GEOGRAPHY

Origin of t he Eart h Hours (1 00 million years)

Hot Origin – Initially hot/heated up in the process Minutes (10 million years)
Cold Origin – Initially cold/ Always remained cold
Geological History of Earth: [5 Eras + 17 periods]
Big Bang Theory : [Expanding Universe Theory]
Order: Aeon> Era > Period > Epoch
Ev ery thing in the universe emerged from a point
Cam brian – place (wales)
known as singularity.
Ordorician – Tribe (N. wales)
All the matter in the universe was created in one
Silurian – Tribe (S.wales)
instant at a fixed m oment in time.
Dev onian – Place + Religion (U.K.)
 Big bang took place 13.7 billion years before present
Perm ian – place (Perm, Urals)
 Stars formed 5-6 billion years ago. [sun – 5 billion
y ears ago]
Aeon Era Period
 Earth formed 4 .6 billion years ago
Neozoic (4 ) 2 . Holocene
 Oceans formed 4 billion years ago 1 . Pleistocene 1 My BP
 Life began to evolve about 3 .8 billion years ago Cenozoic (3 ) 5. Pliocene 1 1 My BP
 Photosy nthesis evolved about 2.5 – 3 billion years 4 . Miocene
ago. 3 . Oligocene
 Oxy gen in atmosphere evolved about 2 billion years 2 . Eocene 7 0 My BP
ago. 1 . Paleocene
Mesozoic (2 ) 3 . Cretaceous 1 35 My BP
ASTRONOMY Phanerozoic 2 . Jurassic 1 80 My BP
Planet s: 1 . Triassic 2 2 5 My BP
1. Mercury Paleozoic (1 ) 6. Perm ian 2 7 0 My BP
5. Carboniferous 3 50 My
2. Venus → Hottest planet, Earth’s Twin (Similar Size) BP
3. Earth → Blue planet 4 . Dev onian
4. Mars → Red planet, Olympus m ons (Highest volcano) 3 . Silurian
5. Jupiter → Largest planet 2 . Ordovician
6. Saturn → Ringed planet, most no. of satellites 1 . Cambrian 600 My BP
7. Uranus→ Green planet Proterozoic Pre-paleozoic 1 . Pre-cambrian/Algonican
8. Neptune → A Twin
Paleozoic Era:
SIZE: J S U N E V Ma Me 1. Cambrian:
 Cam brian rocks of wales, N.W. Scotland, W. England,
VENUS URANUS Canada and USA
Duration of day > year Rotation m otion appears  Europe was characterized by Vulcanicity
rolling rather than spinning
Rotation period > Revolution Axis is tilted almosts 90 to 2. Ordovician:
period v ertical plane  Ordov ician rocks formed in N.W. Europe and N.
Am erica
Sat ellites:  Initiation of m ountain building (orogeny)
Mercury, Venus → No satellites First fish → originated
Earth → Moon 3. Silurian:
Mars → phobos, Deim os  Age of coral reefs.
Jupiter → Io, Europa, Calisto, Ganymede  Leafless plants were evolved on land
Saturn → Tethys, Titan, Lapetus, Mimas, Enceladus, Cassini  Mt. building continued + Volcanicity less active.
Uranus → Titania, oberon, Ariel, Umbriel, Miranda 4. Devonian
Neptune → Triton, Nereid  Mt. building + Vulcanicity more active
Pluto → Charna  Age of Fish
Big spot /Giant Impact: Origin of Moon  Am phibians originated
 Fern Vegetation evolved
Distance b/w Earth + sun → [AV = 1.496 X 1 08 5. Carboniferous:
 Age of coal
KM]
 Coal form ation in Northern hemisphere
Densit y: Earth> Mercury> Venus> Mars>N>U>J>S
 Reptiles ev olved
Except ion: Except Venus + Uranus, all the planets of solar
 Glaciation in the southern hemisphere
sy stem rotate on their axis in the same direction as their
6. Permian:
rev olution around the sun.
 Age of oil
Ast eroids: Present b/w Mars + Jupiter
 Inland lakes formed due to faulting
Tit ius bode Rule: Distance of each planet from the sun is
 Ev aporation of these lakes led to form ation of m ajore
approximately twice that of the next planet close to the sun.
potash reserves of world
 High m ountains formed due to tectonic movements in
AGE OF THE EARTH
Europe, Asia + E. North America (Applachians).
Geological Clock: [Frank press + Raymond siever]
Atlantic ocean closed.
Rev olution (1 billion years)

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 GEOGRAPHY
Mesozoic Era: [Age of Mammals] Int erior of t he Eart h
1. Triassic: Densit y:
 Mam mals evolved on land Av erage density of the earth = 5.5 g cm -3
2. Jurassic: [Age of Dinosaurs] Av erage density of earth’s surface = 2.6 to 3 .3 g cm -3
 Flowering plants evolved . First birds + m ammals Av erage density of core = 11 g cm -3 / Mantle = 4 .6 g cm -3
ev olved. Very high density of core is due to heavy metallic minerals →
 Widespread deposition of lim e in France, S. Germany NIFE
+ Swiss
 Mountains denuded into low hills. Temperature:
3. Cret aceous: Rate of increase of tem perature downwards decreases
 Age of chalk with increasing depth.
 Delta formation active Asthenosphere = Partially molten (plastic)
 Alpine/Territory m ountains orogeny initiated Outer core = Molten
 Widespread Vulcanicity Inner core = solid
1. Deccan trap
2. Colum bia Plateau Pressure:
3. Colorado Plateau Inner core is solid b’coz of superincumbent load which
 Dinosaurs became dominant + extinct increases the melting point of rocks.

Cenozoic Era: Seismic Waves:

1. Eocene: Seism ic Waves
 Him alayan orogeny initiated → Greater Himalayas
(Him adri)
2 Oligocene:
 Alps orogeny initiated Body Waves Surface Waves
 Apes originated
3. Miocene:
 Alps originated P. waves s. waves Ray leigh waves Lov e
 Origin of lesser Himalayas (Himachal) waves
 Greater Himalayas was further uplifted
4. Pliocene: Body waves: Travel through the solid body of the earth
 Origin of Siwalik ranges Surface waves: Mov e along the free upper crusts of earth
 Continents + ocean basins attained their present
position. P Waves:
 A.K.a longitudinal or com pressional waves
Neozoic Era:  Analogous to sound waves
1. Pleist ocene:  Pass thro’ liquid but at lesser speed.
 Glaciation in Northern Hemisphere → Fall in Sea
lev el S. waves:
 Glacial periods of North America: [South to North]  A.K. a Transverse or Distortional waves
1. Nebraskan → Aftonian (Inter – Glacial periods)  S waves can’t pass thro’ liquid m aterials.
2. Kansan→ Yarmouth
3. Illinoin→ Yarmouth Love waves:
4. Wisconsin → Sangaman  Motion is entirely horizontal, at right angles to the
direction of wave motion.
Glacial Periods in Europe:  Cov er the longest distances of all seismic waves.
1. Gunz  Speed is lower than P + S waves but are most violet
2. Mindel and destructive waves.
3. Riss
4. Wurn Lay ering of Earth by E. Suess:
 Retreat of ice sheets formed great lakes of North 1. SIAL Lay er: Com posed of granites. Dom inated by Silica +
Am erica, Glacial lakes of Europe & fiords of Norway Aluminium. Average density is 2 .7
coast. 2.SIMA Lay er: Com posed of basalt. Dom inated by Silica +
2. Holocene: [10,000 y ears B.P] Magnesium
 Man began forming + animal dom estication Av erage density ranges b/w 2 .9 to 4 .7
3. NIFE Lay er: Dom inated by Iron + Nickel.
Longest duration: Responsible v ery high density of core = 11g cm -3
1 . Pre-cambrian
2 . Cambrian – 1 00 M.Y Lit hosphere: Solid crust (0 – 100 km)
3 . Carboniferous – 80 M.Y Floats ov er plastic asthenosphere
4 . Cretaceous – 6 5 M.Y Consists of Upper crust + Lower crust + Upper part of Upper
Mantle

