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International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 10 (2017) 245–253
www.elsevier.com/locate/IJPRT
Received 17 October 2016; received in revised form 22 January 2017; accepted 25 January 2017
Available online 3 February 2017
Abstract
Pervious concrete pavements are gaining popularity for stormwater management. Therefore, there is an impending need for the devel-
opment of quality control and acceptance specifications. In this study, the necessary initial steps are taken towards this goal. The pro-
cedures to conduct fresh and hardened density/porosity (u) and 28-day compressive strength (f 0 c) were evaluated. The proper
methodology for casting specimens in the field was identified by examining the agreement between the fresh (D) and hardened density
(q). The effect of cylindrical size, and curing methods as combinations of air and moist curing during the four-week period on f 0 c was
studied.
Both cylinder sizes demonstrated comparable values of hardened porosity (u = 16 percent) and hardened density (D = 2.11 kg/m3), as
well as strong linear u–D correlations (R2 range 0.60–0.90). The values of D agree well with those of the fresh density (two percent or less
difference), which confirmed the suitability of the implemented casting and compaction procedure. Small cylinders presented higher
28-day f 0 c than large cylinders by 7.7 to 19 percent, depending on the curing category. The two-week air followed by two-week moist
curing (2A2 M) method yielded the highest 28-day f 0 c for both specimen sizes, however, longer periods of moist curing did not result
in higher strengths. Cylinders from 1A3M, which were exposed to the longest moist curing, demonstrate the lowest f 0 c. Thermogravimetric
analysis (TGA) confirmed the trends seen in 28-day f 0 c and proved (that) longer moist curing resulted in the loss of C–S–H and Ca(OH)2.
Ó 2017 Chinese Society of Pavement Engineering. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction the surface [1,2]. For sidewalks, reduced icing and therefore
pedestrian slipping, and for parking lots/bike trails and
Pervious concrete pavements (PCP) are permeable pave- light traffic streets, reduced hydroplaning and wet weather
ment structures, simultaneously serving stormwater man- accidents are among the additional expected outcomes of
agement and bearing pedestrian/traffic loads, depending using PCP [2,3].
on the application. In this pavement system, a 150– PC’s prominent characteristic is the high content of
300 mm pervious concrete (PC) layer with a high air void hardened air void, typically ranging between 15 and 25 per-
content is placed on a highly voided stone bed as the base cent of the total volume [2]. Porosity is an essential prop-
layer, to allow for a rapid infiltration of runoff through the erty of PC, impacting its hydraulic, mechanical and
pavement system rather than allowing it to pond or run on durability characteristics, and is highly dependent on the
mixture design parameters and the method of compaction
[1]. PC mixture design is based on limiting the coarse aggre-
⇑ Corresponding author. gate grade to single-sized or grade 9.5–19 mm, and either
E-mail address: snassiri@wsu.edu (S. Nassiri). completely removing or using a minimal amount of fine
Peer review under responsibility of Chinese Society of Pavement
aggregate for added strength [1]. The end result is a matrix
Engineering.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijprt.2017.01.007
1996-6814/Ó 2017 Chinese Society of Pavement Engineering. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
246 M. Rangelov et al. / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 10 (2017) 245–253
typically allowed before demolding of the laboratory applied on the sides, as needed to facilitate casting and
specimens [12,21]. During the in-mold seven-day curing, avoid segregation. A total of 48 small, and 40 large cylin-
the specimens for acceptance testing are either cured in ders were cast on the two paving days.
the field or in the laboratory’s ambient conditions or in a
combination of both. No standardized procedure exists 3.2. Curing and testing
for curing the specimens upon demolding. As such,
normally specimens are continued to air cure until the After casting, the specimens were field-cured for a dura-
designated testing day. The effect and significance of moist tion between one and three days [23], then transported to
curing in the development of strength in conventional PCC the laboratory and cured in closed molds in laboratory
is well known [22]. However, our past exploratory conditions at 21°C for seven days. Upon demolding at 7-
experiment revealed that placing PC specimens in lime- day age, the hardened density and porosity of each speci-
saturated water bath upon demolding results in the men were determined [15]. In this procedure, the dry weight
dissolving of the paste matrix, and a reduction in 28-day (Md), and the dimensions of the specimens are recorded to
f 0 c of between five to 27 percent, when compared to air- obtain the dry volume (V). To do so, in addition to two
cured specimens. Therefore, this topic deserves further height measurements, two caliper measurements were
investigation before standard procedures can be developed taken at mid-depth to obtain the diameter. Hardened den-
for 28-day f 0 c acceptance testing of PC. sity (q) was calculated as the ratio of the dry mass to the
volume (Md/V). To characterize porosity, each specimen
was submersed in water for at least 30 minutes, after which
3. Methodology
the submersed mass of each specimen was recorded (MW).
