance in meters
• L is system loss factor not related to propagation (L >= 1)
L = 1 indicates no loss in system hardware (for our purposes we
will take L = 1, so we will ignore it in our calculations).
λ is wavelength in meters.
Free-Space Propagation Model
G = 4 л A e / λ2 [Equation 2]
The effective aperture of Ae is related to the physical size of the
antenna,
is related to the carrier frequency by:
λ = c/f = 2лc / ωc [Equation 3]
f is carrier frequency in Hertz
ωc is carrier frequency in radians per second.
c is speed of light in meters/sec
Free-Space Propagation Model
df = 2D2/λ [Equation 7]
For this reason, models use a close-in distance do as the receiver power
reference point.
• do should be ≥ df
• do should be smaller than any practical distance a mobile
system uses
Time dispersion
• It arises because of multi-path propagation where replicas of the
transmitted signal reach the receiver with different propagation delays
due to the propagation mechanisms that are described earlier.
• Time dispersion nature of the channel determines the maximum data
rate that may be transmitted without using equalization.
Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Models
In microcellular systems
Much smaller distances are used: such as 100m or 1m.
The path loss equation does not consider the fact the
surrounding environment may be vastly different at two
locations having the same T-R separation