Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
handbook
twentieth edition
William I. Orr, W65AI
RADIO HANDBOOK
HAH DB 00
FOR AMATEURS
K
was announced. This was a slim, paperback book
entitled The Radio Handbook for Amateurs and
Experimenters. This 296 -page Handbook was
an immediate sensation in the radio world.
AND EXPERIMENTERS Bursting with new, exciting information, the
"West Coast Handbook" introduced radio ama-
s 12 tears to the regenerative superheterodyne re-
(f^ ceiver, the Jones all -band exciter (jocularly
known as the "crystal cracker ") , high efficiency
grid modulation, the "twisted- pair" transmis-
sion line, the one-tube, 5 -meter superregenera-
tive transceiver, the resistance -coupled 5-meter
superheterodyne and those great contributions
'~`-. ° - `- to today's DX operator: the S -meter and the
California Kilowatt!
For the majority of amateurs using push -
pull 45s in their transmitter and a two -tube
regenerative receiver, the new Handbook was a revelation of the rapidly advancing state
of the communications art. The continuing success of the first handbook led to nineteen
successive larger editions of Radio Handbook, expanding the publication from the
original concept to the present volume. These editions represent the leading independent
authority in the field of radio amateur hf and vhf communication, faithfully covering
more than four decades of technical development.
In this short span of time, much less than the lifetime of many of the readers of
this edition, amateur radio has passed from the early formative days in which it was
an accomplishment to hear anything on a shortwave receiver and when "ultrashort -wave
radio" was limited to the horizon, to today's sophisticated solid -state equipment, long
distance vhf communication, and expanded concepts of amateur radio -which includes
television, "moonbounce" and satellite communication, and digital techniques unknown
to the amateur of 1934.
This rapid advance in technology is reflected in the 20th edition of Radio Handbook.
Fully one third of the book has changed completely, and the remaining text thoroughly
revised to bring it in line with today's techniques. Additional material has been added
covering propagation, vhf communication, and recent advances in solid -state technology.
Interesting new equipment is presented for the home constructor and experimenter. And
the Handbook has more than tripled in the volume of editorial material since the original
edition.
The early experimenters and the readers of the first edition of Radio Handbook,
were they to pick up this edition, would indeed be dazzled by the amateur equipment
of today, but they would understand the underlying principles of operation since it still
obeys the fundamental laws of electricity set forth well before the turn of the century
by Ohm, Ampere, Faraday, Maxwell, Hertz, and others.
The new readers of this, the 20th edition of Radio Handbook would do well to
extend a silent tribute to the pioneering amateurs who, in 1934, embarked upon the
adventure of producing a new and informative handbook for radio amateurs. Better
yet, they might keep their ears open and scan the bands, for many of this hardy group
are still active radio amateurs, as keenly interested in the progress of amateur radio as
they were four decades ago when the concept of the Radio Handbook was born in San
Francisco.
The present editor, who was a beginning amateur in high school when the first
handbook was published, still remembers the thrill when he first read this fascinating
book which introduced him to the wonderful world of radio communication.
A salute, then, to those pioneers whose vision of the future was so clear and a toast
to a QSO via amateur radio in the near future.
Menlo Park, 1975 William I. Orr, W6SAI
Acknowledgements
The author and publishers wish to thank the following individuals whose assistance
and support were vital in the compilation of this Handbook:
Stuart Cowan, W2LX
Jack Curtis, WA6JNJ
John Ehler, W 5 TMN
W.W. Eitel, Vi'6UF /WA7LRU
Jim Garland, W8KFL
Mike Goldstein, VE3GFN
Ken Holladay, K6HCP
George Jacobs, W 3 ASK
Perry Klein, K3JTE
Jack McCullough, W6CHE
Jim Millen, W1HRX
Henry Olson, W6GXN
B.A. Ontiveros, W6FFF
Jerry Pittenger, K8UNG
Jack Quinn, W6MZ
Rodney Reynolds, VK3AAR
Ray Rinaudo, W6ZO
Paul Shuch, WA6UAM
Mike Staal, K6MYC
Bob Sutherland, W6PO
A.P. Walker, W4BW
Bob Welborn, W9PBW
Lance Wilson, WB6QXF
CONTENTS
Glossary of Terms 11
The field of radio is a division of the underlying radio communication, both from
much larger field of electronics. Radio itself the standpoint of equipment design and
is such a broad study that it is still further operation and from the standpoint of signal
broken down into a number of smaller fields propagation. Thus, it will be found that this
of which only short -wave or high- frequency edition of the RADIO HANDBOOK has
radio is covered in this book. Specifically the been devoted in greater proportion to the
field of communication on frequencies from teaching of the principles of equipment de-
1.8 to 1296 MHz is taken as the subject mat- sign and signal propagation. Also included
ter for this work. are expanded and revised sections covering
The largest group of persons interested in solid state devices and the principles of oper-
the subject of high -frequency communica- ation of modern equipment. The mathemat-
tion is the more than 530,000 radio ama- ics chapter, in addition, has been revised in
teurs located in nearly all countries of the the light of the modern pocket electronic
world. Strictly speaking, a radio amateur is calculator. All of these factors, of course,
anyone noncommercially interested in radio, are reflected in the changing picture of
but the term is ordinarily applied only to amateur radio today.
those hobbyists possessing transmitting
equipment and a license to operate from the
Government. 1 -1 Amateur Radio
It was for the radio amateur, and particu- Amateur radio is a fascinating scientific
larly for the serious and more advanced ama- hobby with many facets. At the same time
teur, that most of the equipment described it is a public service as well as a recognized
in this book was developed. The design prin- Radio Service and, as such, is assigned specific
ciples behind the equipment for high -fre- bands of frequencies by the International
quency and vhf radio communication are of Telecommunications Union, to which body
course the same whether the equipment is to the United States of America is a signatory
be used for commercial, military, or ama- power.
teur purposes. The principal differences lie in From a few thousand amateurs at the end
construction practices, and in the tolerances of World War I, amateur radio has grown
and safety factors placed on components. into a world -wide institution of communi-
With the increasing complexity of high - cators and experimenters joined in the com-
frequency and vhf communication, resulting mon interest of communication by means of
primarily from increased utilization of the radio. So strong is the fascination offered
available spectrum, it becomes necessary to by this hobby that many executives, engi-
delve more deeply into the basic principles neers and military and commercial electronic
1.1
1.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
experts, as well as students and citizens not that his hobby is the gateway to a career
otherwise engaged in the field of electronics in the expanding field of electronics, if he
are united by the common bond of amateur wishes it, and that amateur radio is indeed
radio. an impressive introduction to one of the
Radio amateurs have rendered much pub- most exciting fields of endeavor in this
lic service, especially in the United States, century.
through furnishing emergency communica-
tions to and from the outside world in cases 1 -2 Amateur Station and
where a natural disaster has isolated an area
by severing all normal means of communi-
Operator Licenses
cation. Amateurs have innumerable records Every radio transmitting station in the
of service and heroism on such occasions. United States (with the exception of certain
The amateur's fine record of performance low -power communication devices) must
with the "wireless" equipment of World War have a license from the Federal Government
I was surpassed by his outstanding service in before being operated; some classes of sta-
World War H. tions must have a permit from the govern-
The induction of thousands of radio ama- ment even before being constructed. And
teurs in the Armed Forces during 1940 -1945 every operator of a licensed transmitting sta-
and the explosion of electronic technology tion must have an operator's license before
during that period created an expansion of operating a transmitter. There are no ex-
amateur radio, the direct result of which is ceptions. Similar laws apply in practically
that many of those amateurs are now the every major country.
leaders of our modern electronics industry.
It is through the continuing expansion of Glosses of Amateur The Radio Amateur
amateur radio in the future that many of Operator Licenses Service in the United
tomorrow's engineers, technicians and elec- States is in the process
tronic executives will come. of going through a major change in the
The Amateur Radio Service has been license structure. At the time of publication
proven to be a national and international of this Handbook, there exist six classes of
resource of great benefit to all nations and amateur operator licenses authorized by the
to mankind. In addition, of equal importance Federal Communications Commission. These
is the effect of the service as a stimulus to classes differ in many important respects, so
economic growth and scientific knowledge. each will be discussed briefly.
Radio amateurs continue to play a signifi- Novice Class -The Novice Class license
cant role in the development of the state is available to any U.S. citizen or national
of the radio art and are continuing to make who has not previously held an amateur
major contributions both to basic radio license of any class issued by any agency of
theory and to practical applications thereof. the U.S. Government, military or civilian.
In recent years radio amateurs have con- The license is valid for a period of two years
tributed to the state of the art in numerous and is not renewable. However a former
ways including the discovery in 1934 of amateur licensee may apply for a new Novice
reflection and refraction of vhf signals in Class license provided he has not held an
the lower atmosphere, the development and amateur license for at least a period of one
adaptation of SSB techniques for widespread year prior to making application. The ex
usage. the achievement of random "moon - amination may be taken only by mail, under
bounce" communication between amateurs the direct supervision of an amateur holding
and the development of the OSCAR series a General Class license or higher, or a com-
of satellites and the relatively inexpensive mercial radiotelegraph licensee. The exam-
equipment and technique for communicat- ination consists of a code test in sending and
ing through the satellites. receiving at a speed of $ words per minute,
Continuing into the closing quarter of plus a written examination on the rules and
the Twentieth Century, the status of ama- regulations essential to beginners operation,
teur radio in the communities of the world including sufficient elementary radio theory
emphasize to the beginning radio amateur for the understanding of these rules. Re-
INTRODUCTION TO AMATEUR RADIO COMMUNICATION 1.3
stricted c -w privileges in segments of the tance from the nearest point at which the
80 -, 40 -, 15- and 10 -meter amateur bands FCC conducts examinations twice yearly, or
are currently available to the Novice licensee, oftener; (2) is unable to appear for exami-
whose transmitter is limited to an input nation because of physical disability to trav-
power not exceeding 75 watts. el; (3) is unable to appear for examination
The receiving code test for the Novice because of military service; (4) is temporari-
Class license requires correct copy of five ly resident outside the United States, its
consecutive words of text counting five let- territories, or possessions for a year or more.
ters per word for a continuous period of at The Conditional Class license may be taken
least one minute. Punctuation marks and only by mail and is renewable.
numerals are included. Advanced Class -The Advanced Class li-
Technician Class-The Technician Class cense is equivalent to the old Class -A
exists for the purpose of encouraging a license and is available to any U.S. Citizen
greater interest in experimentation and de- or national. The license is valid for a period
velopment of the higher frequencies among of five years and is renewable on proper ap-
experimenters and would -be radio amateurs. plication. Applicants for the Advanced Class
This Class of license is available to any U.S. license must take the examination before an
Citizen or national. The examination is FCC representative. The examination con-
similar to that given for the General Class sists of a general code test at 13 words per
license, except that the code test in sending minute, questions covering general amateur
and receiving is at a speed of f words per practice and regulations involving radio
minute. operation, and technical questions covering
The holder of a Technician Class license is intermediate -level radio theory and operation
accorded all authorized amateur privileges in as applicable to modern amateur techniques,
all amateur bands above 220 MHz, and in including, but not limited to, radiotelephony
portions of the 144 -MHz and S0 -MHz and radiotelegraphy. An applicant for the
bands. This class of license may be taken Advanced Class license will be given credit
only by mail, under the direct supervision of for that portion of the examination and the
an amateur (21 years of age, or older) hold- code test covered by the General Class li-
ing a General Class License, or higher, or a cense, if a valid license of that grads is held
commercial radiotelegraph license. The li- at the time of examination.
cense is valid for a period of five years, and The Advanced Class license accords cer-
may be renewed on proper application. tain radiotelephone privileges in the amateur
General Class -The General Class license bands between 80 and 6 meters, which are
is the standard radio amateur license and is unavailable to holders of lower -grade ama-
available to any U.S. Citizen or national. teur licenses.
The license is valid for a period of five years Amateur Extra Class-The Amateur Ex-
and is renewable on proper application. Ap- tra Class license is the highest -grade amateur
plicants for the General Class license must license issued by the FCC and the recipient,
take the examination before an FCC rep- on request, may receive a special diploma -
resentative (with certain exceptions dis- type certificate from the District FCC En-
cussed under the Conditional Class license). gineer-in- Charge. The license is valid for a
The examination consists of a code test period of five years and is renewable. Appli-
in sending and receiving at a code speed of cants for the Amateur Extra Class license
13 words per minute, plus a written exami- must take the examination before an FCC
nation in basic theory and regulations. It representative. The examination consists of
conveys all amateur privileges, with the a code test in sending and receiving at a
exceptions noted for the Advanced and speed of 20 words per minute, a standard
Extra Class licenses. written examination in theory and regula-
Conditional Class -The Conditional Class tions (credit will be given to holders of Gen-
license is equivalent to the General Class eral and Advanced Class licenses for this re-
license in the privileges accorded by its use. quirement), and a written examination based
This license is issued to an applicant who: on advanced radio theory and operation as
(1) lives more than 175 miles airline dis- applicable to modern amateur techniques, in-
1.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
cluding, but not limited to, radiotelephony, cerning the control, location and radiated
radiotelegraphy, and transmissions of energy power of the repeater station.
for measurements and observations applied A special events station license is also
to propagation, for the radio control of available on special application which per-
remote objects, and for similar experimental mits the temporary operation of an amateur
purposes. An applicant for the Amateur station, with a specific call sign, at an event
Extra Class license will be given credit for of general public interest.
that portion of the examination covered by
the General and Advanced Class licenses, if International The domestic regulatory pat -
a valid license of either grade is held at the
Regulations tern of the United States
time of examination. agrees with the international
The Amateur Extra Class license accords agreements established by the International
certain radiotelephone and radiotelegraph Telecommunications Union and to which the
privileges in the amateur bands between 80 United States is a signatory power. The fre-
and 6 meters, unavailable to holders of quency bands reserved for the Amateur Radio
lower -grade licenses. In addition, the holder Service are included in the ITU frequency
of an Amateur Extra Class license, licensed allocations table, as one of the services to
for 25 years or longer by the FCC prior to which frequencies are made available. In the
the date of the Amateur Extra Class license lower- frequency amateur bands, the inter-
may request a two -letter call sign, in lieu of national allocations provide for joint use
a three -letter call sign. of the bands by several services in addition
to the amateur service in various areas of
The Amateur The station license author- the world.
Station License izes the radio apparatus of Article I of the ITU Radio Regulations
the radio amateur for a par- defines the amateur service as: "A service
ticular address and designates the official of self- training, intercommunication, and
call sign to be used. The license is a portion technical investigations carried on by ama-
of the combined station- operator license teurs, that is, by duly authorized persons
normally issued to the radio amateur. Au- interested in radio technique solely with a
thorization is included for portable or mobile personal aim and without a pecuniary inter-
operation within the continental limits of the est." Within this concept, the U. S. radio
United States, its territories or possessions, on regulations governing radio amateur licensing
any amateur frequency authorized to the and regulation are formulated.
class of license granted the operator. If port- By reciprocal treaty, the United States
able or mobile operation for a period of now has a number of agreements with other
greater than 15 days is contemplated, ad- countries permitting amateurs of one coun-
vance notice must be given to the FCC try to operate in the other. On the other
district in which operation will be con- hand, by international agreement, notifica-
ducted. The station license must be modified tion to the ITU may forbid international
on a permanent change in address. The sta- communications with radio amateurs of cer-
tion license is customarily renewed with the tain countries.
operator license. Applications filed for ama- A comprehensive coverage of United
teur radio licenses (except that of a Novice States licensing procedure for radio amateurs
Class) require a filing fee. and applicable rules and regulations may be
An amateur may have one or more addi- found in "The Radio Amateur's License
tional station licenses for special purposes, Manual," published by the American Radio
or additional station privileges may be en- Relay League, Newington, Conn. 06111.
dorsed on his primary license. He also may
have a secondary license with another call The Amateur Bands
1 -3
at a second home, or place of business, for
example.
A special license is required for a repeater Certain small segments of the radio -fre-
station which requires the applicant to file quency spectrum between 1800 kHz and
certain information with the F.C.C. con- 22,000 MHz are reserved for operation of
INTRODUCTION TO AMATEUR RADIO COMMUNICATION 1.5
amateur radio stations. These segments are contacts of 500 miles or less. During the
in general agreement throughout the world, summer months, local static and high iono-
although certain parts of different amateur spheric absorption limit long distance con-
bands may be used for other purposes in tacts on this band. As the sunspot cycle ad-
various geographic regions. In particular, vances and the MUF rises, increased iono-
the 40 -meter amateur band is used legally spheric absorption will tend to degrade the
(and illegally) for short -wave broadcasting long distance possibilities of this band. At
by many countries in Europe, Africa and the peak of the sunspot cycle, the 80 -meter
Asia. Parts of the 80 -meter bind are used band becomes useful only for short -haul
for short distance marine work in Europe, communication.
and for broadcasting in Europe and Asia. The
amateur bands available to United States 40 Meters The 40 -meter band
radio amateurs are: (7000 kHz -7300 kHz) is high enough in
frequency to be se-
160 Meters The 160 -meter band verely affected by the 11 -year sunspot cycle.
(1800 kHz-2000 kHz) is divided into 25- During years of minimum solar activity,
kHz segments on a the MUF may drop below 7 MHz, and the
regional basis, with day and night power band will become very erratic, with signals
limitations, and is available for amateur use dropping completely out during the night
provided no interference is caused to the hours. Ionospheric absorption of signals is
Loran (Long Range Navigation) stations not as large a problem on this band as it is
operating in this band. This band is least on 80 and 160 meters. As the MUF grad-
affected by the 11 -year solar sunspot cycle. ually rises, the skip distance will increase on
The maximum usable frequency (MUF) 40 meters, especially during the winter
even during the years of decreased sunspot months. At the peak of the solar cycle, the
activity does not usually drop below 4 MHz, daylight skip distance on 40 meters will be
therefore this band is not subject to the quite long, and stations within a distance of
violent fluctuations found on the higher - 500 miles or so of each other will not be
frequency bands. DX contacts on this band able to hold communication. DX operation
are limited by the ionospheric absorption of on the 40 -meter band is considerably ham-
radio signals, which is quite high. During pered by broadcasting stations, propaganda
winter nighttime hours the absorption is stations, and jamming transmitters. In
often of a low enough value to permit trans- Europe and Asia the band is in a chaotic
oceanic contacts on this band. On rare oc- state, and amateur operation in those regions
casions, contacts up to 10,000 miles have is severely hampered.
been made. As a usual rule, however, 160 -
meter amateur operation is confined to 20 Meters
ground -wave contacts or single -skip con-
At the present
(14,000 kHz-14,350 kHz) time, the 20 -me-
tacts of 1000 miles or less. Popular before
World War II, the 160 -meter band is now ter band is by
far the most popular band for long- distance
only sparsely occupied since many areas of contacts. High enough in frequency to be
the world are blanketed by the megawatt
severely affected at the bottom of the solar
pulses of the Loran chains.
cycle, the band nevertheless provides good
DX contacts during years of minimal sun-
80 Meters The 80 -meter band spot activity. At the present time, the band
(3500 kHz-4000 kHz) is the most popular is open to almost all parts of the world
amateur band in at some time during the year. During the
the continental United States for local "rag summer months, the band is active until the
chewing" and traffic nets. During the years late evening hours, but during the winter
of minimum sunspot activity the iono- months the band is only good for a few
spheric absorption on this band may be hours during daylight. Extreme DX contacts
quite low, and long distance DX contacts are usually erratic, but the 20 -meter band is
are possible during the winter night hours. the best band available for DX operation
Daytime operation, in general, is limited to the year around during the bottom of the
1.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
sunspot cycle. As the sunspot count increases from hearing each other, thus dropping the
and the MUF rises, the 20 -meter band will interference level. During the winter
become open for longer hours during the months, sporadic -E (short -skip) signals up
winter. The maximum skip distance in- to 1200 miles or so will be heard. The 10-
creases, and DX contacts are possible over meter band is poorest in the summer months,
paths other than the Great Circle route. even during a sunspot maximum. Extreme-
Signals can be heard via the "long path," 180 ly long daylight skip is common on this
degrees opposite the Great Circle path. Dur- band, and in years of high MUF the 10-
ing daylight hours, absorption may become meter band will support intercontinental
apparent on the 20 -meter band, and all DX contacts during daylight hours.
signals except very short skip may disappear. The second harmonic of stations operating
On the other hand, the band will be open in the 10 -meter band falls directly into
for worldwide DX contacts all night long. television channel 2, and the higher har-
The 20 -meter band is very susceptible to monics of 10 -meter transmitters fall into
"fadeouts" caused by solar disturbances, and the higher TV channels. This harmonic
all except local signals may completely dis- problem seriously curtailed amateur 10 -meter
appear for periods of a few hours to a day operation during the late 40's. However,
or so. with new circuit techniques and the TVI
precautionary measures stressed in this Hand-
15 Meters This is a rela- book, 10 -meter operation should cause little
(21,000 kHz- 21,450 kHz) tively new band or no interference to nearby television re-
for radio ama- ceivers of modern design.
teurs since it has only been available for
amateur operation since 1952. It has charac- Six Meters At the peak of the sun-
teristics similar to both the 20- and 10- (50 MHz -54 MHz) spot cycle, the MUF
meter amateur bands. During a period of occasionally rises high
low sunspot activity, the MUF may still rise enough to permit DX contacts up to 10,000
high enough to support communication on miles or so on 6 meters. Activity on this
the 21 MHz band, particularly during the band during such a period is often quite
late fall and early spring months. North - high. Interest in this band wanes during a
south communication paths will remain open period of lesser solar activity, since contacts,
on this band during low sunspot activity, as a rule, are restricted to ground wave or
even though east -west paths may be closed. "short skip" (sporadic -E) work. The prox-
As the sunspot count rises, the 15 meter imity of the 6 -meter band to television
band quickly comes to life and during pe- channel 2 often causes interference prob-
riods of near -maximum sunspot activity, the lems to amateurs located in areas where
band may remain open 24 hours a day in channel 2 is active. As the sunspot cycle
equatorial areas of the world. increases, activity on the 6 -meter band will
As with 20 meters, "long path" openings increase.
to remote areas of the world are observed on
the 21 MHz band during the years having The VHF Bands The vhf bands are
high sunspot numbers. (Two Meters and "Up ") the least affected by
the vagaries of the
10 Meters During the peak sunspot cycle and Heaviside layer. Their
(28,000 kHz- 29,700 kHz) of the sunspot predominant use is for reliable communica-
cycle, the 10- tion over distances of 150 miles or less.
meter band is without doubt the most pop- These bands are sparsely occupied in the
ular amateur band. The combination of rural sections of the United States, but are
long skip and low ionospheric absorption quite heavily congested in the urban areas
make reliable DX contacts with low -powered of high population.
equipment possible. The great width of the In recent years it has been found that
band (1700 kHz) provides room for a vhf signals are propagated by other means
large number of amateurs. The long skip than by line -of -sight transmission. "Scatter
(1500 miles or so) prevents nearby amateurs signals," Aurora reflection, and air -mass
INTRODUCTION TO AMATEUR RADIO COMMUNICATION 1.7
boundary bending are responsible for vhf 13, or 20 words per minute, depending on
communication up to 1200 miles or so. the class of license assuming an average of
Weather conditions will often affect long - five characters to the word in each case.
distance communication on the 2 -meter The sending and receiving tests run for
band, and all the vhf bands are particularly five minutes, and one minute of errorless
sensitive to this condition. transmission or reception must be accom-
In recent years the vhf bands have been plished within the five -minute interval.
used for experimental "moonbounce" (earth - If the code test is failed, the applicant
moon- earth) transmissions and for repeater - must wait at least one month before he
satellite experiments (Project OSCAR). The may again appear for another test. Approxi-
vhf bands hold great promise for serious mately 30% of amateur applicants fail to
experimenters as radio amateurs forge into pass the test. It should be expected that
the microwave region. nervousness and excitement will, at least to
some degree, temporarily lower the appli-
cant's code ability. The best insurance
1 -4 Starting Your Study against this is to master the code at a little
When you start to prepare yourself for greater than the required speed under ordi-
the amateur examination you will find that nary conditions. Then if you slow down a
the circuit diagrams, tube and transistor little due to nervousness during a test the
characteristic curves, and formulas appear result will not prove fatal.
confusing and difficult to understand. But
after a few study sessions one becomes suffi- Memorizing There is no shortcut to code
ciently familiar with the notation of the the Code proficiency. To memorize the
diagrams and the basic concerts of theory alphabet entails but a few eve-
and operation so that the acquisition of fur- nings of diligent application, but consider-
ther knowledge becomes easier and even fas able time is required to build up speed. The
cinating. exact time required depends on the individ-
Since it takes a considerable time to be- ual's ability and the regularity of practice.
come proficient in sending and receiving While the speed of learning will naturally
code, it is a good idea to intersperse techni- vary greatly with different individuals, about
cal study sessions with periods of code prac- 70 hours of practice (no practice period to
tice. Many short code -practice sessions ben - be over 30 minutes) will usually suffice to
fit one more than a small number of longer bring a speed of about 13 w.p.m.; 16 w.p.m.
sessions. Alternating between one study and requires about 120 hours; 20 w.p.m., 175
the other keeps the student from getting hours.
"stale" since each type of study serves as a Since code reading requires that individual
sort of respite from the other. letters be recognized instantly, any memor-
When you have practiced the code long izing scheme which depends on orderly se-
enough you will be able to follow the gist of quence, such as learning all "dale" letters and
the slower- sending stations. Many stations all "dit" letters in separate groups, is to be
send very slowly when working other sta- discouraged. Before beginning with a code
tions at great distances. Stations repeat their practice set it is necessary to memorize the
calls many times when calling other stations whole alphabet perfectly. A good plan is to
before contact is established, and one need study only two or three letters a day and
not have achieved much code proficiency to to drill with those letters until they become
make out their calls and thus determine part of your consciousness. Mentally trans-
their location. late each day's letters into their sound equiv-
alent wherever they are seen, on signs, in
The Code The applicant for any class of papers, indoors and outdoors. Tackle two
amateur operator license must be additional letters in the code chart each day,
able to send and receive the Continental at the same time reviewing the characters
Code (sometimes called the International already learned.
Morse Code). The speed required for the Avoid memorizing by routine. Be able
sending and receiving test may be either 5, to sound out any letter immediately with-
1.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
-
A
B
C
=1
e,..
.MI
N
O
P .
imp 1
2
3 .1--
MD
11
-GINO
D
E
F
G
..
..
IMI Q
R
S
T
0. MDAM
an 4
5
6
7
MI..
IND =NO...
H
I
ami
u
V
iim
8
9
0
=lb
ONO I
11=. OM..
IMO
...i
J W
K X 11=I 0 MEANS ZERO. ANO 15 WRITTEN IN THIS
WAY TO DISTINGUISH IT FROM THE LETTER `O"
L AM. Y
1
M 4= MI/ 7 IIMD
PERIOD (.)
COMMA (,)
110
MO OM
WAIT SIGN (AS)
DOUBLE DASH (BREAK)
ERROR (ERASE SIGN)
IM1
.IMO
INTERROGATION (71 ow Gm FRACTION BAR (/) 1=1
PARENTHESIS t) 111111 IMP A= MD INTERNAT. DISTRESS SIG. (SOS) 11= OEM IMO
Figure 1
IIND OM
out so much as hestitating to think about
the letters preceding or following the one fafaOI
IMMII
in question. Know C, for example, apart
from the sequence ABC. Skip about among
GM
=ID
all the characters learned, and before very
long sufficient letters will have been acquired
to enable you to spell out simple words to
yourself in rrdit dahs." This is interesting
exercise, and for that reason it is good to
fats
taGMIM
MID OM
memorize all the vowels first and the most Figure 2
common consonants next.
These code characters are used in languages
Actual code practice should start only other than English. They may occasionally be
when the entire alphabet, the numerals, encountered so it is well to know them.
period, comma, and question mark have been
memorized so thoroughly that any one can must be remembered as such, and not as
than its appearance. Code is a Don't practice too long at one stretch; it
system of sound communication, the same does more harm than good. Thirty minutes
as is the spoken word. The letter A, for ex- at a time should be the limit.
ample, is one short and one long sound in Lack of regularity in practice is the
combination sounding like dit dah, and it most common cause of lack of progress.
INTRODUCTION TO AMATEUR RADIO COMMUNICATION 1.9
Irregular practice is very little better than Each increase is apt to prove disconcerting,
no practice at all. Write down what you but remember "you are never learning when
have heard; then forget it; do not look back. you are comfortable."
If your mind dwells even for an instant on A number of amateurs are sending code
a signal about which you have doubt, you practice on the air on schedule once or
will miss the next few characters while your twice each week; excellent practice can be
attention is diverted. obtained after you have bought or con-
While various automatic code machines, structed your receiver by taking advantage
phonograph records, etc., will give you prac- of these sessions.
tice, by far the best practice is to obtain a If you live in a medium -size or large city,
study companion who is also interested in the chances are that there is an amateur -
learning the code. When you have both radio club in your vicinity which offers
memorized the alphabet you can start send- free code -practice lessons periodically.
ing to each other. Practice with a key and
oscillator or key and buzzer generally proves Skill When you listen to someone speaking
superior to all automatic equipment. Two you do not consciously think how his
such sets operated between two rooms are words are spelled. This is also true when you
fine-or between your house and his will read. In code you must train your ears to
be just that much better. Avoid talking to
read code just as your eyes were trained in
your partner while practicing. If you must school to read printed matter. With enough
ask him a question, do it in code. It makes
practice you acquire skill, and from skill,
more interesting practice than confining speed. In other words, it becomes a habit,
yourself to random practice material. something which can be done without con-
When two co- learners have memorized scious effort. Conscious effort is fatal to
the code and are ready to start sending to speed; we can't think rapidly enough; a
each other for practice, it is a good idea to speed of 25 words a minute, which is a com-
enlist the aid of an experienced operator for mon one in commercial operations, means
the first practice session or two so that they 125 characters per minute or more than two
will get an idea of how properly formed
per second, which leaves no time for con-
characters sound. scious thinking.
During the first practice period the speed
should be such that substantially solid copy
can be made without strain. Never mind if Perfect Formation When transmitting on the
this is only two or three words per minute. of Characters code practice set to your
In the next period the speed should be in- partner, concentrate on the
creased slightly to a point where nearly all quality of your sending, not on your speed.
of the characters can be caught only through Your partner will appreciate it and he could
conscious effort. When the student becomes not copy you if you speeded up anyhow.
proficient at this new speed, another slight If you want to get a reputation as hav-
increase may be made, progressing in this ing an excellent "fist" on the air, just re-
manner until a speed of about 16 words member that speed alone won't do the
per minute is attained if the object is to pass trick. Proper execution of your letters and
the amateur 13 -word per minute code test. spacing will make much more of an im-
The margin of 3 w.p.m. is recommended to pression. Fortunately, as you get so that
overcome a possible excitement factor at you can send evenly and accurately, your
examination time. Then when you take the sending speed will automatically increase.
test you don't have to worry about the Remember to try to see how evenly you can
"jitters" or an "off day." send, and how fast you can receive. Con-
Speed should not be increased to a new centrate on making signals properly with
level until the student finally makes solid your key. Perfect formation of characters
copy with ease for at least a five -minute is paramount to everything else. Make every
period at the old level. How frequently in- signal right no matter if you have to prac-
creases of speed can be made depends on in- tice it hundreds or thousands of times.
dividual ability and the amount of practice. Never allow yourself to vary the slightest
1.10
oft di,
c'i #0,
C
s,
Timing It is of the utmost importance to E
maintain uniform spacing in charac- A T O N
ters and combinations of characters. Lack of Figure 3
uniformity at this point probably causes be-
Diagram illustrating relative lengths of dashes
ginners more trouble than any other single and spaces referred to the duration of a dot. A
factor. Every dot, every dash, and every dash is exactly equal in duration to three dots;
space must be correctly timed. In other spaces between parts of a letter equal one dot;
those between letters, three dots; space between
words, accurate timing is absolutely essen- words, five dots. Note that a slight increase be.
tial to intelligibility, and timing of the tween two parts of a letter will make it sound
like two letters.
spaces between the dots and dashes is just as
important as the lengths of the dots and
dashes themselves. Sending vs. Once you have memorized the
The characters are timed with the dot as Receiving code thoroughly you should con-
a "yardstick." A standard dash is three times centrate on increasing your re-
as long as a dot. The spacing between parts ceiving speed. True, if you have to practice
of the same letter is equal to one dot, the with another newcomer who is learning the
space between letters is equal to three dots, code with you, you will both have to do
and that between words equal to five dots. some sending. But don't attempt to prac-
The rule for spacing between letters and tice sending just for the sake of increasing
words is not strictly observed when sending your sending speed.
slower than about 10 words per minute for When transmitting code to your partner
the benefit of someone learning the code so that he can practice, concentrate on
and desiring receiving practice. When send- the quality of your sending, not on your
ing at, say, f w.p.m., the individual letters speed.
should be made the same as if the sending Because it is comparatively easy to learn
rate were about 10 w.p.m., except that the to send rapidly, especially when no particu-
spacing between letters and words is greatly lar care is given to the quality of sending,
exaggerated. The reason for this is obvious. many operators who have just received their
The letter L, for instance, will then sound licenses get on the air and send mediocre (or
exactly the same at 10 w.p.m. as at S worse) code at 20 w.p.m. when they can
w.p.m., and when the speed is increased barely receive good code at 13. Most old -
above 5 w.p.m. the student will not have timers remember their own period of initia-
to become familiar with what may seem tion and are only too glad to be patient and
to him like a new sound, although it is in considerate if you tell them that you are
reality only a faster combination of dots and a newcomer. But the surest way to incur
dashes. At the greater speed he will merely their scorn is to try to impress them with
have to learn the identification of the same your "lightning speed," and then to re-
sound without taking as long to do so. quest them to send more slowly when they
Be particularly careful of letters like B. come back at you at the same speed.
Many beginners seem to have a tendency to Stress your copying ability; never stress
leave a longer space after the dash than your sending ability. It should be obvious
that which they place between succeeding that if you try to send faster than you can
dots, thus making it sound like TS. Simi- receive, your ear will not recognize any
larly, make sure that you do not leave mistakes which your hand may make.
a longer space after the first dot in the
letter C than you do between other parts Using the Key Figure 4 shows the proper po-
of the same letter: otherwise it will sound sition of the hand, fingers and
like NN. wrist when manipulating a telegraph or
INTRODUCTION TO AMATEUR RADIO COMMUNICATION 1.11
Do not allow the muscles of arm, wrist or send and receive at 40 w.p.m., but you
fingers to become tense. Send with a full, can learn sufficient speed for all noncom-
free arm movement. Avoid like the plague mercial purposes (and even for most com-
any finger motion other than the slight mercial purposes) if you have patience, and
cushioning effect mentioned above. refuse to be discouraged by the fact that
Stick to the regular handkey for learning others seem to pick it up more rapidly.
code. No other key is satisfactory for this When the sending operator is sending just
purpose. Not until you have thoroughly a bit too fast for you (the best speed for
mastered both sending and receiving at the practice), you will occasionally miss a sig-
maximum speed in which you are interested nal or a small group of them. When you do,
should you tackle any form of automatic or leave a blank space; do not spend time fu-
semiautomatic key such as the Vihrohlex tilely trying to recall it; dismiss it, and
( "bug ") or an electronic key. center attention on the next letter; other-
wise you'll miss more. Do not ask the sender
any questions until the transmission is fin-
Difficulties Should you experience difficulty ished.
in increasing your code speed To prevent guessing and get equal prac-
after you have once memorized the charac- tice on the less common letters, depart oc-
ters, there is no reason to become discour- casionally from plain language material and
aged. It is more difficult for some people to use a jumble of letters in which the usually
learn code than for others, but there is no less commonly used letters predominate.
1.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
As mentioned before, many students put Next try speaking aloud the words in the
a greater space after the dash in the letter one column while writing those in the
B, than between other parts of the same other column; then reverse columns.
letter so it sounds like TS. C, F, Q,V, X, Y, After the foregoing can be done easily,
and Z often give similar trouble. Make a list try sending with your key the words in one
of words or arbitrary combinations in which column while spelling those in the other.
these letters predominate and practice them, It won't be easy at first, but it is well worth
both sending and receiving until they no keeping after if you intend to develop any
longer give you trouble. Stop everything else real code proficiency. Do not attempt to
and stick to them. So long as these characters catch up. There is a natural tendency to
give you trouble you are not ready for any- close up the gap, and you must train your-
thing else. self to overcome this.
Follow the same procedure with letters Next have your code companion send you
which you may tend to confuse such as F a word either from a list or from straight
and L, which are often confused by begin- text; do not write it down yet. Now have
ners. Keep at it until you always get them him send the next word; after receiving this
right without having to stop even an instant second word, write down the first word.
to think about it. After receiving the third word, write the
If you do not instantly recognize the second word; and so on. Never mind how
sound of any character, you have not slowly you must go, even if it is only two
learned it; go back and practice your alpha- or three words per minute. Stay behind.
bet further. You should never have to omit It will probably take quite a number of
writing down every signal you hear except practice sessions before you can do this with
when the transmission is too fast for you. any facility. After it is relatively easy, then
Write down what you hear, not what you try staying two words behind; keep this up
think it should be. It is surprising how often until it is easy. Then try three words, four
the word which you guess will be wrong.
Copying Behind All good operators copy sev-
eral words behind, that is, TONE
ing a definite number of electrons. The only The international system of fundamental
atoms in which these rings are completely units which covers mechanics, electricity,
filled are those of the inert gases mentioned and magnetism is designated the Rational
before; all other elements have one or more MKS (meter -kilogram-second) System.
uncompleted rings of electrons. If the un- TABLE 1.
completed ring is nearly empty, the element
is metallic in character, being most metallic PREFIXES TO ELECTRICAL DIMENSIONS
when there is only one electron in the outer SYMBOL
PREFIX MULTIPLE
ring. If the incomplete ring lacks only one
or two electrons, the element is usually non- Giga- 10' G
Mega- 10' M
metallic. Elements with a ring about half kilo. 10' k
completed will exhibit both nonmetallic and died- 10-'
10-'
d
tenti- e
metallic characteristics; carbon, silicon, milli- 10-' m
germanium, and arsenic are examples. Such micro- 10-' µ or u
pico- 10-" p
elements are called semiconductors.
In metallic elements these outer ring elec-
trons are rather loosely held. Consequently, In this system, length is measured in
there is a continuous helter -skelter move- meters, mass in kilograms, and time in sec-
ment of these electrons and a continual onds. A summary of important dimensions
shifting from one atom to another. The is given in Table 2.
electrons which move about in a substance The MKS System is a subsystem of the
are called free electrons, and it is the ability international System of Units (1960) . To
of these electrons to drift from atom to unite the mechanical system with electricity
atom which makes possible the electric cur- and magnetism, the coulomb is taken as a
rent. fourth fundamental unit.
TABLE 2
Conductors, Semiconductors, If the free elec- FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSIONS
and Insulators trons are num- EQUIVALENT
DIMENSION
erous and loosely
held, the element is a good conductor. On the Meter 3.281 feet-one foot = 0.3048 meter
other hand, if there are few free electrons Kilometer 1000 meters= 0.6214 statute miles
(as is the case when the electrons in an outer
ring are tightly held), the element is a poor Centimeter 10' meter= 0.3937 inch
conductor. If there are virtually no free Meter 10'' angstrom units (A)
electrons, the element is a good insulator.
Kilogram 1000 grams= 2.205 pounds
Materials having few free electrons are
classed as semiconductors and exhibit con- Gram 3.527 x 10 ' ounces
ductivity approximately midway between Coulomb 1 ampere flowing for 1 second
that of good conductors and good insulators.