The volume of the solids can be obtained by dividing the
3.1. Materials and sampling
difference between the dry and submersed weights by the
density of water (qw). Subsequently, porosity (u) is calcu-
Specimens in this study were cast from the State Depart-
lated using Eq. (2):
ment of Transportation’s PCP placement on a ferry termi-
nal’s dock on two paving days, June 1st, and June 17th, ðMd Mw Þ
2016. Mixture design and proportioning are provided in u¼1 ð2Þ
qw V
Table 1. The coarse aggregate nominal maximum size
was 9.5 mm, with a specific gravity of 2.73. The mixture’s Later, the specimens were cured until 28 days of age. In
density was 2096 kg/m3 according to the mixture design, order to assess the impact of different curing methods on
resulting in a target porosity of 20.4 percent. Hydration the strength development, the specimens were cured in air
stabilizer and rheology-modifying admixtures were added and in a fog room complying with ASTM C192 [19]. The
to the mixture in dosages specified in Table 1. One of the duration of air and moist curing was designed to include
purposes of using these admixtures is to provide prolonged four curing categories, as described in Table 2. The four
workable time. categories are four weeks of air curing (4A), three weeks
Specimens were cast from multiple truck loads on the in air and one week moist cured in the fog room
two paving days; the fresh density was first determined (3A1M), two weeks of air and two weeks of moist curing
for each batch based on ASTM 1688 [14], followed by cast- (2A2M), and finally one week of curing in air, followed
ing small and large cylinders. The required mass of fresh by three weeks of moist curing (1A3M). Table 2 also shows
material placed in every mold was defined based on the the number of cylinders of both sizes designated to each
experimentally determined fresh density on the same batch. curing category. Note that the unequal number of speci-
The material was divided in two and three equal lifts for mens in each curing category is the result of a different
small and large cylinders, respectively. The fresh PC was number of cylinders cast on the two paving days. Regard-
compacted using a standard 2.5-kg Proctor hammer with less, a sufficient number of specimens are included in each
a 30.5-cm drop. The number of hammer drops was category to allow for meaningful statistical comparisons.
adjusted so that the predetermined mass of the fresh PC After 28 days of curing, the specimens were tested for com-
fit in the molds. Additionally, strikes of the mallet was pressive strength.
Compressive strength tests were conducted based on the
procedure in ASTM C39 [17] and ASTM D1633 [18]. The
Table 1 loading rate of 0.24 ± 0.05 MPa/s specified in C39, recom-
PC mixture design and proportioning. mended for conventional PCC results in the failure of the
Material Amount per m3 of PC PC specimens in less than two minutes. Therefore, based
Coarse aggregate [kg] 1716 on the recommendations in D1633 [18], the loading rate
Type I/II Cement [kg] 300 was adjusted to 0.10 ± 0.02 MPa/s to allow for the test
Water [kg] 83 on each specimen to last for about four to five minutes
Admixtures Hydration stabilizer [g] 1260 and to provide a continuous and no-shock loading during
Rheology-modifying [g] 1224
testing.
248 M. Rangelov et al. / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 10 (2017) 245–253
(a) 2,250
2,200
2,150
Density [lkg/m3]
2,100
2,050
2,000
1,950
1,900
1,850
1,800
D1B1 D1B2 D2B1 D2B2 D2B3 D2B4
(b) 2,250
2,200
2,150
Density [lkg/m3]
2,100
2,050
2,000
1,950
1,900
1,850
1,800
D1B1 D1B2 D2B1 D2B2 D2B3 D2B4
Fig. 1. Comparison of fresh (D) and hardened density (q), based on casting day 1 or 2 (D1 or D2) and PC sampling batch (B1–B5) for (a) small and (b)
large cylinders.
2,250
the lowest f 0 c for both cylinders. It was expected that
2,200 Large cylinders
y = -16.748x + 2378.9 longer moist curing will result in the development of more
R² = 0.8965
hydration products and thereby higher f 0 c, however, the
Density [kg/m3]
2,150
2,100
results present a different pattern. Cylinders from Category
Small cylinders
y = -13.105x + 2315.7 1A3M, with the longest moist curing, demonstrate the
2,050 R² = 0.6023 lowest f 0 c among the moist cured cylinders, the second
2,000 lowest f 0 c was achieved for 3A1M, while 2A2M resulted
in the highest f 0 c. Based on f 0 c results, moist curing
1,950
8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00 20.00 22.00 24.00
improved f 0 c, however only when limited to no longer than
Porosity [%] two weeks. Two weeks of air and two weeks of moist
Small cylinders Large cylinders
curing resulted in the most effective curing, resulting in
the highest f 0 c.
Fig. 2. Linear u–q relationship for small and large cylinders. The impact of different curing categories on f 0 c were sta-
f 0csmall ¼ 1:13 f 0clarge ð4Þ tistically assessed by t-tests (Table 5). Differences in f 0 c
caused by different curing methodologies are not statisti-
Eq. (4) is based on all tested specimens. The correlation cally significant at 95 percent confidence level. Large cylin-
coefficient at 1.13 corresponds well with the values found ders show lower p-values comparing to small cylinders,
from literature [20]. Coefficient ks was calculated for all indicating the more significant impact of curing on f 0 c.
curing categories separately and presented in Table 4. The comparison of curing methods 4A and 2A2M for large
cylinders, resulted in a p-value of 0.061, which indicates a
4.2.2. Effect of curing method statistical significance at 90 percent confidence.
Specimens from Category 2A2M demonstrate the high- During the curing period, it was observed that the spec-
est f 0 c for both cylinder sizes, while Category 4A presents imens subjected to moist curing in the fog room presented
250 M. Rangelov et al. / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 10 (2017) 245–253
26
Small cylinders Large cylinders
24
22
f'c [MPa]
20
18
16
14
12
10
4A 3A1M 2A2M 1A3M
Curing category
Fig. 3. Average 28-day f0 c for small and large PC cylinders for four curing categories.
