#1
CELL THEORY
Cells are the basic unit of life.
The Cell Theory states that:
1) All organisms are made up of one or more cells and the
products of those cells.
2) All cells carry out life activities ( require energy,
grow, have a limited size).
3) New cells arise only from other living cells by the
process of cell division.
THE THREE MAIN COMPONENTS OF ANY PLANT OR ANIMAL CELL ARE:
1. PLASMA MEMBRANE/ CELL MEMBRANE
Structure- a bilipid membraneous layer composed of proteins
and carbohydrates. It is fluid like.
Function - the cell membrane separates the cell from its
external environment, and is selectively permeable (controls
what gets in and out). It protects the cell and provides
stability.
Proteins are found embedded within the plasma membrane, with
some extending all the way through in order to transport
materials.
Carbohydrates are attached to proteins and lipids on the
outer lipid layer.
2. CYTOPLASM
Structure - The jelly-like substance composed of mainly
water and found between the cell membrane and nucleus. The
cytoplasm makes up most of the "body" of a cell and is
constantly streaming.
Function - Organelles are found here and substances like
salts may be dissolved in the cytoplasm.
3. NUCLEUS
Structure - The largest organelle in the cell. It is dark
and round, and is surrounded by a double membrane called the
nuclear envelope/membrane. In spots the nuclear envelope
fuses to form pores which are selectively permeable. The
nucleus contains genetic information (DNA) on special
strands called chromosomes.
Function - The nucleus is the "control center" of the cell,
for cell metabolism and reproduction.
THE FOLLOWING ORGANELLES ARE FOUND IN BOTH PLANT AND ANIMAL
CELLS.
1. "ER" OR ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals
filled with fluid. They carry materials throughout the
cell. The ER is the "transport system" of the cell.
There are two types of ER: rough ER and smooth ER.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum is lined with ribosomes and is
rough in appearance and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
contains no ribosomes and is smooth in appearance.
2. RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are small particles which are found individually
in the cytoplasm and also line the membranes of the rough
endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes produce protein. They
could be thought of as "factories" in the cell.
3. GOLGI BODY / APPARATUS
Golgi bodies are stacks of flattened membranous stacks (they
look like pancakes!). The Golgi Body temporarily stores
protein which can then leave the cell via vesiciles pinching
off from the Golgi.
4. LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are small sac-like structures surrounded by a
single membrane and containing strong digestive enzymes
which when released can break down worn out organelles or
food. The lysosome is also known as a suicide sac.
5. MITOCHONDRIA
The mitochondria are round "tube-like" organelles that are
surrounded by a double membrane, with the inner membrane
being highly folded. the mitochondria are often referred to
as the "powerhouse" of the cell. the mitochondria releases
food energy from food molecules to be used by the cell.
This process is called respiration. Some cells( muscle
cells) require more energy than other cells and so would
have many more mitochondria.
6. VACUOLES
Vacuoles are fluid filled organelles enclosed by a membrane.
They can store materials such as food, water, sugar,
minerals and waste products.
ANIMAL CELLS ORGANELLES NOT FOUND IN PLANT CELLS:
CILIA AND FLAGELLA
Both cilia and flagella are hair-like organelles which
extend from the surface of many animal cells. the structure
is identical in both, except that flagella are longer and
whiplike and cilia are shorter. There are usually only a
few flagella on a cell, while cilia may cover the entire
surface of a cell. The function of cilia and flagella
ionclude locomotion for one-celled organisms and to move
substances over cell surfaces in multi-celled organisms.
ORGANELLES AND OTHER FEATURES FOUND ONLY IN PLANT CELLS:
1. CELL WALL
The cell wall is a rigid organelle composed of cellulose and
lying just outside the cell membrane. The cell wall gives
the plant cell it's box-like shape. it also protects the
cell. The cell wall contains pores which allow materials to
pass to and from the cell membrane.
2. PLASTIDS
Plastids are double membrane bound organelles. It is in
plastids that plants make and store food. Plastids are found
in the cytoplasm and there are two main types:
Leucoplasts - colorless organelles which store starch or
other plant nutrients. ( example - starch stored in a
potato)
Chromoplasts - contain different colored pigments. The
most important type of chromoplast is the chloroplast, which
contains the green pigment chlorophyll. This is important
in the process of photosynthesis.
3. CENTRAL VACUOLE
The central vacuole is a large fluid-filled vacuole found in
plants.
#2
Membrane-bound Organelles
Organelle Type
Main Functions (not necessarily all functions):
1.
Nucleus
'Control Center' of the cell.
Contains the cell's DNA (genetic information) in the form of
genes.
Re.
Nucleic Acids
*Sequestration and *replication of DNA.
*Transcription and *modification of RNA.
Contains one or more nucleoli (plural, singular word =
nucleolus) whose functions include:
Nucleoli
Biosynthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and production
(assembly) of ribosomes.
2.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
Consists of many interconnected membranous sacs called
cisternae, onto whose external surface ribosomes are
attached (distinguishing RER from SER on electron
micrographs).
Ribosomes
Produce polypeptides that are then either ...
inserted into the RER membrane, or
moved into the lumen (central region) of the cisternae, or
moved to the Golgi complex and probably onwards from there.
In lumen of cisternae
Produce proteins that are then either ...
retained within vesicles, or
secreted from the cell (via secretory vesicles - see below).
3.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
Consists of many interconnected membranous sacs called
cisternae (without ribosomes).
Many enzymes are either attached to the surface of the SER
or located within its cisternae. Chemical reactions within
the SER vary with the type and location of cells. E.g.
helps with protein folding and transport of synthesized
proteins
glycosylation - which involves the attachment of
oligosaccharides.
disulfide bond formation and rearrangement - to stabilize
the tertiary and quaternary structure of many proteins
modification of some drugs e.g. by the cytochrome P450
enzymes in liver cells.
4.
Mitochondria
The main function of mitochondria in aerobic cells is the
production of energy by synthesis of ATP. However,
mitochondria also have many other functions, including e.g.:
Processing and storage of calcium ions (Ca2+).
Apoptosis, i.e. the process of programmed cell death
Regulation of cellular metabolism
Synthesis of certain steroids
See also the structure of mitochondria and the functions of
mitochondria.
5.
Chloroplasts
(plant cells only)
Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis within plant
cells.
6.
Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts and packages
macromolecules for delivery to other organelles or secretion
from the cell via exocytosis - see (9.) below.
7.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes (tiny sacs containing enzymes) are the main sites
of intracellular digestion. They enable the cell to make use
of nutrients. Their functions can be listed as:
Autophagy - digestion of materials from within the cell.
Heterophagy - digestion of materials originating from
outside the cell.
Biosynthesis - recycling unwanted products of chemical
reactions to process materials received from outside the
cell.
Lysosomes also destroy the cell - usually after it has died.
8.
Peroxisomes
(also called "microbodies" - smaller than lysosomes and
contain specific enzymes)
Similar to (but smaller than) lysosomes, the metabolic
functions of peroxisomes include:
Breakdown of fatty acids by beta-oxidation
Breakdown excess purines to urea
Breakdown of toxic compounds e.g. in the cells of the liver
and kidney.
also play a role in the biosynthesis of certain important
molecules incl. cholesterol and (in liver cells) bile acids
derived from cholesterol.
9.
Secretory vesicles
(sometimes called simply "vesicles")
Transport and delivery of their contents (e.g. molecules
such as hormones or neurotransmitters) either into or out of
the cell, in both cases via the cell membrane.
Exocytosis - movement of the contents of secretory vesicles "Junctions" are connecting points joining either cells to
out of the cell. other cells, or cells to their basement membrane. See the
Endocytosis - movement of the contents of secretory vesicles diagram of the cytoskeleton.
into the cell.
6.
10. Centrosomes
Vacuole Contain the centrioles, which are involved in the process of
(plant cells only) mitosis - see cell-division.
Helps maintain turgor pressure pressure (turgidity) inside
the cell - which pushes the plasma membrane against the cell 7.
wall. Plants need turgidity to maintain rigidity. Cilia
Notes: Some eukaryotic cells have cilia (plural, singular word =
(1) The numbers on the left are just for ease of reference cilium) whose function is often to facilitate either
to this table. Different types cells contain different movement of the cell or movement of something over the
quantities of the various cellular organelles. surface of cells e.g. fallopian cells move ova towards the
(2) *Advanced terms. Understanding this level of detail is uterus.
not needed for many introductory courses e.g. A-Level
Biology. 8.