Fundamental and Electrical measurements
Secondary Units expressed in the MKS
2 -2 Fundamental Electrical
System are traceable to
Units and Relationships the National Bureau of Standards in the
United States. Aside from the meter, kilo-
Basic Electrical Electrical dimensions, gram, and second, the major electrical unit
Dimensions, Units, units, and qualities are is the coulomb (Q), a unit of charge (6.28
and Symbols expressed as letters, com- X 10" electron charges). The coulomb is
binations of letters, and defined as an ampere- second, or that steady
other characters that may be used in place current flowing through a solution of silver
of the proper names for these characteristics. nitrate, which will deposit silver at the rate
In addition, various prefixes are added to the of 1.118 X 10" kilograms per second.
symbols to indicate multiples or submulti- Secondary, or derived units, are based on
ples of units (Table 1) . the above listed fundamental units. The
DIRECT -CURRENT CIRCUITS 2.3
rate of current flow is the ampere (I), whose positive terminal, due to chemical action.
dimensions are in coulombs per second. The When the battery is connected to the wire,
unit of energy or work is the joule (J) the deficient atoms at the positive terminal
whose dimensions are volts X coulombs. The attract free electrons from the wire in order
unit of power is the watt (AV), whose di- for the positive terminal to become neutral.
mensions are joules per second. The electrical The attracting of electrons continues
pressure that moves a coulomb of charge through the wire, and finally the excess elec-
past a measuring point is the volt (E or V), trons at the negative terminal of the battery
whose dimensions are joules per coulomb. are attracted by the positively charged atoms
The unit of opposition to current flow is at the end of the wire. Other sources of
the ohm (R), whose dimensions are volts electrical potential (in addition to a bat-
per ampere. Two units express charge storage tery) are: an electrical generator (dynamo),
in a circuit. The first is the farad (F), a a thermocouple, an electrostatic generator
unit of capacitance whose dimensions are (static machine), a photoelectric cell, and
coulombs per volt. The second is the henry a crystal or piezoelectric generator.
(H) , a unit of inductance whose dimensions Thus it is seen that a potential dif-
are volts per ampere- second. These and other ference is the result of a difference in the
electrical units are summarized in Table 3. number of electrons between the two (or
Other complex quantities may be built up more) points in question. The force or pres-
from these units. sure due to a potential difference is termed
Electromotive Force: The free electrons in a the electromotive force, usually abbreviated
Potential Difference conductor move con- e.nt.f. or E.M.F. It is expressed in units
called volts.
stantly about and
change their position in a haphazard man- It should be noted that for there to be a
ner. To produce a drift of electrons, or elec- potential difference between two bodies or
tric current, along a wire it is necessary that points it is not necessary that one have a
there be a difference in "pressure" or poten- positive charge and the other a negative
tial between the two ends of the wire. This charge. If two bodies each have a negative
potential difference can be produced by con- charge, but one more negative than the
necting a source of electrical potential to other, the one with the lesser negative
the ends of the wire. charge will act as though it were positively
As will be explained later, there is an ex- charged with respect to the other hods. It
cess of electrons at the negative terminal of is the algebraic potential difference that
a battery and a deficiency of electrons at the determines the force with which electrons
2.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
are attracted or repulsed, the potential of ally expressed as ohms per mil -foot, which
the earth being taken as the zero reference is determined by the material's molecular
point. structure and temperature. A mil -foot is a
piece of material one circular mil in area
The Electric The flow of electric charges, and one foot long. Another measure of
Current either electrons, holes (see resistivity frequently used is expressed in the
Chapter Four), or ions consti- units microhms per centimeter cube. The
tutes an electric current. The flow may be resistance of a uniform length of a given
induced by the application of an electromo- substance is directly proportional to its
tive force. This flow, or drift, is in addi- length and specific resistance, and inversely
tion to the irregular movements of the elec- proportional to its cross -sectional area. A
trons. However, it must not be thought wire with a certain resistance for a given
that each free electron travels from one length will have twice as much resistance
end of the circuit to the other. On the if the length of the wire is doubled. For a
contrary, each free electron travels only a given length, doubling the cross -sectional
short distance before colliding with an atom; area of the wire will halve the resistance,
this collision generally knocks off one or while doubling the diameter will reduce the
more electrons from the atom, which in resistance to one fourth. This is true since
turn move a short distance and collide with the cross -sectional area of a wire varies as
other atoms, knocking off other electrons. the square of the diameter. The relationship
Thus, in the general drift of electrons along between the resistance and the linear dimen-
a wire carrying an electric current, each sions of a conductor may be expressed by
electron travels only a short distance and the following equation:
the excess of electrons at one end and the rl
deficiency at the other are balanced by the
source of the e.m.f. When this source is R - A
removed the state of normalcy returns; where,
there is still the rapid interchange of free R equals resistance in ohms,
electrons between atoms, but there is no r equals resistivity in ohms per mil -foot,
general trend or "net movement" in either I equals length of conductor in feet,
one direction or the other -in other words, A equals cross -sectional area in circular
no current flows. mils.
In electronics, the terms "electron flow"
and "current" are synonymous and the cur-
For convenience, two larger units the
kilohm (1000 ohms) and the megohm
rent flow in a conductor is the electron drift
(1,000,000 ohms) are often used.
from the negative terminal of the source
voltage, through the conductor to the posi- The resistance also depends on tempera-
tive terminal of the source. ture, rising with an increase in temperature
for most substances (including most metals),
a materi-
due to increased electron acceleration result-
Resistance The flow of current in ing in a greater number of impacts between
aldepends on the ease with
electrons and atoms. However, in the case
which electrons can be detached from the of some substances such as carbon and glass
atoms of the material and on its molec- the temperature coefficient is negative and
ular structure. In other words, the easier the resistance decreases as the temperature
it is to detach electrons from the atoms the
increases.
more free electrons there will be to contrib-
ute to the flow of current, and the fewer Conductors and In the molecular structure
collisions that occur between free electrons Insulators of many materials such as
and atoms the greater will be the total glass, porcelain, and mica all
electron flow. electrons are tightly held within their orbits
The opposition to a steady electron flow and there are comparatively few free elec-
is called the resistance (R) of a material, trons. This type of substance will conduct
and is one of its physical properties. an electric current only with great difficulty
The unit of resistance is the ohm (f1) and is known as an insulator. An insulator
Every substance has a specific resistance; usu- is said to have a high electrical resistance.
DIRECT -CURRENT CIRCUITS 2.5
ta.limtaw
Figure 1
TYPICAL RESISTORS
Shown above are various types of resistas used in electronic circuits. The
larger units are power resistors. On the left is a variable power resistor. Three
precision -type resistors are shown in the center with two small composition
resistors beneath them. At the right is a comnosition -type potentiometer, used
for audio circuitry.
On the other hand, materials that have a Secondary These units are the t'olt, the
large number of free electrons are known as Electrical Units ampere, and the ohm. They
conductors. Most metals (those elements were mentioned in the pre-
which have only one or two electrons in ceding paragraphs, but were not completely
their outer ring) are good conductors. Sil- defined in terms of fixed, known quantities.
ver, copper, and aluminum, in that order, The fundamental unit of current, or rate
are the best of the common metals used as of flow of electricity is the ampere. A cur-
conductors and are said to have the greatest rent of one ampere will deposit silver from
conducticity, or lowest resistance to the flow a specified solution of silver nitrate at a
of an electric current (Table 4). rate of 1.118 milligrams per second.
The international standard for the ohm is
the resistance offered by a uniform column
TABLE 4. TABLE OF RESISTIVITY of mercury at 0° C., 14.4521 grams in mass,
Resistivity in of constant cross -sectional area and 106.300
Ohms per Temp. Coeff. of
Circular resistance per OC. centimeters in length. The expression meg-
Material Mil -Foot at 20° C. ohm (1,000,000 ohms) is also sometimes
Aluminum 17 0.0049 used when speaking of very large values of
Brass 45 0.003 to 0.007 resistance.
Cadmium .46 0.0038
Chromium 16 0.00
A volt is the e.m.f. that will produce a
Copper 10.4 0.0039 current of one ampere through a resistance
Iron 59 0.006 of one ohm. The standard of electromotive
Silver 9.8 0.004 force is the Weston cell which at 20° C.
Zinc 36 0.0035
Nichrome 650 0.0002
has a potential of 1.0183 volts across its
Constantin 295 0.00001 terminals. This cell is used only for reference
Manganin 290 0.00001 purposes in a bridge circuit, since only an
Monet 255 0.0019 infinitesimal amount of current may be
2.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
drawn from it without disturbing its char- In electronics work, a small unit of con-
acteristics. ductance, which is equal to one -millionth
of a mho, frequently is used. It is called
Ohm's Law The relationship between the a micromho.
electromotive force (voltage),
the flow of current (amperes), and the re- Application of All electrical circuits fall into
sistance which impedes the flow of current Ohm's Law one of three classes: series
(ohms), is very clearly expressed in a simple circuits, parallel circuits, and
but highly valuable law known as Ohm's series -parallel circuits. A series circuit is
Law. This law states that the current in am- one in which the current flows in a single
peres is equal to the voltage in volts divided continuous path and is of the same value at
by the resistance in ohms. Expressed as an every point in the circuit (figure 2). In a
equation: RESISTANCE R1 R
R CONDUCTORS
BATTERY E
Figure 3
where,
SIMPLE PARALLEL
I is the current in amperes, CIRCUIT
R is the resistance in ohms, e
E is the electromotive force in volts.
The two resistors RI and R, are said to be in
Taken in a broader sense, Ohm's Law ex- parallel since the flow of current is offered
presses a ratio of voltage to current when two parallel paths. An electron leaving point
A will pass either through RI or R but not
the circuit resistance is known. This con- through both, to reach the positive terminal
cept is important in transmission -line studies of the battery. If a large number of electrons
are considered, the greater number will pass
and antenna work. through whichever of the two resistors has
the lower resistance.
Conductance Instead of speaking of the re-
to the battery. Figure 4 shows a series -
sistance of a circuit, the con-
parallel circuit. There are two paths between
ductance may be referred to as a measure
of the ease of current flow. Conductance is
Figure 4
the reciprocal of resistance and is meas-
R SERIES -PARALLEL
ured in mhos (ohms spelled backwards) and CIRCUIT
is designated by the letter G.
The relation between resistance and con- In this type ofcircuit the resistors are arranged
in series groups. and these groups are then
ductance is: placed in parallel.
R,XRT
= R, -
where,
RT is the effective value required,
R, is the known resistor,
R_ is the value of the unknown resistance
necessary to give RT when in parallel
with R,.
The resultant value of placing a number
of unlike resistors in parallel is equal to the
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of
the various resistors. This can be expressed Figure 6
as:
OTHER COMMON SERIES -PARALLEL
RT
1
R,
+ l
RZ
+
1
1 +....
R :, Rn
CIRCUITS
sistors in each branch. In figure 6B the par-
alleled resistors should be reduced to the
equivalent series value, and then the series
The effective value of placing any num- resistance value can be added.
ber of unlike resistors in parallel can be Resistances in series -parallel can be solved
determined from the above formula. How- by combining the series and parallel formu-
ever, it is commonly used only when there las into one similar to the following (refer
are three or more resistors under considera- to figure 6) :
tion, since the simplified formula given
before is more convenient when only two 1
resistors are being used. RT =
From the above, it also follows that when 1 1 1
Figure 7
-POWER SUPPLY - LOAD
SIMPLE VOLTAGE- DIVIDER
CIRCUIT Figure 8
The arrows indicate the manner in which the
current flow divides between the voltage divider MORE COMPLEX VOLTAGE DIVIDER
itself and the external load circuit. ILLUSTRATING KIRCHHOFF'S LAW
The method for computing the values of the
Figure illustrates the flow of current
7 resistors is discussed in the text.
in a simple voltage- divider and load circuit.
The light arrows indicate the flow of bleeder A 20,000 ohm resistor with three adjust-
current, while the heavy arrows indicate the able taps may be used, the wattage being
flow of the load current. The design of a equal to that maximum value required by
combined bleeder resistor and voltage di- any single resistor in the string. If four sep-
vider, such as is commonly used in radio arate resistors are chosen, their "rounded"
equipment, is illustrated in the following values would be: R1, 7500 ohms; R2, 2000
example: ohms; R:,, 8800 ohms and R,, 1400 ohms.
A power supply delivers 300 volts and is The power dissipated in each resistor is ap-
conservatively rated to supply all needed cur- proximately 0.15 watt, 0.3 watt, 2.6 watts,
rent and still allow a bleeder current of 10 and 1.9 watts, respectively, as discussed in a
milliamperes. The following voltages are following section.
wanted: 75 volts at 2 milliamperes, 100 volts
at 5 milliamperes, and 250 volts at 20 mil- Kirchhoff's Lows Ohm's law is all that is
liamperes. The required voltage drop across necessary to calculate the
R, is 75 volts, across R_ 25 volts, across R3 values in simple circuits, such as the pre-
150 volts, and across R, it is 50 volts. These ceding examples; but in more complex prob-
values are shown in the diagram of figure 8. lems, involving several loops, or more than
The respective current values are also indi- one voltage in the same closed circuit, the
cated. Apply Ohm's law: use of Kirchhoff's laws will greatly simplify
the calculations. These laws are merely rules
for applying Ohm's law.
E
R1- 1 - 75
.01
= 7500 ohms Kirchhoff's first law is concerned with net
current to a point in a circuit and states
E 25 that:
2083 ohms
R` 1 .012 =
At any point in a circuit the current
8823 ohms flowing toward the point is equal to
R :, I = .017 = the current flowing away from the
point.
2.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
Stated in another way: if currents flowing to algebraic SUM of all voltage drops around a
the point are considered positive, and those closed path or loop in a circuit is zero. The
flowing from the point are considered nega- applied e.m.f.'s (voltages) are considered
tive, the sum of all currents flowing toward
and away from the point
into account - taking signs
is equal to zero. Such a sum
- positive, while IR drops taken in the direc-
tion of current flow (including the internal
drop of the sources of voltage) are consid-
is known as an algebraic sum; such that the ered negative.
law can be stated thus: The algebraic sum Figure 10 shows an example of the appli-
of all currents entering and leafing a point cation of Kirchhoff's laws to a comparative-
is zero. ly simple circuit consisting of three resistors
-2 AMPS
AAA,
and two batteries. First, an arbitrary direc-
R, tion of current flow in each closed loop of
F the circuit is assumed, drawing an arrow to
-2 AMPS indicate the assumed direction of current
R2 k flow. Then the sum of all IR drops plus bat-
tfAMP;.
tery drops around each loop are equated to
zero. One equation for each unknown to be
2r, V^LTS
determined is required. Then the equations
Figure 9 are solved for the unknown currents in the
general manner indicated in figure 10. If the
ILLUSTRATING KIRCHOFF'S answer comes out positive, the direction of
FIRST LAW current flow originally assumed was correct.
The current flowing toward point "A" is equal If the answer comes out negative, the cur-
to the current flowing away from point "A."
rent flow is in the opposite direction to the
Figure 9 illustrates this first law. If arrow which was drawn originally. This is
the effective resistance of the network of illustrated in the example of figure 10, where
resistors is 5 ohms, then 4 amperes flow to- the direction of flow of 1, is opposite to the
ward point A, and 2 amperes flow away direction assumed in the sketch.
through the two 5 -ohm resistors in series.
The remaining 2 amperes flow away through 2OHMS 12-1, 13 OHMS
the 10 -ohm resistor. Thus, there are 4 am-
l1 /
2 OHMS
peres flowing to point A and 4 amperes flow-
VOLTS VOLTS
ing away from the point. If RT is the effec- 3 3
T4- N.,,12
tive resistance of the network (5 ohms), T
R, = 10 ohms, R_ = 5 ohms, R = 5
SET VOLTAGE DROPS AROUND EACH LOOP EQUAL TO ZERO.
ohms, and E = 20 volts, the following
1.
E E E 2. SIMPLIFY
0 21,+211 -212+3 =0 21z- 2I1+31z -6 =0
RT R, -I- R.: 41,+3 Slz -211 -6 =0
2 - 1 2 211+6 = I z
20 20 20 5
S 10 5 + 5
=0 3. EQUATE
41, +3 2I1+6
4 -2 -2 =0 2 5
4. SIMPLIFY
Kirchhoff's second law is concerned with 201,+15= 411 +12
net voltage drop around a closed loop in a I1 = -16 AMPERE
circuit and states that:
In any closed path or loop in a circuit
the sum of the IR drops must equal
5. RE- SUDSTITUTE
12= L_ - Z 2ñ - I
f
AMPERE
Figure 10
the sum of the applied e.m.f.'s. ILLUSTRATING KIRCHOFF'S
SECOND LAW
The second law also may be conveniently The voltage drop around any closed loop in a
stated in terms of an algebraic sum as: The network is equal to zero.
DIRECT -CURRENT CIRCUITS 2.11
Power in In order to cause electrons the same results; the selection of the particu-
Resistive Circuits to flow through a conduc- lar equation depends only on the known
tor, constituting a current factors.
flow, it is necessary to apply an electromotive
force (voltage) across the circuit. Less pow- Power, Energy It is important to remember
er is expended in creating a small current and Work that power (expressed in
flow through a given resistance than in watts, horsepower, etc.), rep-
creating a large one; so it is necessary to resents the rate of energy consumption or
have a unit of power as a reference. the rate of doing work. But when we pay
The unit of electrical power is the watt,
which is the rate of energy consumption Figure 11
when an e.m.f. of 1 volt forces a current R
of 1 ampere through a circuit. The power MATCHING OF
in a resistive circuit is equal to the product RESISTANCES T`
of the voltage applied across, and the cur-
rent flowing in, a given circuit. Hence: P To deliver the greatest amount of power to the
load, the load resistance R should be equal to
(watts) = E (volts) X I (amperes).
,
is necessary to maintain eternal vigilance in If the rescuer has been trained, artificial res-
matters pertaining to electrical safety. piration should be combined with closed -
Alternating current, in particular, is es- chest cardiac massage, and resuscitation con-
pecially dangerous, since a current of only tinued all the time the victim is being trans-
a few milliamperes flowing through the body ported to the hospital. In addition to cardiac
will cause muscular contraction, resulting in arrest, high currents may produce fatal dam-
the inability of the victim to release his age to the central nervous system and deep
grasp on a live conductor. The maximum burns.
current at which a person is still capable of Experimenters working with solid -state
releasing a conductor by using muscles af- circuits often develop sloppy work habits,
fected by the current is termed the let -go adjusting and modifying the equipment
current. Currents only slightly in excess of while the primary power is left running.
this value may "freeze" the victim to the This is a dangerous habit, because if the in-
circuit with lethal effects. The average let - dividual turns to work with vacuum -tube
go current, found by experiment at the Uni- circuits or high -voltage power supplies, he
versity of California in carefully controlled may inadvertently expose himself to lethal
tests, was approximately 16 milliamperes for high -voltage circuits. For safety's sake, elec-
men and 10.5 milliamperes for women. Safe tronic equipment of any size or power should
let -go currents for men and women are con- never be worked on, or tested, unless the
sidered to be 9 and 6 milliamperes, respec- power is removed. If tests are to be run
tively. under operating conditions, the experimen-
A severe electrical shock can produce ven- ter should be well clear of the equipment
tricular fibrillation, or heart spasm, in a hu- before the power is turned on.
man which can bring death within minutes.
Resuscitation techniques must be applied
immediately if the victim is to be saved. 2 -3 Electrostatics and
The accepted treatment consists of prompt Capacitors
rescue and immediate and continuous appli-
cation of artificial respiration, preferably
the mouth -to -mouth method. Electrical energy can be stored in an elec-
trostatic field. A device capable of storing
energy in such a field is called a capacitor
(in earlier usage the term condenser was
frequently used but the IEEE standards call
for the use of capacitor instead of conden-
ser) and is said to have a certain capacitance.
The energy stored in an electrostatic field
isexpressed in joules (watt- seconds) and is
equal to CE' 2, where C is the capacitance
in farads (a unit of capacitance to be dis-
cussed) and E is the potential in volts. The
charge is equal to CE, the charge being ex-
pressed in coulombs.
lek G S
*4s
Figure 13
At top lest are three variable air capacitors intended for hf /vhf use. At the right is a small var-
iable vacuum capacitor intended for high -voltage service. Ac °oss the bottom are (left to right):
two sub -miniature variable split -stator capacitors. a precision "plunger" capacitor, a compres-
sion mica capacitor, and a variable ceramic trimming capacitor.
SURPLUS
OF ELECTRONS
OF ELECTRONS
tor and is expressed in farads. S
The farad is such a large unit of capaci-
tance that it is rarely used in radio calcula-
tions, and the following more practical units
have, therefore, been chosen.
I
CAPACITANCE FORA GIVEN SPACING
O
tain dielectric, the capacitor will
111111 break down, i.e., the dielectric will puncture.
IIII.1 It is for this reason that capacitors are
ill
e
rated in the manner of the amount of
III
III\\\
I
voltage they will safely withstand as well
as the capacitance in microfarads. This rat-
ing is commonly expressed as the do work-
RE E ing voltage (DC W V) .
RIM 011
MINI mortm
I
iiiiii
2 3 4 5 7
CAPACITANCE IN PICOFARADS
f 10 11 12 13 14
Calculation of The capacitance of two par -
Capacitance allel plates may be determined
with good accuracy by the
following formula:
A
CHART 1 C = 0.2248 X K X
t
Through the use of this chart it is possible to
determine the required plate diameter (with the where,
necessary spacing established by peak voltage
considerations) for a circular-plate capacitor. C equals capacitance in picofarads,
The capacitance given is between adjacent faces
of the two plates. K equals dielectric constant of spacing
material,
A equals area of dielectric in square inches,
t equals thickness of dielectric in inches.
Ct
i
CI C2 C
1
I C2
This formula indicates that the capaci-
tance is directly proportional to the area of
the plates and inversely proportional to the
PARALLEL CAPACITORS SERIES CAPACITORS thickness of the dielectric (spacing between
the plates). This simply means that when
the area of the plate is doubled, the spacing
between plates remaining constant, the ca-
ICZCI 'Ca +cS 1 pacitance will be doubled. Also, if the area
of the plates remains constant, and the
C4
TCe plate spacing is doubled the capacitance will
T T T f be reduced to half.
CAPACITORS IN SERIES -PARALLEL The above equation also shows that ca-
pacitance is directly proportional to the di-
Figure 15 electric constant of the spacing material.
CAPACITORS IN SERIES, PARALLEL, An air -spaced capacitor that has a capaci-
AND SERIES -PARALLEL tance of 100 pF in air would have a ca-
pacitance of 467 pF when immersed in cas-
tor oil, because the dielectric constant of
castor oil is 4.67 times as great as the dielec-
Dielectric The capacitance of a capacitor is tric constant of air.
Constant determined by the thickness and Where the area of the plate is definitely
nature of the dielectric material set, when it is desired to know the spacing
between plates. Certain materials offer a needed to secure a required capacitance,
greater capacitance than others, depending
on their physical makeup and chemical con-
stitution. This property is expressed by a
t= A X 0.2248 X K
C
constant K, called the dielectric- constant. where all units are expressed just as in the
(K = 1 for air.) preceding formula. This formula is not con-
2.16 RADIO HANDBOOK
fined to capacitors having only square or (4) Three or more capacitors of equal ca-
rectangular plates, but also applies when the pacitance in series.
plates are circular in shape. The only change
Value of common capacitance
will be the calculation of the area of such CT = Number of capacitors in series
circular plates; this area can be computed
by squaring the radius of the plate, then ( S ) Six capacitors in series -parallel:
multiplying by a (3.1416) .
The capacitance of a multiplate capacitor 1 1
evenly; one capacitor will receive more than Electrolytic Electrolytic capacitors use a very
500 volts and the other less than 500 volts. Capacitors thin film of oxide as the dielec-
tric, and are polarized; that is,
Voltage Equalizing they have a positive and a negative terminal
By connecting a half -
which must be properly connected in a cir-
Resistors megohm 1 -watt carbon
cuit; otherwise, the oxide will break down
resistor across each ca-
and the capacitor will overheat. The unit
pacitor, the voltage will be equalized be-
then will no longer be of service. When elec-
cause the resistors act as a voltage divider,
and the internal resistances of the capacitors
are so much higher (many megohms) that
they have but little effect in disturbing the
voltage divider balance (figure 16 ). EQUAL EQUAL
CAPACITANCE RESISTANCE
Carbon resistors of the inexpensive type
are not particularly accurate (not being de-
signed for precision service) ; therefore it is
advisable to check several on an accurate Figure 16
ohmmeter to find some that are as close as
possible in resistance. The exact resistance SHOWING THE USE OF VOLTAGE
is unimportant, just so it is the same for EQUALIZING RESISTORS ACROSS
the resistors used. CAPACITORS CONNECTED IN SERIES
these fields to build up into a resultant by winding the wire into a coil. The field
external field which acts in a plane at right around each wire then combines with those
angles to the direction in which the current of the adjacent turns to form a total field
is flowing. This field is known as the mag- through the coil which is concentrated
netic field. along the axis of the coil and behaves ex-
The magnetic field around a current -car- ternally in a way similar to the field of a
rying conductor is illustrated in figure 17. bar magnet.
The direction of this magnetic field depends If the left hand is held so that the thumb
entirely on the direction of electron drift, or is outstretched and parallel to the axis of a
current flow, in the conductor. When the coils with the fingers curled to indicate the
flow is toward the observer, the field about direction of electron flow around the turns
the conductor is clockwise; when the flow of the coil, the thumb then points in the
is away from the observer, the field is direction of the north pole of the magnetic
counterclockwise. This is easily remembered field.
if the left hand is clenched, with the thumb
outstretched and pointing in the direction
of electron flow. The fingers then indicate The Magnetic In the magnetic circuit, the
the direction of the magnetic field around Circuit units which correspond to
the conductor. current, voltage, and resist-
ance in the electrical circuit are flux, ag-
m
Residual Magnetism; The magnetism remain - the applied voltage is building up, the
Retentivity ing in a material after counter e.m.f. opposes the rise; when the ap-
the magnetizing force plied voltage is decreasing, the counter
is removed is called residual magnetism. Re- e.m.f. is of the same polarity and tends to
tentivity is the property which causes a maintain the current. Thus, it can be seen
magnetic material to have residual magne- that self -inductance tends to prevent any
tism after having been magnetized. change in the current in the circuit.
The storage of energy in a magnetic field
is expressed in joules and is equal to (LI2) '2.
Hysteresis; Hysteresis is the characteristic (A joule is equal to 1 watt -second. L is de-
Coercive Force of a magnetic system which fined immediately following.)
causes a loss of power due to
the fact that a reverse magnetizing force The Unit of Inductance is usually denoted
must be applied to reduce the residual mag- Inductance: by the letter L, and is expressed
netism to zero. This reverse force is termed The Henry in henrys (H). A coil has an
coercive force. Hysteresis loss is apparent in inductance of 1 henry when a
transformers and chokes by the heating of voltage of 1 volt is induced by a current
the core. change of I ampere per second. The henry,
while commonly used in audio- frequency
Inductance If the switch shown in figure 17 circuits, is too large for reference to induct-
opened and closed, a pulsating
is ance coils, such as those used in radio -fre-
diect current will be produced. When it is quency circuits; millihenry (mH) or micro -
first closed, the current does not instanta- henry (µH) is more commonly used, in the
neously rise to its maximum value, but following manner:
builds up to it. While it is building up, the
magnetic field is expanding around the con- 1 henry = 1000 millihenrys, or I03
ductor. Of course, this happens in a small millihenrys.
fraction of a second. If the switch is then 1 millihenry = 1/1000 henry, .001
opened, the current stops and the magnetic henry, or 10 -3 henry.
field contracts quickly. This expanding and
1 nricrohenry = /1,000,000 henry,
1
contracting field will induce a current in
.000001 henry, or 10 -9 henry.
any other conductor that is part of a contin-
uous circuit which it cuts. Such a field can
be obtained in the way just mentioned by
applying ac to the circuit in place of the Mutual Inductance When one coil is near an-
battery. Varying the resistance of the circuit other, varying current
a
will also produce the same effect. This in- in one will produce varying magnetic
a
ducing of a current in a conductor due to field which cuts the turns of the other
a varying current in another conductor not coil, inducing a current in it. This induced
in actual contact is called electromagnetic current is also varying, and will therefore
induction. induce another current in the first coil. This
reaction between two coupled circuits is
Self- inductance If an alternating current called mutual inductance, and can be cal-
flows through a coil the culated and expressed in henrys. The symbol
varying magnetic field around each turn for mutual inductance is M. Two circuits
cuts itself and the adjacent turn and in- thus joined are said to be inductively cou-
duces a voltage in the coil of opposite po- pled.
larity to the applied e.m.f. The amount of The magnitude of the mutual inductance
induced voltage depends on the number of depends on the shape and size of the two
turns in the coil, the current flowing in the circuits, their positions and distances apart,
coil, and the number of lines of force thread- and the permeability of the medium. The
ing the coil. The voltage so induced is extent to which two inductors are coupled
known as a counter e.m.f. or back e.m.f., is expressed by a relation known .as coeffi-
and the effect is termed self -induction. When cient of coupling (k). This is the ratio of
DIRECT- CURRENT CIRCUITS 2.21
60 Figure 21
N
a so
tW TIME CONSTANT OF AN
14.1 40 RC CIRCUIT
120
0
á>
%
AEI Shown at (A) is the circuit upon which is based
the curves of (B) and (C). (B) shows the rate
INTEAMSOF TIML CONSTANT RC3
at which capacitor C will charge from the in-
100 stant at which switch S is placed in position 1.
(C) shows the discharge curve of capacitor C
from the instant at which switch S is placed in
ó= SO position 3.
25'26o
Vs
<6g .or-
t
¡Ell 20
22Ó
ü<7 O 2 3
671I TIME L, IN TERMS Of TIME CONSTANT RC
1áN
DIRECT -CURRENT CIRCUITS 2.23
1M1
1!1IN
1 i 1 I
'41
alto
Figure 22
TYPICAL INDUCTANCES
The large inductance is a 1000 -watt transmitting coil. To the right and left of this coil are small
r-f chokes. Several varieties of low power capability coils are shown below, along with various
types of r-f chokes intended for high -frequency operation.
When the elapsed time (t) is equal to the where i represents the current at any instant
time constant of the RC network under through the series circuit, E represents the
consideration, the exponent of a becomes applied voltage, and R represents the total
-1. Now r -' is equal to 1/r, or 1/2.716, resistance of the resistor and the dc resist-
which is 0.368. The quantity (1-
0.368) ance of the inductor in series. Thus the time
then is equal to 0.632. Expressed as percent- constant of the RL circuit is L /R, with R
age, the above means that the voltage across expressed in ohms and L expressed in henrys.
the capacitor will have increased to 63.2 per- S R (INCLUDING D{ RESISTANCE
OF INDUCTOR L)
cent of the battery voltage in an interval
equal to the time constant or RC product
of the circuit. Then, during the next period
equal to the time constant of the RC com-
bination, the voltage across the capacitor
will have risen to 63.2 per cent of the re- ,00
ó ao
the combination follows a very similar law TIME t, IN TERMS OF TIME CONSTANT
Figure 24
TYPICAL IRON -CORE INDUCTANCES
At the right is an upright mounting filter choke intended for use in low -powered transmitters
and audio equipment. At the center is a hermetically sealed inductance for use under poor en-
vironmental conditions. To the left is an inexpensive receiving -type choke, with a small iron -
.1414444114444W414MU114 .
Figure 25
TRIFILAR, TOROIDAL, AND CUP -CORE INDUCTORS
At top left is a trihlar (three- winding) filament choke wound on a ferrite rod. To the right are
two toroid inductors with bifilar windings on ferrite cores. At the lower left is a ferrite cup -
core assembly, with two miniature ferrite toroid inductors at the center. To the lower right aye
typical miniature ferrite toroid cores and an encapsulated ferrite -core r -f choke.
DIRECT- CURRENT CIRCUITS 2.25
Voltage Decay When the switch in figure age across the capacitor will decrease to 36.8
21 is moved to position 3 percent of the initial voltage (will make
after the capacitor has been charged, the 63.2 per cent of the total drop) in a period
capacitor voltage will drop in the manner of time equal to the time constant of the
shown in figure 21 -C. In this case the volt- RC circuit.
1" "' 1 10.11
1/
1-
y11 1
7 r' <
,"
U
r
M I 7c8+
:5
7r,
"I
4+'. 1
CHAPTER THREE
3 -1 Alternating Current
ALTERNATING CURRENT
An alternating current is one whose am-
plitude of current flow periodically rises Figure 1
a strictly pure sine curve, the departures are is traveling at a constant speed, because
usually so slight that the assumption can be these points on the radius represent the pas-
regarded as fact for most practical purposes. sage of equal units of time. A sine wave
All that has been said in the foregoing para- plotted against time is shown in figure 4.
graphs concerning alternating current also The frequency of the generated voltage is
is applicable to alternating voltage. proportional to the speed of rotation of the
LINES OF FORCE alternator, and to the number of magnetic
illllll __-
III poles in the field. Alternators may be built
1101
11111
--
-
l;'
I I
Ir ARCO!
to produce radio frequencies up to 100 kHz,
and some such machines are still used for
stand-by low- frequency communication. By
means of multiple windings, three -phase out-
..ul
11111 put may be obtained from large industrial
11111101 1111111111111
LINES OF FORCE alternators.
-
(UNIFORM DENSITY)
Figure 3 1 CYCLE
¡CYCLE CYCLE
OUTPUT OF THE ALTERNATOR
90
Graph showing sine -wave output current of the
alternator of figure 2.
terms of degrees than radians, so the follow- wave at this instant can be determined
ing simple conversions are useful. through use of the following expression:
27r radians = 1 cycle = 360° e = E,Ilax sin 27rí t
when O = 90°
Figure 5 sin O = 1.0
ILLUSTRATING RADIAN NOTATION and e = Emax
The radian is a unit of phase angle, equal to
57.324 degrees. It is commonly used in mathe-
matical relationships involving phase angles when O = 1 radian
since such relationships are simplified when
radian notation is used.
sin O= 0.8415
nating current will have an effective value plained by assuming that it could be pos-
of I ampere when it produces the same heat sible to cut off some of the peaks of the
in a resistor as does 1 ampere of direct waves, using the cutoff portions to fill in
current. the spaces that are open, thereby obtaining
The effective value is derived by taking an average dc value. A milliammeter and
the instantaneous values of current over a voltmeter connected to the adjoining circuit,
cycle of alternating current, squaring these or across the output of the rectifier, will
values, taking an average of the squares, read this average value. It is related to peak
and then taking the square root of the value by the following expression:
average. By this procedure, the effective
value becomes known as the root mean E,,, s = 0.636 X E,,,,,,,
square, or rms, value. This is the value that
is read on ac voltmeters and ac ammeters.
It is thus seen that the average value is 63.6
The rms value is 70.7 percent of the peak percent of the peak value.
or maximum instantaneous value (for sine
waves only) and is expressed as follows: Relationship Between To summarize the three
Peak, RMS, or most significant values
F,.,( or F,,,,. = 0.707 X F.,,,,,, or Effective, and of an ac sine wave: the
Average Values peak value is equal to
or I,,,,. = 0.707 X 1,,,:,,
1.41 times the rms or
The following relations are extremely use- effective, and the rms value is equal to
ful in radio and power work: 0.707 times the peak value; the average
value of a full -wave rectified ac wave is
F.,,,,. = 0.707 X F,,,,,,, and 0.636 times the peak value, and the average
F.,,,;,, = 1.414 X value of a rectified wave is equal to 0.9
times the rms value.
AAAAAA TIME
Applying Ohm's Low
to Alternating Current
Ohm's
law applies
equally to direct or al-
ternating current, pro-
Figure 6
tided the circuits under consideration are
purely resistive, that is, circuits which have
FULL -WAVE RECTIFIED neither inductance nor capacitance. When
SINE WAVE capacitive or inductive reactance is intro-
Waveform obtained at the output of a full -wave duced in the circuit, Ohm's law still ap-
rectifier being fed with a sine wave and hav- plies, but additional considerations are in-
ing 100 percent rectification efficiency. Each
pulse has the same shape as one -half cycle of volved; these will be discussed in a later
a sine wave. This type of current is known as
pulsating direct current. paragraph.
3.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
As was stated in Chapter Two, when a Capacitive Inductive reactance is the mea-
changing current flows through an inductor Reactance sure of the ability of an inductor
.t back- or counterelectromotive force is de- to offer impedance to the flow
veloped, opposing any change in the initial of an alternating current. Capacitors have
current. This property of an inductor causes a similar property although in this case the
it to offer opposition or impedance to a opposition is to any change in the voltage
change in current. The measure of imped- across the capacitor. This property is called
ance offered by an inductor to an alternating capacitive reactance and is expressed as fol-
current of a given frequency is known as lows:
its inductive reactance. This is expressed as
Xt, and is shown in figure 7. Xo _ 1
E
27rfC
where,
Xc equals capacitive reactance in ohms,
equals 3.1416,
TIYC -0. f equals frequency in Hertz,
C equals capacitance in farads.
CURRENT LAGGING VOLTAGE BY 90° Capacitive Re- Here again, as in the case
CIRCUIT CONTAINING PURE INDUCTANCE ONLY
actance at of inductive reactance,
Figure 7
Radio Frequencies the units of capacitance
and frequency can be
LAGGING PHASE ANGLE converted into smaller units for practical
Showing the manner in which the current lags problems encountered in radio work. The
the voltage in an ac circuit containing pure
inductance only. The lag is equal to one quar- equation may be written:
ter cycle or 90 degrees.
10"
xi, = 2-f L Xc = 27ríC
where, where,
Xt, equals inductive reactance expressed f equals frequency in megahertz,
in ohms, C equals capacitance in picofarads.
7r equals 3.1416 (27r = 6.283),
voltage, in which case the current is said to cive reactance is in the circuit, the current
have lagging phase. Lagging phase is caused will lead the voltage by 90 °.
by inductive reactance. If the current
reaches its maximum value ahead of the
voltage (figure 8) the current is said to Reactances Inductive and capacitive re-
have a leading phase. A leading phase angle in Combination actance have exactly op-
is caused by capacitive reactance. posite effects on the phase
In an electrical circuit containing re- relation between current and voltage in a
actance only, the current will either lead or circuit and when they are used in combina-
lag the voltage by 90 °. If the circuit con- tion their effects tend to neutralize each
tains inductive reactance only, the current other. The combined effect of a capacitive
will lag the voltage by 90 °. If only capaci- and an inductive reactance is often called
the net reactance of a circuit. The net re-
actance (X) is found by subtracting the
capacitive reactance from the inductive re-
actance (X = XL - Xc)
The result of such a combination of pure
TIME reactances may be either positive, in which
case the positive reactance is greater so that
the net reactance is inductive, or it may be
negative in which case the capacitive react-
CURRENT LEADING VOLTAGE BY 90° ance is greater so that the net reactance is
(CIRCUIT CONTAINING PURE CAPACITANCE ONLT) capacitive. The net reactance may also be
zero in which case the circuit is said to be
Figure 8 resonant. The condition of resonance will be
LEADING PHASE ANGLE discussed in a later section. Note that in-
Showing the manner in which the current leads
ductive reactance is always taken as being
the voltage in an ac circuit containing pure positive while capacitive reactance is always
capacitance only. The lead is equal to one - taken as being negative.
quarter cycle or 90 degrees.
reactance
Q Figure of merit
resistance
z Impedance ohm n
Y-AAIS
Impedance; Circuits Pure reactances intro-
Containing Reactance duce a phase angle of
and Resistance 90° between voltage
and current; pure re-
sistance introduces no phase shift between
voltage and current. Therefore it is not cor-
rect to add a reactance and a resistance di-
rectly. When a reactance and a resistance
are used in combination, the resulting phase
angle of current flow with respect to the
impressed voltage lies somewhere between
plus or minus 90° and 00 depending on the Figure 9
relative magnitudes of the reactance and Operation on the vector ( +A) by the quantity
the resistance. ( -1) causes vector to rotate through 180 degrees.