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 GEOGRAPHY
Ast henosphere:
Partially Molten/Plastic state
Discov ered by Beno Gutenberg
Extends upto 3 00 – 4 00 km
Seism ic waves slow down here known as zone of low v elocity →
1 00 to 2 00 km.
Inner core:
High density → Heavy m etallic m inerals, Nickel + Iron
Solid → Super incumbent load (pressure)
Out er core:
Molten / Liquid state
Thickest layer of earth [2250 km]
S waves are absent.
Continental crust → Thicker; Granite → Less dense
Oceanic crust → Thinner; Basalt → More Dense
ISOSTASY
Dut t on: First proposed the term, “Isostasy”
Isost asy : Mechanical stability b/w upstanding parts and
lowlying basins on a rotating earth.
Origin of Cont inent s and Oceans
Dist ribution:
1 . 71% ocean and 29% land → Earth
2 . Dom inance of land areas in Northern hemisphere→ 75%
land area of globe and water bodies dom inate in southern
hem isphere
3 . Pacific Ocean occupies one-third of entire surface area of the
globe.
Cont inental Drift Theory – Alfred Wegener:
Plat e Tect onics Theory:
Plat e:
 Coined by J.T. Wilson
 Rigid lithospheric slab is called plate.
 There are 7 major plates + 22 m inor plates
 Pacific plate: Com posed of oceanic crust almost
entirely and covers 2 0% of the earth’s surface.
 No plate consists of only continental crust
 Plates are not permanent features → change in size
and shape, can split or weld with another adjoining
plate.
 Plates range in thickness from about 70 km beneath
oceanic areas to 150 km beneath continents.
Plat e Boundaries
i) Const ruct ive/Diverging/Accreting Plate Margins:
 Zones of div ergence where there is continuous
upwelling of m olten lava.
 New oceanic crust is continuously formed
 Feat ures:a) Active vulcanism → Fissure Volcanoes.
b) Shallow Focus Earthquakes.
c) Rift v alley
d) Mid – oceanic Ridges
ii) Dest ructive/Convergent/consuming Plate Margins:
 2 plates converge, denser plate is ov ermidden by
lighter plate. Overridden plate is subducted into
m antle
 Part of crust (plate) is lost in the m antle
 Feat ures: a) Explosive volcanoes
b) Shallow to deep focus earthquakes
c) Mountain building
d) Oceanic trenches
e) Island Arcs + Festoons
iii) Conservative / Shear plate Margins
 2 plates pass or slide past one another along
transform faults.
 Crust is neither created nor destroyed
 Feat ures: a) Most sev erest Earthquakes
b) Transform fault Ex: San Andreas Fault, California
Sea Floor Spreading:
 Propounded by Harry Hess + Deitz
 Sea-floor spreads along the mid-oceanic ridges and
the expanding crusts (plates) are destroyed along the
oceanic trenches.
 New basaltic crust is continuously formed along the
m id-oceanic ridges.
 East Pacific Rise: Maximum spreading place in Pacific
ocean @ 6 to 9 cm / year. (Total expansion → 1 2 to 18
cm / y ear )
 Rate of seafloor spreading calculated by the age of
isochrones + distance b/w 2 isochrons
 Isochrons: Lines joining points of equal dates of
m agnetic stripes
 Red Sea spreads @ 1 cm/year (Total spread →
2 cm /yr)
 Gulf of Aden spreads @ 0.9 to 1.1cm /year (Total →
1 .8 to 2 .2)
 Gulf of California is spreading.
Cont inental Displacement + Plat e Tectonics:
[Valentine + Moors]
7 00 – 600 My BP → Pangaea I (United landmass)
600 – 500 My BP → Disruption of Pangaea I
500 – 4 00 My BP → Caledonian Mountains orogeny [CSD]
4 00 – 3 00 My BP → Hercynian Orogeny [HCP]
3 00 – 2 00 My BP → Pangaea II (United landmass)
2 00 – 1 00 My BP → Disruption of Pangaea II during Jurassic
Period
1 00 – 0 My BP → S. Am erica + Africa separated during m iddle
cretaceous period
→ Alpine mountains formed in tertiary period
Ocean Format ions: → Indian ocean formed in tertiary
period
→ Atlantic ocean formed cretaceous period
Endogenet ic Forces
 Both slow and sudden forces are constructive forces.
Sudden Forces:
 These forces are the result of long period preparation
deep within the earth. Only their cumulative effects on
the earth’s surface are quick a nd sudden.
Diast rophic/slow/ Secular Forces:
 These forces operate very slowly and their effects
becom e v isible after thousands and m illions of y ears.
Epeirogenetic Movements:
 Continent building m ovements
 Vert ical Movements causing upliftment or
subsidence of continental m asses.
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 GEOGRAPHY
 Affects larger parts of the continents The Rocks
The m aterials of the crust or lithosphere are called rocks.
Orogenet ic Movements: Elements of whole Earth Elements of Earth’s Crust
 Mountain building movements 1 . Iron 1 . Oxygen
 Caused by endogenetic forces operating in horizontal 2 . Oxygen 2 . Silicon
m anner. 3 . Silicon 3 . Aluminium
 Horizontal forces are also known as tangential forces. 4 . Magnesium 4 . Iron
 Tangential forces working in opposite directions are 5. Nickel 5. Magnesium
called Tensional forces. 6. Sulphur 6. Calcium
 Tangential forces working towards each other/ face to 7 . Calcium 7 . Potassium
face are called compressional / convergent forces. 8. Aluminium 8. Sodium
Compressional Forces:
 Crustal warping affects larger areas of the crust Silicate Minerals:
 Folding: Bucking and squeezing of crustal rocks by the  87 % of the m inerals in earth’s crust are silicates.
com pressive horizontal forces.  Quartz, Fieldspar + Ferromagnesium are important
 Folds: Wav e-like bends having anticlines + synclines m inerals.
 Folds are m inor forms of broad warping  Quartz: com posed of silicon + oxygen
 Dip: Inclination of rock beds wr.t horizontal plane Hard + resistant m ineral
 St rike: Direction of any horizontal line along a  Feldspar:
bedding plane. Most abundant + m ost important rock forming mineral
 The direction of dip is always at right angles to strike Very weak mineral + susceptible to weathering
 Angle of dip is m easured by clinom eter. Used in ceramics + glass industry.
 Ant icline: Upfolded rock beds  Ferromagnesium: Easily weathered and eroded
Dip angle < 4 0 → Gentle Anticline away.
Dip angle b/w 4 0 +90 → steep anticline
 Sy ncline: Downfolded rock beds Classification of Rocks:
On intense folding, syncline assumes the form of On the basis of m ode of origin,
canoe. 1. Igneous Rocks:
Form ed due to coding, solidification and crystallization of
Right Valley + Block Mount ain: m olten earth m aterials.
Right Valley: Long, narrow and very deep through / 2. Sedimentary Rocks:
depressions bounded by steep sides, caused by horizontal and Form ed through the lithification, compression and
v ertical m ovements. cem entation of the sediments deposited in particular place.
3. Met amorphic Rocks:
Examples: Form ed due to change in the form or com position of
1. Rhine rift valley b/w Vosges (France) and Black forest either igneous or sedimentary rocks but without disintegration
m ountain (Germany) and decom position of the rocks.
2. Great African rift valley [L. chi/wa to dead sea]
3. Death valley, California – USA Igneous Rocks:
4. Narmada valley Primary rocks: Igneous rocks originated first of all the rocks
5. Tapi v alley during the formation of upper crust of the earth.
6. Dam odar valley Parent rocks: All subsequent rocks are formed, directly or
7. Son v alley indirectly from the igneous rocks.
8. Central plain of Scotland
9. Spencer Bay of South Australia Characteristics :
10. Ocean Deeps: i) Bortlet Trough → South of cuba 1 . Most of igneous rocks are hard and water percolates with
ii) Java Deep great difficulty. But, Basalt is softer.
2 . Igneous rocks are granular or crystalline rocks.
Block Mount ains: Stable blocks adjoining rift valleys. 3 . Igneous rocks don’t have strata like sedimentary rocks.
Examples: 4 . Less affected by chemical weathering since H2O doesn’t
1 . Wasatch range, USA percolate the rocks easily. But affected by Physical or
2 . Serra Dom ar m echanical weathering.
3 . Serra de Mantigueira Exception: Basalt is affected by chemical weathering.
4 . Vosges, France 5. Do not contain fossils
5. Black Forest Mt, Germany 6. No. of joints increases upward in any igneous rock
6. Salt Range, Pakista n 7 . Associated with volcanic acitivities + are found in volcanic
7 . Sierra Nevada, USA → Most extensive block Mt. of the zones.
world.
8. Hunsruck Mts. Int rusive Igneous rocks:
Form ed due to coding + solidification of m agma
below the earth’s surface. Ex. Granite, Dolerite, Diorite, Zeolite.