Non-Membranous-bound Organelles Flagella (of spermatozoa differ from prokaryotic flagella)

Organelle Type The main function of the flagellum of a human spermatozoon

Main Functions (not necessarily all functions):
1.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes interpret cellular information from the nucleus
and synthesize proteins.
There are different types of ribosomes e.g. 80S
(eukaryotic), 70S (prokaryotic).
The following structures form part of the cell's
cytoskeleton:
2.
Microfilaments
(formed from actin)
Actin has a contractile function in muscle cells.
In non-muscle cells actin microfilaments form part of a web-
like layer (called the cell cortex) located immediately
below the cell's plasma membrane. This structure helps to
define the shape of the cell including the structure of any
microvilli. They also facilitate movement of certain
particles and structures e.g. macrophages, fibroblasts and
nerve growth cones.
(sperm cell) is to enable the sperm to move close to the
oocyte ("egg" cell) and orient itself appropriately .
Note: The numbers on the left are just for ease of reference
to this table. Different types cells contain different
quantities of the various cellular organelles.
The cell membrane is often included in sections about the
structure and functions of cell organelles. However, the
cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane) is not
within the cell but one of the structures that defines the
cell - together with the cell wall in the cases of plant
cells and prokaryotic cells. See functions of the cell
membrane.
The above list of functions of organelles shows that many,
though not all, membrane-bound organelles are sites of
biochemical reactions, i.e. where chemicals are made (=
"produced", "synthesized" or "biosynthesized") or broken-
down (= "degraded') or changed in some way. Such chemical
reactions are examples of metabolic processes and often form
part of metabolic pathways. This is way knowledge of cell
biology is useful when studying metabolism.

3.
Microtubules
(formed from tubulin)
As the main "building blocks" forming the cytoskeleton - the
cell's framework within which all components of the cell are
held in position or allowed restricted movement.
Movement of materials and structures within cells e.g. help
form the miotic spindle during the "prophase" part of cell
division by mitosis.
For further detail see functions of microtubules.

4.
Intermediate Filaments
(formed from intermediate filament proteins, e.g. keratin)
Intermediate filaments are important for maintaining the
mechanical structure of cells. There are different types of
intermediate filaments that can be identified according to
the protein from which they are formed. The different types
of intermediate filaments occur in different types of cells
and therefore provide structural support (to the cell) in
slightly different ways.
E.g. neurofilaments in the axons of neurons are involved in
the radial growth of the axon, so determine its diameter as
well as contributing strength and rigidity to the cell.

5.
Junctions