- (tA) X ( i)
ROTATf 3
VECTOR THROUGH 90
The j Operator The first method of des-
+JA
ignating an impedance is
actually to specify both the resistive and the +A J -x AXIS
reactive component in the form R ¡X.
In this form R represents the resistive com-
ponent in ohms and X represents the re-
active component. The j merely means that
the X component is reactive and thus can- Figure 10
not be added directly to the R component. Operation on the vector ( +A) by the quantity
Plus jX means that the reactance is positive V -1, or ¡, causes vector to rotate through 90
degrees.
or inductive, while if minus jX were given
it would mean that the reactive component
was negative or capacitive. Polar Notation The second method of repre-
Figure 9 illustrates a sector ( +A) lying
senting an impedance is to
along the positive X -axis of the usual X -Y
coordinate system. If this vector is multi- specify its absolute magnitude and the phase
plied by the quantity (
(- - 1) . it becomes
A) and its position now lies along the
angle of current with respect to voltage, in
the form Z L 9. Figure 11 shows graphically
X -axis in the negative direction. The opera-
the relationship between the two common
tor ( - 1) has caused the vector to rotate
through an angle of 180 degrees. Since
ways of representing an impedance.
The construction of figure 11 is called an
(- 1) is equal to ( X v - 1)
impedance diagram. Through the use of
such a diagram we can add graphically a
\/i)
ing on the vector with the operator
.
(
the same result may be obtained by operat-
tanti= X
1Z! = ß/R2 + (XI. Xt.) - 2
= 100 LO°
282 L -45°
- 0.354 LO° - ( -45 °)
= 0.354 L45° amperes
Figure 13 This same current must flow through all
three elements of the circuit, since they are
SERIES RLC CIRCUIT in series and the current through one must
pedance of the series circuit can best be ob- already have passed through the other two.
tained first in the rectangular form, as: The voltage drop across the resistor (whose
phase angle of course is 0 °) is:
200 + j(100 - 300) = 200 - j200 E = IR
Now, to obtain the current we must con-
vert this impedance to the polar form. E _ (0.354 L45 °) (200 L0 °)
= 200 + ( -200)2 = 70.8 L 45° volts
The voltage drop across the inductive re-
= V 40,000 + 40,000 actance is:
= 80,000 E = IX1,
=282 i2
E _ (0.354 L45 °) (100 L90 °)
X = 35.4 L135° volts
O = tan -' = tan-' tan-1(- 1)
200
Similarly, the voltage drop across the capac-
= - 45° itive reactance is:
Therefore, Z = 282 L -45° E =IXc
Note that in a series circuit the resulting E = (0.354 L45 °) (300 L -90 °)
impedance takes the sign of the largest re- = 106.2 L -45°
actance in the series combination.
Where a slide rule is being used to make Note that the voltage drop across the ca-
the computations, the impedance may be pacitive reactance is greater than the supply
found without any addition or subtraction voltage. This condition often occurs in a
operations by finding the angle B first, and series RLC circuit, and is explained by the
then using the trigonometric equation below fact that the drop across the capacitive re-
for obtaining the impedance: actance is cancelled to a lesser or greater
extent by the drop across the inductive re-
-200 actance.
O = tan-'
R
= tan -' 200
- tan-1(- 1) It is often desirable in a problem such as
the above to check the validity of the an-
= -45 °. swer by adding vectorially the voltage drops
across the components of the series circuit
3.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
90
to make sure that they add up to the supply
voltage or (to use the terminology of Kirch-
hoff's Second Law) to make sure that the VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS
-.l15
il 6511
original circuit by assuming that one volt
ac (at the frequency where the capacitive
-.i 2.7715 reactance in the parallel circuit is 4 ohms)
O T is applied to the terminals of both the series
and parallel circuits.
PARALLEL EQUIVALENT SERIES In the parallel circuit the current through
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT the resistor will be 1/6 ampere (0.166 amp)
while the current through the capacitor will
Figure 15 be j %4 ampere (-1- j 0.25 amp) . The total
THE EQUIVALENT SERIES CIRCUIT current will be the sum of these two cur-
rents, or 0.166 + j 0.25 amp. Adding these
Showing a parallel RC circuit and the equiva-
lent series RC circuit which represents the same vectorially, as follows:
net impedance as the parallel circuit.
= V0.1662 + 0.252 = 0.09
Then the denominator is changed to the = 0.3 amp.
polar form for the division operation: The dissipation in the resistor will be 12/6
= 0.166 watts.
0 = tan-1 = tan-' -0.667 = -33.7° In the case of the equivalent series cir-
cuit the current will be:
6 - 6
-
cos - 33.7° 0.832 7.21 ohms
= 0.3 amp
3.33
6 -j4 = 7.21 L -33.7°
III
Equivalent Series Through the series of op- Parallel RLC In solving a more complicated
Circuit erations in the previous Circuits circuit made up of more than
paragraph a circuit com- two impedances in parallel it
posed of two impedances in parallel has been is possible to use either of two methods of
converted into an equivalent series circuit solution. These methods are called the ad-
3.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
mittance method and the assumed - voltage at the same time the amplitude is reduced.
method. However, the two methods are Several dividers of this type are shown in
equivalent since both use the sum-of- recip- figure 17. Note that the ratio of output
rocals equation: voltage is equal to the ratio of the output
impedance to the total divider impedance.
1 1 1 1
This relationship is true only if negligible
ZT0,al Z1 current is drawn by a load on the output
terminals.
In the admittance method we use the rela-
tion Y = 1/Z, where Y = G + jB; Y is
called the admittance, defined above, G is
the conductance or R /Z2 and B is the sus -
ceptance or -X /Z2. Then Ytotal = 1 /Ztotal
= Y1 + Y2 + Y3 ....
In the assumed -
voltage method we multiply both sides of
the equation above by E, the assumed volt- xc
age, and add the currents, as: t:E. RZ+XCZ
E2E. x`
q2 +XL2
E
ZTutnl
- E+E +.E...=
G LL2
3 IZ1 +I2_ +I23...
Figure 18
where,
SERIES -RESONANT CIRCUIT f equals frequency in hertz,
L equals inductance in henrys,
quency of the alternator E is varied from C equals capacitance in farads.
nearly zero to some high frequency, there
will be one particular frequency at which It is more convenient to express L and
the inductive reactance and capacitive re- C in smaller units, especially in making
actance will be equal. This is known as the radio- frequency calculations; f can also be
resonant frequent)', and in a series circuit expressed in MHz or kHz.
it is the frequency at which the circuit
current will be a maximum. Such series - Impedance of Series The impedance across
resonant circuits are chiefly used when it is Resonant Circuits the terminals of a series -
desirable to allow a certain frequency to pass resonant circuit (figure
through the circuit (low impedance to this 18) is:
frequency), while at the same time the cir-
cuit is made to offer considerable opposition
to currents of other frequencies.
Z = Vr + (X - Xc)z
If the values of inductance and capaci- where,
tance both are fixed, there will be only one Z equals impedance in ohms,
resonant frequency. r equals resistance in ohms,
If either the inductance or the capacitance Xe equals capacitive reactance in ohms,
are made variable, the circuit may then be X1, equals inductive reactance in ohms.
changed or tuned, so that a number of com-
From this equation, it can be seen that
binations of inductance and capacitance can
the impedance is equal to the vector sum of
resonate at the same frequency. This can be
the circuit resistance and the difference be-
more easily understood when one considers
that inductive reactance and capacitive re-
actance change in opposite directions as the
ASSONANCE
frequency is varied. For example, if the
frequency were to remain constant and the
values of inductance and capacitance were
then changed, the following combinations
would have equal reactance:
rRCOUCNCY
L X,, C Xc xc
.265 100 26.5 100
2.65 1000 2.65 1000
26.5 10,000 .265 10,000
265.00 100,000 .0265 100,000 Figure 19
2,650.00 1,000,000 .00265 1,000,000 IMPEDANCE OF A
SERIES -RESONANT CIRCUIT
Frequency is constant at 60 Hz. Showing the variation in reactance of the sepa-
rate elements and in the net impedance of a
L is expressed in henrys. series resonant circuit (such as figure 18) with
changing frequency. The vertical line is drawn
at the point of resonance (X, -Xc = 0) in the
C is expressed in microfarads (10'8 farad) .
series circuit.
3.16 RADIO HANDBOOK
be high enough to cause flashover, even Skin Effect The actual resistance in a wire
though the applied voltage is of a value con- or an inductor can be far greater
siderably below that at which the capacitor than the dc value when the coil is used in a
is rated. radio -frequency circuit; this is because the
current does not travel through the entire
Circuit Q -
Sharp-
ness of Resonance
An extremely important
property of a capacitor
cross section of the conductor, but has a
tendency to travel closer and closer to the
surface of the wire as the frequency is in-
or an inductor is its fac- creased. This is known as the skin effect.
tor -of- merit, more generally called its Q. In the hf region, skin effect limits the
It is this factor, Q, which primarily deter- depth of electron flow in a conductor to a
mines the sharpness of resonance of a tuned few thousandths of an inch. The resistance
circuit. This factor can be expressed as the and r -f losses in a conductor increase with
ratio of the reactance to the resistance, as the square root of the frequency and become
follows: of increasing importance above 100 MHz
(figure 21).
2-fL
O- R
Variation of Q Examination of the equation
with Frequency for determining Q might
where,
seem to imply that even
though the resistance of an inductor in-
R equals total resistance. creases with frequency, the inductive react-
\
moi
,
-11...0 MIN =tifiti
lililili
tttttti-P
11i
11=1i11b-o MINIM M....
iii..
.fi11
mia._ iiim m'3
PE
mie:.,í!i%111
rai`='.;;\.ONyOrE
rq
MOM
1.,11\ rEq
r-:..-.
MtaM.. `,
e, =0er
..... 1
.I,.I..í...
%I / ffiftUffi1
ra-
11\\i!
..
NKì\,, M\N..
uiL.. _
F(mHr)
,11111111 00
Figure 21
ance does likewise, so that the Q might be The "Tank" In this circuit, as contrasted
a constant. Actually, however, it works out
Circuit with a circuit for series reso-
in practice that the Q of an inductor will nance, L (inductance) and C
reach a relatively broad maximum at some (capacitance) are connected in parallel, yet
particular frequency. Thus, coils normally the combination can be considered to be in
are designed in such a manner that the peak series with the remainder of the circuit. This
in their curve of Q- versus -frequency will combination of L and C, in conjunction
occur at the normal operating frequency of with R, the resistance which is principally
the coil in the circuit for which it is de- included in L, is sometimes called a tank
signed. circuit because it effectively functions as a
The Q of a capacitor ordinarily is much storage tank when incorporated in electronic
higher than that of the best coil. Therefore, circuits.
it usually is the merit of the coil that limits Contrasted with series resonance, there
the overall Q of the circuit. are two kinds of current which must be con-
At audio frequencies the core losses in an sidered in a parallel- resonant circuit: (1)
iron -core inductor greatly reduce the Q the line current, as read on the indicating
from the value that would be obtained sim- meter M,, (2) the circulating current which
ply by dividing the reactance by the resist- flows within the parallel LCR portion of the
ance. Obviously the core losses also represent circuit.
circuit resistance, just as though the loss At the resonant frequency, the line cur-
occurred in the wire itself. rent (as read on the meter M,) will drop to
a very low value although the circulating
current in the LC circuit may be quite large.
Parallel In radio circuits, parallel reso- The parallel- resonant circuit acts in a dis-
Resonance nance (more correctly termed tinctly opposite manner to that of a series -
antiresonanre) is more frequently resonant circuit, in which the current is at
encountered than series resonance; in fact, a maximum and the impedance is minimum
it is the basic foundation of receiver and at resonance. It is for this reason that in a
transmitter circuit operation. A circuit is parallel- resonant circuit the principal con-
shown in figure 22. sideration is one of impedance rather than
current. It is also significant that the im-
pedance curve for parallel circuits is very
nearly identical to that of the current curve
for series resonance. The impedance at reso-
nance is expressed as:
(27fL)z
Z= R
where,
Figure 22 Z equals impedance in ohms,
L equals inductance in henrys,
PARALLEL -RESONANT CIRCUIT f equals frequency in hertz,
The inductance L and capacitance C comprise R equals resistance in ohms.
the reactive elements of the parallel- resonant
(antiresonant) tank circuit, and the resistance Or, impedance can be expressed as a func-
R indicates the sum of the r-f resistance of the
coil and capacitor, plus the resistance coupled tion of Q as:
into the circuit from the external load. In most
cases the tuning capacitor has much lower r -f
resistance than the coil and can therefore be
ignored in comparison with the coil resistance
Z = 2zrfLQ
and the coupled -in resistance. The instrument
M, indicates the "line current" which keeps the
circuit in a state of oscillation-this current is showing that the impedance of a circuit is
the same as the fundamental component of the directly proportional to its effective Q at
plate current of a class -C amplifier which might
be feeding the tank circuit. The instrument M7 resonance.
indicates the "tank current" which is equal to The curves illustrated in figure 20 can be
the line current multiplied by the operating Q
of the tank circuit. applied to parallel resonance. Reference to
ALTERNATING- CURRENT CIRCUITS 3.19
the curve will show that the effect of adding tuned. Increasing the Q of the circuit (low=
resistance to the circuit will result in both a ering the resistance) will obviously increase
broadening out and lowering of the peak of both the selectivity and gain.
the curve. Since the voltage of the circuit
is directly proportional to the impedance,
and since it is this voltage that is applied to Circulating Tank The O of a circuit has
a detector or amplifier circuit, the imped- Current at Resonance a definite bearing on
ance curve must have a sharp peak in order the circulating tank
for the circuit to be selective. If the curve current at resonance. This tank current is
is broadtopped in shape, both the desired very nearly the value of the line current
signal and the interfering signals at close multiplied by the effective circuit O. For
proximity to resonance will give nearly equal example: an r -f line current of 0.050 am-
voltages, and the circuit will then be non- pere, with a circuit Q of 100, will give a
selective; that is, it will tune broadly. circulating tank current of approximately
5 amperes. From this it can be seen that
Effect of L/C Ratio In order that the highest both the inductor and the connecting wires
in Parallel Circuits possible voltage can be in a circuit with a high O must be of very
low resistance, particularly in the case of
developed across a paral-
high -power transmitters, if heat losses are
lel- resonant circuit, the impedance of this
to be held to a minimum.
circuit must be very high. The impedance
Because the voltage across the tank at
will be greater with conventional coils of
resonance is determined by the O, it is pos-
limited Q when the ratio of inductance to
sible to develop very high peak voltages
capacitance is great, that is, when L is large
across a high -Q tank with but little line
as compared with C. When the resistance of
the circuit is very low, XI, will equal Xc at current.
maximum impedance. There are innumer-
able ratios of L and C that will have equal Coupled Circuits If aparallel- resonant cir-
reactance, at a given resonant frequency, cuit coupled CO another
is
exactly as in the case in a series -resonant circuit, such as an antenna output circuit,
circuit. the impedance and the effective Q of the
In practice, where a certain value of in- parallel circuit is decreased as the coupling
ductance is tuned by a variable capacitance becomes closer. The effect of closer (tighter)
over a fairly wide range in frequency, the coupling is the same as though an actual
L C ratio will be small at the lowest -fre- resistance were added in series with the par-
quency end and large at the high- frequency allel tank circuit. The resistance thus cou-
end. The circuit, therefore, will have un- pled into the tank circuit can be considered
equal gain and selectivity at the two ends as being reflected from the output or load
of the band of frequencies which is being circuit to the driver circuit.
O O
Figure 23
EFFECT OF COUPLING ON CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE AND Q
3.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
The behavior of coupled circuits depends Impedance and The preceding discussion
largely on the amount of coupling, as shown Resonance in has been limited to the
in figure 23. The coupled current in the Antenna Systems study of lumped circuits;
secondary circuit is small, varying with fre- that is, circuits contain-
quency, being maximum at the resonant ing discrete elements of resistance, induct-
frequency of the circuit. As the coupling ance, and capacitance arranged in series or
is increased between the two circuits, the parallel configuration. An antenna, on the
secondary resonance curve becomes broader other hand, has distributed quantities of re-
and the resonant amplitude increases, until sistance, inductance, and capacitance
the reflected resistance is equal to the pri- throughout the length of the radiator. For
mary resistance. This point is called the crit- the sake of study and computation, the dis-
ical coupling point. With greater coupling, tributed values are commonly considered to
the secondary resonance curve becomes be lumped into discrete components and
broader and develops double resonance electrically equivalent circuits for a given
humps, which become more pronounced and antenna can be expressed and manipulated
farther apart in frequency as the coupling in terms of the equivalent lumped constants.
between the two circuits is increased.
Figure 25
LINK COUPLING
Coupling is adjusted by altering position of link
coils
Wave Composition Any periodic wave (one of the resulting curve (E) are steeper than
that repeats itself in defi- before. This new curve is shown in figure
nite time intervals) is composed of sine 28 after a 7th -harmonic component has been
waves of different frequencies and ampli- added to it, making the sides of the com-
tudes, added together. The sine wave which posite wave even steeper. Addition of more
has the same frequency as the complex, peri- higher odd harmonics will bring the result-
odic wave is called the fundamental. The ant wave nearer and nearer to the desired
frequencies higher than the fundamental are square -wave shape. The square wave will be
called harmonics, and are always a whole achieved if an infinite number of odd har-
number of times higher than the funda- monics are added to the original sine wave.
mental. For example, the frequency twice as FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD, STH.
high as the fundamental is called the second AND 7TH HARMONICS 1671
FUNDAM PLUS 3RD AND
harmonic. STN HARMONICS
SQUARE WAVE
7TH HARMONIC IF)
SQUARE WAVE
Irregular In the same fashion, a saw -
JRD HARMONIC fBI
Waveforms tooth wave is made up of dif-
ferent sine waves (figure 29) .
The addition of all harmonics, odd and even,
produces the sawtooth waveform.
AND 11H R
FUND PLUS 2FO HARM.
FUNDAMENTAL `TPI AI Ip I,
CI!
AND
Figure 26
COMPOSITE WAVE
FUNDAMENTAL
- FUND PLUS END AND
HMI YON
FUND PLUS 2MD SRO.4TH\
$1M AND EIN HAARMONICS
FUND. PLUS 2ND 3RD 4TH.
/
FUND Pun. 2ND NARY. AND 5TH HAP MOMIL3
PLUS THIRD HARMONIC 3R0 HARMONIC !TM HARMONIC
Za. '
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD HARMONIC
<1IIt
3
C4TN NARYONIC 71H NARYONIC
Figure 27
Figure 30 shows the composition of a respect to the lowest frequency it must pass.
peaked ¡cal e. Note how the addition of each Such a circuit is shown in figure 31. If a
successive harmonic makes the peak of the nonsinusoidal voltage is to be passed un-
resultant higher, and the sides steeper. changed through the coupling circuit, the
time constant must be long with respect
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS
3RD HARMONIC to the period of the lowest frequency con-
FUNDAMENTAL
tained in the voltage wave.
3RD HARMONIC
100
IODO HERTZ
R RC 50000 USECONDS
PERIOD OF e = 1000 U SECONDS
RC Differentiator
An RC voltage divider
and Integrator that is designed to distort
the input waveform is
known as a differentiator or integrator, de-
pending on the locations of the output taps.
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD, STH,
AND 7TH HARMONICS The output from a differentiator is taken
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD
AND 5TH HARMONIC across the resistance, while the output from
an integrator is taken across the capacitor.
7TH HARMONIC
Such circuits will change the shape of any
complex ac waveform that is impressed on
them. This distortion is a function of the
value of the time constant of the circuit as
compared to the period of the waveform.
Neither a differentiator nor an integrator
7
Figure 30
Akt
a
COMPOSITION OF A PEAKED WAVE
I~
W I
I
--I
T
- -1--
I
I I
can change the shape of a pure sine wave, Sawtooth -Wave Input If a
back -to -back saw -
they will merely shift the phase of the wave tooth voltage is applied
(figure 32). The differentiator output is a to an RC circuit having a time constant
sine wave leading the input wave, and the one -sixth the period of the input voltage,
integrator output is a sine wave which lags the result is shown in figure 34. The capaci-
the input wave. The sum of the two out- tor voltage will closely follow the input
puts at any instant equals the instantaneous voltage, if the time constant is short, and
input voltage. the integrator output closely resembles the
input. The amplitude is slightly reduced
and there is a slight phase lag. Since the
Square -Wave Input If a square -wave volt voltage across the capacitor is increasing at
age is impressed on the a constant rate, the charging and discharg-
circuit of figure 33, a square -wave voltage ing current is constant. The output voltage
output may be obtained across the integrat- of the differentiator, therefore, is constant
ing capacitor if the time constant of the during each half of the sawtooth input.
circuit allows the capacitor to become fully
charged. In this particular case, the capacitor INTEGRATOR
never fully charges, and as a result the out- 100V OUTPUT (ec )
(PEAK)
put of the integrator has a smaller ampli- 1000 HERTZ DIFFERENTIATOR
(eo)
tude than the input. The differentiator out- OUTPUT
+100V.
Figure 34
eD
OUTPUT WAVE FOWN
OF TOR RC DIFFERENTIATOR AND
INTEGRATOR ACTION ON
100 V A SAWTOOTH WAVE
Figure 37
Output waveshape of amplifier having defi-
ciency in high -frequency response. Tested with
10 -kHz square wave.
Figure 35 Figure 38
Differentiator outputs of short -time- constant RC Output waveshape of amplifier having limited
circuits for various input voltage wave- shapes. low- frequency and high- frequency response.
The output voltage is proportional to the rate Tested with 1 kHz square wave.
of change of the input voltage.
Square -Wave Test The application of a high- frequency response is inferior, the rise
for Audio Equipment square -wave input sig- time of the output wave will be retarded
nal to audio equipment, (figure 37).
and the observation of the reproduced out- An amplifier with a limited high- and
put signal on an oscilloscope will provide low- frequency response will turn the square
a quick and accurate check of the overall wave into the approximation of a sawtooth
operation of audio equipment. wave (figure 38).
QD
Figure 36
Amplifier deficient in low -frequency response will distort square wave applied to the input
circuit, as shown. A 60 -Hz square wave may be used.
A: Drop in gain at low frequencies
B: Leading phase shift at low frequencies
C: Lagging phase shift at low frequencies
D: Accentuated low -frequency gain
ALTERNATING -CURRENT CIRCUITS 3.25
Zs Ns I
It can be seen from this expression that entirely dependent on the secondary load
when the voltage is stepped up, the current impedance and the turns ratio of the trans-
is stepped down, and vice versa. former (figure 40) .
OUTPUT
IN PLT
SKIRT
RESPONSE
Figure 43
I Compleg filters may be made up from these
basic filter sections.
Figure 42 Each impedance of the m- derived section
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF is related to a corresponding impedance in
REPRESENTATIVE FILTER the constant -k section by some factor which
is a function of the constant m. In turn, in
The cutoff frequencies (FI and F2) of the filter
are at the -3 dB points on the curve, which is a function of the ratio between the cutoff
are 0.707 of the maximum voltage or 0.5 of the frequency and the frequency of infinite at-
maximum power. Filters are designated as low -
pass, high -pass or bandpass. The filter illus- tenuation, and will have some value between
trated is a bandpass filter. zero and one. As the value of m approaches
Figure 42 illustrates the important char- zero, the sharpness of cutoff increases, but
acteristics of an electric filter. The filter the less will be the attenuation at several
passband is defined as the frequency region times cutoff frequency. A value of 0.6 may
be used for ni in most applications. The
to the points at which the response is at-
tenuated 3 dB. The points are termed the "notch" frequency is determined by the
cutoff frequencies of the filter. resonant frequency of the tuned filter ele-
ment. The amount of attenuation obtained
at the "notch" when a derived section is
Basic Filters Early work done for the tele- used is determined by the effective Q of the
phone companies standardized resonant arm (figure 44).
filter designs around the constant -k and
nr- derived filter families. The constant -k
filter is one in which the input and output Filter Assembly Constant -k sections and =-
impedances are so related that their arith- derived sections may be cas-
metical product is a constant (k2). The caded to obtain the combined characteristics
in- derived filter is one in which the series of sharp cutoff and good remote frequency
3.28 RADIO HANDBOOK
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 CI
2C, 2C1
C2
12 1,C 1 aC
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
R LOAD RESISTANCE
R LOAD RESISTANCE
L( mLx CI' m
2
CI. x Cy pm
m2 x
1
C2. Cy
C2. mCk
L2
Lyn
2
m I12
f4
Cy
n 12R
Ly
I
m(2 fl i
Cy
On
Figure 44
TYPICAL LOW -PASS AND HIGH -PASS FILTERS ILLUSTRATING SHUNT
AND SERIES DERIVATIONS
R LOAD RESISTANCE
12CUTOFF FREQUENCY
foc FREQUENCY OF VERY
HIGH ATTENUATION
R
O'
O
--0
TT- SECTION FILTER DESIGN
CONSTANT
Cx-17-
1
1
-7
!
k
C2
O
O O
Li
TCS
-
L
1Cj
OOO
0.6 LkmLk
m = 0.8
Li
-j- +Ca
1
O
O
TERMINATING HALF-SECTIONS
2
1
C2
I
I
N
r Ti1
TiC2I
C2
L
Lk - LI'Lk
LOW PASS
)2
C2 ' Ck CI 0.267 Gk.
C2. 0.6 CkmCk
4m'k1
SAME ALUES AS m 0 6
I
nf2R z fQ
o z
4r
i SAME CURVE AS m O 6
m ú
/I-
0.6 12
. fQ 12
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
OÓÒ
ll }LI
R LOAD RESISTANCE C,
liCUTOFF FREQUENCY
_
zLt
WI -2yC1 O 14 2C1
la - - I
I
I
FREQUENCY OF VERY
2Lx 2Lx 2LZ- 2Lx 2Lxó W 2Lx
I
I I
HIGH ATTENUATION
Li 3.75 Lk
Am
% Lk
Cam-- I
HIGH PASS
Lt
Y
I L2+` m
.."-fQ
z
ó= SAME CURVE AS m06
á
mItI_ /fÇ \2 .0 6 1
fl it' F
.,
á á
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
Figure 45
Through the use of the curves and equations which accompany the diagrams in the illustration
above it is possible to determine the correct values of inductance and capacitance for the usual
types of pi- section filters.
found where the straightedge intersects the The Series The low -pass, m- derived
center scales. m- Derived Filter filter has a passband from
dc to the cutoff frequen-
cy, f,. Beyond this frequency, the signal is
attenuated considerably to f x, as shown in
figure 48.
The T section configuration used in series
in-derived filters is shown in the nomograph
of figure 48, with the appropriate design
formulas. The correct value of in is found
by the use of nomograph # 2 of figure 49.
No units are given for f, and f x, since
any frequency may be used provided that
both scales use the same units. The value
of in is determined by aligning a straightedge
from the value of fx on its scale through
the value of f
on its scale. The value of
m is found where the straightedge inter-
Figure 46 sects the horizontal in scale.
The values of filter components LA, Le,
CONSTANT-k FILTER AND and CH are found with the aid of nomograph
LOW- FREQUENCY BANDPASS #3 of figure 50. Note that LA, and are C
3.30 RADIO HANDBOOK
8(C) BILI
900
800
-
- 0 -- 0.
900
B00
-
05
06 - 0005
-
100 0.006 100
08 0008 600
600
O.OI
500 - 500
00 - ] 002 00
003
300
20C :2
4
5
-- 00005
300
6 0.06
8 = 008
200 50
- 01
60
70
2( - 02 _ 80
100 - y. 30
-4C
-
-
03
04-z
ì
= 100
_ 90
80
90
00
- _0
- 051
Ó
8C 5
60 06
10
80
00
- 08 60
200
50 --
40 200 - 2
30 -
300 - 300
00
400
500 5
2-
600
800
6
8
nine. rc use
10110.4,
t
For a 'lifel with o
scat radar
00
lk 10
1 100 CL 8 1
600
700
800
2h 20
Figure 47
found by using the left -hand scales, and The Shunt, The pi section for the
LB and CA are found by using the right -
m- Derived Filtershunt, m- derived filter is
hand scales. shown in figure 51, using
By extending a straightedge from either the nomenclature shown. The values of
L or C to the value of in (as found in figure these components are found by using homo-
49) on their appropriate scales, LA, LB, and graphs #2 and #3 of figures 49 and f 0,
CB are found where this line intersects the just as with the series, m- derived filter de-
center scale. Any units may be used for sign.
L or C provided the same units are used Example: Design a low -pass, series m-
for CB or LA and LB, respectively. derived filter with a cutoff frequency of
ALTERNATING -CURRENT CIRCUITS 3.31
1
_
Figure 48
SERIES m- DERIVED FILTER AND
LOW- FREQUENCY BANDPASS
Iiqlft11II1111I I I I I I I I I I i I l I I II I i I I I íl ll
l
of
oa
oIl! 0 OS 06 07 O.!
Figure 49
NOMOGRAPH #2. FILTER CONSTANT m IS DETERMINED FROM f and f.
9J 200
-3_
91 60 6
1
r 00 CP ~
OETERMINM6
LR and Cs
r DETERMINING
Le or CA
01 c2
re
e0
6
f 40
30
C6
025
--`
30 3- 20
C6
oc
0
s
20
05
f ---
7= -06
055
LIO
3
031 065
z_
_ e -0T
z-025
6
Z
J' 05
-0e
02-
03 oes
02
09
G2
Cl s-
-0
L61N1
0R
4f6)
Figure 50
OU TPUT
R INPUT
OUTPUT
HALF IT- SECTION INPUT
Figure 51
RESONANCES
1mNLA IN STOP BAND
N9p11
025 FC,
o T o I-
Figure 52 Figure 53
Filter Chart
8 9 2
Scaling Equations
For cutoff frequencies outside the 0.1 to 1 35
VSWR-1299
MHz range and termination other than 50 11, use VS WR-100
the following scaling equations: 3e
C
(R)
25
L' & C' = New Component Values
L& C = Tabulated Values
2e
Multiplier R = -
Where R' is a new termination resistance chosen I5
to make R an integral power of ten.
Multiplier F = ' lo
3 8 ATTEN VS FREO
wn-%T`c,
1.2 L
CO -son w
C.--1(
n-
C1
L2
C5
l CO
I
0 11 0 o 1 o
A 0.10 1.299 0.039 0.068 125.0 o 0.10 1.073 0.033 0.015 45.0
x 0.11 1.020 0.022 0.056 119.0 0.13 1.210 0.022 0.012 38.3
o 0.14 1.083 0.022 0.047 98.5 .1 0.14 1.286 0.018 0.010 34.7
x 0.17 1.260 0.022 0.039 73.7 o 0.16 1.000 0.033 0.010 31.5
o 0.19 1.062 0.015 0.033 70.7 x 0.18 1.235 0.015 0.0082 27.1
o 0.20 1.000 0.010 0.033 65.5 x 0.20 1.151 0.015 0.0075 23.8
1.010 0.010 0.027 56.8 o 0.23 1.000 0.022 0.0068 21.0
a 0.24
o 0.29 1.000 0.0068 0.022 44.5 x 0.26 1.030 0.015 0.0062 18.1
1.010 0.0068 0.018 38.6 x 0.30 1.151 0.010 0.0050 15.9
x 0.35
o 0.42 1.000 0.0047 0.015 30.8 o 0.34 1.000 0.015 0.0047 14.3
1.273 0.0082 0.015 27.0 x 0.41 1.020 0.010 0.0039 11.6
-3 0.47
0.0047 0.012 25.3 o 0.48 1.105 0.0068 0.0033 10.0
x 0.53 1.020
1.273 0.0068 0.012 22.4 x 0.53 1.051 0.0068 0.0030 8.77
x 0.57
o 0.64 1.083 0.0047 0.010 21.0 x 0.60 1.020 0.0068 0.0027 7.88
1.151 0.0047 0.0091 18.5 x 0.65 1.139 0.0047 0.0024 7.32
x 0.71
x 0.76 1.020 0.0033 0.0082 17.8 o 0.72 1.083 0.0047 0.0022 6.56
a 0.85 1.051 0.0033 0.0075 16.0 x 0.85 1.210 0.0033 0.0018 5.75
1.105 0.0033 0.0068 14.1 x 0.96 1.116 0.0033 0.0016 4.93
o 0.95
Key
Figure 54
ALTERNATING -CURRENT CIRCUITS 3.35
lished by McGraw -Hill. Either or both of Filter attenuation slope, VSWR (voltage
these books may be available at the engi- standing -wave ratio), and passband ripple
neering library of any large university. are interrelated. In the first octave after
cutoff, the tabulated designs have a mini-
mum and maximum attenuation slope that
Computer - Designing a filter is time lies between 30 and 40 dB, octave. The min-
Designed Filters consuming and requires imum and maximum values of VSWR and
specialized knowledge, and passband ripple are 1.00 to 1.29 and zero to
the designs frequently yield circuits with 0.079 dB, respectively. The attenuation slope
nonstandard components. The chart of fig- increases as the filter VSWR and passband
ure 54 is based on selections from computer - ripple increase. Beyond 3 f,,, the attenuation
calculated filter designs. They will work at slope becomes 30 dB; octave and is indepen-
frequencies from 1 kHz to 100 MHz, and dent of the VSWR. Because the VSWR and
use standard capacitor values. passband ripple of these designs are low, they
Thirty-six designs (18 low -pass and 18 should prove adequate for most ordinary fil-
high -pass) of five -element circuits were ter requirements. Attenuation curves plotted
chosen for tabulation, and they were nor- for the filters arc normalized in terms of
malized for S0 -ohm terminations and a f, fco for low -pass filters or foo /f for high -
0.1- to 1 -MHz frequency range. To select a pass.
filter, simply choose a frequency nearest the For termination resistances other than 50
desired 3 -dB cutoff frequency (f). Read ohms and cutoff frequencies outside the 0.1-
the L and C component values from the to 1 -MHz range, use the scaling equations
table, and assemble the components in ac- shown with the tabulations. However, to re-
cordance with the appropriate diagram. Al- tain the new capacitor values in standard
though the filter tabulation covers directly sizes, the resistance or frequency multipliers,
only a 0.1- to 1 -MHz frequency range and F or R, must each be an integral power of
50-ohm terminations, filter parameters for 10. For example, if a 500 -ohm, 2 -kHz low -
other cutoff frequencies and termination pass filter is required, the resistance and fre-
impedances can easily be determined by a quency multipliers are R = 10 and F =
simple scaling operation. 10 -2. The tabulated 0.20 -MHz low -pass fil-
Termination of input and output with ter design would be selected. The corre-
equal impedances makes possible equal val- sponding capacitances and inductances-.01
ues for the inductors (L, = L,) and capac- µF, .033 µF, and 65.5 µH -then become
itors (C, = C:,). This simplifies component 0.1 p.F, 0.33 µF, and 65.5 mH, respectively.
selection. Also a r configuration for the low - To match a 500 -ohm filter to a 600 -ohm
pass filter, and T for the high -pass, mini- line, two minimum -loss, 500 /600 -ohm L-
mizes the number of inductors. pads can be installed, one at each end of the
The tabulated filter cutoff frequencies filter. For instance, each pad could consist
(f,.,, in megahertz at -3 dB) have been se- of a series -connected, 240 -ohm resistor and
lected to provide values to within about a shunt -connected, 1200 -ohm resistor. The
1S`4 of any value in the 0.1- to 1 -MHz insertion loss of these two pads is approxi-
range. The designs are keyed to indicate mately 7.5 dB.
three levels of standard capacitor use. For Though capacitors and inductors with
example, those with the symbol "0" have all tolerances of S or 10'4 can be used, the ac-
capacitors of the more common standard tual cutoff frequency obtained will vary ac-
sizes. Where the choice of cutoff frequency cordingly from the tabulated f,.0 values.
is flexible, selection of designs with a greater (The preceding section material and il-
number of the more common standard capaci- lustration are reprinted with permission from
tance values makes component procurement Electrbuic Design 24, November 23, 1973,
easier. Inductor values are nonstandard, but Hayden Publishing Co., Inc. Rochelle Park,
this should present no problem, since induc- NJ 07662.)
tors are often hand -wound or available with
a slug adjustment.
-A T rflb.+?ur u
..
..
rt
CHAPTER FOUR
Semiconductor Devices
/ Color
WrW
Spat
CATHODES
obtain an excess electron by the addition of
an impurity. When the impurity is added,
it may have more or less loosely held elec-
trons than the original atom, thus allowing
an electron to become available for conduc-
tion, or creating a vacancy, or hole, in the
r-fl shared electron bond. The presence of a hole
/ Color encourages the flow of electrons and may be
considered to have a positive charge, since
it represents the absence of an electron. The
hole behaves, then, as if it were an electron,
but it does not exist outside the crystal.
4 -2 Mechanism of
TUBE. GERMANIUM. SILICON
Conduction
Nosm8
AND SELENIUM DIODES
+so
71
+50
moss t
+40 ¡-' -
SILICON
I '
, There exist in semiconductors both neg-
atively charged electrons and absence of
r
V) .1 .
O
EXCESS
/ELECTRON I
ArO"
I
; I ATOM (HOLE) I
--o-
Figure 2
such as germanium or silicon, which is both the P -type silicon is called extrinsic con-
chemically pure and mechanically perfect ducting type. The doped materials have
will contain in it approximately equal num- lower resistivities than the pure materials.
bers of holes and electrons and is called an and doped semiconductor material in the
intrinsic semiconductor. The intrinsic resis- resistivity range of .01 to 10 ohm cm is
tivity of the semiconductor depends strongly normally used in the production of tran-
on the temperature, being about 50 ohm cm sistors.
for germanium at room temperature. The The electrons and holes are called carriers;
intrinsic resistivity of silicon is about 65,000 the electrons are termed majority carriers,
ohm cm at the same temperature. and the holes are called minority carriers.
If, in the growing of the semiconductor
crystal, a small amount of an impurity, such
as phosphorus is included in the crystal, 4 -3 The PN Junction
each atom of the impurity contributes one
free electron. This electron is available for The semiconductor diode is a PN junction,
conduction. The crystal is said to be doped or junction diode having the general electri-
and has become electron -conducting in na- cal characteristic of figure 1 and the electri-
ture and is called N (negative) -type silicon. cal configuration of figure 3. The anode of
The impurities which contribute electrons the junction diode is always positive type
are called donors. N -type silicon has better
conductivity than pure silicon in one direc- ANODE P -N CATHODE
tion, and a continuous stream of electrons (P- MATERIAL) JUNCTION (N- MATERIAL)
will flow through the crystal in this direc-
tion as long as an external potential of the o
o
o
o
.
correct polarity is applied across the crystal.
Other impurities, such as boron add one o._
hole to the semiconducting crystal by ac- V
HOLES ELECTRONS
cepting one electron for each atom of im- H- ELECTRON FLOW
Bi
10
i7 os /s x0
When no external voltage is applied to the ZCNCR KNEE
AT MA. VI (VOLTS)
PN junction, the energy barrier created at CONSTANT
the junction prevents diffusion of carriers
across the junction. Application of a positive
VOLTAGE
11111 t Dp!;- REVERSE
- CHARACTERISTIC
Ì
MAX. ZCNCR
potential to the P -anode effectively reduces CVR
I.s
T
ARMEN. Lai*
the energy barrier, and application of a IÑ
negative potential increases the energy
barrier, limiting current flow through the Figure 4
junction.