Table 4
Significance of effect of cylinder size on 28-day f0 c based on Pearson t-test.
Curing category Specimen size Mean (MPa) STDV (MPa) p-values ks
4A Small 19.2 2.8 0.019 1.19
Large 16.2 2.6
1A3M Small 20.2 3.6 0.024 1.12
Large 18.0 3.6
2A2M Small 20.6 3.2 0.361 1.07
Large 19.2 3.6
3A1M Small 19.9 3.3 0.167 1.18
Large 17.0 1.5
All categories Small 19.9 3.3 0.002 1.13
Large 17.6 3.2
Table 5
Results of Pearson t-test comparing f0 c for different curing categories.
Curing category p-values for small cylinders p-values for large cylinders
4A 1A3M 2A2A 3A1M 4A 1A3M 2A2A 3A1M
4A Not applicable (NA) 0.486 0.293 0.603 NA 0.206 0.061 0.449
1A3M 0.486 NA 0.873 0.630 0.206 NA 0.403 0.118
2A2M 0.293 0.873 NA 0.747 0.061 0.403 NA 0.484
3A1M 0.603 0.630 0.747 NA 0.499 0.118 0.484 NA
100
85
80
75
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Fig. 5. TGA results: weight loss percentage versus temperature for samples from four curing categories.
Table 6
LOI results from TGA test, based on different temperature ranges for four curing categories.
Temperature range Cement paste compound LOI (%) based on curing category
4A 3A1M 2A2M 1A3M
100–450 °C C–S–H, Aft, Afm 10.75 9.36 8.99 7.52
450–600 °C Ca(OH)2 4.29 2.96 2.71 2.34
600–1000 °C CaCO3 5.72 7.71 9.05 7.47
gel, while the second and third peak are associated with the field/laboratory from fresh pervious concrete (PC) to
decomposition of Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3, respectively. be used in quality control mechanical testing for accep-
Fig. 5 demonstrates the results of TGA represented by tance. Therefore, the study aimed at investigating the
the weight loss for the paste samples from four curing effects of cylinder size (small: 100 by 200 mm versus large:
categories. 150 by 300 mm) on porosity, fresh and hardened density.
To quantify different phases of the cement paste, per- Moreover, the impacts of cylinder size and four curing cat-
centage weight loss for the following temperature ranges egories of four weeks of air curing (4A), three weeks of air
was calculated based on the literature [26]: 100–450 °C and one week of moist curing (3A1M), two weeks of air
for the C–S–H, ettringite (Aft) and monosulphate (Afm), and two weeks of moist curing (2A2M), and one week of
450–600 °C for Ca(OH)2, and 600–1000 °C for CaCO3. air and two weeks of moist curing (1A3M) on PC 28-day
The results in terms of weight loss percentage, typically compressive strength (f 0 c) were examined. The main find-
referred to as loss on ignition (LOI), are presented in ings are presented below:
Table 6. As seen in Table 6, curing category 4A presents
the highest content of C–S–H, Aft and Afm and Ca – Hardened density of both cylinders agreed with the
(OH)2. Among the three curing categories with moist cur- fresh density determined in the field (the maximum
ing, the amount of C–S–H, Aft and Afm and Ca(OH)2 difference was approximately two percent). The
steadily declines with the extension of the moist curing per- corresponding values of fresh and hardened density
iod. This trend further indicates that prolonged moist cur- suggested the adequacy of the implemented casting
ing may lead to decalcification of C–S–H gel and and compaction methodology for sampling PC in
dissolution of Ca(OH)2 due to the presence of water and/ the field for the mixture design tested in this study.
or chemical attack. Ca(OH)2 leaching results in increased However, the effect of different mixture design
porosity and drop in strength with more severe effects than parameters, such as aggregate shape and nominal
the effects of C–S–H decalcification on strength [27,28]. maximum size, cement paste content, water-
Finally, the pattern observed in CaCO3 content determined to-cementitious ratio, and so forth needs to be
by TGA for different curing categories follows the same investigated in order to provide a framework for
trend observed previously in f 0 c. Curing categories with PC sampling in the field.
higher content of CaCO3 present higher f 0 c based on – The two cylinder sizes demonstrate comparable values
TGA test results. of average porosity (approximately 16 percent) and
average hardened density (2108 kg/m3). The difference
5. Conclusions between the porosity and density for the two cylinder
sizes was not found to be statistically significant. This
An experimental study was conducted to identify the result indicates that either cylinder size can be cast for
proper methodology for casting and curing specimens in evaluation of hardened density.
252 M. Rangelov et al. / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 10 (2017) 245–253
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