a) Plut onic rocks:Ex. Granite, Diorite.

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 GEOGRAPHY
3 . Banding: Minerals of different groups are segregated into
b) Hy pabyssal rocks: alternate layers. Also known as schistocity.
i) Bat holiths: Ex. Gneiss + schist have well marked banded structure.
ii) Laccolit hs: 4. Fissility: To part or split along the bedding planes.
 Karnataka Plateau, India. 5. Clearage: Numerous closely spaced parallel planes of
iii) Phacoliths: splitting. It is a special type of foliation.
iv) Lapolit hs: 6. Recry st allisation of minerals: occurs in both igneous +
v) Sills: sedim entary rocks.
vi) Dy kes: 7 . No fossils

Ext rusive Igneous rocks: Ty pes of Met amorphisms:

Form ed due to cooling and solidification of lavas at i) Cont act Met amorphisms: (Thermal m etamorphism)
the earth’s surface. Also known as volcanic rocks. Ex. Marble from limestone, Quartzite from sandstone.
 Generally find grained or glassy basalts. ii) Regional Met amorphism (Dynamic Metamorphism)
 Ex. Basalt, obsidian Ex: schist from shales + clay
Slate from shales + clay
a) Explosive Type: Gneiss from granite
i) Bom bs: Big fragments of rocks.
ii) Lapilli: Fragments of Peas sized. Rock t y pes by dept h: (Top t o bot t om)
iii) Tuffs: Fine volcanic materials deposited in aquatic 1 . Shale
condition. 2 . Slate
b) Quiet Type: 3 . Schist
Deccan Plateau, India [Cretaceous period] 4 . Gneiss
5. Granite
Sediment ary Rocks:
VOLCANOES
Characteristics: Component s of Volcano:
1 . Contains fossils of plants + animals  Volcanic crater / vent
2 . 7 5% of earth’s surface is cov ered with sedimentary rocks but  Volcanic cone
they make up only 5% of v olume of earth’s crust. They are  Volcanic pipe
im portant for extent but not for depth.
3 . Size of particles decrease from coastal lands towards the Volcano → v ent or opening
oceans. Vulcanicity (vulcanism) → All phenomena connected with the
Boulder → cobble → pebble → granule → sand → silt →clay m ov ements of heated m aterial from the interior to the surface
→lim e of the earth.
4 . Contains layers / strata . Loss is an exception
5. Rarely crystalline rocks. Classification:On t he basis of mode of erupt ion:
6. Not found in m assive forms like Igneous rocks.
7 . Layers are rarely horizontal b’coz they are deformed due to Hawaiin Type
lateral compressive and tensile forces.  Erupt quietly due to less viscous lavas and non-violent
8. Joints are generally perpendicular to bedding planes. nature of gases.
9. Mud cracks/ Sun cracks: softmuds + alluvia deposited by  Pele’s hair
rivers during flood period develop cracks on exposure to t he  Ex: Kilavea volcano of Hawaii
sun.
1 0. Most of the sedim entary rocks are permeable and porous. St rombolian Type:
Shales are imperimeable rocks.  Erupt with m oderate intensity
Ex: Sandst ones, Conglomerates, Breccia, Shales, Loess  Eruptions are almost rhythemic in nature
 Ex: Stromboli volcano of Lipari Island in
Met amorphic Rocks: Mediterranean Sea

Remet amorphism: Already formed m etamorphic rocks are Vulcanian Type:

again metamorphased.  Erupt with great force and intensity
Int ense Met amorphism: Rocks are m etamorphosed to the  Lav as are so v iscous and pasty
greatest intensity.  Volcanic clous of dark and black colour assuming a
Ex.: Dharwarian Sedimentary rocks of peninsular India conv oluted / cauliflower shape.
 Ex. Vulcano of Lipari Island , Mediterranean sea
Characteristics:
1 . Foliation: Parallel arrangement of the constituent crystals Peleean Ty pe:
in the rock.  Most v iolent and m ost explosive type of v olcanoes
Gneiss → Im perfectly foliated  Lav as are m ost viscous and pasty
Schists → Perfectly foliated.  Disastrous violent eruptions known as nuee ardente
2 . Lineation: Mineral grains are drawn out into long, thing,  Ex. Pelee v olcano, Martinque Is.
pencil – like objects, all in parallel alignment. Krakatao volcano, Indonesia
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 GEOGRAPHY
 Ex. Grand geyser, Iceland, old Faithful, Yellowstone
Visuvious Ty pe: National Park – Wyoming, USA, Rotorua Dt of North
 Extremely violent expulsion of m agma due to Island, New Zealand.
enorm ous volume of explosive gases. ii) Hot springs
 Most destructive type of eruption known as plinian  Continuous spouting of hot water
ty pe  Water rises to the surface without any explosion.
 Form cauliflower shaped clouds on eruption
 Ex. Mt. vesuvious, Italy. Eart hquakes
Focus/Hy pocent re:
Lava flow:  Place of origin of an earthquake
 Slow upwelling of m agma along a long fracture, fault  Most of the earthquake originate at a depth of 50-
and fissure forms lava plateau, lava plains, etc. 1 00km.
 Ex. Columbia – snake plateau, USA, Deccan plateau,  Deepest earth quakes have focus at 700 km below
India Parana plateau, Argentina – Brazil , Antorim ground surface.
plateau, N. Ireland. Epicent re: The place on ground surface, perpendicular to the
buried focus recording seismic waves for the first time.
Fumaroles: Seismomet er /Seismograph: Record the Seismic waves at
 Vent through which there is em ission of gases and the epicentre
water vapour Seismic waves: waves generated by an earthquake
 Em ission of gases + vapour begins after the em ission
of v olcanic materials is terminated in an active Ty pes of scales:
v olcano. i) Richt er Magnitude Scale:
 Fum aroles are the last signs of the activeness of a  Magnitude of seism ic waves
v olcano  Lograthmic scale, hence has no upper limit
 Sulphur is the m ost important m ineral  Open ended scale
 Fum aroles dom inated by sulphur → Solfatora  1 pt increase in Richter scale indicates
 Ex. Valley of Ten thousand smokes, Alaska →1 0 times increase in amplitude
→3 2 .5 times increase in the amount of energy releases
1. Circum – pacific Belt:
 Known as pacific ring of fire ii) Mercallisacle: (0 - 12)
 Ex. Mt. Erebus, Antarctica, Mt. con tropaxi, Ecuador,  Measure the intensity of seism ic waves
Mt. Chimbarazo, Ecuador, Mt. Shastra, Mt. St.  Based upon damage caused by the earthquake
Helens, Mt. Rainier, Mt. Hood → U.S.A. iii) RF Scale → Rossi – Feral Scale
 Fuji , Japan iv ) JMA Scale → Japan Scale
Mt. Taal, Mt. Pinatubo, Mt. Mayon → Philippines
Valley of 1 0,000 smokes - Alaska Seismic Waves:
2. Mid – cont inental Belt P Wav es → Fastest waves
 Includes volcanoes of Alpine m ountain chains, L Wav es → Highest amplitude waves, Most v iolent +
Mediterranean Sea and volcanoes of faultzone of destructive waves.
eastern Africa.
 Ex. Mt. Etna, Mt. visuvious, Mt. Stromboli → Medi Causes of Eart hquakes
sea 1. Vulcanicity
 Mt. Kilim anjaro, Meru, Elgon, rungwe, Mt. Kenya, Mt. 2. Faultiny
Cam eroon → Fault zone E. Africa 3. Ant hropogenic Causes:
 Mt. Ararat, Mt. Elbruz → Asia mirror Marathon Dam – Greece
Hoov er Dam – USA
3. Mid-At lantic Belt Koy na – India
 Fissure eruption type of v olcanoes Montey nard + Grandvale – France
 Ex. Hekla volcano, Laki fissure → Iceland Mangla – Pakistan
Azores, St. Helena, Madeira, Ascension capeverde, Kariba – Zambia
canary is, Tristan da cunha → Atlantic ocean. Manic – Canada
Hendrick Verwoerd – South Africa
4. Int ra-plate volcanoes Nourek – USSR
 Hot spot concept: Propounded by W. J. Morgan Kurobe – Japan
 Intra-plate volcanoes are due to hotspots
 Ex.: Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa → Hawali 4. Plat e Tectonic Theory:
Divergent Plate Boundaries:
Int rusive Topography  Shallow focus Earthquakes → 2 5 to 3 5 km focus
i) Gey sers:  Moderate Earthquakes
 Intermittent hot springs which spouts hot water and
v apour from time to time. Convergent Plate Margins:
 Shallow to deep focus Earthquakes → Upto 7 00 km
focus
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 GEOGRAPHY
 High Magnitude Earthquake Fold Mount ains:
 Product of folding caused by com pressive forces.
Conservative Plate Margin:  Highest + m ost extensive mountains of the world +
 Creation of Transform fault → Severest Earthquakes are found in all the continents.
 Ex. San Andreas Fault, California  Classification:
i) Nature of Folds:
Dist ribution of EQ: sim ple fold m ts with open folds, Com plex fold m ts
1 . circum-pacific belt → 6 5 -7 0 % EQ (nappers, recumbent fold)
2 . Mid-continental belt → 2 1% EQ ii) Age:
Young fold m ts, Mature fodl Mts (Monodinal ridges +
Mount ain Building v alleys)
2 nd order relief: Mountains, Plateaus, Plains iii) Period of origin:
Plateaus = 33% Old fold m ts (Caledonian + Hercynina period), New fold
Plains = 41% Mts (Tertiary period)
Hills = 1 4%
Mountains = 12% Characteristics of Fold Mount ains:
Uplifted portion of the earth’s surface → Hill / Mountain i) Youngest mountains on the earth surface
Height m ore than 9 00 m → Mountains ii) Form ed due to folding of sedim entary rocks due to
Height < 9 00 m → Hills com pressive forces.
iii) Have fossils derived from shallow seas.
Mt s on t he basis of period of origin: iv ) Fold m ountains extend for greater lengths but their widths
are far smaller than their lengths.
v ) Fold m ountains are formed from geosynclines → long
Pre-cam brian Caledonian Hercynian Alpine narrow and shallow depressions of water characteristics by
*Pre-paleozoic *silurion + Devonian * Perm ian + gradual sedimentration and subsidence.
*Territory v i) Found in arch shape having one side concave slope and the
Period period Carboniferous period other side convex slope.
period v ii) Found alay the m argins of continents facing oceans.

i) Pre-cambrian Mountains Geosy nclines:

 Laurentian mountains, algom an mountains, kilarnean
m ountains . Mountains of Feno-Scandia, North-west
Highlands + Anglesey.
 Ancient Shield: Canadian shield, Baltic shield /
Russian shield, Siberian shield, chinese Massif,
Peninsular India, African shield, Brazilian Mass,
Australian shield + Antarctic shield.
ii) Caledonian Mountains:
 Ex: Taconic mountains of Applachian system,
Mountains of Scotland, Ireland + Scandinavia
(Europe) , Brazilides of South America, Aravallis,
Mahadeo + Satpura of India
iii) Hercy nian Mountains
 Ex: Ural m ts, Appalachian m ts, Pennines + welsh
highlands of Britain, Harz m t of Germ any, Altai, Tein
shan
iv) Alpine Mountains
 Rockies → North America
 Andes → South America
 Alps, carpathians, Pyrenees, Balkans, Caucasus,
Cantrabrians, appenines, Dinaric Alps, Atlas mts
(N.W. Africa) → Europe
 Him alayas, Pontic, Tauurs, Elburz, Zagros, Kunlun
shan → Asia
 Mobile zones of water
 Geosy nclines bordered by 2 rigid masses → Forelands
Plat eaux
Plat eaux: Extensive upland areas characterized by flat and
rough top surface, steep side walls that rise above the
neighbouring ground surface.
Glacial Plateaux: Garhwal plateau – India
Fluvial Plateaux: Kaimur plateau → consists of panna
plateau, bhander plateau, Rewa plateau and Rohtas plateau
(w→ e)
Aeolian Plateaux: Potwar plateau – Pakistan
Loess plateau – china
Int ermontane plateaux:
1 . Tibetan plateau → Most extensive + highest plateau of world
2 . Mexican plateau
3 . Peru – Bolivian plateau
4 . Anatidian plateau – Turkey
Piedmont Plateaux: Malwa plateau – India Patagonia
plateau – Argentina [wind eroded pl] Appalachians – USA