In the forward -bias region shown in figure ZENER -DIODE CHARACTERISTIC
1, current rises rapidly as the voltage is in- CURVE
creased, whereas in the reverse -bias region Between zener -knee and point of maximum cur-
current is much lower. The junction, in rent, the zener voltage is essentially constant
at 30 volts. Units are available with zener volt-
other words is a high- resistance element in ages from approximately 4 to 200.
the reverse -bias direction and a low- resist-
ance element in the forward -bias direction. After a period of conduction, a silicon
Junction diodes are rated in terms of rectifier requires a finite time interval to
average and peak- inverse voltage in a given elapse before it may return to the reverse -
environment, much in the same manner as bias condition. This reverse recovery time
thermionic rectifiers. Unlike the latter, how- imposes an upper limit on the frequency at
ever, a small leakage current will flow in which a silicon rectifier may be used. Opera-
the reverse -biased junction diode because of tion at a frequency above this limit results in
a few hole -electron pairs thermally gener- overheating of the junction and possible
ated in the junction. As the applied inverse destruction of the diode because of the power
voltage is increased, a potential will be loss during the period of recovery.
reached at which the leakage current rises
abruptly at an avalanche voltage point. An
increase in inverse voltage above this value The Zener The zener diode (reference diode)
can result in the flow of a large reverse cur- Diode is a PN junction that can be used
rent and the possible destruction of the as a constant- voltage reference,
diode. or as a control element. It is a silicon element
Maximum permissible forward current in operated in the reverse -bias avalanche break-
the junction diode is limited by the voltage down region (figure 4). The break from
drop across the diode and the heat- dissipa- nonconductance to conductance is very
tion capability of the diode structure. Power sharp and at applied voltages greater than
diodes are often attached to the chassis of the breakdown point, the voltage drop across
the equipment by means of a heat -sink to the diode junction becomes essentially con-
remove excess heat from the small junction. stant for a relatively wide range of currents.
Silicon diode rectifiers exhibit a forward This is the zener control region. Zener diodes
voltage drop of 0.4 to 0.8 volts, depending are available in ratings to SO watts, with
on the junction temperature and the impur- zener voltages ranging from approximately
ity concentration of the junction. The for- 4 volts to 200 volts.
ward voltage drop is not constant, increasing Thermal dissipation is obtained by mount-
directly as the forward current increases. ing the zener diode to a heat sink composed
Internal power loss in the diode increases as of a large area of metal having free access
the square of the current and thus increases to ambient air.
rapidly at high current and temperature The zener diode has no ignition potential
levels. as does a gas regulator tube, thus eliminating
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 4.5
the problems of relaxation oscillation and National Semiconductor also has a series
high firing potential, two ailments of the gas of 1.8 to 5.6 volt regulator diodes that dis-
tube. Furthermore, the zener regulator or play sharp knees compared to zener equiva-
combinations can be obtained for almost lents. These "diodes" are actually very small
any voltage or power range, while the gas IC chips with a number of transistors on
tubes are limited to specific voltages and them. Only two leads are brought out of
restricted current ranges. the package for use as a diode. The LM-
Actually, only the zener diode having a 103-1.8 through LM- 103 -5.6 comprise the
voltage rating below approximately 6.8 volts diode family of 13 devices. A more complex
is really operating in the zener region. A IC is available as a 1.22 volt reference diode,
higher voltage zener diode displays its con- the LM -113.
stant voltage characteristic by virtue of the Silicon epitaxial transistors may also be
at alanche effect, which has a very sharp knee used as zener diodes, if the current require-
(figure 4). A diode for a voltage below 6.8 ment is not too large. Most small, modern,
operates in the true zener region and is char- silicon signal transistors have a VBEO (back
acterized by a relatively soft knee. emitter -base breakdown voltage) between 3
Avalanche and zener modes of breakdown and 5 volts. If the base and emitter leads are
have quite different temperature character- used as a zener diode, the breakdown will
istics and breakdown diodes that regulate in occur at a volt or so in excess of the VBEO
the 5.6- to 6.2 -volt region often combine rating. Figure 6 shows NPN and PNP tran-
some of each mechanism of breakdown and -I2V. +12 V.
UNREGULATED UNREGULATED
have a voltage versus temperature charac-
teristic which is nearly flat. Many of the
-O TO 6V. + s TO 6 V.
very stable reference diodes are rated at 6.2 REGULATED REGULATED
volts. Since the avalanche diode (breakdown
voltage higher than 6.8 volts) displays a
N.C.
2N3641 --r Ì 2N3638
positive voltage- temperature slope, it is pos-
sible to temperature- compensate it with one
or more series forward- biased silicon diodes O
(D,) as shown in figure 5. The 1N935 series
Figure 6
+ UNREGULATED
SMALL -SIGNAL SILICON TRANSISTOR
USED AS ZENER DIODE
io
01
11
M1
RADIO HANDBOOK
.-
e varicap devices as shown in figure 8B. In
this case, the ac component increases the
3
\'z
capacitance of one varicap while decreasing
that of the other. This tuning method may
e be used in circuits having relatively high r -f
voltages without the danger of nonlinearity.
The Vouactor The varactor frequency mul-
tiplier (also called the para-
e
metric multiplier) is a useful vhf uhf
REVERSE BIAS multiplier which requires no dc input power.
The input power consists only of the funda-
Figure 7
mental- frequency signal to be multiplied and
JUNCTION CAPACITANCE VARIATION typically 50% to 70% of that r -f power is
WITH RESPECT TO REVERSE VOLTAGE recovered at the output of the multiplier
unit. Since the efficiency of a varactor multi-
A voltage-variable capacitor (varactor or plier drops as the square of the multiple
talicap) generally made of a silicon junc-
is (n), such devices are not usually used for
tion having a special impurity concentration values of n greater than five.
to enhance the capacitance variation and to Examples of varactor multipliers are
minimize series resistance losses. shown in figure 9. There are usually a num-
The varicap and the varactor are funda- ber of idlers (series -resonant circuits) in a
mentally the same type of device, the former varactor multiplier. In general, there will be
used in tuning resonant circuits electrically n -2 idlers. These idlers are high -Q selective
and the latter used in parametric amplifiers short circuits which reflect undesired har-
and frequency multipliers. Both devices have monics back into the nonlinear capacitance
been designed to give a high -Q capacitance diode.
vs. voltage relationship at radio frequencies. An interesting development in multiplier
The circuit of figure 8A shows a varicap diodes is the step -recovery diode. Like the
used to electrically tune a resonant circuit. varactor, this device is a frequency multi-
This form of tuning is restricted to circuits plier requiring no dc input. The important
which have a very small r -f voltage across difference between the step -recovery diode
them, such as in receiver r -f amplifier stages. and the varactor is that the former is de-
Any appreciable ac voltage (compared to liberately driven into forward conduction
the dc control voltage across the device) by the fundamental drive voltage. In addi-
+Ecc
CONTROL CONTROL
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
IN IN
Figure 8
111
72
20 W.
MHz
35
r
0.75 a1H.
20 8 T.
3/8"
t
*18
D.
20 20 8T.*16
3/8" D
144 MHz
15 W.
47 K RCA 22 T. *16
1 W. V -501 60 1/4 D.
288 MHz
IDLER LOOP
Figure 9
tion, the step- recovery diode multiplier re- used as uhf mixers, having noise figures as
quires no idler circuits and has an output low as 6 dB at 3 GHz. The 1N21 -1N26
efficiency that falls off only as 1 n. A "times - series and the 1N82 are typical versions of
ten" frequency multiplier could then ap- point- contact silicon diodes for mixer use.
proach 10';; efficiency, as compared to a The germanium point- contact diode, as ex-
varactor multiplier whose efficiency would emplified by the 1N34 and 1N270, has been
be in the neighborhood of le; . A typical most used as an r -f detector at vhf and lower
step- recovery multiplier is shown in figure frequencies. The germanium point -contact
10. Diode multipliers are capable of provid-
ing output powers of over 25 watts at 1 200 MHZ 2000 MHZ
H ISnH 2,H OUT
GHz and several watts at f GHz. Experi- 001
SILICON RECTIFIER
Silicon pellet is soldered to copper stud to pro-
vide low thermal resistance path between PN
junction and heat sink. Copper anode is sol- Operating The reverse direction of a sil -
dered to top of junction. Temperature of junc-
tion must be held to less than 200 °C, as a Characteristics icon rectifier is characterized
result of increasing temperature on reverse cur- by extremely high resistance,
rent flow through junction.
up to 10" ohms below a critical voltage
to high temperature, and from a few watts point. This point of avalanche voltage is the
of the output power to very high voltage region of a sharp break in the resistance
and currents. Inherent characteristics of sili- curve, followed by rapidly decreasing resist-
con allow junction temperatures in the order ance (figue 13A). In practice, the peak in-
of 200 °C before the material exhibits intrin- verse working voltage is usually set at least
sic properties. This extends the operating 20% below the avalanche point to provide
range of silicon devices beyond that of any a safety factor.
other efficient semiconductor and the excel- A limited reverse current, usually of the
lent thermal range coupled with very small order of 0.5 mA or less flows through the
size per watt of output power make silicon silicon diode duing the inverse -voltage cycle.
rectifiers applicable where other rectifiers The reverse current is relatively constant to
were previously considered impractical. the avalanche point, increasing rapidly as
this reverse-voltage limit is passed. The maxi-
Silicon The current density of a mum reverse current increases as diode tem-
Current Density silicon rectifier is very high, perature rises and, at the same time, the ava-
and on present designs ranges lanche point drops, leading to a "runaway"
from 600 to 900 amperes per square inch of reverse -current condition at high tempera-
effective barrier layer. The usable current tures which can destroy the diode.
100
10
ra5c
750 ..,
MIMI
1.0
25c eec
FA
O1
25 50 75 100 125 150 o
PERCENT RATED PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE FORWARD VOLTAGE DROP
VOL rs, D -C
Figure 13
Schottky- barrier and the common junction vice are anode, cathode, and gate. Without
device is the ion-implanted diode. This diode gate current the SCR is an open switch in
has impurities implanted in the silicon by either direction. Sufficient gate current will
means of an "atom smasher." The impurity close the switch in the forward direction
ions are fired from a particle accelerator into only. Forward conduction will continue even
the silicon target wafer. The resultant silicon with gate current removed until anode cur-
cystal lattice is modified in such a way as rent is reduced below a critical value. At
to cause the diodes made from this wafer to this point the SCR again blocks open. The
have a low forward drop and a fast recovery SCR is therefore a high -speed unidirectional
time (figure 14). switch capable of being latched on in the
forward direction.
SCR Devices The thrystor is a generic term The gate signal used to trigger an SCR
for that family of multilayer may be an ac wave, and the SCR may be
semiconductors that comprise silicon con- used for dimming lights or speed control of
trolled rectifiers (SCR's), Triacs, Diacs, small ac universal series -wound motors, such
Four Layer Diodes and similar devices. The as those commonly used in power tools. Sev-
SCR is perhaps the most important member eral power -control circuits using SCR de-
of the family, at least economically, and is vices and triacs (bidirectional triode thy-
widely used in the control of large blocks of ristors) are shown in figure 16.
60 -Hz power. The triac is similar to the SCR except
The SCR is a three -terminal, three -junc- that when its gate is triggered on, it will
tion semiconductor, which could be thought conduct either polarity of applied voltage.
of as a solid -state thyratron. The SCR will This makes full -wave control much easier
conduct high current in the forward direc- to achieve than with an SCR. An example
tion with low voltage drop, presenting a of the triac in a full -wave power control
high impedance in the reverse direction. The circuit is shown in figure 16C.
three terminals (figure 15) of an SCR de- The four layer diode is essentially an SCR
without a gate electrode. As the forward
voltage is increased across it, no conduction
occurs until the voltage rises to the holdoff
value, above which the device conducts in
much the same fashion an SCR does when
its holdoff voltage has been exceeded.
The diac is analogous to the triac with no
gate electrode. It acts like a four layer diode,
except that it has similar holdoff in both
directions. The diac is used principally to
generate trigger pulses for triac gating cir-
cuits.
The silicon unilateral switch (SUS) is
similar to the four layer diode and the
silicon bilateral switch (SBS) is similar to
the diac. There are also a number of other
variously named "trigger diodes" for use
with thyristors, but they are all found to
be functionally similar to the four layer di-
ode or diac.
There exists one other thyristor of im-
Figure 15
portance: it is the silicon controlled switch
THE SILICON CONTROLLED (SCS). This device has two electrodes: a
RECTIFIER gate to turn it on, and a second terminal
This three -terminal semiconductor is an open called a turn -off gate. The SCS has, so far,
switch until it is triggered in the forward direc- only been available in low- voltage low -cur-
tion by the gate element. Conduction will con-
tinue until anode current is reduced below a rent versions, as exemplified by the 3N81-
critical value.
3 N 8 5 series.
4.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
7V.1.
TD TO
SERIES SERIES
MOTOR MOTOR
ANODE .ANODE -2
40455
Figure 16
The Unijunction The nnijunction transistor Packaged equivalents are termed programmed
Transistor (UJT) was originally iinilufiefio?i transistors (PUT).
known as the double -base
diode, and its terminal designations (emit-
ter, base 1, base 2) still reflect that nomen- 4 -5 The Bipolar Transistor
clature. If a positive voltage is placed be-
tween B_ and B,, no conduction occurs until
the emitter voltage rises to a fixed fraction The device event in the creation of the
of this voltage. The fixed fraction is termed modern semiconductor was the invention of
71 (the Greek letter eta) and is specified for the transistor in late 1947. In the last decade
each type of UJT. In the manner of the semiconductor devices have grown prodig-
thyristor, when the emitter reaches times s1 iously in variety, complexity, power capa-
the voltage between B, and B_, the resistance bility, and speed of operation. The transistor
between the base elements suddenly and is a solid -state device having gain properties
markedly decreases. For this reascn, the UJT previously found only in vacuum tubes.
makes a good relaxation oscillator. A simple The elements germanium and silicon are the
relaxation oscillator is shown in figure 17. principal materials exhibiting the proper
semiconducting properties which permit their
application in transistors. However, other
semiconducting materials, including the
compounds of Gallium and Arsenic have
been used experimentally in the production
of transistors.
emitter and collector electrodes touching a forty years ago, the field- effect (FET)
small block of germanium called the base. transistor may be expected to replace many
The base could be either N -type or P -type more common transistor types. This ma-
material and was about .Of" square. Because jority carrier device is discussed in a later
of the difficulty in controlling the character- section of this Handbook.
istics of this fragile device, it is now con- Manufacturing techniques, transistor end -
sidered obsolete. use, and patent restrictions result in a multi-
Grown Junction Transistor- Crystals tude of transistors, most of which fall into
made by this process are grown from molten the broad groups discussed previously. Tran-
germanium or silicon in such a way as to sistors, moreover, may be gouped in families
have the closely spaced junctions imbedded wherein each member of the family is a
in the wafer. The impurity material is unique type, but subtile differences exist be-
changed during the growth of the crystal to tween members in the matter of end -use,
produce either PNP or NPN ingots, which gain, capacitance, mounting, case, leads,
are then sliced into individual wafers. Junc- breakdown -voltage characteristics, etc. The
tion transistors may be subdivided into differences are important enough to warrant
grown juncton, alloy junction, or drift field individual type identification of each mem-
types. The latter type transistor is an alloy ber. In addition, the state of the art permits
junction device in which the impurity con- transistor parameters to be economically de-
centration is contained within a certain signed to fit the various equipment, rather
region of the base in order to enhance the than designing the equipment around avail-
high- frequency performance of the transis- able transistor types. This situation results in
tor. a great many transistor types having nearly
Diffused Junction Transistor -This class identical general characteristics. Finally, im-
of semiconductor has enhanced frequency proved manufacturing techniques may "ob-
capability and the manufacturing process solete" a whole family of transistors with a
has facilitated the use of silicon rather than newer, less- expensive family. It is recom-
germanium, which aids the power capability mended, therefore, that the reader refer to
of the unit. Diffused junction transistors may one of the various transistor substitution
be subdivided into single diffused (home- manuals for up -to-date guidance in transis-
taxial), double diffused, double diffused tor classification and substitution.
planar and triple diffused planar types.
Epitaxial Transistors -These junction Transistor Semiconductors are generally
transistors are grown on a semiconductor Nomenclature
wafer and photolithogaphic processes are divided into product groups
used to define emitter and base region dur-
classified as "entertainment,"
ing growth. The units may be subdivided
"industrial," and "military." The latter class -
into epitaxial -base, epitaxial- layer, and over- sifications often call for multiple testing,
lay transistors. A representation of an epi- tighter tolerances, and quality documenta-
taxial -layer transistor is shown in figure 18.
tion; and transistors from the same produc-
tion line having less rigorous specifications
Field -Effect Transistors -Developed in the
last decade from experiments conducted over
often fall into the first, and least- expensive,
category. Semiconductors are type numbered
CONTACT DIPPVSCD EMITTER by several systems. The oldest standard is
CONTACT EPITAXIAL BASE the JEDEC system. The first number of the
COLLCCTOR
identifier establishes the number of elec-
SOLDER CASO
trodes, or ports (1 = diode, 2 = triode,
3 = tetrode and 4 = heptode). The letter
Figure 18 N stands for a semiconductor, followed by
a sequential number under which the device
EPITAXIAL TRANSISTOR was registered.
Epitaxial, dualepitaxial and overlay transistors European manufacturers employ an iden-
are grown on semiconductor wafer in a lattice
structure. After fabrication, individual transistors tifier consisting of a type number composed
are separated from wafer and mounted on head-
ers. Connector wires are bonded to metalized of two or three letters followed by two or
regions and unit is sealed in an inclosure. three numbers, the letters indicating the
4.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
type of tansistor and use and the numbers connected to the two P- sections and to the
indicating the sequential number in the par- N -type base. The transistor may be consid-
ticular classification. Japanese transistors arc ered as two PN junction rectifiers placed in
usually identified by the code 2S, followed close juxtaposition with a semiconduction
by an identifying letter and sequential num- crystal coupling the two rectifiers together.
ber. In addition to these generally recognized The left -hand terminal is biased in the for-
codes, numerous codes adapted by individual ward (or conducting) direction and is called
manufacturers are also in use. the emitter. The right -hand terminal is bi-
ased in the back (or reverse) direction and
The Junction The junction transistor is fab- is called the collector. The operating poten-
Transistor ricated in many forms, with tials are chosen with respect to the base ter-
the planar silicon type provid- minal, which may or may not be grounded.
ing the majority of units. A pictorial equiv- If an NPN transistor is used in place of the
alent of a silicon planar power transistor is PNP, the operating potentials are reversed.
shown in figure 19. In this type of transis- The PR-N, junction on the left is biased
tor the emitter and base junctions are often in the forward direction and holes from the
fcrmed by a photolithographic process in se- P,. region are injected into the N,, region,
lected areas of the silicon dice. Many varia- producing therein a concentration of holes
tions of this technique and design are in use. substantially greater than normally present
The transistor has three essential actions in the material. These holes travel across the
which collectively are called transis /or ac- base region toward the collector, attracting
tion. These arc: minority carrier injection, neighboring electrons, finally increasing the
available supply of conducting electrons in
CONTACT EMITTER
DIFFUSED BASE - CONTACT
the collector loop. As a result, the collector
SILICON DIOXIDE COLLECTOR
loop possesses lower resistance whenever the
SOLDER CASE emitter circuit is in operation. In junction
transistors this charge transport is by means
of diffusion wherein the charges move from
Figure 19
a region of high concentration to a region
Pe
ill ey Pc e-- low internal impedance, whereas one biased
in the back direction has a very high intern tl
fI
er
impedance. Thus, current flows into the
NICK z
Low z
transistor in a low- impedance circuit, and
appears at the output as current flowing in
a high- impedance circuit. The ratio of a
about 0.999 are obtainable in junction of the transistor and these limitations are
transistors. summarized in the gain -bandwidth product
(f,), which is identified by the frequency at
Beto The ratio of change in dc collector which the beta current gain drops to unity.
current to a change in base current These various cutoff frequencies and the
(i,,) is a measure of amplification, or beta: gain -bandwith products are shown in figure
a 21.
13 = 1 -n =
Values of beta run to 100 or so in inex- The Transition Region A useful rule common
pensive junction transistors. The static dc to both PNP and NPN
forward current gain of a transistor in the transistors is: snot ing the base potential to-
common -emitter mode is termed the dc ccard the collector voltage point turns the
beta and may be designated /3r. or hpF:. transistor on, 'hile ',toying the base poten-
tial au a) from the collector foliage point
Cutoff Frequencies The alp ha cutoff fre- turns the transistor off. When fully on. the
quency (fun) of a tran- transistor is said to be saturated. When fully
sistor is that frequency at which the off, the transistor is said to be cut off. The
grounded base current gain has deceased to region between these two extremes is termed
0.7 of the gain obtainable at kHz. For 1 the transition region. A transistor may be
audio transistors the alpha cutoff frequency used as a switch by simply biasing the base -
is about MHz. For r -f and switching tran-
1 emitter circuit on and off. Adjusting the
sistors the alpha cutoff frequency may be base -emitter bias to some point in the tran-
50 MHz or higher. The upper frequency sition region will permit the transistor to
limit of operation of the transistor is deter- act as a signal amplifier. For such operation,
mined by the small but finite time it takes base- emitter dc bias will be about 0.3 volt
the majority carriers to move from one for many common germanium transistors,
electrode to the other. and about 0.6 volt for silicon transistors.
The beta cutoff frequen() (fr,r,.) is that
frequency at which the grounded -emitter Handling Used in the proper circuit under
current gain has decreased to 0.7 of the Transistors correct operating potentials the
gain obtainable at kHz. Transconduclance
1 life of a transistor is practically
M
cutoff frequenc) (f,,,) is that frequency at unlimited. Unnecessary transistor failure
which the transconductance falls to 0.7 of often occurs because the user does not know
that value obtainable at kHz. The nsavi- how to handle the unit or understand the
M
1
mum frequenc) of oscillation (f,,,;,,) is that limitations imposed on the user by virtue of
frequency at which the maximum power the minute size of the transistor chip. Micro-
gain of the transistor drops to unity. wave transistors. in particular, are subject
Various internal time constants and tran- to damage due to improper handling. The
V\\
sit times limit the high -frequency response following simple rules will help the user
z
'
Moj;r.'mp
3oB:_\
40
zo
o
o.
fl
Bliii
gSI\
ikiiiaRGG
BlaBi\
BDBP
-
SLOPe
fhfexAfi
R OCTA1 e
avoid unnecessary transistor failures:
Know bou to handle the transistor. Static
discharges may damage microwave transis-
tors or certain types of field -effect transis-
tors because of small emitter areas in the
former and the thin active layer between
u
,o
0
Cfl`rr1
II_IB-.N
o.o1 o, ,
coo)
o
F
10 ,00
,I
f Ar6
mmax
1000
the channel and the gate in the latter. Thc
transistor should always be picked up by
the case and not by the leads. The FFT,
moreover, should be protected against static
electricity by wrapping the leads with tin-
Figure 21 foil when it is not in use, or otherwise inter-
connecting the leads when the unit is moved
GAIN -BANDWIDTH CHART FOR about or stored. Finally, no transistor should
TYPICAL HF TRANSISTOR he inserted into or removed from a socket
4.16 RADIO HANDBOOK
iirJ
PLRisP!
mess/eiRi for current gain, voltage gain, power gain,
and other important information necessary
e!//Mms.
e.sm e
eE.M .g to establish proper transistor operation. A
complete discussion of hybrid parameters and
/%M/i/ MMCí
m..dm transistor circuitry may be obtained in the
Trifilliralli book Basic Theory and Application of Tran-
i
sistors, technical manual TM -11 -690, avail-
!Ì"
ssM .
1 50
able from the Superintendent of Documents,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D.C. 20402.
¡:`i''C
512`
l1è_. `..
Some of the more useful parameters for
transistor application are listed below:
: iiinai
4 6
COLLECTOR VOLTAGE
iiiiP. e
(Vice)
a
The resistance gain of a transistor is ex-
pressed as the ratio of output resistance to
input resistance. The input resistance of a
typical transistor is low, in the neighbor-
Figure 23
hood of 500 ohms, while the output resist-
ance is relatively high, usually over 20,000
CHARACTERISTIC PLOT OF ohms. For a junction transistor, the resist-
JUNCTION TRANSISTOR ance gain is usually over 50.
1r.
,11.
Characteristics of junction transistor biased in
active region may be expressed in terms of plot
The voltage gain of a transistor is the
of collector voltage versus collector current. product of alpha times the resistance gain.
Load line and limits of operation (points A, C)
e
II..-
are plotted, as well as operating point (B) in the
MI
manner shown in Chapter Six for vacuum-tube
III16
plots.
TTe Y,
in this region the transistor is capable of
amplification. The characteristics of a tran-
sistor biased in the active region may be
expressed in terms of electrode voltages and 141M2Mü
currents as is done for vacuum tubes in
Chapter Five. The plot of WE versus I,.
(collector -emitter voltage versus collector
IIGNfiMMI
W1111.,
current) shown in figure 23, for example, - 0-0.5 0 +5 *10 + 5 +20 +25
COLLECTOR VOLTS
should be compared with figure 16, Chapter
Five, the plot of II, versus El, (plate current Figure 24
versus plate voltage) for a pentode tube. PLOT OF JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
Typical transistor graphs are discussed in
Plot resembles that of a pentode tube except that
this chapter, and the use of similar vacuum - emitter current, not grid voltage. defines each
tube plots is discussed in Chapter Six. member of the curve family. Collector current
is practically independent of collector voltage.
The collector current is practically inde- to grounded -grid, grounded -cathode, and
pendent of the collector voltage. The range grounded -plate circuits in vacuum -tube ter-
of linear operation extends from a minimum minology (figure 26).
voltage of about 0.2 volts up to the maxi-
mum rated collector voltage. A typical load
line is shown, which illustrates the very high ti
load impedance that would be required for
maximum power transfer. A common -emit-
ter circuit is usually used, since the output
impedance is not as high as when a common -
base circuit is used.
EMITTER COLLECTOR
GROUNDED -COLLECTOR
CONNECTION
BASE
-E
E
BIAS LOAD BIAS LOAD
RESI sroR RESISTOR RESISTOR RESISTOR LOAD
RESISTOR
Rz=,oRe
Re = Boa-,000 n
2
SO LT
t (REVERSE POLARITY
FOR NPN TRANSISTOR)
Figure 27
of a given type, attention must be given to the order of 50 /LF for audio- frequency ap-
the bias system to overcome these difficulties. plications.
The simple self-bias system is shown in
figure 27A. The base is simply connected Bias Circuitry The voltage- divider bias tech-
to the power supply through a large resist- Calculation nique illustrated in figure
ance which supplies a fixed value of base 27C is redrawn in generalized
current to the transistor. This bias system form in figure 28. This configuration di-
is extremely sensitive to the current- trans- vides the emitter resistor into two units
fer ratio of the transistor, and must be (R, and R:,), one of which is bypassed. This
adjusted for optimum results with each introduction of a slight degree of feedback
transistor. allows the designer more freedom to deter-
When the supply voltage is fairly high mine ac gain, while maintaining good dc
and wide variations in ambient temperature stability. The assumption is made that a
do not occur, the bias system of figure 27B modern junction transistor is used having a
may be used, with the bias resistor connected hr,, of at least 40 and a low value of 1cmo
from base to collector. When the collector (collector -cutoff current, emitter open).
voltage is high, the base current is increased, The procedure to determine bias circuitry is
moving the operating point of the transistor given in the following steps:
down the load line. If the collector voltage 1. Collector current (IT) is chosen from
is low, the operating point moves upward the data sheet.
along the load line, thus providing auto- 2. Collector load resistor (R3) is calcu-
matic control of the base bias voltage. This lated so that the collector voltage is
circuit is sensitive to changes in ambient a little more than one -half the supply
temperature, and may permit transistor fail- voltage.
ure when the transistor is operated near Ac gain value (A) is chosen and
maximum dissipation ratings. emitter resistor R, calculated, letting
These circuits are often used in small im- R, = RS /A.
ported transistor radios and are not recom- 4. Emitter resistor R., is calculated to
mended for general use unless the bias resis- raise emitter voltage (E,.) to about
tor is selected for the value of current gain
of the particular transistor in use. A better
bias system is shown in figure 27C, where S.
R,_ (Ee /14 -
10°7, to 1S% of supply voltage:
R,
Total base voltage (E,,) is sum of E,.
the base bias is obtained from a voltage di- plus base -to- emitter voltage drop
vider, (R,, R2), and an emitter resistor (about 0.7 volt for small -signal silicon
(R,.) is used. To prevent signal degenera- devices).
tion, the emitter bias resistor is bypassed 6. The sum of base bias resistors R, and
with a large capacitance. A high degree of R_ is such that one -tenth the value
circuit stability is provided by this form of of the dc collector current flows
bias, providing the emitter capacitance is of through the bias circuit.
4.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
r
VCC R2
//
--
°25 ,
I311
,
Emitter resistor R is now calculated to be pal )117.-
x
20
characteristic curves (figure 29) which plot Substituting known values in the for-
collector current against collector voltage mula:
with the base current as a fixed value. In Current Gain (A1) =
this example, the collector voltage supply
is 10 volts, the load resistance is 1500 ohms,
4.7 -- 2.1 2.6 mA
- 130
the input resistance is 500 ohms, the peak - 35 15 20 µA
to -peak input current is 20 microamperes Voltage gain in this configuration is the
and the operating point (X) is chosen at ratio of the change in collector voltage to
25 microamperes of base current and 4.8 the change in base voltage:
volts on the collector.
.V(t; -- lnl
The first step is to establish a load line
on the characteristic curves representing
the voltage drop across the load resistor
A
VISE
V(-E nm,x,
VnE (m:,x) - E (In
VBE (mitt)
where,
(R2). When the collector current is zero, A. is voltage gain,
the total collector supply voltage (10 volts) V(F: is collector to emitter voltage,
equals the collector voltage, V(K. Point Z VI,F: is base to emitter voltage.
(one point of the load line) then is at the (Note: The change in input voltage is
10 -volt mark on the collector voltage axis the change in input current multiplied by
(x- axis). When the collector current is zero, the input impedance. In this case the input
the total collector supply voltage (10 volts) voltage is: 20 microamperes times 500 ohms,
is dropped across load resistor R. The total or 0.01 volt) .
current (le) then is: Therefore:
10
0.0066 amp = 6.6 mA Voltage Gain (A,)
6.7 -2.7 = 400
I, 1500 0.01
Point Y (a second point of the load line) Power gain is voltage gain times current
then is at the 6.6 -mA mark on the collector - gain:
current axis (y- axis). Connect points Y Power gain = 130 X 400 = 52,000
and Z to establish the load line. The oper-
Power gain in decibels is:
ating point is located at point X on the load -
line. Since the peak -to -peak input current is Gain = 10 log 52,000 = 10 X 4.7
20 microamperes, the deviation is 10 micro- = 47 decibels
amperes above the operating point (point
M) and 10 microamperes below the oper- Constant- Power- Each transistor has a maxi-
ating point (point N). Dissipation Line mum collector power that
The input current, output current, and it can safely dissipate with-
output voltage waveforms may now be es- out damage to the transistor. To ensure that
tablished by extending lines from the oper- the maximum collector dissipation rating is
ating point perpendicular to the load line not exceeded, a constant- power -dissipation
and to the y and x axes respectively and line (figure 30) is drawn on the character-
plotting the waveforms from each deviation istic curves, and the collector load resistor
point along the load -line excursions between is selected so that its load line falls in the
points M and N. area bounded by the vertical and horizontal
Current gain (beta) in this configuration axes and the constant- power -dissipation line.
is the ratio of the change in collector cur- The dissipation line is determined by select-
rent to the change in base current: ing points of collector voltage and current,
--
AL, the products of which are equal to the max-
IC(m,xl ( (mine
A, imum collector power rating of the transis-
,In In nunxl llt (min) tor. Any load line selected so that it is tan-
where, gent to the constant -power- dissipation line
will ensure maximum permissible power gain
Ai is current gain, of the transistor while operating within the
1, is collector current, maximum collector power- dissipation rating.
II, is base current, This is important in the design and use of
A equals a small increment. power amplifiers.
4.22 RADIO HANDBOOK
li:
DISSIPATION LINE plete electrical cycle, even when no drive
signal is present. The class -B transistor am-
.
plifier can be biased either for collector cur -
ent cutoff or for zero collector voltage. The
=3o
former configuration is most often used,
since collector current flows only during
0141 -... =o
that half -cycle of the input signal voltage
that aids the forward bias. This bias tech-
MEAN
=-
nique is used because it results in the best
power efficiency. Class -B transistor ampli-
2
,p-.
EMVE fiers must be operated in push -pull to avoid
severe signal distortion. Class -AB transistor
amplifiers can be biased so that either collec-
o
d--© 5 l0
COLLECTOR VOLTAGE Vcr
I e' o
LOAD LINE
IS
(LIA)
tor current or voltage is zero for less than
half a cycle of the input signal, and the
above statements for class -B service also ap-
ply for the class -AB mode.
Figure 30 Asimple small -signal voltage amplifier
is shown in figure 32A. Direct- current
CONSTANT POWER- DISSIPATION stabilization is employed in the emitter cir-
LINE
cuit. Operating parameters for the amplifier
Constant power -dissipation line is placed on out- are given in the drawing. In this case, the
put characteristic curves, with collector load
line positioned so it falls within area bounded input impedance of the amplifier is quite
by vertical and horizontal axes and constant
power -dissipation line. Load line tangent at (X) low. When used with a high- impedance
permits maximum power gain within maximum driving source such as a crystal microphone,
collector dissipation rating.
COMMON EMITTER COMMON BASE COMMON COLLECTOR
4-
a common -base, common- collector, or com-
mon- emitter stage, as discussed previously. INPUT Z SOO - I.SR 30-1500. 20K -SOON
Similar to the case for vacuum tubes, choice OUTPUT Z 30K -50K 300K -SOOR 500 -IR
of transistor circuit configuration depends VOLTAGEGAIN 300-1000 SO -1500 LESS THAN I
5. I If
IN
2N3641/ ¿I
HEP53
510
QI=Q2'2035650R HEP,
Figure 34
Figure 32
DIRECT -COUPLED TWO -STAGE
SMALL -SIGNAL VOLTAGE
AMPLIFIERS AMPLIFIER
A -Low impedance, dc stabilized amplifier
B -Two stage amplifier features high input
impedance
36
VOLTAGE GAIN RIRR2- 5.3
Figure 33
Figure 37
+Ecc Ecc
Figure 38
PUSH -PULL EMITTER-
FOLLOWER OUTPUT
STAGE
A- Crossover distortion exists
OUT 1`<
CROSS-OVER
,D13702171014
A
when input voltage is too
low to turn on Q and too
high to turn on Q,.
B- Waveform distortion. Circuit
of figure 36 corrects this
problem.
30
22 ]v RLIN a5TATT CUVE TA 1S
Figure 39
TYPICAL CLASS -A
AUDIO AMPLIFIER
Operating point is chosen so
that output signal can swing
equally in a positive or nega-
tive direction without exceed-
ing maximum collector dissi-
pation. h0
10 20 30 40 30
VCR -COLLECTOR -EMITTER VOLTAGE-VOLTS
values is shown in figure 39B. The load line distortion is reduced to a minimum by pro-
should always lie under the dissipation curve, viding a slight forward base bias in addition
and should encompass the maximum possible to the normal emitter bias. The base bias
area between the axes of the graph for max- is usually less than O.S volt in most cases.
imum output condition. In general, the load Excessive base bias will boost the quiescent
line is tangent to the dissipation curve and collector current and thereby lower the
passes through the supply -voltage point at overall efficiency of the stage.
zero collector current. The dc operating The operating point of the class -B :ampli-
point is thus approximately one -half the fier is set on the h. = O axis at the point
supply voltage. where the collector voltage equals the sup-
The circuit of a typical push -pull class -B ply voltage. The collector -to- collector im-
transistor amplifier is shown in figure 40A. pedance of the output transformer is:
l'ush -pull operation is desirable for transistor
operation, since the even -order hamonics Rc_c = 2Ec2
are largely eliminated. This permits transis- Po
tors to be driven into high collector- current In the class -B circuit, the maximum ac
regions without distortion normally caused power input is approximately equal to three
by nonlinearity of the collector. Crossover times the allowable collector dissipation of
4.7k
12 V
Z]=3000 CT ZP-SOOnC.T.
Figure 40
LOA0 LINE
CLASS -B AUDIO AMPLIFIER 200 MW
NO S /iNAL
CIRCUITRY OPERA TINE
PO /NT
2N109
COLLECTOR VOLTAGE Ec
4.26 RADIO HANDBOOK
each transistor. Power transistors, such as the ing resistor and little or no signal cur-
2N514 have collector dissipation ratings of rent flows through it. The resistor then
80 watts and operate with class -B efficiency resembles an infinitely high impedance to
of about 67 percent. To achieve this level of the signal current, thus effectively iso-
operation the heavy -duty transistor relies on lating the base -bias resistors. Since the
efficient heat transfer from the transistor isolating resistor has no effect on the bias
case to the chassis, using the large thermal level, the base bias remains unchanged. In
capacity of the chassis as a heat sink. An in- practice, the signal voltage at the emitter
finite heat sink may be approximated by is slightly less than at the base, thus limiting
mounting the transistor in the center of a the overall effectiveness of the circuit. For
6" X 6" copper or aluminum sheet. This example, if the emitter- follower voltage
area may be part of a larger chassis. gain is 0.99, and the value of the isolating
The collector of most power transistors is resistor is 100K, the effective resistance to
electrically connected to the case. For appli- the ac input signal is 100K raised to 10
cations where the collector is not grounded megohms, an increase in value by a factor
a thin sheet of mica may be used between of 100 times.
the case of the transistor and the chassis.
4 -8 R -F Circuitry
The "Bootstrap" The bipolar transistor in
Circuit common- emitter configur- The bipolar transistor, almost from its
ation presents a low input commercial inception, proved to be operable
impedance unsuitable for use with high - up into the hf range. The device has been
impedance driving sources such as a crystal refined and improved to the point where,
microphone or a diode voltmeter probe. now, operation into the gigahertz region is
The bootstrap circuit of figure 41 provides feasible. External feedback circuits are often
used to counteract the effects of internal
2N3428/HEP-254 transistor feedback and to provide more
-fV.
stable performance at high gain figures.
INPUT It should be noted, however, the bipolar
transistor is not like a vacuum tube or
OUT
FET device and must have its base -emitter
t junction forward -biased to display gain.
The result of this requirement is that the
driving stage is driving a nonlinear diode
Figure 41 into forward conduction by the r-f sig-
HIGH INPUT IMPEDANCE nal intended to be amplified. This indi-
(BOOTSTRAP) AMPLIFIER cates the bipolar device is a nonlinear ampli-
fier, to a greater or lesser degree. If the
High input impedance provided by simple feed-
back circuit makes this amplifier attractive for bipolar transistor is only required to amplify
use with crystal microphones and other high -
impedance devices. Input impedance may run one frequency at a time, and that frequency
from 100K to 10 megohms. is of constant amplitude, the bipolar transis-
tor makes a satisfactory amplifier. When an
a very high input impedance for these spe- ensemble of signals of different frequencies
cial circuits. The low- impedance base -bias and or amplitudes is present, the typical bi-
network is isolated from the input circuit by polar device will demonstrate the effect of its
the 100K resistor. The signal is fed to the inherent nonlinearity in a high level of cross -
base of the transistor and the output signal, modulation distortion. The fact the bipolar
taken across the emitter resistor, is also transistor exhibits such nonlinearity makes it
coupled to the bottom of the 100K isolating useful as a frequency multiplier and mixer.
resistor via a capacitor. When a signal ap- The severity of the nonlinearity of a bi-
pears at the base, it also appears at the emit- polar device depends to a degree upon how it
ter in the same phase and almost the same is used in a given circuit. The current gain
amplitude. Thus, nearly identical signal (h1,.) of a transistor drops rapidly with in-
voltages appear at the ends of the isolat- creasing frequency (figure 21) and the ten-
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 4.27
dency is to use the transmitter in a common - and a step -up impedance network must be
emitter configuration to optimize gain. This used, causing the base voltage to be higher
circuit configuration also unfortunately opti- and aggravating the crossmodulation prob-
mizes nonlinearity. The common emitter cir- lem.
cuit may be improved by leaving a portion The relatively low gain of the common -
of the emitter resistor unbypassed as shown base circuit may not be a detriment for hf
in figure 42. This reduces stage gain, but operation because good receiver design calls
also reduces nonlinearity and resultant cross - for only enough gain to overcome mixer
modulation problems to a greater degree. The noise at the frequency of operation.
unbypassed emitter resistor also boosts the
input impedance at the base of the ampli- Mixers and As mentioned previously, the
fier. Converters bipolar transistor is an inher-
ently nonlinear device and, as
such, can be used as an effective mixer or
e -F OUT converter. Figure 44 shows two widely used
I F OUT
Figure 42
COMMON EMITTER R -F AMPLIFIER
Linearity is improved by leaving a portion of the
emitter resistor unbypassed. Stage gain and
cross modulation are both reduced.
TO 14
AMPLIFIER Figure 47
13 SERIES -MODE TRANSISTOR
OSCILLATOR
Crystal is placed in feedback path and oscillates
in series mode.
Figure 45
ries mode, as shown in figure 47. If a stand-
THE AUTODYNE CONVERTER CIRCUIT
USING A 2N168A AS A MIXER ard parallel -mode type crystal is used in one
of these series circuits, it will oscillate at its
emitter and collector and is often used in series -resonant frequency which is slightly
inexpensive transistorized broadcast receivers. lower than that frequency marked on the
The circuit has only economy to recommend holder.
it and often requires selection of transistors
to make it oscillate. Transistor The bipolar device can be used
Detectors an amplitude detector, very
as
RFC 0.1
(-AUDIO OUT
Figure 46
RIO
ling between input and output circuits of INPUT
the transistor via collector -base capacitance
or via external circuitry will permit oscilla-
tion up to or slightly above the alpha- cutoff Figure 48
frequency. PRODUCT DETECTOR
Because of the relatively low impedance
associated with bipolar transistors, they are Bfo is injected into the emitter circuit from a
low- impedance source. Audio is recovered in the
best used with crystals operating in the se- collector circuit.
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 4.29
Automatic Gain The gain of a transistor am- an increase in collector current will decrease
Control plifier stage will decrease as the gain. This is a result of hr,. decreasing af-
the emitter current is de- ter it peaks at about 4 mA. All bipolar de-
creased. This property can be used to control vices have a similar h,, peak, but the SE.-
the gain of an r -f or i -f amplifier strip so 5003 is designed to peak at a low enough
that weak and strong signals will produce the current so that increasing collector current
same audio output level. Automatic gain beyond the h,.. peak value is still within the
control voltage may be derived as described dissipation rating of the device.
in Chapter 10 (Radio Receiver Fundamen-
30
tals). If NPN transistors are used in the
gain controlled stages, a negative agc voltage
is required which reduces the fixed value of
20
forward bias on the stage, decreasing the
emitter current. If PNP transistors are used,
.0,
' _
This current represents the maximum cur- to form the source and drain. The gate is a
rent flow with the gate -source diode at zero layer of metalization laid down directly over
bias. As the gate is made more negative rela- the P -type region between source and drain,
tive to the source, the P- region expands cut- but separated from the region by a thin
ting down the size of the N- channel through layer of insulating silicon dioxide (silicon
which current can flow. Finally, at a nega- nitride is also used in some types). If a pos-
tive gate potential termed the pinch-4 itive voltage is applied to the drain, relative
t outage, conduction in the channel ceases.
NSULATED
The region of control for negative gate SOURCE GATE DRAIN
METAL12ATION
voltages lies between zero and the gate -to-
source cutoff voltage (Vos.,.cc). These volt-
VW SILICON
DIOXIDE
ages cause the gate- source junction to be
back -biased, a condition analogous to the
vacuum tube, since drain current is con- N CHANNEL
GATE 2
trolled by gate voltage. In the vacuum tube
Figure 3
JFET IGFET
N- CHANNEL
(DEPLETION TYPE)
N<HANNEL
(ENHANCEMENT TYPE)
N- CHANNEL
INSULATED -GATE FIELD -EFFECT
DRAIN DRAIN DRAIN TRANSISTOR
GATE GATE RODY GATE IGFET has insulated gate element and current
control is by means of capacitance variation.
Enhancement mode (positive gate control) and
SOURCE SOURCE SOURCE
depletion mode (negative gate control) IGFETs
are available. Gate voltage limitation is point of
breakdown of oxide dielectric in the gate.
P- CHANNEL P- CHANNEL P- CHANNEL Diode -protected IGFET has zener diodes on the
DRAIN DRAIN DRAIN chip to limit potential between gate and body
of device.
GATE GATE
potential of the gate- source and gate -drain An improved dual -gate IGFET of the de-
circuits. In the IGFET, on the other hand, pletion type has recently become available,
the gate voltage limitation is the point of
intended for r -f use through the vhf range.
destructive breakdown of the oxide dielectric The 3N140, 3N141, and 40673 of RCA,
under the gate. This breakdown must be
and the Motorola MFE -3006' and MFE -3007
avoided to prevent permanent damage to are representative types. Their construction
the oxide.
is shown in figure 4. These devices serve
Static electricity represents the greatest where dual ports are required, such as in
threat to the gate insulation in IGFET de- mixers, product detectors, and agc- controlled
vices. This type of charge accumulation can
stages, with one gate used as the signal port
be avoided by wrapping the leads in tinfoil,
and the other the control port.
or by otherwise connecting the leads when
the devices are being transported and in-
stalled. The user of the device, moreover, 4 -10 Circuitry
may accumulate a static potential that will
damage the IGFET when it is handled or JFET and depletion -mode IGFET devices
installed and a grounding strap around the are used in linear circuitry in very much the
electrodes is recommended. Gate protection same way as are vacuum tubes, but at lower
is often included within the device in the voltages. As an example, the drain charac-
form of zener diodes on the chip between the teristics of an inexpensive and popular FET
gate and the body, forming a diode-pro- (Siliconiv E300) are shown in figure s. The
tected IGFET. line that is labeled \',;s =0 is the one that
represents the zero -bias drain current state,
FET Terminal Note in figures and 3 there
1 or loss. At a drain to source potential of 10
Leads really four terminations
are volts, ll, is 15 milliamperes and, according to
associated with any FET de- the data sheet, II, could be any value between
vice. In the JFET they are source, drain, and 6 mA and 30 mA at this potential. This
the two connections to the two P- diffusions spread of loss is fairly typical of the lower
made in the channel. In the IGFET they are
source, drain, gate, and substrate. In some
JFETs all four leads are brought out of the
package and in others only three leads arc
available. In a three -lead configuration, it
is considered that the two P- diffusion gate
connections are tied together inside the pack-
age. In the case of the IGFET, all four leads
are generally available for use; but more
often than not, the substrate is externally
connected to the source in the actual circuit.
The advantage of the four -lead package is
the ability to allow separate control ports,
much like a multigrid vacuum tube.
vor-'9it'
SOURCC GI G2 DRAIN
METAL I2 AT ION
SILICON
DIOXIDE
Figure 5
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF
SUSSTRATC E300 FET
Figure 4 Drain characteristic curves of FET resemble the
characteristic curves of pentode vacuum tube
DUAL -GATE IGFET as the current plots are nearly horizsntal in
slope above V of about 6 volts. Load line is
Depletion type, dual -gate IGFET is intended for drawn on plot for gate bias of -1 volt, drain
r -f use through the vhf range. One port is for voltage of +15 volts, and drain current of 7
input signal and the other for agc control. milliamperes.
4.32 RADIO HANDBOOK
+23V
cost FETs and the curve shown is also
typical, as is the value of Ii, read from it. 7 MA
Figure 11
Figure
I,- Sylvania 120 MB lamp.
9
.15V. 15V.
unijunction transistor is used to discharge
the capacitor.
A combination FET and zener diode cir-
cuit (figure 14A) provides improved regu-
lation since the current flow through the
zener is constant. Special JFETs that serve
as constant-current diodes are available, but
the experimenter can use nearly any small
JFET in a similar manner by connecting the +15 V.
gate to the source. If the FET is used with
a variable resistance in the source lead, as -5 6
HEP801
D
HEP801
invade new circuit areas. JFETs for 1 -GHz
ADJUST operation are available and so are 10 -watt
].6 V.
REGULATED
REGULATION
stud -mounted types for lower -frequency
REGULATED power application. IGFETs are being de-
HEP102 HEP102 signed for 1 -GHz operation to satisfy the
demands of UHF -T \' reception. Some ex-
perimental FETs have been built to operate
Figure 14 at 10 GHz. Other experimental JFETs avail-
FET AND ZENER DIODE PROVIDE able for low- frequency work can withstand
IMPROVED REGULATION 100 volts between source and drain.
It appears that virtually every circuit
A- Constant current source. B-Variable current
that can be realized with receiving type vac-
source.
uum tubes can also be eventually dupli-
hancement -mode IGFETs are used in sample cated with some sort of FET package and
and bold circuits, such as shown in figure interesting variations of this efficient and
15. The waveform at the input is sampled inexpensive solid -state device that will apply
only when the negative sample pulse, applied to high -frequency communication are on
between substrate and gate, is present. The the horizon.
capacitor (C) is then charged to whatever
value the input received during the sample
pulse, and holds this value because the
IGFET represents an open circuit at all The Fetron JFET called a Feirmr has
A
other times. The voltage on the capacitor been developed that replaces a
may be used to drive another FET (depletion vacuum tube in a circuit directly, without
mode) so that the input impedance of the requiring major modifications in the circuit.
sensing amplifier does not discharge the ca High -voltage FETS are used and the Fetron
pacitor to any degree during sampling times. can either be a single JFET or two cascode
The enhancement -mode IGFET also serves connected JFETs in a hybrid integrated
as a fast switch in chopper service or as a circuit. The Fetron is packaged in an over-
series switch in certain types of noise sup- size metal can that has the same pin config-
pression devices. uration as the tube it replaces. The JFET
As the technology of FET construction characteristics can be chosen to simulate the
develops, JFETSs and IGFETs continue to dynamic performance of a tube. Two JFETs
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 4.35
sensitive region is also employed. Successive in which the currents to the emitter -cou-
diffusion processes produce transistors and pled differential pair of transistors are sup-
circuit elements of microscopic size, ready plied from a constant- current source, such
to have external leads bonded to them, and as a transistor. An operational amplifier is
suitable for encapsulation. a high -gain direct -coupled amplifier which
Typical IC dice range in size from less is designed to use feedback for control of
than 0.02" square up to 0.08" X 0.2 ". response characteristics (figure 18) The cir- .
Many package configurations are used, the cuit symbol for these amplifiers is .t triangle.
most popular being the nnrltipin TO-5 with the apex pointing in the direction of
package, the dual in -line package, the flat operation.
package, and the inexpensive epovy package.
INVERTING
INPUT
- '= LAG
EATERNAL
FREQUENCY
ICOMPENSATION
Figure 18
Figure 19
4 -12 Digital -Logic ICs RTL Logic The earliest practical IC logic
An electronic system that deals with dis- form was resistor -transistor
crete events based on digits functions on an logic (RTL). A basic building block of
"on -off" principle wherein the active de- RTI. is the inverter or NOT gate (figure
vices in the system are either operating in 22A), whose output is the opposite or com-
4.38 RADIO HANDBOOK
AND NAND
OR NOR EXCLUSIVE OR
AND
-O-RO
INPUT ?p----/LI
NOR NAND
NOT
Figure 20 Figure 21
plement of the input level. The output and By adding a NOT circuit after the NOR,
input levels, thus, are not the same. The or OR circuit is formed (figure 22C) ;
NOR gate is shown in figure 22B. These now if either A or B are one, then C is one.
gates, plus the NAND gate permit the de- In Boolean notation: A -I- B = C.
signer to build up OR and AND gates, plus If one is termed true and zero termed
multivibrators and even more complicated false, these terms relate the circuits to logic
logic functions. in the common sense of the word. An AND
The NOR gate (not OR) makes use of gate is shown in figure 22D.
two or more bipolar devices. If both NOR These simple AND, OR, and NOT cir-
inputs are at ground (state "0 "), then the cuits can be used to solve complex prob-
output level is at + 3.6 volt in this example lems, and systems may be activated by the
(state "1 "). However, if either input A desired combination of true and false input
or input B is at a positive level, then the statements. In addition to use in logic func-
output level drops to a voltage near ground. tions, NAND, NOR, and NOT gates can
The logic statement expressed in binary be wired as astable (free- running) multivi-
mathematics by the NOR gate is (in Boole- brators, monostable (one -shot) multivibra-
an algebra): A +B =C, or if A or B is one, tors, and Schmitt triggers. Representative
then C is zero. Simply, the statement says examples of such functions are shown in
input at gate 1 or gate 2 yields a zero figure 23.
(NOR) at the output.
3.6 . 3.6 V.
640 640
OUT
00 50 IN A N
our
IN IN
4f I 2IN INB
OUT
IN B
NOR + NOT GATES EQUALS OR GATE
INA
IN IN A-
)-OUT
IN OUT
IN
RTL NOR GATE
OUT OUT
EQUALS
I N B - AND GATE
RTL NOT GATE INB
TWO NOT
GATES
Figure 22
RTL LOGIC
A-Inverter, or NOT `ate. B-Noninverting NOR gate. C -NOR plus NOT gates form OR `ate. D -Two
NOT gates plus NOR gate form AND gate.
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 4.39
UL946
10K
K
4 740I N
IN
R X- OUTPUT
Figure 24
Figure 25 -
discharged results in the speed increase. ECL
is, by convention, operated from a
volt source and the swing from zero to one
5.2
Figure 26
applied to terminal 14 will be divided by 10 and appear at terminal 11. Output waveform has
20% on- cycle.
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 4.41
I
-( P- CNANNE,.
NOR
INVERTER
OUTPUT
FCMOS
N CHANNEL
Figure 27
HIGH SPEED ECL LOGIC CIRCUIT Figure 29
ECL device operates up to 350 MHz with non - CMOS INVERTER
saturation of internal transistors.
CMOS device makes use of P- channel, N -chan-
nel, enhancement -mode devices and provides
low current consumption which is proportional
to switching speed.
50-100 MHz
our
0.33
either state one device or the other is off
1rH 35 our and the inverter pair draws only a very
o
GATE
+M01023
i
_
- GATE 2
MC íO23 small leakage current, with appreciable cur-
rent being drawn only during the transi-
?V tion from one to zero and vice versa. The
Figure 28
ECL CRYSTAL-CONTROLLED
OSCILLATOR
Frequency range is 50 MHz to 100 MHz depend-
ent on crystal and resonant circuit tuning.
OUT
more transitions per second, the higher is put is wired back to the input, 256 clock
the average current drawn, thus the power pulses are triggered, and the content of the
consumption of CMOS is directly propor- register is read and the binary word is loaded
tional to the frequency at which it is back into the register.
switched. The shift register form of memory repre-
As a result of the low power consump- sents a valid way of storing binary informa-
tion and the simplifications of MOS -type tion but it is slow because interrogating the
fabrication CMOS is moving rapidly through register takes as many clock pulses as the
medium scale integration (MSI) , with hun- register is long. To speed up access to the
dreds of FETs per chip, into large scale content of a memory, it is possible to array
integration (LSI), with thousands of FETs the bits of storage in better ways.
per chip -all in one package and at a rela- A more efficient organization of a large
tively low cost. memory bank is the use of a ferrite -core
The CMOS devices now available allow memory, such as shown in figure 31. A bit
for quite a large variety of circuitry, and like of information can be permanently stored
...
the types previously discussed, they may be in a core by having it magnetized or not
used in nonlogic ways. Figure 30 shows how magnetized. If the memory has a 30 X 30
CMOS gates may be used as an astable multi - matrix, there are 900 cores and 900 bits of
vibrator and a one -shot multivibrator. storage. Any X -line and Y -line combination
CMOS is now available in two families; locates one particular core; this location is
the original CD4000 series by RCA (second - referred to as the core address.
...
.....
sourced by at least six other suppliers) and I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO
=.......
Logic channel, enhancement
.........
mode) logic provides low J
cost, high capacity shift registers and mern-
K
ories. The shift register is a unique form of
memory device which has one input and
one output, plus a clock (timing) input.
One commonly used P -MOS shift register Figure 31
has 256 bits of storage in it. The shift regis-
ter may be compared to a piece of pipe just FERRITE -CORE MEMORY
long enough to hold 256 marbles which are Representation of core memory showing cores
randomly colored white and black. The and sensing wires. Address of representative
Sample core is D -5. This configuration is termed
black marbles indicate a one value and the a matrix.
define a location, 2' =32 X and Y coordi- which may be erased and reprogrammed.
nates are available, thus the total bit stor- The avalanche-induced charge - migration
age is thus 2' X 2'=I024 bits of informa- pROM is initially all zeros. By pulsing high
tion. current into each location where a one is
desired, the device is programmed. This
The Random - A random- access memory charge is apparently permanent, until a
Access Memory device (RAM) is organized flash of ultraviolet light is directed through
in the above fashion and the quartz window atop the chip. Following
32 X 32 is a common size. These memories the ultraviolet erasure, the pROM can be
can be written -into and read -out of, and programmed again. Some pROMs are avail-
are used for purposes where the stored in- able in up to 2048 bits, with 4096 -bit ca-
formation is of a changing nature, such as pacity expected shortly.
in signal processing systems. For this reason
a RAM is often referred to as a scratch-pad
Other ROM There are several standard
memory.
Devices ROMS available that have fac-
There is a feature about MOS devices
which is unique and which allows the man- tory mask programs of poten-
ufacture of shift registers and RAMs that tial interest to the radio amateur. The char-
acter generator is useful for presenting let-
are unlike any other semiconductor memory.
ters and numerals on a cathode -ray tube
Since the gate of a MOSFET is a capacitor
it will store a charge, making a complete ROW
ADDRESS
two -state flip flop to store ones and zeros un-
A3 Az AI
necessary if the data rate is high enough. Os OA Oa 02 01
INPUT FREQUENCY
COMPENSATION
o
OUTPUT
INVERTING0 FREQUENCY
INPUT COMPENSATION
NON-INVERTING.,
INPUT
FREQUENCY
COMPENSATION
CIRCUIT
Figure 33
from Baudot to ASCII code. Still another The Fairchild µA700 series of linear mono-
ROM is now available to generate "The lith IC devices and particularly the µA709,
quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog are the most widely used linear IC types
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0." and more recent IC operational amplifiers
(op -amps) are compatible in their pin con-
figuration to this basic family of devices. The
4 -14 Linear ICs basic µA709 schematic is shown in figure
33, along with the equivalent op -amp sym-
bol. Compensating networks may be re-
The linear integrated circuit is a device quired for stable operation and some of the
whose internal transistors operate in the am- newer op -amps have the necessary compen-
plification region rather than snapping back sation built inside the package.
and forth from one state to another (such
as cutoff to saturation). Some linear ICs are
designed to replace nearly all the discrete
components used in earlier composite equip-
The Operational The perfect operational am-
ment. Others perform unique functions Amplifier plifier is a high -gain dc cou-
heretofore unavailable. pled amplifier having two
Operational ampli Piers, dillerential am pli- differential inputs of infinite impedance, in-
fiers and diode -transistor arrays are impor- finite gain, zero output impedance, and no
tant members of the linear IC family. phase shift. (Phase shift is 180" between the
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 4.45
output and inverting input and 0° between circuit may be modified as shown in illustra-
the output and noninverting input) . tion C so that a noninverting gain of
Á-
Two voltages may be added in a differ-
ential amplifier as shown in figure 34. In 1 is obtained.
illustration A, the noninverting (plus) in-
R2
INTEGRATING AND
DIFFERENTIATING AMPLIFIERS
A- Inverting integrating circuit. B- Inverting
differentating circuit.
80
C O
R7 R2
EO -LEo' Ept E3ß`0
Figure 34
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
(OP -AMP) SYMBOL
A- Differentialamplifier in inverting mode. B-
Summing amplifier. If input is applied to posi-
tive gate, output is subtractive. C- Differential
amplifier using noninverting mode. R, is chosen
to match input signal source.
Figure 36
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
put is grounded and the amplifier is in the
inverting mode. The stage gain is the ratio The differential op -amp isa dual input dc cou-
pled amplifier comparable to a push -pull stage
R2/RI and the input impedance is R,. The fed from a constant- current source.
12V
i0 05 u F
0.01 pf 100 pi
5
82 pr.- 82 pf 82 O.-.
82I
30p1 I FDMI000
8 7 fl IkS2
VOUT
8o11110° A707 04101
VIN(}I
U.UIyF
I
4 I
0 I
20
kfl
pf .'10 pf
- 0.05 I 0.05 pf
FDMIidO
I
Figure 37
VCC , 6.0 V
The Differential The differential amplifier is
Amplifier dc-coupled amplifier hav-
a
10 1
FROM FRONT
END MIXER AUDIO OUTPUT
IDDR
AGC THRESHOD
FROM FRONT
ENO MIXER
IOR
Ia
S
AUDIO
OUTPUT
V,
l
0
.17V
MANUAL
GAIN 00R CA
RF
Vcc
j 2RK
IN ION
19V
AGC
O.IW
FOR
SOB,
If TRANSFORMER
A FROM FRONT
O
END MIXER
AUDIO
9' as ; T OUTPUT
a.11d
Figure 39 705 10K Act
50,1V RMS
LOCAL OSC
BANDPASS IN
NATIONAL SEMICONDUCTOR LM -373 IOK OUT
FILTER
20K
Null
MULTIPURPOSE IF AMPLIFIER - LO
!OPTIONAL,
SIGNAL
+18V
r tt*1
r-1
16
75k 51
200p1 - IF-12
15
14
v"
I` 1
vvti
2
15ma 2mal
1k
0011=
*20 TURNS 140.36 BIFILAR
**RAT OF 510A.
Figure 42 -
SIGNETICS NE -560B PHASE -LOCKED LOOP AS AN F -M DETECTOR
less many of the ICs developed for these mar- pere of regulated output. It is only necessary
kets will be readily usable in the radio to connect the common pin (the case of the
communications field. TO -3 package) to ground and the unregu-
The area of greatest growth in recent lated input to the input pin; output is then
years in linear ICs has been in power -han- taken from the output pin (a 0.22 pi ca-
dling capability. Most manufacturers of ICs pacitor across the input is required for stabil-
now have IC regulators and audio output ity). The Fairchild regulators offer similar
devices that will handle reasonable amounts performance in a variety of positive regu-
of power without external transistors to as- lated output voltages. Motorola offers a sim-
sist them. ilar family, the MC -7800C series of devices.
T Both Fairchild and Motorola also offer a
(7)- 1N3253 2N5035
WITH MCAT SINK .IO V 7900 series of negative, three -terminal regu-
10 V lators as well as National Semiconductor.
3Ac
300 Raytheon has introduced the RC- 4194TK
IA
in a 9 -pin, TO -66 package. This device pro-
duces plus and minus regulated voltages for
operating linear lCs. This regulator call pass
500 up to 250 mA at an output voltage adjust-
1100
able from zero up to 42 volts.
In the audio- amplifier area, ICs are now
available at output levels up to 15 watts.
The National LM -380 will drive an 8 -ohm
Figure 43 speaker up to watts output and other de-
S
the incandescent lamp as a light source in eally coupled isolator (opto- electronic
displays -especially those subject to heavy switch) which combines the pair in an
vibration. opaque, plastic package. Light then couples
The first LEDs were a deep red in color the input circuit of the emitter to the out-
and made of Gallium- Arsenide -Phosphide put circuit of the detector, with no electrical
and produced about 30 to 100 microwatts coupling between the ports. This isolator is
of light power output. More recently, the the equivalent of a relay, with none of the
green LED of Gallium- Phosphide and the mechanically fragile components.
amber LED of Gallium- Arsenide -Phosphide An array of LEDs can be configured as a
have been made available. seven- segment display for numeric indica-
Small LEDs have a forward voltage drop tion and integrated circuits are available
of about 1.5 to 2.0 volts and they can be that will convert the binary -coded decimal
driven up to about 40 ma. The LEI) does system to the seven -segment coding required
not have a sudden end -of -life as does an in- for this display.
candescent lamp, instead the LED loses A solid -state numeric indicator is shown
brilliance with age. Predicted life (to half in figure 44. This small unit is a hybrid
brilliance) of a typical LED is 10' hours. microcircuit consisting of a decoder -driver
Another type of LED is the infrared diode and an array of light- emitting diodes. The
which has maximum radiation at about 9000 numeric indicator is enabled by a pulse and
Angstrom units (10'' meters) wavelength the display will follow changes on the logic
in the near -infrared region. Because it radi- inputs as long as the enable port is held at
ates just outside the visible spectrum, the zero (low). In this mode the device is oper-
infrared produced by this Gallium -Arsenide ated as a real -time display. When the enable
diode is treated in the same manner as visible line rises (high), the latches retain the cur-
light, using conventional optics. The IR rent inputs and the display is no longer
output of these diodes is very close to the op- affected by changes on the logic input ports.
optimum sensitivity of most silicon photo - The decimal point voltage low corresponds
diodes,light- sensitive transistors, and FETs. to point illumination.
The IR LED can be modulated (even at
megahertz rates) and serves as a transmitter
in voice and data links or as an intruder
Other Digital In addition to light- emitting
alarm. A Gallium Arsenide emitter and Sili-
Displays diodes, other forms of digital
con detector may be combined in an opti-
display exist. The liquid crystal
display provides a brilliant indication that
consumes very little power and can be driven
at low voltage by CMOS circuitry. The dis-
play consists of a sandwich of two thin glass
sheets, coated on their inner surfaces with a
thin transparent conductor such as indium
oxide. The conductor is etched into seven
bars of the standard 7- segment display for-
mat (figure 45). Each bar, or segment, is
electrically separate and can be selected by
a logic driver circuit so that any numeral
can be formed.
The interior of the cell is filled with a
liquid crystal material whose molecular or-
der is disturbed when an electric field is ap-
plied to the segments. The optical appear-
ance of the crystal is thus altered to display
the digits.
Figure 44
Because crystal displays are relatively fast.
HEWLETT -PACKARD SOLID -STATE it is necessary to drive them at a frequency
NUMERIC INDICATORS which is above the observable flicker rate.
4.50 RADIO HANDBOOK
In the previous chapters the manner in impart sufficient velocity to the electrons
which an electric current flows through a within the cathode material to enable them
metallic conductor as a result of an electron to overcome the surface forces and thus es-
drift has been discussed. This drift, which cape into the surrounding medium. In the
takes place when there is a difference in po- usual types of electron tubes the cathode en-
tential between the ends of the metallic con- ergy is applied in the form of heat; electron
ductor, is in addition to the normal random emission from a heated cathode is called
electron motion between the molecules of thermionic emission. In another common
the conductor. type of electron tube, the photoelectric cell,
An electric current can be caused to energy in the form of light is applied to the
flow through other media than a metallic cathode to cause photoelectric emission.
conductor. One such medium is an ionized
solution, such as the sulfuric acid electrolyte
in a storage battery. This type of current 5 -1 Thermionic Emission
flow is called electrolytic conduction. Fur-
ther, it was shown at about the turn of the Electron Emission of electrons from the
century that an electric current can be Emission cathode of a thermionic tube takes
carried by a stream of free electrons in an place when the cathode of the tube
evacuated chamber. The flow of a current is heated to a temperature sufficiently high
in such a manner is said to take place by that the free electrons in the emitter have
electronic conduction. The study of elec- sufficient velocity to overcome the restrain-
tron tubes (also called vacuum tubes, or ing forces at the surface of the material.
valves) is actually the study of the control These surface forces vary greatly with dif-
and use of electronic currents within an ferent materials. Thus, different types of
evacuated or partially evacuated chamber. cathodes must be raised to different temper-
Since the current flow in an electron tube atures to obtain adequate electron emission.
takes place in an evacuated chamber, there
must be located within the enclosure both
a source of electrons and a collector for the Cathode Types The emitter or cathode used
electrons which have been emitted. The elec- in electron tubes may be
tron source is called the cathode, and the classified into two groups; the directly
electron collector is usually called the anode, heated or filament type and the indirectly
or plate. Some external source of energy heated or heater- cathode type. Directly
must be applied to the cathode in order to heated emitters may be further subdivided
5.1
5.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
I
U ..M:
i1
T.....:r.._..a...
Figure
ELECTRON -TUBE TYPES
:
,'r,i l
1
...w z a .
I
I
L.AY...A..
At the left are two Nuvistor types intended for vhf operation in TV tuners and receivers up to 450 MHz
or so. Next is a typical miniature glass receiving tube alongside an old-style metal, octal -based tube.
At the right are an octal -based glass audio tube and (at far right) a nine -pin based sweep tube in-
tended for use in color television receivers (type 6LQ6). This type of tube is often used as a linear
amplifier in amateur -type single- sideband transmitting equipment.
into three important groups, two of which in the highly efficient carburized thoriated-
are used in modern vacuum tubes. These tungsten filament as used in many medium -
classifications are: the pure- tungsten fila- power transmitting tubes today.
ment, the thoriated- tungsten filament, and The thoriated -tungsten filament may be
the oxide -coated filament. either temporarily or permanently damaged
by a heavy current overload which can strip
the surface layer of thorium from the fila-
The Pure -Tung- Pure -tungsten wire was used ment. In some instances, the tube may be
sten Filament as the filament in nearly all reactivated by flashing the filament at about
the earlier transmitting and 150 percent of the normal voltage for about
receiving tubes. However, the thermionic 20 seconds and then burning it at 15 per-
efficiency of tungsten wire as an emitter cent overvoltage for about 30 minutes.
(the number of milliamperes emission per
watt of filament -heating power) is quite
low; the filaments become fragile after use; The Oxide- The most efficient of all
their life is rather short, and they are sus- Coated Filament modern filaments is the ox-
ceptible to burnout at any time. Pure -tung- ide- coated type which con-
sten filaments must be run at bright white sists of a mixture of barium and strontium
heat (about 2500° Kelvin). For these rea- oxides coated on a nickel alloy wire or strip.
sons, tungsten filaments have been replaced This type of filament operates at a dull -red
in all applications where another type of to orange -red temperature (1050° to 1170°
filament could be used. K) at which temperature it will emit large
quantities of electrons. The oxide -coated fil-
ament is somewhat more efficient than the
The Thoriated- In the course of experi- thoriated- tungsten type in small sizes and it
Tungsten Filament ments made upon tung- is considerably less expensive to manufacture.
sten emitters, it was For this reason all receiving tubes and quite
found that filaments made from tungsten a number of the low- powered transmitting
having a small amount of thoria (thorium tubes use the oxide -coated filament. Another
oxide) as an impurity had much greater advantage of the oxide -coated emitter is its
emission than those made from the pure extremely long life-the average tube can
metal. Subsequent development has resulted be expected to run from 3000 to 5000 hours.
VACUUM -TUBE PRINCIPLES 5.3
I,t t.t,i
ONE INCH
Figure 2
At the left is an 8058 nuvistor tetrode, representative of the family of small vhf types useful
in receivers and low -power transmitters. The second type is a 6816 planar tetrode rated at 180
watts input to 1215 MHz. The third tube from the left is a 3CX100A5 planar triode, an improved
and ruggedized version of the 2C39A, and rated at 100 watts input to 2900 MHz. The fourth tube
from the left is the X -843 (Eimac) planar triode designed to deliver over 100 watts at 2100 MHz.
The tube is used in a grounded -grid cavity configuration. The tube to the right is a 7213 planar
tetrode, rated at 2500 watts input to 1215 MHz. All of these vhf /uhf negative grid tubes make
use of ceramic insulation for the lowest envelope loss at the higher frequencies and the larger
ones have coaxial bases for use in resonant cavities.
Oxide- coated emitters have been found lar to the coating used on the oxide coated
capable of emitting an enormously large filament. Inside the cylinder is an insulated
current pulse with a high applied voltage heater element consisting usually of a double
for a very short period of time without spiral of tungsten wire. The heater may op-
damage. This characteristic has proved to erate on any voltage from 3 to 117 volts,
be of great value in radar work. For example, although 6.3 is the most common value. The
the relatively small cathode in a microwave heater is operated at quite a high tempera-
magnetron may be called on to deliver 25 to ture so that the cathode itself usually may
50 amperes at an applied voltage of perhaps be brought to operating temperature in a
25,000 volts for a period in the order of one matter of 15 to 30 seconds. Heat- coupling
microsecond. After this large current pulse between the heater and the cathode is mainly
has been passed, plate voltage normally will by radiation.
be removed for 1000 microseconds or more Indirectly heated cathodes are employed
so that the cathode surface may recover in all ac- operated tubes which are designed
in time for the next pulse of current. If the to operate at a low level either for r -f or a -f
cathode were to he subjected to a contin- use.
uous current drain of this magnitude, it
would be destroyed in a short period of time.
The Emission The emission of electrons from age to as high as to 10 secondary electrons
S
the plate, the flow of current from the cath- the plate. The electron tube is said then to
ode to plate will be increased. This is due to have reached saturation plate current. Fur-
the strong attraction offered by the posi- ther increase in plate voltage will cause only
tively charged plate for any negatively a relatively small increase in plate current.
charged particles (figure 5) . The degree of flattening in the plate -volt-
age plate- current curve after the limited -
600
emission point will vary with different types
TYPE 6W4 -GT
Er= 63 VOUS of cathodes. This effect is shown in figure 6.
The flattening is quite sharp with a pure
600
W / tungsten emitter. With thoriated tungsten
CC
W
the flattening is smoothed somewhat, while
o.
with an oxide -coated cathode the flattening
< 400
J is quite gradual.
/
5
F 200
J
o. OXIDE COATED
IATED TUNGSTON
o 10 20 30 40 50
DL PLATE VOLTS TUNGSTEN XI AMENT
TYPICAL PLATE
CHARACTERISTICS OF A
POWER DIODE
PLATE VOLTAGE
The Three -Halves At moderate values of Figure 6
Power Law plate voltage the cur-
rent flow from cath- MAXIMUM SPACE -CHARGE -LIMITED
EMISSION FOR DIFFERENT TYPES
ode to anode is limited by the space charge OF EMITTERS
of electrons around the cathode. Increased
values of plate voltage will tend to neutral-
ize a greater portion of the cathode space
Electron Energy The current flowing in the
Dissipation plate- cathode space of a con-
charge and will cause a greater current to
flow. ducting electron tube repre-
Under these conditions, with plate cur- sents the energy required to accelerate elec-
rent limited by the cathode space charge, the trons from the zero potential of the cathode
plate current is not linear with plate voltage. space charge to the potential of the anode.
Rather, plate current increases as the three - Then, when these accelerated electrons strike
halves power of the plate voltage. The re- the anode, the energy associated with their
lationship between plate voltage, (E) and velocity is immediately released to the anode
cathode current (I) can be expressed as: structure. In normal electron tubes this
energy release appears as heating of the plate
I = K E312 or anode structure.
where,
K is aconstant determined by the geome- 5 -3 The Triode
try of the element structure within the
diode tube. If an element consisting of a mesh or
spiral of wire is inserted concentric with the
Plate- Current As plate voltage is raised to plate and between the plate and the cathode,
Saturation the potential where the cath- such an element will be able to control by
ode space charge is neutral- electrostatic action the cathode -to -plate cur-
ized, all the electrons that the cathode is rent of the tube. The new element is called
capable of emitting are being attracted to a grid, and a vacuum tube containing a cath-
5.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
ode, grid, and plate is commonly called a plate current is called the amplification fac-
triode. tor, or p, of the electron tube. Expressed as
an equation:
Action of If this new clement through AEr,
the Grid which the electrons must pass in =
their course from cathode to
plate is made negative with respect to the with 1,, constant (A represents a small incre-
cathode, the negative charge on this grid ment) .
will effectively repel the negatively charged The of modern triodes ranges from S to
electrons back into the space charge sur- 200.
rounding the cathode. Thus, the number of
electrons which are able to pass through the Current Flow In a diode the electrostatic
grid mesh and reach the plate will be re- in a Triode field at the cathode is propor-
duced, and the plate current will be reduced tional to the plate potential
accordingly. If the charge on the grid is (Eh) and the total cathode current is pro-
made sufficiently negative, all the electrons portional to the three -halves power of the
leaving the cathode will be repelled back to plate voltage. Similarly, in a triode the field
it and the plate current will be reduced to at the cathode space charge is propor-
zero. Any dc voltage placed on a control tional to the equivalent voltage (E, +
grid is called a bias. The smallest negative E,, /µ), where the amplification factor (ii)
voltage which will cause cutoff of plate cur- actually represents the relative effectiveness
rent at a particular plate voltage is called of grid potential and plate potential in pro-
the value of cutoff bias (figure 7). ducing a field at the cathode.
The cathode current in a triode is pro-
portional to the three -halves power of (F.
E1,"1,) and can be represented with fair
accuracy by the expression:
cathode current = K E, + - b
/
adz
where,
Figure 7 K is a constant determined by element
geometry within the triode.
ACTION OF THE GRID
IN A TRIODE
Plate Resistance The dynamic plate resist-
(A) shows the triode tube with cutoff bias on ance of a vacuum tube is
the grid. Note that all the elections emitted by the ratio of a change in plate voltage to the
the cathode remain inside the grid mesh. (a)
shows the same tube with an intermediate value change in plate current which the change
of bias on the grid. Note the medium value of in plate voltage produces. To be accurate,
plate current and the fact that there is a re-
serve of electrons remaining within the grid the changes should be very small with respect
mesh. (C) shows the operation with a relatively
small amount of bias which with certain tube to the operating values. Expressed as an
types will allow substantially all the electrons equation:
emitted by the cathode to reach the plate.
AE,
rp
Amplification The plate current in a triode
Factor is a result of the net field at Plate resistance is expressed in ohms.
the cathode from interaction
between the field caused by the grid bias
and that caused by the plate voltage. Both
grid bias and plate voltage affect the plate Transconductonce The mutual conductance,
current. The ratio between the change in also referred to as trans -
grid bias and the change in plate current conductance, is the ratio of a change in the
which will cause the same small change in plate current to the change in grid voltage
VACUUM -TUBE PRINCIPLES 5.7
Oln 300
Gm =
E, 210
where, 200
E,, is held constant.
11a
Figure 9
70 00 e0 100
1a
+ty
fa4'//UI
TYPE .JS
illustrates a triode tube with a resistive plate
load, and a supply voltage of 300 volts. The
LlIIII'
Er 6.3 VOLTS voltage at the plate of the tube (e,,) may
be expressed as:
I/I,D/r
IIII III Iyy
'/IIIII
W8IIl el, = Ei, - (it, x Rr.
IIi WAIF/IMII6
1/IIIIf/I,IIINf6
/I//IMOW"
IrIIIIII/I/
III/IIIIII//I
IIIIII/III/I II
where,
E,, is
i,, is
the plate supply voltage,
the plate current,
R,. is the load resistance in ohms.
0
IGIIGl!%gI2nCe.
100 200 300 400 700
Assuming various values of i,, flowing in
PLATE VOLTS (ED) the circuit, controlled by the internal resist-
Figure 8 ance of the tube (a function of the grid
bias), values of plate voltage may be plotted
NEGATIVE GRID CHARACTERISTICS
as shown for each value of plate current
(I, VS. E, CURVES) OF A ). The line connecting these points is
TYPICAL TRIODE called the load line for the particular value
of plate load resistance used. The slope of
Average plate characteristics of this form are
most commonly used in determining the Class - the load line is equal to the ratio of the
A operating characteristics of a triode amplifier lengths of the vertical and horizontal pro-
stage. jections of any segment of the load line.
The Load Line A load line is a
graphical rep- For this example it is:
resentation of the voltage on
.01 - .02
the plate of a vacuum tube and the cur-
rent passing through the plate circuit of slope = -¡ 100 - 200
the tube for various values of plate load
resistance and plate supply voltage. Figure 10
=- .0001 =- 1
10,0(10
5.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
-
23
30
SO
volts, and the plate load is 8000 ohms. If
s`
3
A
2 roa R LIN e
RLea
2
D -- _
s
I
37.3
33
oJ.