Block Mount ains: (Horst )
 Product of faulting caused by tensile + compressive
forces
 Com pressional forces produce thrust/reverse fault
and shortens the crust.
 Large scale block m ountains + rift valleys are due to
tension rather than com pression.
Dome-shaped plateaux: Ozark plateau – USA chotanagpur
plateau – India
Volcanic plateaux: Deccan plateau → cretaceous period
Colum bian – snake plateau – USA antrim plateau – N. Ireland
Patagonian plateau – Argentina
7
 GEOGRAPHY
Plat eaux based on cy cle of erosion: Lakes
i) Young plateaux → Mahabaleswar plateau, India  Tem porary features of earth’s crust.
ii) Mature plateaux → Ranchi, Hazaribagh plateaux – India
TSO Sekuru, Tibet: Highest lake of the world
Plains Gaurikund: 2 nd highest lake of the world.
Eart h surface: L. Titicaca, Peru-Bolivia : Highest navigable lake in world.
Plains > Plateaus > Hills> Mountains Dead Sea: Lowest lake of the world
41 % 33% 1 4% 1 2% L. Bay kal, Russia: Deepest + Oldest lake of the world
L. Tanganyika Africa: 2 nd deepest lake of world
St ructural Plains: Dev tal, Garhwal Himalaya: Highest glacial lake of India
 Structurally depressed areas of the world Caspian Sea: Largest lake of the world
 Ex. Russian platform, Great plains of USA, Central Great Lakes,N. America: 2nd largest lake of the world
lowlands of Australia.
Rift Valley lakes: (S→N)
Erosional plains: L. Chilwa → L.Malawi → L. Tanganyika → L.Kivu → L.Edward
Peneplains Pediplains (L. Ny asa)
 Hum id regions  Arid/Semi-Arid Dead ← Red Sea ← L. Tana ← L. Turkana (Rudolf) ← L. Albert
regions
 Monadnocks  Inselbergs Cirque lakes/Tarns: Red Tarn, England
 Downwasting and  Backwasting
Backwasting Crat er lakes:
Crater - Oregon, USA
Deposit ional Plains:
L. Toba - Sum atra, Indonesia
1. River Deposited Plains:
L. Av ernus - Naples, Italy
i) Piedmont Alluvial plains:
Tonle Sab - Cam bodia
Alluvial cones → Alluvial Fans → Piedm ont alluvial fan plain
(Bhabar)
Delt aic lakes:
 Bhabar → Water disappears in the large sized
L. Pontchartrain - Lousiana, USA(Mississippi Δ)
boulders, cobbles + pebbles known as dry delta plain.
L. Manzala - Egy pt (Nile Delta)
 Tarai → Riv ers reappear in this zone south of Bhabar
L. Kolleru - India (Godavari Delta)
L. Marigot - Nigeria (Niger Delta)
ii) Flood Plain:
 Khadar → Newer alluvial plain, affected by floods
Lava dammed lakes:
each year. L. Nicaragua - Nicaragua
 Bangar → Older alluvial plain, not affected by flood, L. Van Golu - Turkey
has Kankar modules.
Sea of Galilee - Israel

iii) Delt a Plain Play as/ Salt lakes:

 Gangetic Delta → Largest delta of world in India – L. Disappointment - Australia
Bangladesh. L. Moore - Australia
 West Bengal: Char → Higher parts of delta Sam bhar lake - India
Beels→ Lower parts Great Salt lake - Utan, USA

2. Aeolian Plains: Karst lakes:

 Loess Plain → China (Shanxi Province) [Shensi, L. Skhoder - Montenegro
Shansi] L. Balton - Austria
 Sandy Plain/ Desert Plains → Sahara Desert, Thar
Desert Ox-bow lake:
Wular lake - Kashm ir, India
3. Glacial Plains:
Till Plains: Eskers + Drumlins Lakes made by Animal:
Outwash Plains: Formed due to deposition of m aterials after L. Beav er – Yellow stone National Park, USA
the ablation of glaciers + ice sheets. Consists of m ixture of
Sands, gravels, silts + clays. Wind blown lake:
L. Chad ← Chad, Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon
Median Mars Plain:
Hungarian Plain → Between Dinaric Alps (w) and Carpathian L. Urmia,Iran:
Mts (E) Largest lake in W. Aisa

Plains formed by Sea Movt : L. Assal, Djibout i:

Transgression of Sea → East coast Plains of India Lowest point inAfrica
Regression of Sea → Kutch Plain of India
L. Vict oria:
8
 GEOGRAPHY
Largest lake in Africa, Tectonic lake shared by Kenya, Uganda
+ Tanzania source of white Nile.

Lagoon lake:
Chilika, Pulicat lakes → East coast
Vem banad lake → West coast

Largest lakes: (High t o Low)

1. Caspitan Sea → Asia
2. L. superior → N. America
3. L. Victoria → Africa
4. Aral Sea → Asia
5. L. Huron → N. America

Weat hering + Mass Movement

Weat hering :
 Insitu disintegration + decomposition of rocks.
 No large scale transport of weathered materials except
m ass m ovement down the slopes under the impact of
gravity.
 static process

Cy cle of Erosion
James Hut ton:
 Uniform itarianism → Hutton + Lyell
 Cy clic nature of the earth history
 No v estige of a beginning,no prospect of an end
 Present is the key to the past.

W.M. Davis:
 Geographical cycle of Erosion →Landforms undergo
sequential changes through time.
 Landscape is a function of structure, process and time.

Concept s:
1. Peneplain → W.M. Davis
2. Pan plain → C.H. Crickmay
3. Pediplain → L.C. King
4. Endrumpf → W. Penck