30
o
/L
_ S
Figure 12
1111111161
0
I 100
x 200 t 300 400 500
ends of the load line on the 1,, vs. E. char- the maxima and minima of the plate voltage
acteristic curve figure 12. and plate current are established. By projec-
For this application the grid of the tube tion from points A and B through the plate -
is returned to a steady biasing voltage of -4 current axis the maximum instantaneous
volts. The steady or quiescent operation of plate current is found to be 18.25 milliam-
the tube is determined by the intersection of peres and the minimum is 7.5 milliamperes.
the load line with the -4
-volt curve at By projections from points A and B through
point Q. By projection from point Q the plate -voltage axis the minimum instan-
through the plate -current axis it is found taneous plate -voltage swing is found to be
that the value of plate current with no sig- 154 volts and the maximum is 240 volts.
nal applied to the grid is 12.75 milliamperes. By this graphical application of the 1,, vs.
By projection from point Q through the F,, characteristic of the 12ÁU7 triode the
plate -voltage axis it is found that the quies- operation of the circuit illustrated in figure
cent plate voltage is 198 volts. This leaves 11 becomes apparent. A voltage variation of
8 volts (peak to peak) on the grid produces
a variation of 84 volts at the plate.
Figure 14
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
OF INTERELECTRODE
electrodes of
CAPACITANCE
1
7TCCv -.
1
RADIO HANDBOOK
o
o 100
ec1
eo=
ec
200
=
VOLTS (Eb)
Figure
=
-
300
15
ec2
-E__......,
so v.
400 500
ment tube is the tetrode (four electrodes). When the electrons from the cathode ap-
Other tubes containing as many as eight proach the plate with sufficient velocity,
electrodes are available for special applica- they dislodge electrons on striking the plate.
tions. This effect of bombarding the plate with
high- velocity electrons, with the consequent
dislodgement of other electrons from the
The Tetrode The quest for a simple and plate, gives rise to the condition of second-
easily usable method of elimi- ary emission which has been discussed in a
nating the effects of the grid -to -plate ca- previous paragraph. This effect can cause no
pacitance of the triode led to the develop- particular difficulty in a triode because the
ment of the screen -grid tube, or tetrode. secondary electrons so emitted are eventually
When another grid is added between the attracted back to the plate. In the screen -
grid and plate of a vacuum tube the tube is grid tube, however, the screen is close to the
called a tetrode, and the new grid is called plate and is maintained at a positive poten-
a screen grid, as a result of its screening or tial. Thus, the screen will attract these elec-
shielding action. The interposed screen grid trons which have been knocked from the
acts as an electrostatic shield between the plate, particularly when the plate voltage
grid and plate, with the consequence that falls to a lower value than the screen volt-
the grid -to -plate capacitance is reduced. Al- age, with the result that the plate current is
though the screen grid is maintained at a lowered and the amplification is decreased.
VACUUM -TUBE PRINCIPLES 5.11
In the application of tetrodes, it is neces- drop off gradually, rather than to have a
sary to operate the plate at a high voltage in well- defined cutoff point (figure 17). A
relation to the screen in order to overcome nonuniform control -grid structure is used,
these effects of secondary emission. so that the amplification factor is different
for different parts of the control grid.
The Pentode The undesirable effects of sec-
OIIIo
ondary emission from the ATNGOe
^
10 STRUCTURE
eCl.-]
Remote -cutoff tubes are used in circuits
TYPE 6BA6 where it is desired to control the amplifica-
ecx ° Ioo v.
ec)'0v. tion by varying the control -grid bias. The
eci.-4! characteristic curve of an ordinary screen -
grid tube has considerable curvature near
the plate- current cutoff point, while the
- )i_
ec
curve of a remote -cutoff tube is much more
linear (figure 18) . The remote -cutoff tube
o
00 200 300 400 !00 minimizes cross -talk interference that would
VOLTS lEb) otherwise be produced.
Figure 16
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
there were no suppressor are diverted back
to the plate. The plate current is, therefore,
not reduced and the amplification possibili-
ties are increased (figure 16).
Pentodes for audio applications are de-
signed so that the suppressor increases the
limits to which the plate voltage may swing; - GRID VOLTS o
voltage is low, almost to zero velocity in a the same way as with a triode, by dividing
certain region between screen and plate. For the operating voltage by the ,u factor), the
this reason the electrons form a stationary plate current will be substantially at cutoff,
cloud, or space charge. The effect of this as will be the screen current. The grid- screen
space charge is to repel secondary electrons µ, factor is numerically equal to the am-
emitted from the plate and thus cause them plification factor of the same tetrode or
to return to the plate. In this way, secondary pentode tube when it is triode connected.
emission is suppressed.
Another feature of the beam -power tube Current Flow The following equation is the
is the low current drawn by the screen. The in Tetrodes expression for total cathode
screen and the grid are spiral wires wound and Pentodes current in a triode tube. The
so that each turn in the screen is shaded expression for the total cathode
from the cathode by a grid turn. This align- current of a tetrode and a pentode tube is
ment of the screen and the grid causes the the same, except that the screen -grid voltage
electrons to travel in sheets between the and the grid -screen µ, factor are used in
turns of the screen so that very few of them place of the plate voltage and µ of the
strike the screen itself. This formation of triode.
the electron stream into sheets or beams in-
Cathode current = K (E01 -i-
Ec2 El, 1"
creases the charge density in the screen -plate
region and assists in the creation of the space
Cathode current, of course, is the sum of
charge in this region.
the screen and plate currents plus control -
Because of the effective suppressor action grid current in the event that the control
provided by the space charge, and because of grid is positive with respect to the cathode.
the low current drawn by the screen, the It will be noted that total cathode current
beam -power tube has the advantages of high is independent of plate voltage in a tetrode
power output, high power sensitivity, and or pentode. Also, in the usual tetrode or
high efficiency. pentode the plate current is substantially in-
dependent of plate voltage over the usual
Grid -Screen The grid-screen µ factor (µs) operating range-which means simply that
Mu Factor is analogous to the amplification the effective plate resistance of such tubes
factor in a triode, except that is relatively high. However, when the plate
the screen of a pentode or tetrode is sub- voltage falls below the normal operating
stituted for the plate of a triode. µ, denotes range, the plate current falls sharply, while
the ratio of a change in grid voltage to a the screen current rises to such a value that
change in screen voltage, each of which will the total cathode current remains substan-
produce the same change in screen current. tially constant. Thus, the screen grid in a
Expressed as an equation: tetrode or pentode will almost invariably be
ALa damaged by excessive dissipation if the plate
µ, _ DEc,
voltage is removed while the screen voltage
is still being applied from a low -impedance
where source.
I, _ is held constant.
Coefficients of In general it may be stated
The grid-screen p. factor is important in Tetrodes and that the amplification factor
determining the operating bias of a tetrode Pentodes of tetrode and pentode tubes
or pentode tube. The relationship between is a coefficient which is not
control -grid potential and screen potential of much use to the designer. In fact the
determines the plate current of the tube as amplification factor is seldom given on the
well as the screen current since the plate design -data sheets of such tubes. Its value
current is essentially independent of the is usually very high, due to the relatively
plate voltage in tubes of this type. In other high plate resistance of such tubes, but
words, when the tube is operated at cutoff bears little relationship to the stage gain
bias as determined by the screen voltage and which actually will be obtained with such
the grid- screen a, factor (determined in tubes.
VACUUM -TUBE PRINCIPLES 5.13
On the other hand, the grid -plate trans - fier, with the exception that the input signal
conductance is the most important coeffi- and the output current are on different fre-
cient of pentode and tetrode tubes. Gain per quencies. The value of Ge in conventional
stage can be computed directly when the mixer tubes is from 300 to 3000 micromhos.
Gm is known. The grid -plate transconduct- The value of Ge in an amplifier tube oper-
ance of a tetrode or pentode tube can be ated as a mixer is approximately 0.3 the Gm
calculated through use of the expression: of the tube operated as an amplifier. The
voltage gain of a mixer stage is equal to
JIb G. X RI, where R,, is the impedance of the
Gm = Ec plate load into which the mixer tube oper-
ates.
with Ec2 and Eh constant.
The plate resistance of such tubes is of The Diode Mixer The simplest mixer tube is
less importance than in the case of triodes,
though it is often of value in determining the diode. The noise figure,
or figure of merit, for a mixer of this type
the amount of damping a tube will exert on
is not as good as that obtained with other
the impedance in its plate circuit. Plate re-
more complex mixers; however, the diode
sistance is calculated from:
is useful as a mixer in uhf and vhf equip-
rp =
Eh ment where low interelectrode capacities are
Alh vital to circuit operation. Since the diode
impedance is low, the local oscillator must
with E,., and E,., constant. furnish considerable power to the diode
mixer. A good diode mixer has an overall
5 -5 Mixer and gain of about 0.5.
Converter Tubes
The Triode Mixer A triode mixer has better
The superheterodyne receiver always in-
cludes at least one stage for changing the gain and a better noise fig-
frequency of the incoming signal to the ure than the diode mixer. At low frequencies,
fixed frequency of the main intermediate - the gain and noise figure of a triode mixer
frequency amplifier in the receiver. This fre- closely approaches those figures obtained
quency- changing process is accomplished by when the tube is used as an amplifier. in the
selecting the beat -note difference frequency uhf and vhf range, the efficiency of the
between a locally generated oscillation and triode mixer deteriorates rapidly. The opti-
the incoming signal frequency. If the oscil- mum local- oscillator voltage for a triode
lator signal is supplied by a separate tube, mixer is about 0.7 as large as the cutoff
the frequency changing tube is called a bias of the triode. Very little local- oscillator
mixer. Alternatively, the oscillation may be power is required by a triode mixer.
generated by additional elements within the
frequency- changer tube. In this case the GRID
SCREEN GRID
frequency changer is commonly called a ALATC
converter tube.
Conversion The conversion conductance
Conductance (Ge) is a coefficient of interest CATHODE N- METAL SHIELD
The vacuum tube has been largely re- tubes), and (3) the use of very low -in-
placed in low -power hf and vhf communi- ductance extensions of the elements them-
cation equipment. Aside from the lower cost selves as external connections (examples are
and better performance of the transistor, the lighthouse tubes such as the 2C40, planar
vacuum tube has inherent problems that tubes such as the 3CX100A5, and many
limit its usefulness as an effective vhf device. types of vhf transmitting tubes).
Among the critical vacuum -tube param- GRID
TERMINAL
ANODE
TERMINAL
ANODE
GLASS
eters that affect vhf performance are the SEAL
CATHODE A-
interelectrode capacitances, lead inductance,
ANODE
GRID NEATER
.4/ 47'
combination of grid -lead inductance, grid -
cathode capacitance, and cathode -lead in-
ductance tends to reduce the effective grid -
cathode signal voltage for a constant volt- EYELET\ E
age at the tube terminals as the frequency is
di
GLASS GETTER
SEAS 1
increased. Second, cathode-lead inductance
tends to introduce undesired coupling be-
LEAD
TERMINAL EYELE TURULATION
preciable fraction of a cycle at the input quency, the conventional negative -grid tube
frequency, several undesirable effects take no longer is practicable and recourse must
place. First, the grid takes power from the be taken to totally different types of elec-
input signal even though the grid is negative tron tubes in which electron transit time is
at all times. This comes about since the grid not a limitation to operation. Three of the
will have changed its potential during the most important of such microwave tube
time required for an electron to pass from types are the klystron, the magnetron, and
cathode to plate. Due to interaction, and a the traveling-wave tube.
resulting phase difference between the field
associated with the grid and that associated The Power The klystron is a rugged, micro -
with a moving electron, the grid presents a Klystron wave power tube in which elec-
resistance to an input signal in addition to tron transit time is used to ad-
its normal "cold" capacitance. Further, as vantage (figure 22) . The klystron consists
a result of this action, plate current no of a number of resonant rarities linked to-
longer is in phase with grid voltage. gether by metallic sections called drift tubes.
An amplifier stage operating at a fre-
quency high enough that transit time is -- COLLECTOR
appreciable: COLLECTOR SEAL
(a) Is difficult to excite as a result of
grid loss from the equivalent input grid re- -OUTPUT CAVITY
sistance,
OUTPUT
WAVEGU IDE -
(b) Is capable of less output since trans -
conductance is reduced and plate current is PENULTIMATE
CAVITY
MAGNET
not in phase with grid voltage. COILS
The effects of transit time increase with THIRD CAVITY
the square of the operating frequency, and MAGNET IC
SHIELD
they increase rapidly as frequency is in-
creased above the value where they become SECOND CAVITY
the tube and the output circuitry of the a net power flow from the beam to the cav-
klystron is effectively isolated from the in- ity exists. The energy is extracted trom the
put circuitry, an important consideration in cavity by means of a coupling loop.
vhf amplifiers.
The cathode, or electron gun, emits a The Reflex The multicavity klystron as de-
stream of electrons which is focused into a Klystron scribed in the preceding para-
tight beam. The beam passes through the graphs is primarily used as a
succession of cavities and drift tubes, ulti- transmitting device since large amounts of
mately reaching the collector. The main power are made available in its output cir-
body of the tube is usually operated at cuit. However, for applications where a
ground potential, with the cathode and as-
sociated focus electrode operated at a high
negative potential. The electron beam is
-
much smaller amount of power is required
power levels in the milliwatt range
for low -power transmitters, receiver local
-
held on course by means of an axial mag- oscillators, etc., another type of klystron hav-
netic field created by magnetic coils placed ing only a single cavity is more frequently
about the tube. The strength of the mag- used.
netic field is adjustable to permit accurate The theory of operation of the single -
adjustment of the electron beam, which can cavity klystron is essentially the same as the
be made to travel long distances, with less multicavity type with the exception that the
than one percent current interception by the velocity -modulated electron beam, after hav-
drift tube walls. ing left the input cavity is reflected back
The input and output terminations of a into the area of the cavity again by a repel -
typical klystron are coaxial fittings, or wave - ler electrode as illustrated in figure 23. The
guide connectors. The resonant cavities of potentials ors the various electrodes are ad-
the klystron may be tuned either for maxi- justed to a value such that proper bunching
mum stage gain or for maximum efficiency. of the electron beam will take place just as
For maximum gain, all cavities are tuned to a particular portion of the velocity -modu-
the center operating frequency; but for bet- lated beam re- enters the area of the resonant
ter bandwidth and higher efficiency the cavi- cavity. Since this type of klystron has only
ties are usually stagger -tuned across the op- one circuit it can be used only as an oscilla-
erating band. tor and not as an amplifier. Effective modu-
lation of the frequency of a single- cavity
"Bunching" The electron stream leaving the klystron for f -m work can be obtained by
cathode gun of a klystron is modulating the repeller electrode voltage.
uniform in density, but the action of the
cavities and drift tubes cause a large degree
of density modulation to appear in the beam [ICCTnOOC
The Magnetron The magnetron is a uhf so that the lines of magnetic force it sets up
oscillator tube normally em- are parallel to the axisof the electrodes.
ployed where very -high values of peak power Under the influence of the strong mag-
or moderate amounts of average power are netic field, electrons leaving the filament
required in the range from perhaps 700 are deflected from their normal paths and
MHz to 30,000 MHz. Special magnetrons move in circular orbits within the anode
were developed for wartime use in radar cylinder. This effect results in a negative
equipment which had peak power capabili- resistance which sustains oscillations. The
ties of several million watts (megawatts) oscillation frequency is very nearly the value
output at frequencies in the vicinity of determined by L and C. In other magnetron
3000 MHz. The normal duty cycle of oper- circuits, the frequency may be governed by
ation of these radar units was approximately the electron rotation, no external tuned cir-
1 10 of one percent (the tube operated cuits being employed. Wavelengths of less
about 1000 of the time and rested for
1
than 1centimeter have been produced with
the balance of the operating period) so that such circuits.
the average power output of these magne- More complex magnetron tubes employ no
trons was in the vicinity of 1000 watts. external tuned circuit, but utilize instead
In its simplest form the magnetron tube one or more resonant cavities which are in-
is a filament -type diode with two half- cylin- tegral with the anode structure. Figure 25
drical plates or anodes situated coaxially with shows a magnetron of this type having a
respect to the filament. The construction is multicellular anode of eight cavities. It will
illustrated in figure 24A. The anodes of the be noted, also, that alternate cavities (which
magnetron are connected to a resonant cir- would operate at the same polarity when the
cuit as illustrated in figure 24B. The tube tube is oscillating) are strapped together.
is surrounded by an electromagnet coil. Strapping was found to improve the effi-
which, in turn, is connected to a low - ciency and stability of high -power radar
voltage dc energizing source through a magnetrons. In most radar applications of
rheostat (R) for controlling the strength of magnetron oscillators, a powerful permanent
the magnetic field. The field coil is oriented magnet of controlled characteristics is em-
ployed to supply the magnetic field, rather
PLATE I MAGNET COIL than the use of an electromagnet.
ANODE
ANODE
FIL FIL
FILAMENT
PLATE 2 GLASS ENVELOPE
Figure 25
MODERN MULTICAVITY
MAGNETRON
injection electrodes, not used on the simpler 5 -8 The Cathode -Ray Tube
magnetron, are employed with the VTM. An
isolator is often used in the output circuit The cathode -ray tube is a special type of
as the frequency of operation and output electron tube which permits the visual obser-
power are interrelated. Other classes of mag- vation of electrical signals. It may be in-
netrons include the injected -beam, backward - corporated into an oscilloscope for use as a
wave oscillator (Carcinatron), and the test instrument or it may be the display de-
crossed -field backward -wave oscillator vice for radar equipment or television.
(BWO).
Operation of A cathode -ray tube always in-
the CRT dudes an electron gun for pro-
The Traveling - The traveling -ware tube ducing a stream of electrons, a
Wave Tube (figure 26) consists of a grid for controlling the intensity of the elec-
helix located within an tron beam, and a luminescent screen for con-
evacuated envelope. Input and output ter- verting the impinging electron beam into
minations are affixed to each end of the helix. visible light. Such a tube always operates in
An electron beam passes through the helix conjunction with either a built -in or an ex-
and interacts with a wave traveling along ternal means for focusing the electron stream
the helix to produce broadband amplification into a narrow beam, and a means for deflect-
at microwave frequencies. ing the electron beam in accordance with an
electrical signal.
WAVEGU IDE WAVE GU IDE The main electrical difference between
OUTPUT
NPUT
ELECTRON BEAM types of cathode -ray tubes lies in the means
employed for focusing and deflecting the
electron beam. The beam may be focused
and/or deflected either electrostatically or
magnetically, since a stream of electrons can
ANODE COLLECTOR
be acted on either by an electrostatic or a
magnetic field. In an electrostatic field the
Figure 26 electron beam tends to be deflected toward
the positive termination of the field (figure
THE TRAVELING -WAVE TUBE 27). In a magnetic field the stream tends to
be deflected at right angles to the field. Fur-
Operation of this tube is the result of interac-
tion between the electron beam and wave trav- ther, an electron beam tends to be deflected
eling along the helix.
ton for oscillographic work. When a tube After leaving the focusing electrode, the
is operated at a high value of accelerating elections pass through another accelerating
potential so as to obtain a bright dis- anode (A) which is operated at a high pos-
play on the face of the tube as for television itive potential. In some tubes this electrode
or radar work, the use of magnetic deflec- is operated at a higher potential than the
tion becomes desirable since it is relatively first accelerating electrode (H) while in
easier to deflect a high- velocity electron other tubes both accelerating electrodes are
beam magnetically than electrostatically operated at the same potential.
An ion trap is required with magnetic de- The electrodes which have been described
flection since the heavy negative ions emitted up to this point constitute the electron gun,
by the cathode are not materially deflected which produces the free electrons and fo-
by the magnetic field and would burn an ion cuses them into a slender, concentrated,
spot in the center of the luminescent screen. rapidly traveling stream for projecting onto
With electrostatic deflection the heavy ions the viewing screen.
are deflected equally as well as the electrons
in the beam so that an ion spot is not Electrostatic To make the tube useful, means
formed. Deflection must be provided for deflecting
the electron beam along two
Construction of The construction of a axes at right angles to each other. The more
Electrostatic CRT typical electrostatic- focus, common tubes employ electrostatic deflec-
electrostatic - deflection tion plates, one pair to exert a force on the
cathode -ray tube is illustrated in the pic- beam in the vertical plane and one pair to
torial diagram of figure 27. The indirectly. exert a force in the horizontal plane. These
heated cathode (K) releases free electrons plates are designated as B and C in figure 27.
when heated by the enclosed filament. The Standard oscilloscope practice with small
cathode is surrounded by a cylinder (G) cathode -ray tubes calls for connecting one
which has a small hole in its front for the of the B plates and one of the C plates to-
passage of the electron stream. Although this gether and to the high -voltage accelerating
element is not a wire mesh as is the usual anode. With the newer three -inch tubes and
grid, it is known by the same name because with five -inch tubes and larger, all four de-
flection plates are commonly used for deflec-
tion. The positive high voltage is grounded,
instead of the negative as is common prac-
P-1
GUADAL
COATING
SECONDARY
CLECrDONI -, tice in amplifiers, etc., in order to permit
i U CLCCfAGN'STAN
operation of the deflecting plates at a dc
FLUORESCENT SCREEN
potential at or near ground.
An Aquadag coating is applied to the in-
side of the envelope to attract any secondary
Figure 27 electrons emitted by the fluorescent screen.
In the average electrostatic- deflection CR
TYPICAL ELECTROSTATIC
CATHODE -RAY TUBE tube the spot will be fairly well centered if
all four deflection plates are returned to the
its action is similar: it controls the electron potential of the second anode (ground).
stream when its negative potential is varied. However, for accurate centering and to
Next in order, is found the first acceler- permit moving the entire trace either hori-
ating anode (H) which resembles another zontally or vertically to permit display of a
disk or cylinder with a small hole in its particular waveform, horizontal- and verti-
center. This electrode is run at a high or cal- centering controls usually are provided
moderately high positive voltage, to accel- on the front of the oscilloscope.
erate the electrons toward the far end of After the spot is once centered, it is nec-
the tube. essary only to apply a positive or negative
The focusing electrode (F) is a sleeve voltage (with respect to ground) to one of
which usually contains two small disks, each the ungrounded or "free" deflector plates
with a small hole. in order to move the spot. If the voltage is
5.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
Focus COIL TERMINAL
positive with respect to ground, the beam !As[ FIRST \ DEFLECTION COILS
RHODE
will be attracted toward that deflector plate.
If it is negative, the beam and spot will
be repulsed. The amount of deflection is
directly proportional to the voltage (with
respect to ground) that is applied to the GRID101
ill FLUORESCENT SCREEN
spots can be made to appear as a line, if the plate -to- cathode voltage drop to be a func-
beam is swept over the path fast enough. As tion of the current being carried between
long as the electron beam strikes in a given the cathode and the plate. This voltage drop
place at least sixteen times a second, the can be rather high when large currents are
spot will appear to the human eve as a being passed, causing a considerable amount
source of continuous light with very little of energy loss which shows up as plat! dissi-
flicker. pation.
Screen Materials- At least five types of Action of
"Phosphors" luminescent screen mate- The negative space charge can
Positive Ions be neutralized by the presence
rials are commonly avail-
able on the various types of CR tubes com- of the proper density of posi-
mercially available. These screen materials tive ions in the space between the cathode
are called phosphors; each of the five phos-
and anode. The positive ions may be ob-
phors is best suited to a particular type of tained by the introduction of the proper
application. The P -1 phosphor, which has a amount of gas or a small amount of mercury
green fluorescence with medium persistence, into the envelope of the tube. When the
is almost invariably used for oscilloscope
voltage drop across the tube reaches the ion-
tubes for visual observation. The P -4 phos- ization potential of the gas or mercury
phor, with white fluorescence and medium vapor, the gas molecules will become ionized
persistence, is used on television viewing to form positive ions. The positive ions then
-
tubes (Kinescopes). The P -5 and P -11 phos- tend to neutralize the space charge in the
vicinity of the cathode. The voltage drop
.1 l' -H
across the tube then remains constant at
the ionization potential of the gas, up to a
Ib\N
current drain equal to the maximum emis-
sion capability of the cathode. The voltage
+V
drop varies between 10 and 20 volts, depend-
- ing on the particular gas employed, up to
the maximum current rating of the tube.
to + 90° C. The 3B2S rectifier is an ex Ruggedized or Radio tubes are used for in-
ample of this type of tube. Premium Tubes dustrial applications, such
as computing and control
Thyratron If a grid is inserted between the machinery, and in aviation and marine
Tubes cathode and plate of a mercury- equipment.
vapor gaseous- conduction recti- To meet the demands of these industrial
fier, a negative potential placed on the added applications, a series of tubes was evolved
element will increase the plate -to- cathode incorporating many special features designed
voltage drop required before the tube will to ensure a long and predetermined operat-
ionize or "fire." The potential on the control ing life, and uniform characteristics among
grid will have no effect on the plate -t'- similar tubes. Such tubes are known as rug -
cathode drop after the tube has ionized. gedized or premium tubes. Long life and
However, the grid voltage may be adjusted ruggedness are built into the tubes by means
to such a value that conduction will take of proper choice and 100x/, inspection of all
place only over the desired portion of the materials used in the tube, by critical proc-
cycle of the a -c voltage being impressed on essing inspection and assembling, and by
the plate of the rectifier. conservative ratings of the tube.
Pure tungsten wire is used for heaters in
Voltage- Regulator In a glow-discharge gas preference to alloys of lower tensile strength.
Tubes tube the voltage drop Nickel tubing is employed around the heater
across the electrodes re- wires at the junction to the stem wires to
mains constant over a wide range of current reduce breakage at this point. Element struc-
passing through the tube. This property tures are given extra supports and bracing.
exists because the degree of ionization of Finally, all tubes are given a 50 -hour test
the gas in the tube varies with the amount run under full operating conditions to elimi-
of current passing through the tube. When nate early failures.
a large current is passed, the gas is highly
Ruggedized tubes will withstand severe
ionized and the internal impedance of the impact shocks for short periods, and will
tube is low. When a small current is passed, operate under conditions of vibration for
the gas is lightly ionized and the internal many hours. The tubes may be identified in
impedance of the tube is high. Over the many cases by the fact that their nomen-
operating range of the tube, the product clature includes a "W" in the type number,
(IR) of the current through the tube and as in 807W, SU4W, etc. Some ruggedized
the internal impedance of the tube is very tubes are included in the "5000" series
nearly constant. Examples of this type of nomenclature. The 5654 is a ruggedized
tube are the OB2, OC2, and VR -150. version of the 6AKS, the 5692 is a rugged -
i7ed version of the 6SN7, etc.
Vacuum -Tube Vacuum tubes are grouped 5 -10 Miscellaneous
Classification into three major classifica- Tube Types
tions: commercial, rugged -
ized, and premium (or reliable). Any one Electron - The electron -ray tube contains
of these three groups may also be further Ray Tubes two sets of elements, one of
classified for military duty (MIL spec. or which is a triode amplifier and
JAN classification). To qualify for MIL the other a cathode -ray indicator. The plate
classification, sample lots of the particular of the triode section is connected to the ray -
tube must have passed special qualification control electrodes (figure 30), so that as the
tests at the factory. It should not be con- plate voltage varies in accordance with the
strued that a MIL -type tube is better than applied signal, the voltage on the ray -con-
a commercial tube, since some commercial trol electrode also varies. The electrons which
tests and specifications are more rigid than strike the anode cause it to fluoresce, or give
the corresponding MIL specifications. The off light, so that the deflection caused by the
MIL stamped tube has merely been accepted ray- control electrodes, which prevents elec-
under a certain set of conditions for mili- trons from striking part of the anode, pro-
tary service. duces an electrical shadow on the fluorescent
VACUUM -TUBE PRINCIPLES 5.23
anode. The size of this shadow is determined the same type made by different manufac-
by the voltage on the ray electrodes. When turers. Some 6 -volt tubes show an initial
these electrodes are at the sanie potential as surge as high as 9 volts during warmup,
the fluorescent anode, the shadow disap- while slow -heating tubes are underheated
pears; if the ray electrode is less positive during the voltage surge on the 6 -volt tubes.
than the anode, a shadow appears, the length Standardization of heater characteristics
of which is proportional to the voltage on in a new group of tubes designed for series
the ray electrodes. heater strings has eliminated this trouble.
6FG6 /EM -84 The new tubes have either 600 mA or 400
mA heaters, with a controlled warmup time
470 1í
of approximately 11 seconds.
CONTROL
SIGNAL
Digital Register tubes, or Nixies, are
NO MAX.
Readout Tubes glow tubes that provide the
SIGNAL SIGNAL $IM direct display of characters
for data presentation. Nixies have stacked
internal elements in the form of metallic
Figure 30 numerals with a common anode. When neg-
ative voltage is applied to a selected char-
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION acter, it glows like the cathode of a gas -
OF ELECTRON RAY TUBE
discharge tube. Usually only the selected
numeral is visible in the viewing area be-
Controlled Seriesheater strings arc em- cause the visual glow discharge is larger than
Wermup ployed in older television sets to its metallic source. The Nixie tube requires
Tubes reduce the cost, size, and weight careful control of cathode current for long
of the equipment. Voltage surges life and reliability.
of great magnitude occur in series -operated Register tubes are available with up to 10
filaments because of variations in the rate characters and require a potential of about
of warm -up of the various tubes. As the 200 volts for proper character formation. In
tubes warm up, the heater resistance changes. addition to digits (0 to 9), some devices dis-
This change is not the sanie between tubes play letters of the alphabet or special char-
of various types, or even between tubes of acters.
. ' --? - ;44`. 4}1,4:44., 1IC
ml
FL
01.
a
CHAPTER SIX
circuitry is useful in the study and applica- operating angle of plate current flow is ap-
tion of advanced solid -state devices. preciably greater than 180° but less than
360 °. The suffix , indicates that grid current
does not flow over any portion of the input
6 -1 Classes and Types of cycle.
Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers Class -AB: A Class-AB, amplifier is operated
Amplifier under essentially the same condi-
tions of grid bias as the class -AB,
Vacuum -tube amplifiers are grouped into amplifier mentioned above, but the exciting
various classes and subclasses according to voltage is of such amplitude that grid cur-
the type of work they are intended to per- rent flows over an appreciable portion of
form. The difference between the various the input wave cycle.
classes is determined primarily by the angle
of plate -current flow, the value of average Class -B A class -B amplifier is biased sub-
grid bias employed, and the maximum value Amplifier stantially to cutoff of plate cur-
of the exciting signal impressed on the grid rent (without exciting voltage)
circuit. so that plate current flows essentially over
6.1
6.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
one -half the input voltage cycle. The opera- 6 -2 Bios and Input
ting angle of plate -current flow is 180`. The Constants
class -B amplifier is usually excited to the
extent that grid current flows.
Class -C A class -C amplifier is biased to a
The difference in average potential be-
Amplifier value greater than the value re- tween grid and cathode is called the grid
bias of a vacuum tube. There are three gen-
quired for plate- current cutoff
eral methods of providing this bias voltage.
and is excited with a signal of such ampli-
In each of these methods the purpose is to
tude that grid current flows over an appreci-
establish the grid at a potential with respect
able period of the input- voltage waveshape.
to the cathode which will place the tube in
The angle of plate- current flow in a class -C the desired operating condition as deter-
amplifier is appreciably less than 180° or
mined by its characteristics.
in other words, plate current flows less than
Grid bias may be obtained from a source
one -half the time. Class -C amplifiers are not
of voltage specially provided for this pur-
capable of linear amplification as their out-
pose, such as a battery or other dc power
put waveform is not a replica of the input supply. This method is illustrated in figure
voltage for all signal amplitudes.
2A, and is known as fixed bias.
Types of
Amplifiers
There are three general types of
amplifier circuits in use. These RL RL Cc I\ RL
or power is taken between cathode and plate. A second biasing method is illustrated in
The third type is called a cathode -driven or figure 2B which utilizes a cathode resistor
grounded -grid amplifier since the grid is across which a voltage drop is developed as a
effectively at ground potential for input and result of plate current flowing through it.
output signals and output is taken between The cathode of the tube is held at a positive
grid and plate. potential with respect to ground by the
GROUNDED - CATHODE GROUNDED - PLATE OR amount of the voltage drop because the grid
is at ground potential. Since the biasing
CATHODE - FOLLOWER
tive with respect to the cathode, grid cur- when a tube is operating as amplifier there
rent flows from cathode to grid, charging is another consideration known as Miller
capacitor Cc. When the grid draws current, Effect which causes the dynamic input ca-
the grid -to- cathode resistance of the tube pacitance to be different from the static
drops from an infinite value to a very low value. The output capacitance of an ampli-
value (on the order of 1000 ohms or so) fier is essentially the same as the static value
making the charging time constant of the given in the published tube tables. The grid -
capacitor very short. This enables Cc to to -plate capacitance is also the same as the
charge up to essentially the full value of the published static value, but since Cg, acts as
positive input voltage and results in the grid a small capacitance coupling energy back
(which is connected to the low- potential from the plate circuit to the grid circuit,
plate of the capacitor) being held essentially the dynamic input capacitance is equal to
at ground potential. During the negative the static value plus an amount (frequently
swing of the input signal no grid current much greater in the case of a triode) deter-
flows and the discharge path of Cc is through mined by the gain of the stage, the plate
the grid resistance which has a value of load impedance, and the C0 feedback capa-
500,000 ohms or so. The discharge time con- citance. The total value for an audio- ampli-
stant for Cc is, therefore, very long in com- fier stage can be expressed in the following
parison to the period of the input signal and equation:
only a small part of the charge on Cc is lost.
Thus, the bias voltage developed by the dis- Coudy,,n:nh.) = :Wutn)
CFA + (A + 1) CFI,
charge of Cc is substantially constant and
the grid is not permitted to follow the posi- This expression assumes that the vacuum
tive portion of the input signal. tube is operating into a resistive load such
as would be the case with an audio stage
Vacuum -Tube The relationships between cer- working into a resistance plate load in the
Constants tain of the electrode poten- middle audio range.
tials and currents within a The more complete expression for the in-
vacuum tube are reasonably constant under put admittance (vector sum of capacitance
specified conditions of operation. These re- and resistance) of an amplifier operating into
lationships are called vacuum-tube constants any type of plate load is as follows:
and are listed in the data published by the
manufacturers of vacuum tubes. The de- input capacitance = Cgk+ (1+A cos B) C,
fining equations for the basic vacuum -tube 1
constants are given in Chapter Five.
r---1 r----i input resistance
Ccv.T, :c-T-- Cep...-., A' sin O
Cvn -ii- , I :-
Ccur
where,
;.
-_J
rCc:=,
, C IN
- _ ___J
i
A' equals voltage amplification of the tube
alone,
TRIODE O equals angle of the plate -load impedance,
PENTODE OR TETRODE
positive for inductive loads, negative
Figure 3 for capacitive.
STATIC INTERELECTRODE It can be seen from the above that if the
CAPACITANCES WITHIN A TRIODE, plate -load impedance of the stage is capaci-
PENTODE, OR TETRODE tive or inductive, there will be a resistive
component in the input admittance of the
Interelcctrode The values of interelec- stage. The resistive component of the input
Capacirances and trode capacitance publish - admittance will be positive (tending to load
Miller Effect ed in vacuum -tube tables the circuit feeding the grid) if the load
are the static values meas- impedance of the plate is capacitive, or it
ured, in the case of triodes for example, as will be negative (tending to make the stage
shown in figure 3. The static capacitances oscillate) if the load impedance of the plate
are simply as shown in the drawing, but is inductive.
6.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
OUTPUT
SIGNAL
Figure 5
This form of distortion occurs in any non- voltage levels (from 0.01 to 5 volts peak on
linear device and generates spurious fre- the grid of the tube) and use medium -p
quencies falling within the passband of the triodes such as the 6C4 or high -)1 triodes
amplifier. The subject of intermodulation such as the 12ÁT7. Normal voltage gain for
distortion is covered in Chapter 7 in greater a single stage of this type is from 10 to 70,
detail. depending on the tube chosen and its oper-
ating conditions. Triode tubes are normally
used in the last voltage- amplifier stage of an
6 -4 Resistance - RC amplifier since their harmonic distortion,
Capacitance Coupled with large output voltage (25 to 75 volts)
Audio- Frequency Amplifiers is less than with a pentode tube.
G A_ L RL RG
Rp (RL+RG)tRL RG
e= -mee
MID-FREQUENCY RANGE
C OK
A NIGN FRED. -
(DYNAMIC, A MID FRED. (RED /XS)2
e: -rec NEAT STAGE) J1+
RL
REo-
RL RL
HIGH- FREQUENCY RANGE 1+ Rc + Rp
XS-
217F (Cpe +CGN (DYNAMIC)
A LOw FRED. n 1
G
A MID FRED.
J 1 + (Xc / R)2
XC - 277FCc
LOW -FREQUENCY RANGE
RL RP
R = RG+ RL+ Rp
Figure 6
operating conditions for commonly used voltage gain for a stage of this type is from
tubes is published in the RCA Receiving 60 to 250, depending on the tube chosen and
Tube Manual. It is assumed, in the case of its operating conditions. Pentode tubes are
the gain equations of figure 6, that the cath- ordinarily used in the first stage of an RC
ode bypass capacitor (CO has a reactance amplifier, where the high gain which they
that is low with respect to the cathode re- afford is of greatest advantage, and where
sistor at the lowest frequency to be passed only a small voltage output is required from
by the amplifier stage. the stage.
The voltage gain per stage of a resistance -
RC Coupled Figure 7 illustrates the stand- capacitance coupled pentode amplifier can be
Pentode Stages ard circuit for a resistance - calculated with the aid of the equivalent cir-
capacitance coupled pentode cuits and expressions for the mid -frequency,
amplifier stage. Cathode bias is used and the high- frequency, and low -frequency ranges
screen voltage is supplied through a drop- given in figure 8.
ping resistor from the plate - voltage supply. To assist the designer of such stages, data
In conventional audio -frequency amplifier on operating conditions for commonly used
design such stages are normally used at low types of tubes is published in the RCA Re-
voltage levels (from 0.00001 to 0.1 volts ceiving Tube Manual. It is assumed, in the
Cc case of the gain equations of figure 8, that
cathode bypass capacitor CI, has a reactance
that is low with respect to the cathode re-
sistor at the lowest frequency to be passed
by the stage. It is additionally assumed that
the reactance of screen bypass capacitor Cr,
is low with respect to screen dropping re-
sistor RI, at the lowest frequency to be passed
Figure 7
by the amplifier stage.
A Gu Req
Figure 8
G RL
Req
+RP
1tR
PENTODE GAIN
EQUATIONS
MID -FREQUENCY RANGE
Equivalent circuits and
gain equations for a
A HIGH FRED _
pentode RC- coupled am-
A MID FRED +(RED /XS)2 plifier stage. In using
++
t
these equations be sure
REO= RL to select the values of
RG RP gT and RP which are
HIGH -FREQUENCY RANGE proper for the static
Xs -
2TTF (CPR+CGR (DYNAMIC)
currents and voltages
with which the tube
will operate. These val-
A LOW FRED. _ ues may be obtained
A MID FRED. VI +(XC/ R)2 from curves published
G in the RCA Receiving
Tube Manual.
Xc- 2TTFCc
LOW -FREQUENCY RANGE RL RP
R- RG + RL+RP
VACUUM -TUBE AMPLIFIERS 6.7
be cascaded. The total voltage gain of cas- method is to use grid- resistor bias, with a
caded amplifier stages is obtained by taking resistor of one to ten megohms connected
the product of the voltage gains of each of directly between grid and cathode of the
the successive stages. tube with the cathode grounded. Grid cur-
Sometimes the voltage gain of an amplifier rent flows at all times, and the effective in-
stage is rated in decibels. Voltage gain is put resistance is about one -half the resis-
converted into decibel gain through the use tance value of the grid resistor. This circuit
of the following expression: dB 20 log,,, = is particularly well suited as a high -gain
A, where A is the voltage gain of the stage. amplifier following low -output devices, such
The total gain of cascaded voltage -amplifier is crystal. or dynamic microphones.
stages can be obtained by adding the num-
ber of dB gain in each of the cascaded stages. Video Frequency
6 -5
RC Amplifier A typical frequency-response Amplifiers
Response curve for an RC- coupled au-
dio amplifier is shown in fig-
ure 9. It is seen that the amplification is A ¿ideo -f requeut l amplifier is one which
poor for the extreme high and low frequen- has been designed to pass frequencies from
cies. The reduced gain at the low frequen- the lower audio range (lower limit perhaps
50 Hz) to the middle r -f range (upper
100 I. RL. 500000OHMS
2_RL Ioo000 OHMS limit perhaps 4 to 6 MHz). Video amplifiers
3. RL. 50 000 OHMS
4.RL' 20000 OHMS are commonly used in television, pulse com-
munication, and radar work. Tubes used in
video amplifiers must have a high ratio of
=so. G,. to capacitance if a usable gain per stage
is to be obtained.
Figure 9
IO-EREOUENC EOUALIaATION
off because of the Miller effect of the sub- .011 COMPROMISE
Re R.
sequent stage, and the shunting effect of (GMN, RL)
Figure 10
Grid- Resistor Bios The correct operating
for High -Mu Triodes bias for a high -mu tri- SIMPLE COMPENSATED VIDEO
ode such as the 12ÁT7,
AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
is fairly critical, and will be found to be Resistor R in conjunction with coil L serves
highly variable from tube to tube because to flatten the high -frequency response of the
stage, while C. and R serve to equalize the
of minute variations in contact potential low- frequency response of this simple video
within the tube itself. A satisfactory bias amplifier stage.
6.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
Since, at the upper frequency limits of a simple two -terminal interstage coupling net-
video amplifier the input and output shunt- work is shown in this figure.
ing capacitances of the amplifier tubes have The performance and gain per stage of a
rather low values of reactance, low values of video amplifier can be improved by the use
coupling resistance, along with peaking coils of increasingly complex two -terminal inter -
or other special interstage coupling impe- stage coupling networks or through the use
dances, are usually used to flatten out the of four -terminal coupling networks or fil-
gain 'frequency and hence the phase/fre- ters between successive stages. The reader is
quency characteristic of the amplifier. Rec- referred to Terman's "Radio Engineer's
ommended operating conditions along with Handbook" for design data on such inter -
expressions for calculation of gain and cir- stage coupling networks.
cuit values are given in figure 10. Only a
6 -6 Other Interstage
Coupling Methods
In some instances, other coupling tech-
niques than the common RC circuit is em-
ployed. Figure 11 illustrates some of these
TRANSFORMER COUPLING circuits.
Transformer coupling as shown in illustra-
tions A and B is sometimes used in high -
power audio amplifier stages, especially in
cases where it is desired to obtain a large
amount of voltage to drive the grid of a
cathode follower or of a high -power class -A
amplifier from a tube operating with a mod-
erate value of plate voltage. Under these
conditions, transformer coupling will, pro-
'B
vide a peak secondary voltage appreciably
PUSH-PULL TRANSFORMER COUPLING higher than the dc plate voltage of the driv-
ing stage. The resistance- transformer cou-
pling circuit of illustration C is used when
it is desired to remove the dc voltage from
the primary winding of the transformer.
The cathode coupling circuit of illustra-
tion D is of interest since there is no phase
Figure 12
Figure 11 Equivalent factors for a pair of similar triodes
operating as a cathode -coupled audio -frequency
INTERSTAGE COUPLING METHODS voltage amplifier.
VACUUM -TUBE AMPLIFIERS 6.9
reversal between the input and output cir- All of these vacuum -tube phase inverters
cuit. Figure 12 gives the equations for de- arc based on the fact that a 180` phase
termining the appropriate factors for an shift occurs within a vacuum tube between
equivalent triode which can be used with the grid input voltage and the plate output
the expressions shown in figure 6 to deter- voltage. In certain circuits, the fact that the
mine the gain of the stage at different fre- grid input voltage and the voltage appear-
quencies. ing across the cathode bias resistor are in
phase, is used for phase- inversion purposes.
Phase In order to drive the grids of a Figure 13A illustrates the cathode fol-
Inverters push -pull stage it is necessary that
lower type phase inverter. This phase invert-
voltages equal in amplitude and er is the simplest of the three types since it
opposite in polarity be applied to the two requires only one tube and a minimum of cir-
grids. These voltages may be obtained cuit components. The circuit does, however,
through the use of a push -pull input trans- possess the following two disadvantages: (1)
former such as is shown in figure 11B. It is the cathode of the tube must run at a poten-
possible also, without the attendant bulk tial of approximately one -third the plate sup-
and expense of a push -pull input trans-
ply voltage above the heater when a grounded
former, to obtain voltages of the proper po- common heater winding is used for this tube
larity and phase through the use of a so- as well as the other heater -cathode tubes in a
called phase- inverter stage. There are a large receiver or amplifier; (2) the circuit actu-
number of phase- inversion circuits which ally has a loss in voltage from its input to
have been developed and applied but the
either of the output grids -about 0.9 times
two shown in figure 13 have been found
the input voltage will be applied to each of
these grids. This does represent a voltage
gain of about 1.8 in total voltage output
with respect to input (grid -to -grid output
voltage) but it is still small with respect to
the other two phase- inverter circuits shown.
Recommended component values for use
with a 6C4 tube in this circuit are shown in
figure 13A. If it is desired to use another
® CATHODE r OL LOWER PHASE INVERTER tube in this circuit, appropriate values for
the operation of that tube as a conventional
12 AUT amplifier can be obtained from manufactur-
RL CC .02 RG er's tube data. The designated value of RI.
47K 220K
should be divided by two, and this new
G= value of resistance placed in the circuit as
220K
C .02
RI.. The value of RI, from tube-manual ta-
bles should then be used as Rkl in this cir-
e urD
.e 300 V cuit, and the total of Rkl and Rk_ should be
equal to R1..
® CATHODE- COUPLED PHASE INVERTER
The circuit shown in figure 13B gives ap-
Figure 13
proximately one half the voltage gain from
the input grid to either of the grids of the
TWO TYPICAL PHASE-INVERTER succeeding stage that would be obtained
CIRCUITS WITH RECOMMENDED from a single tube of the same type operat-
VALUES FOR CIRCUIT COMPONENTS ing as a conventional RC amplifier stage.
over a period of time to be the most satis- Thus, with a 12AU7 tube as shown the volt-
factory from the point of view of the num- age, gain from the input grid to either of the
ber of components required and from the output grids will be approximately 7-the
standpoint of the accuracy with which the gain is, of course, 14 from the input to both
two out -of -phase voltages are held to the output grids. The phase characteristics are
same amplitude with variations in supply such that the circuit is commonly used in
voltage and changes in tubes. deriving push -pull deflection voltage for a
6.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
cathode-ray tube from a single -ended input ations in voltage, or of dc voltages is desired.
signal. A simple dc amplifier consists of a single
The first section of the 12AU7 is used as tube with a grid resistor across the input
an amplifier to increase the amplitude of the terminals, and the load in the plate circuit.
applied signal to the desired level. The sec-
ond section of the 12AU7 is used as an in- Basic DC A basic dc amplifier cir-
verter and amplifier to produce a signal of Amplifier Circuit cuit is shown in figure 15,
the same amplitude but of opposite polarity. wherein the grid of one
Since the common cathode resistor (Rk) is tube is connected directly to the plate of the
not bypassed the voltage across it is the alge- preceding tube in such a manner that volt-
braic sum of the two plate currents and has age changes on the grid of the first tube will
the same shape and polarity as the voltage ap- be amplified by the system. The voltage drop
plied to the input grid of the first half of across the plate coupling resistor is impressed
the 12AU7. When a signal (e) is applied to directly on the grid of the second tube,
the input circuit, the effective grid- cathode which is provided with enough negative grid
voltage of the first section is Ae /2, when A bias to balance out the excessive voltage drop
is the gain of the first section. Since the grid across the coupling resistor. The grid of the
of the second section of the 12AU7 is
grounded, the effect of the signal voltage
across Rk (equal to e/2 if Rk is the proper
value) is the same as though a signal of the
same amplitude but of opposite polarity were
applied to the grid. The output of the sec-
ond section is equal to -Ae /2 if the plate
load resistors are the same for both tube Figure 15
6 -7 DC Amplifiers
Figure 16
Direct -current amplifiers are special types
used where amplification of very slow vari- PUSH -PULL DC AMPLIFIER
111
VACUUM -TUBE AMPLIFIERS 6.111
'
g
iir,IlltiiliIlllllil
iìllN
6 -8 The Single -Ended
Triode Amplifier
!IwIMENU
IIII `rIIII, Iw
MIEN
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tr illírriói
ONIMwIllhlW MINI
100
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Iw
iiïiT<6I"
I/LI srd7!i./í/_.
703 Ea 300 I
!aoo
-
3.Locate the Eel bias point on the Ib points x and P. This line is the load -
versus Eh graph where the E,, bias line resistance line. Its slope corresponds to
crosses the plate -voltage line, as shown the value of the load resistance.
8. Load resistance, (in ohms) equals:
in figure 17. Call this point P.
max TT eh min
4. Locate on the plate family of curves _ ebib -
the value of zero-signal plate current, max ib min
6.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
9. Check: Multiply the zero -signal plate regulation) is many times higher than that
current (Ib) by the operating plate of an equivalent triode. The application of
voltage, (Eb). If the plate dissipation negative feedback acts both to reduce distor-
rating of the tube is exceeded, it is tion and to reduce the effective plate- circuit
necessary to increase the bias (E,) on impedance of these tubes.
the tube so that the plate dissipation
falls within the maximum rating of
the tube. If this step is taken, opera- P
P-
P (Ib mas - !b min) X (e,, !mix - eh mia)
family of curves, much as in the manner
applied to triode tubes. A typical family of
pentode plate curves is shown in figure 19.
ttMEtt
tllrrlfì0.I1WI
where,
i is
e is
in amperes,
in volts.
The second -harmonic distortion gen-
NENMEMIN
- zD
e-
17 11111111r
MN
sow
/lrrlirrr
11.
erated in a single -ended class -A triode "WU CNOOSE-
aM :y
TRIAL LOAD LINE.
i..,inn
LOADLINESOTHATAP=P-
amplifier, expressed as a percentage of
the fundamental output signal is:
(Yr 2nd harmonic =
- r ei7luerat; nax
,M._
- lirTiIN cSIMM
,
NIMrTAMMlU\M
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Figure 17 illustrates the above steps as ap- e'MIN
PLATE VOLTS
plied to a single class -A 2A3 amplifier stage.
Figure 19
GRAPHIC DETERMINATION OF
6-9 Single -Ended OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A
Pentode Amplifiers PENTODE POWER AMPLIFIER
"V" is the negative control grid voltage at the
operating point P.
where,
PUSH -PULL TRIODE AND TETRODE
1 is the plate current at the point on
the load line where the grid volt-
age (e,.) is equal to: E,. 0.7 E,.,
1, is the plate current at the point
- Figure 20
CONVENTIONAL PUSH -PULL CIRCUITS
where, e, is equal to: E,. + 0.7 E,.. The cancellation of even harmonics gener-
7. The percentage harmonic distortion is: ated in the stage allows the tubes to be oper-
% 2nd harmonic distortion = ated class AB-in other words the tubes may
- -+ - -
be operated with bias and input signals of
ib mnz ib min 21bU X 100 such amplitude that the plate current of
ib max %b min 1.41 (Ix 1y)
alternate tubes may be cut off during a por-
where, tion of the input voltage cycle.
Ibn is the static plate current of the Push -pull class -AB operation allows a
tube. plate circuit efficiency of from 4S to 60
6.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
ih max
for a particular triode tube by the follow- 1.6 E,,
ing steps: R,
i,, umx
1. Erect a vertical line from the plate -
Ii
voltage axis (x -axis) at 0.6 E1, (figure Figure 21 illustrates the above steps ap-
21) , which intersects the E,. = 0 plied to a push -pull class -A amplifier using
curve. This point of intersection (P). two 2A3 tubes.
/
interpolated to the plate current axis 4. The average plate current is 0.636
N N'MI
(y- axis), may be taken as i,, ,,, It is
íiiNi
lN N
,. i
and multiplied b) plate vo tage
300
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FIGURE 21
1
the maximum ratings, however, a small
amount of grid bias, such as could be ob-
tained from a regulated bias supply, is re- Effects of Speech All the above equations are
quired. (3) , A class -B audio -frequency pow- Clipping true for sine -wave operat-
er amplifier or modulator requires a source of ing condition of the tubes
plate- supply voltage having reasonably good concerned. However, if a speech clipper is
regulation. being used in the speech amplifier, it may
be desired to calculate the operating con-
ditions on the basis of the fact that the
Calculation of Operating The following pro- ratio of peak power to average power in a
Conditions of Class -B cedure can be used speech wave is approximately 4 to 1 as con-
Power Amplifiers for the calculation of trasted to the ratio of 2 to 1 in a sine wave.
the operating condi- Thus the general concern is with peak
tions of class -B power amplifiers when they power output.
are to operate into a resistive load such as Under these conditions it is necessary to
presented by a class -C power amplifier. This call on other, more general relationships. The
procedure can be used with equal effective- first of these is: it requires a peak power out-
ness for the calculation of the operating con- put equa! to the class -C stage input to mod-
ditions of beam tetrodes as class -AB, ampli- ulate that input fully.
fiers or modulators when the resting plate The second relationship is: the average
current of the tubes (no- signal condition) power output required of the modulator is
is less than 25 or 30 percent of the maxi- equal to the shape factor of the modulating
mum- signal plate current. wave multiplied by the input to the class -C
stage. The shape factor of unclipped speech
1. Using the average plate characteris- is approximately 0.25. The shape factor of
tics of the tube, select a point on the a sine wave is 0.5. The shape factor of a
E,, = E, (diode bend) line at about speech wave that has been passed through a
twice the plate current you expect the clipper -filter arrangement is somewhere be-
tubes to draw under modulation peaks. tween 0.25 and 0.9 depending on the amount
If beam tetrode tubes are concerned, of clipping that has taken place. With 15 or
select a point at about the same amount 20 dB of clipping the shape factor may be as
of plate current mentioned above, just high as the figure of 0.9 mentioned above.
to the right of the region where the This means that the audio power output of
1,, line takes a sharp curve downward. the modulator will be 90ri. of the input to
This will be the first trial point, and the class -C stage. Thus with a kilowatt input
the plate voltage at the point chosen it is necessary to apply 900 watts of audio
should be not more than about 20 per- to the class -C stage for 100 percent modu-
cent of the dc voltage applied to the lation as contrasted to perhaps 250 watts for
tubes if good plate- circuit efficiency unclipped speech modulation of 100 percent.
is desired.
2. Note down the value of i,, and
el, ,,,;,, at this point. Sample Calculation Figure 23 shows a set of
3. Subtract the value of eh ,,,;,, from the for 811A Tubes plate characteristics for a
dc plate voltage on the tubes. type 811A tube with a
4. Substitute the values obtained in the load line for class -B operation. Figure 24
following equations: lists a sample calculation for determining the
.,'A
i11__
r
Id''
VACUUM -TUBE AMPLIFIERS 6.17
Figure 23
11111
12111
t!
ppriem Er s.3 VOLTS aC.
1."1=-.-
W
e1\\I
PLATE
1111122/111
1N._MJ
CHARACTERISTICS W
Q_\_!Cii
Typical class -B a -f ampli-
fier load line. The load line
has been drawn on the
average characteristics of a
type 811A tube.
lísií14:1V111MELMI
Ill=r7!++ióóáen
r $ - eiiii`.+.51i>881
100 500 1200 1600 2000
>sa==
2400
PLATE VOLTS (Eb)
AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS TYPE 811 AND 81I -A
proper operating conditions for obtaining is lessthan unity, a step -down transformer is
approximately 185 watts output from a called for.
pair of the tubes with 1000 volts dc plate po- If the procedure shown in figure 24 has
tential. Also shown in figure 24 is the meth- been used to calculate the operating condi-
od of determining the proper ratio for the tions for the modulator tubes, the trans-
modulation transformer to couple between
SAMPLE CALCULATION
the 811A's and the anticipated final ampli-
fier which is to operate at 2000 plate volts CONDITION 2 TYPE ail ruses. ED. 1000
INPUT TO FINAL 350 W.
and 175 mA plate current. PEAK POWER OUTPUT NEEDED
.
350 Wb 370 W
FINAL AMPLIFIER Eb 2000 V.
FINAL AMPLIFIER Ib .175 A.
Modulation Transformer The method illus- FINAL AMPLIFIER ZL -21X112_
.175
11400 ft
Calculation trated in figure 24 EXAMPLE CHOSE POINT ON 611 CHARACTERISTICS JUST
can be used in gen- TO RIGHT OP Eb Ec . (POINT X. FIG.24)
eral for the determination of the proper Ibmo. .410 A. E bmin = +100
Iemo. .100 A. Ec,Nn. +60
transformer ratio to couple between the mod-
ulator tube and the amplifier to be modu- PEAK Po .410 X (1000 -too) .410 X 600 MS W.
TRANSFORMER:
presented by the class -C amplifier stage to
be modulated by dividing the operating 166010
400
1.26
plate voltage on that stage by the operating
P
RATIO y _Tri
LLP
i 1.2 1.14 STEP UP
ratio as previously determined. The reason Driver -Stage The parameters for the driver
for this condition is that the ratio between Calculations stage may be calculated from
the total primary voltage and the dc plate - the plate characteristic curve,
supply voltage on the modulated stage is a sample of which is shown in figure 23.
equal to the turns ratio of the transformer, The required positive grid voltage (e0 mu)
since a peak secondary voltage equal to the for the 811A tubes used in the sample cal-
plate voltage on the modulated stage is re- culation is found at point X, the intersection
quired to modulate this stage 100 percent. of the load line and the peak plate current
as found on the y -axis. This is + 80 volts.
If a vertical line is dropped from point X
to intersect the dotted grid- current curves,
Use of Clipper Speech When a clipper speech it will be found that the grid current for a
Amplifier with Tetrode amplifier is used in single 811A at this value of grid voltage is
Modulator Tubes conjunction with a 100 milliamperes (point Y). The peak grid -
class -B modulator driving power is therefore 80 X 0.100 = 8
stage, the plate current on that stage will watts. The approximate average driving
rise to a higher value with modulation (due power is 4 watts. This is an approximate
to the greater average power output and figure because the grid impedance is not
input) but the plate dissipation on the tubes constant over the entire audio cycle.
will ordinarily be less than with sine -wave A pair of 2A3 tubes will be used as
modulation. However, when tetrode tubes drivers, operating class -A, with the maxi-
are used as modulators, the screen dissipation mum excitation to the drivers occurring just
will be much greater than with sine -wave below the point of grid- current flow in the
modulation. Care must be taken to ensure 2A3 tubes. The driver plate voltage is 300
that the screen dissipation rating on the volts, and the grid bias is -62 volts. The
modulator tubes is not exceeded under full peak power (Pr) developed in the primary
modulation conditions with a clipper speech winding of the driver nmer
is:
amplifier. The screen dissipation is equal to s
screen voltage times screen current. :
(Pe) _
where,
Practical Aspects of As stated previously, a µ is the amplification factor of the driver
Class -B Modulators class -B audio amplifier tubes (4.2 for 2A3),
requires the driving e, is the peak grid swing of the driver
stage (62 volts),
stage to supply well -regulated audio power
Rn is the plate resistance of one driver
to the grid circuit of the class -B stage. tube (800 ohms),
This calls for a high order of voltage reg-
RI, is %2 the plate -to -plate load of the
ulation in the driver -stage plate circuit. In
driver stage,
order to enhance the voltage regulation of P, (peak power in watts) is 8 watts.
this circuit, the driver tubes must have low
Solving the above equation for RI., a value
plate resistance, the driver transformer must
of 14,500 ohms load, plate to plate for the
have as large a step-down ratio as possible,
2A3 driver tubes is obtained.
and the dc resistance of both primary and
The peak primary voltage few) is then
secondary windings of the driver trans-
former should be low. found from the formula:
The driver transformer should reflect into
the plate circuit of the driver tubes a load t'prI - 2R1. X R`e.'
n °R.
=. 493 volts
of such value that the required driving
power is just developed with full excitation and the turns ratio of the driver trans-
applied to the driver grid circuit. If this is former (primary to '/2 secondary) is:
done, the driver transformer will have as
high a step-down ratio as in consistent with 493
the maximum drive requirements of the 6.15:1
ec max 80
class -B stage.
VACUUM -TUBE AMPLIFIERS 6.19
essentially the same as in a conventional Gain and Phase Shift The gain and phase
amplifier. in Feedback Amplifiers shift of any amplifier
are functions of fre-
Use of Cathode- Although the cathode quency. For any amplifier containing a feed-
Follower Amplifiers follower gives no volt- back loop to be completely stable, the gain
age gain, it is an effec- of such an amplifier, as measured from the
tive power amplifier where it is desired to input back to the point where the feedback
feed a low -impedance load, or where it is circuit connects to the input, must be less
desired to feed a load of varying impedance than unity at the frequency where the feed-
with a signal having good regulation. This back voltage is in phase with the input volt-
latter capability makes the cathode follower age of the amplifier. If the gain is equal to
particularly effective as a driver for the grids or more than unity at the frequency where
of a class -B modulator stage. the feedback voltage is in phase with the in-
The circuit of figure 25A is the type of put, the amplifier will oscillate. This fact im-
amplifier, either single -ended or push -pull, poses a limitation on the amount of feedback
which may be used as a driver for a class -B which may be employed in an amplifier
modulator or which may be used for other which is to remain stable. If the reader is
applications such as feeding a speaker where desirous of designing amplifiers in which a
large amount of feedback is to be employed
unusually good damping of the speaker is
he is referred to a book on the subject by H.
desired. If the dc resistance of the primary
W. Bode.*
of the transformer (T2) is approximately
the correct value for the cathode bias re- INPUT SIGNAL E AMPLIFIER OUTPUT E0
41.
sistor for the amplifier tube, the components GAIN. A
L
WHERE.
feedback loop. Therefore the noise and hum R2 IEEDGACA 5E515000 (USUALLY ABOUT 100 A)
s'!
4-
2 -.:!
-
I.
b.
: 4
'
CHAPTER SEVEN
rent variations during one electrical cycle tion of the operating cycle when it is posi-
of the exciting signal. tive with respect to the cathode (that por-
tion of the curve above the E,. = O axis in
Voltage at the Grid The curves of figure 2 graph A). This portion of the exciting volt-
represent the grid voltage age is termed the maximum positive grid
and current variations with respect to time. voltage (comp).
The x -axis for grid voltage is E,., with a
secondary axis (E,.,, = 0) above it, the
vertical distance between axes representing Voltage at the Plate The voltage at the plate
the fixed grid -bias voltage (E,). At the of the tube responds to
beginning of the operating cycle (t = 0) the the changes in grid voltage as shown in
exciting voltage (er) is zero and increases figure 3. Instantaneous plate voltage (er),
in amplitude, until at point A it equals in consists of the dc plate voltage (Er) less
magnitude the value of the bias voltage. At the ac voltage drop across the plate load
this point, the instantaneous voltage on the impedance (en). As the grid element be-
grid of the tube is zero with respect to the comes more positive, a greater flow of elec-
cathode, and plate current has already begun trons reach the plate, instantaneous plate
to flow (point A in figure 1), as the exciting current increases, and the voltage drop
signal is already greater in magnitude than across the plate load impedance (R1.) rises.
the cutoff grid voltage (E,.,,). The relations The phase relations are such that the
are normally such that at the crest of the minimum instantaneous plate potential
positive grid voltage cycle, e,.,,,p (or eF (el, n,ll,) and the maximum instantaneous
positive) , the grid is driven appreciably grid potential (e, ,,,;,r) occur simultaneously.
positive with respect to the cathode and The corresponding instantaneous plate cur-
consequently draws some grid current, i,. rent (il,) for this sequence is shown in the
The dc component of grid current, 1,, may current plot of figure 3.
be read on the grid meter shown in figure 1. As plate current is conducted only be-
The grid draws current only over that por- tween points A and B of the grid -voltage
Figure 2
Ec=o
INSTANTANEOUS GRID
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT GRID VOLTAGE
E c. ec.eg
OF A CLASS -C R -F
POWER AMPLIFIER
Grid voltage and current varia-
tions with respect to time are
shown. The grid is negatively
biased by the amount E,. As soon
as the positive value of grid
exciting voltage (ea) exceeds E
(point A) the grid starts to draw
current, as it is positive with
respect to the filament. Grid cur-
rent flows from point A to point
B of the grid voltage plot. This
portion of the grid cycle is termed
the conduction angle. Average
value of grid current (I,) may be
1 f3 MAX
read on a de meter in series with
grid return line to bias supply.
For typical class -C performance, PEAK GRID
grid current flows over a portion of
the operating cycle which is less o IRO. zTO 360 CURRENT
than half the electrical cycle.
lo
ELECTRICAL CYCLE I
to
7.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
I I I
PLATE VOLTAGE
across a resonant circuit (LC) . The reson-
Pe. ep ant circuit, in effect, acts as a "flywheel,"
holding r -f energy over the pulsed portion
of the operating cycle, and releasing it dur-
ing the quiescent portion of the electrical
cycle.
The patterns of grid voltage and current
shown in figure 2 are important in deter-
mining grid -circuit parameters, and the pat-
terns of plate voltage and current shown
in the illustrations can be used to determine
plate- circuit parameters, as will be dis-
cussed later.
The various manufacturers of vacuum
tubes publish data sheets listing in ade-
PEAK PLATE
CURRENT quate detail various operating conditions
Lb. 1p
for the tubes they manufacture. In addition,
additional operating data for special condi-
tions is often available for the asking. It is,
FUNDAMENTAL nevertheless, often desirable to determine
COMP NENT OF
PLATE CURRENT
Li
optimum operating conditions for a tube
under a particular set of circumstances. To
assist in such calculations the following
paragraphs are devoted to a method of cal-
culating various operating conditions which
Figure 3 is moderately simple and yet sufficiently
INSTANTANEOUS PLATE VOLTAGE accurate for all practical purposes. It is
AND CURRENT OF CLASS -C POWER based on wave -analysis techniques of the
AMPLIFIER peak plate current of the operating cycle,
Instantaneous plate voltage and current re-
adapted from Fourier analysis of a funda-
sponds to the changes in grid voltage shown mental wave and its accompanying har-
in figure 2. As grid becomes more positive, the
peak plate current rises, causing an increased monics. Considerable ingenuity has been
voltage drop across the plate load impedance displayed in devising various graphical ways
(RL, figure 1). Maximum peak plate current flows
at condition of minimum instantaneous plate of evaluating the waveforms in r -f power
voltage (eb m,) and maximum voltage drop amplifiers. One of these techniques, a Tube
across load impedance (ep ,,,),Plate- current pulse Performance Calculator, for class -AB,
exists only over a portion of the operating cycle
(conduction angle). Usable power is derived class -B, and Class -C service may be obtained
from the fundamental component of the plate
current which is a sine wave developed across at no cost by writing: Application Engineer-
the resonant tank circuit. ep equals ep ing Dept., Eimac Division of Varian, San
Carlos, Calif. 94070.
excursion, it can be seen that the plate -cur-
rent pulse exists only over a portion (Ob)
of the complete plate operating cycle . (The Tank -Circuit When the plate circuit of a
operating cycle is taken to be that half - Flywheel Effect class -B or class -C operated
cycle of grid voltage having a positive ex- tube is connected to a par-
cursion of the drive voltage.) The opposite allel- resonant circuit tuned to the same fre-
half of the electrical cycle is of little interest, quency as the exciting voltage for the ampli-
RADIO -FREQUENCY POWER AMPLIFIERS 7.5
fier, the plate current serves to maintain this tank coil, its leads and switch contacts, if
L/C circuit in a state of oscillation. any, and by the losses in the tank capacitor
The plate current is supplied in short which ordinarily are very low. The unloaded
pulses which do not begin to resemble a sine Q of a good quality large diameter tank coil
wave, even though the grid may be excited in the high- frequency range may be as high
by a sine -wave voltage. These spurts of as 500, and values greater than 300 are
plate current are converted into a sine wave quite common.
in the plate tank circuit by virtue of the
Q or flywheel effect of the tank.
If a tank did not have some resistance Tank -Circuit Since the unloaded Q of a tank
losses, it would, when given a "kick" with a Efficiency circuit is determined by the
single pulse, continue to oscillate indefinitely. minimum losses in the tank,
With a moderate amount of resistance or while the loaded Q is determined by useful
"friction" in the circuit the tank will still loading of the tank circuit from the external
have inertia, and continue to oscillate with load in addition to the internal losses in the
decreasing amplitude for a time after being tank circuit, the relationship between the
given a "kick." With such a circuit, almost two Q values determines the operating effi-
pure sine -wave voltage will be developed ciency of the tank circuit. Expressed in the
across the tank circuit even though power form of an equation, the loaded efficiency of
is supplied to the tank in short pulses or a tank circuit is:
spurts, so long as the spurts are evenly
spaced with respect to time and have a fre- Tank efficiency = 100
quency that is the same as the resonant fre-
l
QJ X
quency of the tank. where,
Another way to visualize the action of Q equals unloaded Q of the tank circuit,
the tank is to recall that a resonant tank Qi equals loaded Q of the tank circuit.
with moderate Q will discriminate strongly
against harmonics of the resonant frequency. As an example, if the unloaded Q of the
The distorted plate current pulse in a class - tank circuit for a class -C r -f power ampli-
C amplifier contains not only the funda- fier is 400, and the external load is coupled
mental frequency (that of the grid excita- to the tank circuit by an amount such that
the loaded Q is 20, the tank -circuit effi-
tion voltage) but also higher harmonics. As
the tank offers low impedance to the har- ciency will be: eff. = (1
100, or (1 - - 20 400) X
0.05) X 100, or 95 per cent.
monics and high impedance to the funda-
the fundamental -
mental (being resonant to the latter), only
a sine -wave voltage
appears across the tank circuit in substantial
- Hence 5 percent of the power output of
the class -C amplifier will be lost as heat in
the tank circuit and the remaining 95 per-
magnitude. cent will be delivered to the load.
tuned power amplifier is a straight line on the circuit may be predicted, as well as
a set of curves and lends itself readily to drive power, and harmonic components of
graphic computations. Any point on the drive and output voltage.
operating line, moreover, defines the instan- A et of typical constant -current curves
taneous values of plate, screen and grid cur- for the 304 -TH medium -µ triode is shown
rent which must flow when these particular in figure S, with a corresponding set of
values of plate, screen and grid voltages are curves for the 304 -TL low -p. triode shown
applied to the tube. Thus, by taking off the in figure 6. The graphs illustrate how much
values of the currents and plotting them more plate current can be obtained from the
against time, it is possible to generate a low -1z tube without driving the grid into
curve of instantaneous electrode currents, the positive -grid region, as contrasted to the
such as shown in figures 1 and 2. An analysis higher -IA tube. In addition, more bias volt-
of the curve of instantaneous current val- ace is required to cut off the plate current
ues will derive the d c components of the of the low -.t tube, as compared to the high-
currents, which may be read on a d c am- er-µ tube for a given value of plate voltage.
meter. In addition, if the plate current With the higher value of bias, a correspond-
flows through a properly loaded resonant r -f ing increase in grid -voltage swing is required
circuit, the amount of power delivered to to drive the tube up to the zero grid -volt-
CONSTANT CURRENT
CHARACTERISTICS
-
125
-- PLAT[ CURRENT
GRID CURRENT -
AMPERES
AMPERES
100
25
500
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
1
Figure 4
age point on the curve. Low -p tubes thus, Low -p (3 -15) power triodes are chosen
by definition, have lower voltage gain, and for class -A amplifiers and series -pass tubes
this can be seen by comparing the curves in voltage regulators, as they operate well
of figures 5 and 6. over a wide range of load current with low
500 plate voltage drop. Medium-p (15 -50)
IK 4e
y' t
I
triodes are generally used in r -f amplifiers
400
300
.
[J,~,,
ytyf
J
EWA( 5041«
OMSIANI RORR NT
RMAAA(iEAIS11C$
and oscillators, as well as class -B audio
modulators. High-µ (50 -200) triodes have
high power gain and are often used in cath-
6+;1? J ib,. EiaR
:,r,_z...:....._
ioo
ode- driven ( "grounded grid ") r -f amplifiers.
ÿz&ti`-
-
..'\
500 100 '500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
PLAIE VOL AGE VOLTS function of the physical size and location
of the grid structure. The upper limit of
Figure 5
amplification factor is controlled by grid
CONSTANT- CURRENT CHART FOR dissipation, as high -to grid structures require
MEDIUM TRIODE many grid wires of small diameter having
Constant current plot for a 304TH triode with a
relatively poorer heat -conduction qualities
u of 20. Note that the lines of constant plate as compared to a-low -p structure, made up
current have a greater slope than the cor-
responding lines of the high -u triode (3-1000Z) of fewer wires of greater diameter and bet-
and that for a given value of positive grid
potential, and plate potential, the plate cur- ter heat conductivity. A set of constant -
rent of this tube is higher than that of the current curves for the 250TH power triode
higher -u tube.
with a sample load line drawn thereon is
500
shown in figure 8.
IA.t4t/
/,i',RT
A,./t,lt4r`ÿf..
7 -3 Class -C Amplifier
,i\\\
(MAC 3044
i\ ,```\`\
I / Calculations
CO STANT RENT
100
i/
IFA.,"'
.,'',,'
CNARACTEAISTICS
200
` \` \ `,
00
tion of a vacuum tube as a class -C radio -
Ix
200
301
,`\\b \
..`,\MEN ;;
s_
;?
frequency amplifier, the considerations which
determine the operating conditions are plate
efficiency, power output required, maximum
allowable plate and grid dissipation, maxi-
mum allowable plate voltage, and maximum
400 allowable plate current. The values chosen
» for these factors will depend on the demands
500 1000 400 2000 2500 3000 3500 8000 4500 5000 5500
of a particular application of the tube.
VOLTS
PLATE VOLTAGE
The plate and grid currents of a class -C
Figure 6 amplifier tube are periodic pulses, the dura-
tions of which are always less than 180 de-
CONSTANT CURRENT CHART FOR grees. l'or this reason the average grid cur-
LOW -u. TRIODE
rent, average plate current, power output,
Constant-current plot for a 304TL triode with driving power, etc., cannot be directly cal-
a u of 12. Note that more plate current at a
given plate voltage can be obtained from the culated but must be determined by a Fourier
low -u triode without driving the grid into the
positive voltage region. In addition, more bias analysis from points selected at proper in-
voltage is required to cut off the plate current tervals along the line of operation as plotted
at a given plate voltage. With this increased
value of bias there is a corresponding increase on the constant- current characteristics. This
in grid- voltage swing required to drive up to
the zero grid -voltage point on the graph. may be done either analytically or graphical-
7.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
125
EIMAC 3 -500Z
TYPICAL
CONSTANT CURRENT
100
CHARACTERISTICS
GROUNDED -GRID
PLATE CURRENT - AMPERES
GRID CURRENT -AMPERES
75
25
50
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Figure 7
ly. While the Fourier analysis has the ad be lost in well- designed tank and coupling
vantage of accuracy, it also has the dis- circuits at frequencies below 20 MHz.
advantage cf being tedious and involved. Above 20 MHz the tank and circuit losses
The approximate analysis which follows are ordinarily somewhat above 10 percent.
has proved to be sufficiently accurate for The plate power input necessary to pro-
most applications. This type of analysis also duce the desired output is determined by the
has the advantage of giving the desired in- plate efficiency: P1 = P /N1 assuming 100 -
formation at the first trial. The system is percent tank circuit efficiency.
direct in giving the desired information since For most applications it is desirable to op-
the important factors, power output, plate erate at the highest practicable efficiency.
efficiency, and plate voltage are arbitrarily High -efficiency operation usually requires
selected at the beginning. less -expensive tubes and power supplies, and
the amount of external cooling required is
frequently less than for low -efficiency opera-
Method of The first step in the method to tion. On the other hand, high -efficiency op-
Calculation be described is to determine the eration usually requires more driving power
power which must be delivered and involves the use of higher plate voltages
by the class -C amplifier. In making this de- and higher peak tube voltages. The better
termination it is well to remember that types of triodes will ordinarily operate at a
ordinarily from 5 to 10 percent of the power plate efficiency of 75 to 85 percent at the
delivered by the amplifier tube or tubes will highest rated plate voltage, and at a plate
Ccmp240
600
400
.E_
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RADIO -FREQUENCY POWER AMPLIFIERS
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EIMAC 250TH
TYPICAL
CONSTANT CURRENT
CHARACTERISTICS
GRID CURRENT
PLATE CURRENT
-
-
AMPERES
AMPERES
7.9
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1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
emin260 Eó3500
PLATE VOLTAGE - VOLTS
Figure 8
the power output and plate dissipation re- 4. Determine average plate current
quirements it becomes necessary to determine (10 from: 11, = P1 /T;I,.
from the tube characteristics whether the S. Determine approximate peak plate cur-
tube selected is capable of the desired opera- ,
rent (i1, x) from:
tion and, if so, to determine the driving in mnx = 4.9 1,, for Np = 0.85
power, grid bias, and grid dissipation. /ó max = 4.5 11, for N,, = 0.80
The complete procedure necessary to de- it, max = 4.0 1, for Np = 0.75
termine a set of class -C amplifier operating ib max = 3.5 /I, for Np = 0.70
conditions is given in the following steps: ió max = 3.1 1,, for Np = 0.65
7.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
0 .0
a0
-,0 ,s -20 -a.s -ao
RATIO eqr ax
Ec
Figure 10
,77
.0
Relationship between the ratio of the peak
value of the fundamental com t of the
grid excitation voltage, and the average grid
bias; as compared to the ratio between in-
stantaneous peak grid current and average grid
current.
2°=
RATIO I,m2x
Figure 9
68.3 °and 96= 136.6 °)
Relationship between the peak value of the
fundamental component of the tube plate cur-
rent, and average plate current; as compared
to the ratio of the instantaneous peak value
13. E,
1 - 0.37 X
1
12. cos -- =
Ob
2.32 (1.73 - 1.57) = 0.37 (i, ,,,ax can be determined by multiply-
ing the ratio determined in step 8 by
7.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
..'.......
......,,.....
21. The plate load impedance of any type 0.99
062
- ea mix 0.90
.......'.. ..
........M....
RL
............
.......,.....
0.118
il Max
0M
RT.
0.49 f
6550 ohms
Fz
O82
.........,...
..........i,..
....'.
An alternative equation for the ap-
proximate value of R1, is:
080
.......... -..
...........1'.
...........,
0.78
En
0.78
0.74 .1111M
R,,= 1.8 X In 0.72
0.70
R, =1.8
3500
X 0.285
- 6820 ohms
0
.O
10
ON. ON
20
Ob IN
30 40 SO 80
ELECTRICAL DEGREES
OW ONI ON
70 10
cos r2
Q of Amplifier In order to obtain proper plate
Tank Circuit tank -circuit tuning and low Figure 11
1. The grid bias is chosen so that the 3. The maximum dc signal plate cur-
resting plate current will produce ap- rent is:
proximately 1/3 of the maximum
plate dissipation of the tube. The max- IO max Pi
378 - 0.189 ampere
imum dissipation of the 813 is 125 Eb 2000
watts, so the bias is set to allow one - (Single -tone drive signal condition)
third of this value, or 42 watts of
resting dissipation. At a plate poten- 4. The plate-current conduction angle
tial of 2000 volts, a plate current of (Ob) of the class -B linear amplifier
21 milliamperes will produce this fig- is approximately 180 °, and the peak
ure. Referring to figure 12, a grid bias plate -current pulses have a maximum
of -45 volts is approximately correct. value of about 3.14 times lb max:
2. A practical class -B linear r -f amplifier
runs at an efficiency of about 66% at ib max = 3.14 X 0.189 = 0.593 amp.
full output (the carrier efficiency
dropping to about 33% with a modu- S. Referring to figure 12, a current of
lated exciting signal). In the case of about 0.6 ampere (Point A) will
single -sideband suppressed- carrier ex- flow at a positive grid potential of 60
citation, the linear amplifier runs at volts and a minimum plate potential
the resting or quiescent input of 42 of 420 volts. The grid is biased at
watts with no exciting signal. The -45 volts, so a peak r-f grid voltage
peak allowable power input to the of 60 + 45 volts, or 105 volts, swing
813 is: is required.