9
 GEOGRAPHY
ATMOSPHERE
Composit ion
 Atm osphere → Gases, Particulate m atter
Gases:
 Nitrogen → 7 8%
 oxy gen → 2 1%
 Argon → 0.93%
 Co2 → 0.03 %
Kry pton, Xenon, Methane → Trace.
N 2 > O2 > Argon > Co2 > Neon > Helium > Ozone > Hydrogen
 Green House Gases → carbon – dio – oxide,
Methane, CFC, SHF, water vapour, Nitrous oxide,
ozone.
 Ozone Depleting substances → CFC, Freons, Nitrogen
oxides.
Wat er Vapour
 v aries b/w 0 and 5% by volume
 Most v ariable gas in the atmosphere
 water vapour α Tem perature
 water vapour decreases → from equator poleward and
from below upward.
 More than 9 0% of total atmospheric vapour is found
upto the height of 5 km .
 Absorbs both insolation & terrestrial radiation.
Part iculate matter: scattering of light, Hygroscopic nuclei.
Higher concentration of dust particles occur due to drywinds in
subtropical + temperate regions.
St ructure:
 height of atmosphere → B/w 16 to 29,000 km from
the sea-level.
 9 7 % of atmosphere confined upto height of 2 9 km.
 50% of atmosphere lies below height of 5.6 km
Lay ers of At mosphere:
1) Troposphere:
 Weather phenomena associated with this layer.
 Tem perature decreases with increasing height @ 6.5
C per km → Normal Lapse Rate
 Troposphere is thicker at Equator than the poles.
Ground surface → Tem perature decreases from
Equator to poles.
Tropopause → Tem perature increases from Eq.
poleward.
 Troposphere means zone/ region of m ixing and
Tropopause means where the mixing stops.
2) St ratosphere
 Ozonosphere: lower part of stratosphere (15 to 3 5
km ) having ozone concentration absorbs UV rays.
 Temperature inversion: Temperature increases
with increasing height in this layer. due to ozone layer.
 Thickness of ozone: thickest at Equator → More
heat. Thin at poles → Less heat.
3) Mesosphere:
 Tem perature decreases with height → Normal Lapse
rate.
 Lowest tem perature is recorded in this layer.
4) Thermosphere
 Tem perature increases rapidly with increasing height.
 Tem perature cannot be m easured by ordinary
thermomoter b’coz the gases become very light due to
low density.
 Thermosphere → Ionosphere – 80 km to 640 km
Exosphere - More than 640 km.
Ionosphere:
D Lay er → 60 to 99 km
→ Reflects low  radio waves.
→ Disappears with sunset b’coz it is associated with
solar radiation.
E Lay er → 99 km to 130 km
→ Reflects m edium & high  radio waves
→ produced by UV photons + N 2 m olecules and
disappears with sunset
i) Sporadic E Layer → High velocity winds.
→ Reflected V.H. F radio waves.
ii) E2 Lay er → 1 50 km height
→ Produced by UV Solar photons + O 2
→ Disappear during night.
F Lay er → 1 50 to 3 80 km
→ Reflect m edium + high  radio waves.
G Lay er → Above 4 00 km
→ Persists day + night but undetectable
Chemical composit ion:
i) Hom osphere ii) Heterosphere
i) Homosphere:
 Extends upto 90 km from sea level
 Includes Troposphere, Stratosphere & Mesosphere
 Hom ogenity of proportion of v arious gases.
ii) Het erosphere:
 Extends from 90 km to 10, 000 km.
 Different layers vary in physical + chemical
properties.
 4 distinct layers:
1. Molecular nitrogen layer → 90 to 2 00 km
2. Atom ic oxygen layer → 2 00 to 1100 km
3. Helium layer→ Upto 3 500 km
4. Atom ic hydrogen layer (Top m ost layer of
atm osphere) → 3 500 to outer limit of atmosphere
Insolat ion and Heat Budget
 Earth receives heat → Solar radiation, Gravity and
Endogenetic forces
 Solar const ant: 2 gcal cm -2 m in-1 / 2 langley m in-1.
 Velocity of light → 3 lakh kms-1 / 1 , 86, 000 miles s-1.
 Tim e taken by light from sun to Earth → 8 m in 20 sec.
 Av erage distance b/w Sun & Earth → 1 50 m illion Km.
 Insolation → Incom ing short wave solar radiation.
10
 GEOGRAPHY
Elect romagnetic waves: (Low  t0 High ) Scat t ering:
Radio waves → Microwaves → IR rays → v isible light → UV  2 3 % is scattered in the atmosphere.
rays  sm aller dust particles cause scattering of light.
↓  Blue light is m ore scattered than red light.
Gam ma rays [shortest λ] ← X rays
α Reflect ion:
 Larger dust particles cause reflection of light.
 UV rays forms 6 % of insolation
 About 3 5% of insolation is reflected back from earth.
 IR rays forms 43% of insolation
It is known as Abledo.

Dist ribution of Insolation:

Albedo of planets:
 Sum mer solstice - June 21
Mercury Venus Earth Mars J S U N
 winter solstice - Decem ber 2 2
6% 7 6% 3 5% 1 6% 7 3 to 94%
 Spring Equinox - March 21
Moon
 Autumn Equinox - Septem ber 23.
7%
 Insolation decreases from equator towards the poles.
Heat Budget
 Summer solst ice (June 21):
Insolation → Incom ing solar radiation [short wave]
Maximum insolation @ upper atmosphere → North
Terrestrial radiation → Outgoing radiation [Long wave]
pole
 3 5% of insolation sent back to space:
m aximum insolation @ ground surface → 3 0 - 4 0  N
Scattering by dust - 6%
 Total amount of insolation received at equator is Reflection by ground - 2%
roughly about 4 times of that received at poles Reflection by clouds - 27 %
 Poles receive about 40% of insolation received at the 3 5% (Albedo of Earth)
equator.
 Seasonal variation of insolation:  51 % of insolation reaches the earth surface
Little → Tropics i) Direct radiation (34%)
High → Tem perate regions ii) Diffuse radiation (17%)

Fact ors affect ing distribution of insolation:

Temperat ure
1 ) Angle of sun’s rays.  Heat → Form of energy
 Tem perature → Degree of hotness / coldness of any
2) Lengt h of Day substance.
 length of day varies at all places except at equator.  Atm osphere heated through → conclusion
 Length of day is always of 1 2 hours at the equator. → conv ection
 length of day increases poleward with northward
→ Radiation
m igration of sun in the northern hemisphere while it
 Count er-radiation: Re-radiation of terrestrial
decreases in the southern hemisphere. radiation from the atmosphere back to earth’s surface.
 6 m onths day at North pole from March 21 to Sept.
Effected m ainly by Co2 + water vapour
23.
 Air is a poor conductor of heat.
 6 m onths day at South pole from set 2 3 to March 21.  Atm osphere is m ainly heated by terrestrial radiation.
 Green house effect keeps the atmosphere + earth
3) Dist ance b/w Earth + Sun:
surface warmer
 Earth revolves in an elliptical orbit and hence its
 Co2 → Absorbs Terrestrial Radiation
distance changes.
water Vapour → Absorbs Insolation + Terrestrial
Perihelion (Nearest) → January 3
Radiation
Aphelion (Farthest) → July 4
 90% of water vapour in atmosphere is concentrated
Sout hern Hemisphere: upto height of 5 km from the sea -level.
 7 % sev ere winter than N. Hemisphere  High m ountains are called as radiation windows.
 7 % sev ere summer than N. Hemisphere
 More affected due to inclination of the earth.
Temperature Inversion (Ti):
 Tem perature increases with increasing height in
4) Sunspot s:
troposphere.
 Ev ery 11 th year maximum no. of sunspots occur.
 Warm air lies ov er cold air → Ti
 Insolation α sunspots.
Pressure and Winds
5) Effect s of At mosphere:
Pressure:
* Absorption (14%)
 Atm ospheric pressure is m aximum at sea level.
* Scattering (23%)
 Norm al pressure @ sea level →1 013.25 (76 cm Hg)
* Reflection (35%)
 Atm ospheric pressure decreases with increasing
height @ 1 mb / 10 m
Absorpt ion:
Highest Pressure → Irkutsk
 1 4 % of insolation is absorbed by atmosphere gases.
Lowest Pressure → Mariana Is.

11
 GEOGRAPHY
 Pressure α Tert iary winds
 Local winds
 Land + Sea Breeze
Pressure Belt s:
 Mountain + Valley breeze
 7 Pressure Belts → 4 Dy namically induced, 3
Thermally induced.
Primary Winds: [Planetary winds/ Prevailing winds]
 Dy namically induced → Sub-tropical High, Sub-polar
 Form ed due to Pressure gradient force, coriolis force,
low
frictional force & centripetal force.
 Thermally induced → Equatorial low, polar high
1. Doldrums: [5 N - 5 S]
1. Equatorial low:
 Equatorial Low having light & feeble air circulation.
 Dodlrums → Belt of calm air
 It is a zone of calm .
 zone of conv ergence of NE & SE trade winds → ITCZ
 Crowe identified 3 doldrums → Indo-Pacific, African
 surface winds are generally absent since winds.
west coast, Central American west Coast.
 approaching this region begin to rise vertically near its
m argin.
2. Trade Winds: [Hadley cell]
 Blow from sub-tropical high to Equatorial Low.
2. Sub-tropical high:
 ITCZ: Form ed due to convergence of N.E. Trades &
 Anticyclonic conditions cause stability + aridity.
S.E. Trades near the equator.
 Horse latitudes: calm condition with variable + feeble
 There is westerly air circula tion in ITCZ known as
winds.
Equatorial westerlies, called by Flohn.
 Not a continuous belt but broken into high pressure
cells in summer → pacific high, Azores high & Indian
3. West erlies: [Ferrel cell]
high
 Blow from sub-tropical high to sub-Polar low.
 Polar front created due to convergence of warm
3. Sub-Polar Low:
westerlies & cold polar Easterlies thus forming
 More dev eloped and regular in southern hemisphere
tem perate cyclones.
due to ov erdominance of oceans.
 In N.H, m ore vigorous during winter.
 Northern hemisphere
 More effective in S.H. →Roaring forties, Furious
Sum mer → Icelandic low only
fifties, Shrieking sixties.
Winter → Aleutian low, Icelandic low
4. Polar East erlies: [Polar Cell]
4. Polar High:
 Blow from Polar high to sub-polar low.
 Very low temperature year round
 This zone shrinks due to northward shifting of
 2 -4 PM → Maximum temperature, Lowest Pressure
pressure belts during summer solstice.
 4 -5 AM → Minim um temperature, Highest Pressure
Shift ing of Pressure + Wind belt s:
 Coriolis Force: Rotation of earth causes deflection
 Except Polar high, all belts migrate with the
of winds & hence they flow at acute angles to isobars.
m ov ements of sun.
 Cy clones → Anti-clockwise in Northern Hemisphere.  Shifting of Pressure belts gives rise to:
CAN
1 . Mediterranean climate → winter Precipitation, 3 0 - 4 5
latitudes, Dry summer, wet winter.
Beaufort scale of winds:
2 . 6 0 - 7 0 Latitudes → Wet summer through westerlies
Speed: Hurricane> storm > Gale > Breeze
and associated cyclones.
 Speed of Hurricane → 6 4 – 71 knots (B. scale - 1 2)
→ Dry winters due to polar easterlies.
 Speed of storm → 56 -63 knots (B-scale - 1 1)
3 . Monsoon clim ate → shifting of NITC & equatorial
westerlies due to national m igration of sun. Equatorial
Wind → Air m oving parallel to ground. [Horizontal]
westerlies extend as SWM in summer.
Current → Vertical air movement.

Local winds:
Winds
Warm winds:
Primary winds
1 . Chinook - Eastern Rockies
 Trade winds
2 . Foehn - Northern Alps
 Westerlies
3 . Harmattan - Guinea
 Polar Easterlies
4 . Sirocco - Italy
Khamsin - Egy pt
Secondary winds
Gibli - Liby a
 cy clones
Lev eche - Spain
 Anticyclones
Chili - Tunisia
 Monsoons
5. Sim oom - Arabian desert
 Air m asses
6. Norwester - New Zealand
 Fronts
7 . Brickfielder - Victoria, Oz.
8. Black roller - Great Plains, USA
12
 GEOGRAPHY
9 . Shamal - Iraq + Persian Gulf iii) Whether or not precipitation is generated
1 0. Santa Ana - USA
1 1. Yamo - Japan 1) Dew: [Ground surface]
1 2 . Zonda - Argentina  Clear skies, calm weather & winter night.
1 3 . Loo - India  Dew point above freezing point.
1 4 . Southerly Buster – Australia  Condensation in the form of water droplets.
 Harmattan → doctor 2. Frost : [Ground Surface]
 Sirocco → Blood Rain  Condensation in the form of tiny ice crystals.
 Chinook → Snow eater  Dew point at or below freezing point.

Cold winds 3. Fog:

1 . Mistral - Rhone v alley  Due to cooling of air from below → T i
2 . Bora - North Italy  Warm air above & cold air below.
3 . Blizzard - Canada  Known as clouds neart the earth surface / Low clouds.
Northern - S. USA  Visibility reduced to less than 1 Km .
Burran - Siberia  Mist: Light fog with visibility > 1 Km < 2 Km
4 . Purga - Russian Tundra
5. Bise - France 4. Clouds: [Luke Howard]
6 . Lev anter - South Spain  WMO → International cloud Atlas → 1 0 Genera,
7 . Pampero - Pam pas of S. Am erica 2 6 species, 31 varieties. 10G, 2 6S, 31V
8. Gregale - Medi Sea  Clouds based on height
9 . Tramontana - Medisea High clouds (5 t o 14 km)
1 0. Gravity / Katabatic / Fall / drainage winds. 1 . Cirrus 2 . Cirro-Cumulus 3 . Cirro-Stratus
1 1. Friagem – Am azon valley  Medium Clouds (2 t o 7 km)
1 2 . Haboob - sudan 1 . Alto – Cumulus2 . Alto – Stratus 3 . Nimbo –
1 3 . Papagayo - Costa Rica Stratus
Swiss → Clim atic Oasis due to Foehn  Low Clouds (0 t o 2 Km)
1 . Strato-cumulus2 . Stratus 3 . Cumulus
Jet St reams: [Rossby Waves] 4 . Cumulo – Nim bus
 Strong + rapidly moving circumpolar westerly air
circulation in a narrow belt of few hundred km width 1. Cirrus:
in upper troposphere.  Dry weather
 Circulation of westerly Jet stream is confined b/w
poles + 2 0 latitudes in both hemispheres @ height of 2. Cirro-cumulus:
7 .5 – 14 km.  Not com m on type of clouds. (Rare cloud)
 WHO: A strong narrow current concentrated along a
quasi-horizontal axis in upper troposphere by stong 3. Cirro-st ratus:
v ertical + lateral wind shear & featuring one/more  Milky thin sheets.
v elocity maxima.  Produce halo around sun & m oon.
 signs of approaching storms
Propert ies:
1. Flow west to east @ 7.5 – 14 km ht in upper 4. Alt o-cumulus
troposphere.  Woollen, bumpy clouds in wavy arrangement.
2. Thousands of km → length  Larger globular masses → sheep/ wool pack clouds
Few hundred km → width
Few km (2 -4) → depth 5. Alt o – st ratus:
Vertical wind shear is m ore than Lateral wind shear  Thin sheet of gray / bluish cloud with a watery look.
3. Circum – polar winds: confined b/w Poles + 2 0  Yield widespread + continuous precipitation.
latitudes.
4. wavy + m eandering path 6. Nimbo-st ratus
5. wind velocity twice that of summer season in winter &  Dark cloud with copious precipitation → rain cloud.
becom es strong in winter.  Not accom panied by lighting, thunder or hailstorm.
Max. velocity → 4 80 kmph
Min. Velocity → 1 08 kmph 7 . St rato – Cumulus:
6. Shifts northward with northward m igration of sun  Rough bumpy cloud
 Great contrast b/w bright + shaded parts
Forms of condensat ion
8. St ratus:
Dew, Fog/Mist, Frost, clouds  Very low cloud com posed of uniform layers.
 Thin stratus clouds produce corona.
3 Propert ies t o classify clouds:  Dull weather with light drizzle.
i) Basic shape
ii) Height above ground 9. Cumulus:
13
 GEOGRAPHY
 Vertical cloud with rounded top & horizontal base →
cauliflower shape.
 Fair weather clouds.
10. Cumulo-Nimbus:
 clouds with great vertical development.
 Bring lightning, thunder & hailstorms →
Thunderstorm clouds.
 Anvil top is characteristic feature
Precipit ation:
 Form s of Precipitation.
- Rainfall - Virga
- Snowfall
- Sleet
- Hailstorm
- Drizzle
Theories of Rainfall
1 . Cloud Instability / Ice –crystal theory → Bergeron, Findeisen
2 . Collision / Coalescence theory → E.G. Bowen, Longmuir.
Ty pes of Rainfall:
i) Conv ectional Rainfall
ii) Orographic Rainfall
iii) Frontal / Cyclonic Rainfall
i) Convect ional Rainfall: [Maximum RF wit h
Minimum Cloudness]
 Due to insolational heating of earth.
 Daily in the afternoon (2-3 PM) in Equatorial regions.
 Cu-Ni clouds → Thunder, lightning & very short
duration.
 Tem perate, tropical + Sub-tropical regions →
Sum mer rainfall.
ii) Orographic Rainfall: [Relief Rainfall]
 Most of the world precipitation occurs through it.
 Condit ions:
- Mountain across wind direction.
- Mountains parallel to sea coast
- Inland Mts should be of m ore ht.
 Characteristics:
- Windward slope + Leeward side (Rain
shadow)
- Maximum RF near slopes + decreases away
from the foothills
- Windward slope → cumulus clouds
- Leeward slope → Stratus clouds
- Inv ersion of Rainfall: Amt of RF decreases
with increasing height beyond contain height
due to decrease in m oisture content of air. It
is known as Maximum Rainfall Line.
- occurs in any season & is m ore widespread &
of longer duration.
- occurs in conjuction with convectional &
frontal rainfall.
- Moderat e ht of mountain: RF occurs in
leeward side than that of windward side.
iii) Front al / cy clonic Rainfall:
 Front al RF: Tem perate cyclones due to fronts,
conv ergence of warm westerlies + cold polar
easterlies.
 Cy clonic RF: Dev elops ov er warm tropical oceans
with low pressure centre.s
Dist ribution of Rainfall:
 Mean annual rainfll of earth → 970 mm
 Mediterranean region → winter rainfall
 Equatorial climate, British climate, Tropical m arine
clim ate → Year round RF
 Monsoon clim ate, Savanna climate → summer RF
Sleet :
 Mixture of snow train (U.K)
 Frozen raindrops, melting + re-freezing on their way
down.
Hail:
 Larges pellets or spheres of ice.
 Concentric layers of ice due to strong vertical
conv ective currents.
Drizzle:
 Num erous uniform m inute droplets of water (< 0.5
mm)
 Falls continuously from low stratus clouds.
Pat t erson:
 Phy sical Atlas (pattermann)
 Div ided the globe into 15 rainfall zones.
Virga:
 Precipitation from cumulus clouds in summer is
ev aporated before reacing the ground surface.
Air Masses
 Air mass: Large body of air whose physical
properties, especially temperature, m oisture content
and lapse rate, are more or less uniform horizontally
for hundreds of kilometres.
Front s
 Front → sloping boundary formed due to
conv ergence of warm airmass + cold airmass.
 Characteristics:
- Large differences in air temperature across
front.
- Bending isobars [steep thermal gradient]
- Abrupt shift in wind direction.
- Cloudiness + Precipitation.
 Frontogenesis: Creation of new fronts or regeneration
of decaying fronts already in existence.
 Frontolysis: Destruction or dying of fronts
Cy clones
 Cy clones are centres of low pressure surrounded by
closed isobars.
 Air blows inward in anti-clockwise in NH and
clockwise in S.H.
 Cy clones are known as atmospheric disturbances.
 Cy clonic storm: Cyclones with velocity of gale.
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 GEOGRAPHY
 2 ty pes → Extra-tropical [Temperate/wave] cyclones, Isonif - Snowfall
Tropical cyclones. Isohels - Sunshine
Isarithm - Sam e value or quantity (Isopleth)
Ty pes of Tropical cy clones: Isotherm - tem perature
1. Tropical disturbances [Easterly waves] Isobars - Pressure
2. Tropical depressions: Isotropes - Potential temperature
- 4 0 to 50 km ph Isopaches - Cum ulonimbus
- Low pressure centre surrounded by more than one Isohy ets - Rainfall
closed isobar. Isogonic line - Magnetic declination
3. Tropical St orms: 4 0 to 1 20 kmph Isochrones - Spatial travel time diagram [places located
4. Hurricanes: at equal travel time from a point]
- v elocity > 120 kmph Isobase - Equal elevation or depression of land
- Sy mmetrical + circular isobars. Isocheim - winter temperature
- steep pressure gradient Isogon/Isogonic - Magnetic variation
- Nam es: Isozeism al line - Earthquake intensity
Hurricanes → Caribbean Sea
Ty phoons → China
Willy-willy → Australia
Cy clones → Indian Ocean
Baguio → Phillippines
Nowaki / Taifu → Japan

Sl. TEMPERATE TROPICAL CY CLONES

No. CY CLONES
1 Land + Ocean origin Originates ov er ocean only
2 Mov es eastwards Mov es westwards
3 Ni-St, Cu-Ni clouds Cu-Ni clouds
4 Frontal origin Thermal origin
5 Occurs in any season Sum mer only
6 Larger size Sm aller size
7 Less v elocity High velocity
8 Tem perature Variations No tem p variations
9 Gentle Pressure gradient Steep Pressure gradient
10 Wind direction changes Constant wind direction
11 Death: Occlusion Front, Death: Landfall of the
warm air taken ov er by cy clone
cold air
12 3 5 – 6 0 latitudes 8 - 2 0 latitudes
13 Less destructive More destructive
14 No role of latent heat Latent heat is the major
driving force.
15 Affects larger area Affects sm aller area
com paritively

Ant i Cy clones
 Winds blow outwards from the high pressure centre,
clockwise in N.H & anti-clockwise in S.H.
 Known as weatherless phenomena due to high
pressure systems.

Size:
Anti –cyclones > Temperate cyclones > Tropical cyclones

Climat e
Wet-dry tropical climate → Largest annual temperature range.
Dry tropical Climate → Largest diurnal temperature range.
Newfoundland:
Experiences more drizzles than any other part of the world.

Terms
Isobronts - Thunderstorm
Isochrones - Travelling time from a point
Isohalines - Salinity
Isohy pse - Contour lines
Isobaths - Depth below sealevel
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