6. The grid driving power required for
PEP input power (Pi) = the class-B linear stage may be found
plate dissipation X 100 - by the aid of figure 13. It is one -third
the product of the peak grid current
(100 -% plate efficiency) times the peak grid swing.
125 X 100 - 378 watts PEP Pd- 0.0153 105
0.525watt
33
1.0
Ec29 +40o V. I
N Ecs o v. IIj
Vl
w
III
CC
w
a.
.7
<
Z
w _
1141
w 4
.3 }4 o
111M.
G
N
K
i
á
.4
J R, ,l =.
4164+ao
Ec1
< .2
w u,Ec+ao I
Ica. Ec+3o1 Frt. - zo
4(
á
.1
o
- -=°s--_ --I
EclI 40
0 100 200 300 400 500 G00 700 400 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1300 1800 171
PLATE VOLTS
Figure 12
7. The single -tone (peak) power output equivalent grid resistance of this stage
of the 813 is: is:
e
Ecu + drawn.
3. A circuit Q of 15 is chosen for the
O 100 200 300 400
PLATE VOLTS (Ebb grid tank. The capacitive reactance
required is:
Figure 13
L= 490
6.28 X 4.0
- 19.5 microhenrys
Screen- Circuit By
reference to the plate
Considerations characteristic curve of the
Grid -Circuit The maximum positive
1. 813 tube, it can be seen that
Considerations grid potential is 60 at a minimum plate potential of 420 volts,
volts and the peak r -f and a maximum plate current of 0.6 ampere,
grid voltage is 105 volts. Required the screen current will be approximately 30
peak driving power is 0.525 watt. The milliamperes, dropping to one or two milli-
7.16 RADIO HANDBOOK
amperes in the quiescent state. It is necessary Grounded -Grid This condition of restricted -
to use a well -regulated screen supply to hold R-F Amplifiers range neutralization of r-f
the screen voltage at the correct potential power amplifiers can be great-
over this range of current excursion. The use ly alleviated through the use of a cathode
of an electronically regulated screen supply driven or grounded -grid r -f stage. The
is recommended. grounded -grid amplifier has the following
advantages:
7 -5 Grounded -Grid and 1. The output and input capacitances of
a stage are reduced to approximately
Cathode -Follower R -F Power one -half the value which would be ob-
Amplifier Circuits tained if the same tube or tubes were
operated as a conventional neutralized
The r -f power amplifier discussions of amplifier.
Sections 7 -3 and 7 -4 have been based on the 2. The tendency toward parasitic oscilla-
assumption that a conventional grounded - tions in such a stage is greatly reduced
cathode or cathode- return type of amplifier since the shielding effect of the control
was in question. It is possible, however, as in grid between the filament and the
the case of a -f and low -level r -f amplifiers plate is effective over a broad range of
to use circuits in which electrodes other than frequencies.
the cathode are returned to ground insofar 3. The feedback capacitance within the
as the signal potential is concerned. Both the stage is the plate -to- cathode capaci-
plate- return or cathode- follower amplifier tance which is ordinarily very much
and the grid -return or grounded -grid am- less than the grid -to -plate capacitance.
plifier are effective in certain circuit applica- Hence neutralization is ordinarily not
tions as tuned r -f power amplifiers. required in the high frequency region.
If neutralization is required the neu-
talizing capacitors are very small in
Disadvantages of An undesirable aspect of value and are cross -connected between
Grounded -Cathode the operation of cathode - plates and cathodes in a push -pull
Amplifiers return r -f power ampli- stage, or between the opposite end of
fiers using triode tubes is a split plate tank and the cathode in
that such amplifiers must be neutralized. a single-ended stage.
Principles and methods of neutralizing r -f The disadvantages of a grounded -grid am-
power amplifiers are discussed in the chapter plifier are:
Generation of R -F Energy. As the frequency
of operation of an amplifier is increased the 1. A large amount of excitation energy
stage becomes more and more difficult to is required. However, only the normal
neutralize due to inductance in the grid and amount of energy is lost in the grid
cathode leads of the tube and in the leads to circuit of the amplifier tube; most
the neutralizing capacitor. In other words additional energy over this amount is
the bandwidth of neutralization decreases as delivered to the load circuit as useful
the presence of the neutralizing capacitor output.
adds additional undesirable capacitive load- 2. The cathode of a grounded -grid am-
ing to the grid and plate tank circuits of plifier stage is above r -f ground. This
the tube or tubes. To look at the problem in means that the cathode must be fed
another way, an amplifier that may be per- through a suitable impedance from the
fectly neutralized at a frequency of 30 MHz filament supply, or the filament trans-
may be completely out of neutralization at a former must be of the low capacitance
frequency of 120 MHz. Therefore, if there type and adequately insulated for the
are circuits in both the grid and plate cir- r -f voltage which will be present.
cuits which offer appreciable impedance at 3. A grounded -grid r -f amplifier cannot
this high frequency it is quite possible that be plate modulated 100 percent unless
the stage may develop a parasitic oscilla- the output of the exciting stage is
tion in the vicinity of 120 MHz. modulated also. Approximately 70 -per
RADIO -FREQUENCY POWER AMPLIFIERS 7.17
cent modulation of the exciter stage, the grid bias and grid swing required on the
while the final stage is modulated output stage, the higher will be the require-
100 percent, is recommended. How- ment from the driver.
ever the grounded -grid r -f amplifier
is quite satisfactory as a class -B
linear r -f amplifier for single-side- Calculation of Operating
band or conventional amplitude-modu-
It is most conven-
Conditions of Grounded - ient to determine
Lted waves or as an amplifier for a Grid R -F Amplifers the operating con-
straight c -w or f -m signal.
ditions for a class -
Figure 14 shows a simplified representa- B or class -C grounded -grid r -f power am-
tion of a grounded -grid zero-bias triode r -f plifier in a two -step process. The first step
power amplifier stage. The relationships be- is to determine the plate- circuit and grid -
tween input and output power and the peak circuit operating conditions of the tube
fundamental components of electrode volt- as though it were to operate as a conven-
ages and currents are given below the draw- tional grid- driven amplifier. The second step
ing. The calculation of the complete oper- is to then add in the additional conditions
ating conditions for a grounded -grid ampli- imposed on the orginal data by the fact
fier stage is somewhat more complex than that the stage is to operate as a grounded -
that for a conventional amplifier because the grid amplifier. This step is the addition of
input circuit of the tube is in series with the portion of the drive power contributed
the output circuit as far as the load is con- by the conversion of drive power to plate
output power. This portion of the drive
power is referred to as converted drive power,
or feedthrough power. The latter term is
RL ep
misleading, as this portion of drive power
does not appear in the plate load circuit of
the cathode- driven stage until after it is
converted to a varying -dc plate potential
effectively in series with the main amplifier
power supply. The converted drive power
t e9 MAX) 9.. serves a useful function in linear amplifier
PEP POWER TO LOAD = leb YIN c MAX
2 service because it swamps out the undesir-
able effects of nonlinear grid loading and
eD YIN
PEP POWER DELIVERED BY OUTPUT TUBE' X
2
11 MAX
presents a reasonably constant load to the
exciter.
PEP DRIVE POWER =
eq MAX 1.1 MAX
0.9 (eQ MAX x IC) Special constant -current curves are often
2
used for grounded -grid operation wherein
e9 MAX the grid drive voltage is expressed as the
Zx?1
11 MAX +1.sxIC.
cathode -to -grid voltage and is negative in
RL? Eb sign. It must be remembered, however, that
BxIb
a negative cathode voltage is equal to a
Figure 14 positive grid voltage, and normal constant -
ZERO -BIAS GROUNDED -GRID current curves may also be employed for
AMPLIFIER cathode- driven computations.
For the first step in the calculations, the
The equations in the above figure give the
relationships between the output power, drive procedure given in Section 7 -3 is used. For
power, feedthrough power, and input and out- this example, a 3 -1000Z "zero bias" triode
put impedances expressed in terms of the var-
ious voltages and currents of the stage. is chosen, operating at 3000 plate volts at
cerned. The primary result of this effect is, 2000 watts PEP input in class -B service.
as stated before, that considerably more
Computations are as follows:
power is required from the driver stage. The
normal power gain for a g -g stage is from 3 -1000Z at 3000 volts class -B
3 to 15 depending on the grid -circuit condi- 1,2,3. Eb= 3000
tions chosen for the output stage. The higher PI = 2000 watts PEP
7.18 RADIO HANDBOOK
Let Np
class -B mode
= 65%, an average value for
21. RL _
-
3000
1.8 X 0.67
- 2500 ohms
P= 2000 X 0.65 = 1300 W PEP
= 200 22. Total peak drive power,
2000 ek X %1 max
4. In = 3900 - 0.67 amp 15k 2 pa
capacitance high -voltage type. Conventional values under conditions of full excitation.
filament transformers, however, will not op- Proper division of excitation between grid
erate with the high values of r-f voltage and screen should be as the ratio of the
present in such a circuit. If a conventional screen -to -grid amplification, which is ap-
filament transformer is to be used, the cath- proximately f for tubes such as the 4-250A,
ode tank coil may consist of two parallel 4 -400A, etc. The proper ratio of grid /screen
heavy conductors (to carry the high fila- excitation may be achieved by tapping the
ment current) bypassed at both the ground grid at some point on the input circuit, as
end and at the tube socket. The tuning ca- shown. Grid dissipation is reduced, but the
pacitor is then placed between filament and over -all level of excitation is increased about
ground. It is possible in certain cases to use 30% over the value required for simple
two r-f chokes of special design to feed the grounded -grid operation.
filament current to the tubes, with a con-
ventional tank circuit between filament and
grcund. Coaxial lines also may be used to Plate- Return or Circuit diagram, elec-
serve both as cathode tank and filament feed Cathode- Follower trode potentials and
R -F
to the tubes for vhf and uhf work. Power Amplifier currents, and operat-
ing conditions for a
cathode-follower r-f power amplifier are
Control -Grid Dissipation Tetrode tubes may be given in figure 16. This circuit can be used,
in Grounded -Grid Stages operated as grounded - in addition to the grounded -grid circuit just
grid (cathode- driven) discussed, as an r-f amplifier with a triode
amplifiers by tying the grid and screen tube and no additional neutralization cir-
together and operating the tube as a high -p cuit. However, the circuit will oscillate if
triode (figure 15). Combined grid and the impedance from cathode to ground is
screen current, however, is a function of allowed to become capacitive rather than
tube geometry and may reach destructive
lb-+
4-250A, 4-400A , ETC
DRIVE
eg MAX
t.e Ic
R? t.exi Eb
Figure 15
Figure 16
TAPPED INPUT CIRCUIT REDUCES CATHODE -FOLLOWER R -F
EXCESSIVE GRID DISSIPATION POWER AMPLIFIER
IN G -G CIRCUIT
The equations show the relationship between
C = 20 pF per meter wavelength the tube potentials and currents and the input
RFC = Dual- winding on 1/2 -inch diameter, 3Vs- and output power of the stage. The approximate
inch long ferrite rod. Q -1 material. (In- input and output load impedances are also
diana General). given.
7.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
inductive or resistive with respect to the mum distortion doubled, since the
is also
operating frequency. The circuit is not rec- shape of the curve does not change.
E,. -I,,
ommended except for vhf or uhf work with In actual practice, somewhat lower static
coaxial lines as tuned circuits since the peak plate current than optimum may be em-
grid swing required on the r -f amplifier ployed without raising the distortion appre-
stage is approximately equal to the plate ciably, and values of static plate current of
voltage on the amplifier tube if high -effi- 0.6 to 0.8 of optimum may be safely used,
ciency operation is desired. This means, of depending on the amount of nonlinearity
course, that the grid tank must be able to that can be tolerated.
withstand slightly more peak voltage than As with the class -B linear stage, the mini-
the plate tank. Such a stage may not be mum plate voltage swing (eh min) of the
plate modulated unless the driver stage is class -AB, amplifier must be kept above the
modulated the same percentage as the final dc screen potential to prevent operation in
amplifier. However, such a stage may be the nonlinear portion of the characteristic
used as an amplifier of modulated waves curve. A low value of screen voltage allows
(class -B linear) or as a c -w or f -m amplifier. greater r-f plate voltage swing, resulting in
The design of such an amplifier stage is improvement in plate efficiency of the tube.
essentially the same as the design of a A balance between plate dissipation, plate
grounded -grid amplifier stage as far as the efficiency, and plate- voltage swing must be
r
first step is concerned. Then, for the second achieved for best linearity of the ampli-
step the operating conditions given in figure fier.
16 are applied to the data obtained in the
first step. The S -Curve The perfect linear amplifier de-
livers a signal that is a replica
of the input signal. Inspection of the rlate-
7 -6 Class -AB, Radio- characteristic curve of a typical tube will
disclose the tube linearity under class -AB,
Frequency Power operating conditions (figure 17) The curve .
r7
60 percent when a plate current conduction
angle of 210° is chosen, as compared to 65
:::e::::
,j'::CC====
Yi11
11YOaTLINEAR,,, - lb)
:
Y'I ,r-111111
percent for class -B operation. ,;ppoN or
The level of static (quiescent) plate cur-
r/fl
11 CURVi
11141
fiICNAL
e11
rent for lowest distortion is quite high for
:MM f11H
class -AB, tetrode operation. This value is
determined by the tube characteristics, and O11YiM11
is not greatly affected by the circuit param-
eters or operating voltages. The maximum
dc potential is therefore limited by the
static dissipation of the tube, since the rest-
ing plate current figure is fixed. The static
plate current of a tetrode tube varies as the
1111111
R!RRifAJ
111111Y1111
111LILi'J1T!11
Figure 17
3 '2 power of the screen voltage. For ex-
ample, raising the screen voltage from 300 EA -Ib CURVE
to 500 volts will double the plate current. Amplifier operation is confined to the mostlinear
The optimum static plate current for mini- portion of the characteristic curve.
RADIO -FREQUENCY POWER AMPLIFIERS 7.21
circuit voltage is shown in figure 18. With a screen elements of the tube. The character-
small value of static plate current the lower istic plot of the usual linear amplifier takes
portion of the line is curved. Maximum un- the shape of an S- curve. The lower portion
distorted output is limited by the point on of the curve is straightened out by using the
the line (A) where the instantaneous plate proper value of static plate current, and the
voltage drops down to the screen voltage. upper portion of the curve is avoided by
This "hook" in the line is caused by cur- limiting minimum plate voltage swing to a
rent diverted from the plate to the grid and point substantially above the value of the
screen voltage.
SO;
23 POINT B
!G 1000 2000 40 Eb
w
,e
23
.
.L
,,._so
.2
i
LOAD LINE POINT
A
rs
1111
I
0
2S' '1
VALUE OF VALUE OP
1 E b MIN WO V., 4A11,
!O' Ib=O.SeA DISSIPATION
i (.100I0.R0.12AA.100wITT.f)
7!j 4
2 001 I
Figure 19
fall on point A (figure 19). Plate power less than 250 watts, provided resting plate
dissipation is 360 watts (300v at 120 mA). current is lowered to 70 mA.)
The opposite end of the load line will fall IL can be seen that the limiting factor for
on a point determined by the minimum either the 4 -250A or 4 -400A is the static
instantaneous plate voltage, and by the plate dissipation, which is quite a bit higher
maximum instantaneous plate current. The than the operating dissipation level. It is
minimum plate voltage, for best linearity possible, at the expense of a higher level of
should be considerably higher than the distortion, to drop the static plate dissipation
screen voltage. In this case, the screen volt- and to increase the screen voltage to obtain
age is 500, so the minimum plate voltage greater power output. If the screen voltage
excursion should be limited to 600 volts. is set at 800, and the bias increased suffici-
Class -AB, operation implies no grid cur- ently to drop the static plate current to 70
rent, therefore the load line cannot cross mA, the single -toned dc plate current may
the E. = 0 line. At the point e,, ,,, = 600, i rise to 300 mA, for a power input of 900
E. - 0, the maximum instantaneous plate
current is 580 mA (Point B).
watts. The plate circuit efficiency is 55.6
percent, and the power output is 500 watts.
Each point at which the load line crosses Static plate dissipation is 210 watts, within
a grid -voltage axis may be taken as a point the rating of either tube.
for construction of the E, -I,, curve, just as At a screen potential of 500 volts, the
was done in figure 21, chapter 6. A con- maximum screen current is less than 1 mA,
structed curve shows that the approximate and under certain loading conditions may be
static bias voltage is -74 volts, which negative. When the screen potential is raised
checks closely with point A of figure 19. In to 800 volts maximum screen current is 18
actual practice, the bias voltage is set to mA. The performance of the tube depends on
hold the actual dissipation slightly below the voltage fields set up in the tube by the
the maximum limit of the tube. cathode, control grid, screen grid, and plate.
The single tone PEP power output is: The quantity of current, flowing in the
screen circuit is only incidental to the fact
P
(Eh - 4 min) X i, max that the screen is maintained at a positive
potential with respect to the electron stream
° 4
surrounding it.
(3000 - 600) X 0.58
- 348 watts
The tube will perform as expected as long
4 as the screen current, in either direction, does
not create undesirable changes in the screen
The plate current conduction angle ef- voltage, or cause excessive screen dissipation.
ficiency factor for this class of operation Good regulation of the screen supply is there-
is 0.73, and the actual plate circuit efficiency fore required. Screen dissipation is highly
is: responsive to plate loading conditions and
the plate circuit should always be adjusted
Eh so as to keep the screen current below the
min X 0.73 = 58.4r/n maximum dissipation level as established by
the applied voltage.
The peak power input to the stage is there-
fore:
7 -7 Grounded -Grid
Linear Amplifiers
P°
N X 100 = 348
58.4
- 595 watts PEP
The popularity of grounded -grid (cathode -
driven) linear amplifiers for SSB service is
The peak plate dissipation is: unique in the Amateur Service. Elimination
of costly and bulky bias and screen power
595 - 348 = 247 watts supplies make the "g -g" amplifier an
(Note: A 4 -250A may thus be used in lieu economical and relatively light- weight
of the 4 -400A as peak plate dissipation is power unit.
RADIO -FREQUENCY POWER AMPLIFIERS 7.23
001
3 -4002 PC MV
3-5002 TO
PLATE
RFC CIRCUIT
Bi w
í00A
01 500
.01 10Rv
-r C
01
BeW PC-15
C 20PF RFC C. 20 01
PF 01
PER 88W PER METER
.001
METER NO FC -15
8+
2000 V
0 -250 0-500
.01
Figure 21
Figure 20
ZENER -DIODE BIAS FOR
SIMPLE GROUNDED -GRID GROUNDED -GRID STAGE
LINEAR AMPLIFIER The resting plate current of a grounded stage
Tuned cathode (L -C) is required to prevent may be reduced by inclusion of a Zener diode
distortion of driving-signal waveform. in the filament return circuit. At a plate po-
tential of 3250 volts, for example, a Zener
bias of 4.7 volts reduces the resting plate
A typical grounded -grid amplifier is shown current of the 3-500Z from 160 to approxi-
mately 90 milliamperes. A 1N4551 Zener may
in figure 20. The driving signal is applied be used, bolted to the chassis for a heat sink.
between the grid and the cathode, with the
grid held at r-f ground potential. The con- connected tetrodes may be used in this con
trol grid serves as a shield between the figuration. Care must be taken to monitor
cathode and the plate, thus making neutral- the #1 -grid current of the tetrode tubes as
ization unnecessary at medium and high it may run abnormally high in some types
frequencies. High -p. triodes and triode- (4X1 OA family) and damage to the tube
R -F LINEAR AMPLIFIER SERVICE FOR SSB AND CW
CATHODE -DRIVEN (GROUNDED -GRID)
CLASS-B MODE
PLATE !APPROX. PEP AVERAGE
ZERO SIG. MAX SIG. MAX. SIG. DRIVING PLATE MAX. SIG. PLATE I USEFUL PLATE APPROX.
I
TUBE VOLTAGE
Eb
FIL -V
A
PLATE I GRID lc I IMPEDAN. LOAD RL DRIVING OUTPUT
IMPERAN. POWER W. POWER W. POWER W. DI SP1c
AT. 3d ORDER
Clu1RREÑT CURRENT CURRENT R6 I MD Db -
6114
1250 L3 IS 175 25 320 3600 12 220 135 70 -33
1700 4 30 110 21 3200 IS 270 113 85 -2e
572
T 16 gL
2400 45 20 250 43 213 4300 30 600 350 f 180 -2e
2000 10 20 200 5000 10 400 270 130 -30
613 2500 3 30 30
50 270
7000 II 500 350 150 -33
3 -4002 2000 3
14.5
2 400
400
145 2750 - 600 5 355
400
-40
8163 3óO0 17oó 120 120 4750 32 1000 855 -32
3-500Z
2000
2500
3000
3
14.5
55
130
160
400
00
370
110
120
115
113
2750
3450
5000
-
-
30
goo
1000
1100
s00
600
750
300
400
350
--33
-30
36
3-1000Z 2500 7.S 162 800 270 15 -1600 95 2000 1250 750 -36
3000
21
175 670 220 15 2400 65 2000 1250 750 -35
6 164 3500 200 750 245 55 2600 65 2600 1770 630 -30
30X1007' 2500 200 675 880 41 1100 78 2200 1000 1000 -32
8283 3000 30
5 310 800 320 42 1670 67 2400 1200 1000 -32
4 -125A
2000
2500
3000
S
0'5
10
IS
20
105
110
115
SS
SS
55
340
340
340
10500
13500
15700
16
I6
210
275
345
145
190
240
65
es
100
-
--
16
Figure 22
7.24 RADIO HANDBOOK
may possibly result unless a protective cir- Cathode -Driven High -p. triode tubes may
cuit of the form shown in figure 21 is used. High -µ Triodes be used to advantage in
"Zero- bias" triodes (811 -A, 3 -4002 and cathode -driven (grounded -
3- 1000Z) and certain triode-connected te- grid) service. The inherent shielding of a
trodes (813 and 4 -400A, for example) re- high -µ tube is better than that of a low -p.
quire no bias supply and good linearity tube and the former provides better gain
may be achieved with a minimum of circuit per stage and requires less drive than the
components. An improvement of the order latter because of less feedthrough power. Re-
of S to 10 decibels in intermodulation dis- sistive loading of the input or driving cir-
tortion may be gained by operating such cuit is not required because of the constant
tubes in the grounded -grid mode in contrast feedthrough power load on the exciter as
to the same tubes operated in class-Alit, long as sufficient Q exists in the cathode
grid -driven mode. The improvement in the tank circuit. Low-µ triodes, on the other
distortion figure varies from tube type to hand, require extremely large driving signals
tube type, but all so- called "grounded- grid" when operated in the cathode- driven config-
triodes and triode- connected tetrodes show uration, and stage gain is relatively small. In
some degree of improvement in distortion addition shielding between the input and
figure when cathode -driven as opposed to output circuits is poor compared to that
grid -driven service. existing in high -it triodes.
)04
Figure 23
Waveform distortion caused by half -cycle loading at cathode of grounded-grid amplifier may be
observed (right) whereas undistorted waveform is observed with tuned cathode circuit (left).
Two -tone tests at 2.0 MHz proved the necessity of using a cathode tank circuit for lowest inter -
modulation distortion.
RADIO -FREQUENCY POWER AMPLIFIERS 7.25
Bias Supplies forMedium -p. triode tubes that alternate half -cycles by the single-ended
G -G Amplifiers require grid bias may be stage (figure 23). The driving source thus
used in cathode- driven serv- "sees" a very low value of load impedance
ice if the grid is suitably bypassed to over a portion of the r-f cycle and an ex-
ground and placed at the proper negative tremely high impedance over the remaining
dc potential. Bias supplies for such circuits, portion of the cycle. Unless the output volt-
however, must be capable of good voltage age regulation of the r-f source is very good,
regulation under conditions of grid current the portion of the wave on the loaded part of
so that the dc bias value does not vary with the cycle will be degraded. This waveform
the amplitude of the grid current of the distortion contributes to intermodulation
stage. Suitable bias supplies for this mode distortion and also may cause TVI difficul-
of operation are shown in the Power Supply ties as a result of the harmonic content of
chapter of this Handbook. Zener bias (figure the wave. Use of a tuned cathode circuit in
21) may be used for low values of bias the grounded -grid stage will preserve the
voltage. Approximate values of bias volt- waveform as shown in the photographs. The
age for linear amplifier service data may be tuned -cathode circuit need have only a Q of
obtained from the audio data found in 2 or more to do the job, and should be
most tube manuals, usually stated for push - resonated to the operating frequency of the
pull class -AB, or AB_ operation. As the tube amplifier. Various versions of cathode tank
"doesn't know" whether it is being driven circuits are shown in figure 24.
by an audio signal or an r-f signal, the audio In addition to reduction of waveform
parameters may be used for linear service, distortion, the tuned- cathode circuit pro-
but the stated dc currents should be vides a short r -f return path for plate cur-
divided by two for a single tube, since rent pulses from plate ro cathode (figure
the audio data is usually given for two 25). When the tuned circuit is not used,
tubes. Grounded -grid operating data for the r -f return path is via the outer shield of
popular triode and tetrode tubes is given the coaxial line, through the output capaci-
in figure 22. tor of the exciter plate-tank circuit and
back to the cathode of the linear amplifier
The Tuned Input waveform distortion tube via the center conductor of the coaxial
Cathode Circuit may be observed at the line. This random, uncontrolled path varies
cathode of a grounded -grid with the length of interconnecting coaxial
linear amplifier as the result of grid- and line, and permits the outer shield of the line
plate -current loading of the input circuit on to be "hot" compared to r -f ground.
oi
Figure 24
Tuned cathode network for cathode -driven circuit may take form of bifilar coil (A), pi- network (B),
or shunt LC circuit (C). Circuit Q of at least 2 is recommended. Capacitor C, may be a 3 -gang
broadcast -type unit. Coils L L2, or 1.2 are adjusted to resonate to the operating frequency with
,
C, set to approximately 13 pF -per meter wavelength. Capacitor C2 is approximately 1.5 times the
value of C. The input taps on coils L, and L or the capacitance of C2 are adjusted for minimum
SWR on coaxial line to the exciter.
7.26 RADIO HANDBOOK
SSE, EXCITER
RANDOM LENGTH
COAXIAL LINE ¡ G G LINEAR AMPLIFIER
Il
1
C
RFC
Figure 25
Untuned cathode circuit of grounded -grid amplifier offers high -impedance path to the r-f current
flowing between plate and cathode of the amplifier tube. The alternative path is via the signal inter-
connecting coaxial line and tank circuit of the exciter. Waveform distortion of the driving
and high intermodulation distortion may result from use of alternative input circuit.
A whole new concept of vacuum -tube cde, but the diode will not conduct until the
and semiconductor applications has been de- voltage on the anode rises above an equally
veloped in recent years. No longer are these positive value. As the anode becomes more
devices chained to the field of radio or wire positive with respect to the cathode, the
ccmmunication. This chapter is devoted to diode conducts and passes that portion of the
some of the more common circuits encoun- wave which is more positive than the cath-
tered in computer technology and in indus- ode voltage. Diodes may be used as either
trial and military applications. series or parallel limiters, as shown in figure
1. A diode may be so biased that only a cer-
8 -1 Limiting Circuits tain portion of the positive or negative cycle
is removed.
eIM e OUT
eIN e OUT
v f\f\J nn
i 1
eIN
E =
e DUT
VOLTAGE DROP
ACROSS DIODE
E
1
.eouT
^^ nn
E= VOLTAGE DROP
ACROSS DIODE
E
11
j_V¿jVE nn E+
f\JAit/ +_ T V V __1L_lLf
t=
r\A f\A
Figure 1
resistors. All points of the clipper circuit input resistor RI, the voltage at all of the
are maintained at a positive potential above circuit elements increases or decreases by the
ground. The voltage drop between the anode same amount as the input voltage changes,
and the cathode of each diode is very small and the voltage drop across R;1 changes by
compared to the drop across the 300K re- an equal amount. Thus, as long as the peak
sistor in series with the anodes. The anode signal voltage is less than 4 volts, the diodes
and cathode of each diode are therefore act as conductors and the output voltage of
maintained at approximately equal potentials the device follows all voltage fluctuations at
as long as no diode current flows. Signal the input cathode.
clipping does not occur until the peak sig- If, under static conditions, 4 volts appear
nal input voltage reaches a value greater than at the anodes, then twice this voltage ( 8
the static voltages at the anodes of the volts) will be present if one of the diode cir-
diodes. cuits is opened, thus removing its dc load
Assume that R, has been set to a point from the circuit. As long as only one of the
that will give 4 volts at the anodes of the diodes continues to conduct, the voltage at
diodes. When the peak signal voltage is less the diode anodes cannot rise above twice the
than 4 volts, both the diodes conduct at all voltage selected by R1. In this example, the
times. As long as the diodes conduct, their voltage cannot rise above 8 volts. Now, if
resistance is very low compared with resistor the input signal applied through C, is in-
R. Whenever a voltage change occurs across creased to any peak value between zero and
SPECIAL CIRCUITRY 8.3
e IN -1( +100
e OUT
--e-
e OUT
}
o
DIODE CONDUCTS
Figure 4
Cz
e IN
DEFLECTION
COIL
ADJUST
CLAMP
Figure 5
CI CHARGE PATH C2 DISCHARGE PATH
NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT
EMPLOYED IN ELECTROMAGNETIC Figure 7
SWEEP SYSTEM
THE CHARGE AND DISCHARGE PATHS
In its simplest form, the multivibrator is IN THE FREE -RUNNING
a simple two -stage RC- coupled amplifier MULTIVIBRATOR OF FIGURE 6
with the output of the second stage coupled
through a capacitor to the input of the first The output of a multivibrator may be used
stage, as shown in figure 6. Since the output as a source of square waves, as an electronic
of the second stage is of the proper polsrity switch, or as a means of obtaining frequency
to reinforce the input signal applied to the division. Submultiple frequencies as low as
first, oscillations can readily take place, one -tenth of the injected synchronizing fre-
quency may easily be obtained.
B. Si B.
c
n ÿ (.BDN011CTNG
L- J
ONE-SHOT MULTIVIBRATOR CUTOPf
TIME
Figure 9 Figure 10
ECCLES -JORDAN MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS SINGLE-SWING BLOCKING OSCILLATOR
8.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
P -' R -F R -F
U ILSE PULSE PULSE
e OUT
UU Uu UU DI
CUTOFF CUTOFF
TIME TIME
Figure 13
Figure 11
STEP -BY -STEP COUNTING CIRCUIT
average current flowing through R, in-
HARTLEY OSCILLATOR USED AS creases as the pulse -repetition frequency in-
BLOCKING OSCILLATOR BY PROPER
CHOICE OF R C creases, and decreases as the p.r.f. decreases.
By reversing the diode connections, as
isused to produce pulses of r -f energy, the shown in figure 12B, the circuit is made to
number of pulses being determined by the respond to negative pulses. In this circuit,
timing network in the grid circuit of the an increase in the p.r.f. causes a decrease in
oscillator. The rate at which these pulses the average current flowing through R
occur is know as the pulse- repetition fre- which is opposite to the effect in the positive
quency, or p.r.f. counter.
A step -counter is similar to the circuits
8 -5 Counting Circuits discussed, except that a capacitor which is
large compared to C, replaces the diode load
A counting circuit, or frequency divider, resistor. The charge of this capacitor is in-
is one which receives uniform pulses (repre- creased during the time of each pulse, pro-
senting units to be counted) and produces a ducing a step voltage across the output (fig-
voltage that is proportional to the frequency ure 13) . A blocking oscillator may be con-
of the pulses. A counting circuit may be nected to a step counter, as shown in figure
used in conjunction with a blocking oscilla- 14. The oscillator is triggered into operation
tor to produce a trigger pulse which is a when the voltage across CZ reaches a point
submultiple of the frequency of the applied sufficiently positive to raise the grid of V
pulse. Either positive or negative pulses may above cutoff. Circuit parameters may be
be counted. A positive counting circuit is chosen so that a count division up to 1/20
shown in figure 12A, and a negative count- may be obtained with reliability.
ing circuit is shown in figure 12B. The pos-
itive counter allows a certain amount of
current to flow through R each time a 1
8 -6 Resistance- Capacitance
pulse is applied to C,. Oscillators
The positive pulse charges capacitor C,
and makes the anode of diode 2 positive with In an RC oscillator, the frequency is de-
respect to its cathode. Diode 2 conducts termined by a resistance capacitance network
until the exciting pulse passes. Capacitor C, that provides regenerative coupling between
is then discharged by diode 1, and the cir- the output and input of a feedback ampli-
cuit is ready to accept another pulse. The fier. No use is made of a tank circuit con-
CI D2
e IN -4
0
POSITIVE NEGATIVE POSITIVE COUNTING
COUNTING CIRCUI' COUNTING CIRC.:'T PC,- WI, I/ET'P
Figure 12
Figure 14
N FREQ. OP OSCILLATION
Figure 17
Z
Figure 20
pr .¡
stat (TH) control.
C;Ir
RI RI ti
OUT
and-effect system. The furnace (F) raises
Rn2r R2/
the room temperature (T) to a predeter-
mined value at which point the sensing
cz thermostat (TH) reduces the fuel flow to
LOOP 2 the furnace. When the room temperature
Figure 18 drops below the predetermined value the
fuel flow is increased by the thermostat con-
THE NBS BRIDGE -T OSCILLATOR
CIRCUIT EMPLOYS TWO FEEDBACK trol. An interdependent control system is
LOOPS. LOOP IS REGENERATIVE,
1
created by this arrangement: the room tem-
LOOP 2 IS DEGENERATIVE perature depends on the thermostat action,
and the thermostat action depends on the
A simple feedback system for temperature room temperature. This sequence of events
control is shown in figure 20. This is a canse- may be termed a closed-loop feedbacks system.
SPECIAL CIRCUITRY 8.9
Error Cancellation A feedback control sys- over- control tendencies wherein the correc-
tem is dependent on a de- tion signal would carry the system past the
gree of error in the output signal, since this point of correct operation. Under certain
error component is used to bring about the circumstances the new error signal would
correction. This component is called the cause the feedback control to overcorrect in
error signal. The error, or deviation from the the opposite direction, resulting in hunting
desired signal is passed through the feedback or oscillation of the closed -loop system about
loop to cause an adjustment to reduce the the correct operating point.
value of the error signal. Care must be taken Negative- feedback control would tend to
in the design of the feedback loop to reduce damp out spurious system oscillation if it
were not for the time lag or phase shift in the
PHASE SHIFT
system. If the overall phase shift is equal to
INPUT SIGNAL
OF SYSTEM OUTPUT SIGNAL one -half cycle of the operating frequency of
the system, the feedback will maintain a
steady state of oscillation when the circuit
gain is sufficiently high (figure 21). In
n
î4 order to prevent oscillation, the gain figure
TIME of the feedback loop must be less than unity
FEEDBACK SIGNAL OUTPUT SIGNAL when the phase shift of the system reaches
A,..
NO PHASE SHIFT
I1 !
I
t-í I_ v
'-; V
I
11 FEEDBACK
180 degrees. In an ideal control system the
gain of the loop would be constant through-
out the operating range of the device, and
SIGNAL
WITH ISO
PHASE would drop rapidly outside the range to
SHIFT
reduce the bandwidth of the control system
TIME
to a minimum.
Figure 21 The time lag in a closed -loop system may
be reduced by using electronic circuits in
PHASE SHIFT OF ERROR place of mechanical devices, or by the use of
SIGNAL MAY CAUSE OSCILLATION special circuit elements having a phase -lead
IN CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
characteristic. Such devices make use of the
To prevent oscillation, the gain of the feedback properties of a capacitor, wherein the current
loop must be less than unity when the phase
shift of the system reaches 180 degrees. leads the voltage applied to it.
4J1 I II
.,111FFITIRMWEeN " 4- I - -
t.
114
Single.Sideband
Transmission and Reception
Single -sideband (SSB) communication is Experiments before the turn of the cen-
a unique, sophisticated information trans- tury proved the existence of electromagnetic
mission system well suited for wire and waves which could be propagated and put
radio services. Although known in theory to use for transmission of information.
for several decades, "sideband" was sparingly When voice transmission via radio waves
used in commercial service for a number was successfully accomplished circa 1907,
of years, and only in the last decade has it the concept of carrier waves and sidebands
achieved popularity and general acceptance was unknown, although it was understood
in the Amateur Service. Economical in cost, that "a channel separation high compared
sparing of valuable spectrum space, and with the pitch of the sound waves trans-
usable under the most trying propagation mitted" was required. An implication that
conditions, SSB is the stepping stone to a a transmission band of frequencies was in-
future era of better and more reliable rapid volved was apparently not grasped at the
hf communication. time, and the idea that intelligence could be
transmitted by a single carrier wave of
constant frequency and varying amplitude
persisted until about 1921 at which time
9 -1 The SSB System the sideband concept had been established by
a series of discoveries, experiments, and in-
ventions.
Single sideband is a recent attempt to Early SSB experiments with single -sideband
translate human intelligence into electrical transmission were conducted by the tele-
impulses capable of being economically phone industry which was interested in
transmitted over great distances. The gen- transmitting electrical impulses correspond-
eral flow of information in a communication ing to the human voice over long- distance
system includes a source, followed by a telephone circuits. Since the transmission
translator which propagates the intelligence properties of wire and cable deteriorate
through a conducting medium. A second rapidly with cable length and increasing
translator is used to extract the intelligence frequency, a means of frequency conserva-
conveyed by the medium and to make it tion was desired which would permit the
available in a usable form. The vocal chords, "stacking" of different voices in an electro-
vibrations in the atmosphere, and the ear magnetic package so that many voices could
drum accomplish this sequence of events be sent over a single circuit. The voice im-
for sound; the light source, the "ether," pulses were mainly concentrated in the band
and the human eye provide the same se- 300 -3,000 Hz and the problem at hand
quence for sight. was to translate this voice band to a higher
9.1
9.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
11600
arated sidebands and carriers, proving their
INPUT
VOICE BANDEI
VOICE BAND'S individuality.
300- 3000 Hz
300 -3000 Hz
9900 The sideband theory was of little more
INPUT
9400.
VOICE BAND 931
than passing interest to radio engineers,
VOICE BAND62
300 -3000 Hz BLACK 600
300 -3000 Hzl but it was a matter of considerable impor-
VOICE BAND
TRANSLATOR
-O. 6700
6200 tance to the telephone industry. The carrier
INPUT f VOICE BANDO2
VOICE BAND
300 -3000 Hz 300 -3000 HZ wave was useless except as an operator nec-
3300
3000
essary to generate and then upon which to
INPUT
VOICE BAND 64
VOICE BANDII
300 -3000 Hz
"hang" the two sidebands, both of which
300 -3000 Hz
300
0
carried the same information (figure 3) .
OUTPUT SPECTRUM
OF TRANSLATOR
For economic reasons and spectrum con-
servation it was desirable to remove one side -
Figure 1
band and the carrier from the translator,
THE "BLACK BOX" VOICE BAND passing only one sideband through the con-
TRANSLATOR ducting medium. At the receiver, a locally
A simple device for "stacking" voice bands in
generated carrier wave of the correct fre-
an electromagnetic "package" for transmitting quency and amplitude was combined with
many voices over a single circuit cannot be
built as it is impossible to translate a band of the incoming single -sideband signal. The re-
frequencies directly to another band. Transla- sulting output was a reproduction of the
tion must be accomplished by an indirect
method, making use of an auxiliary carrier wave signal impressed on the translator. Com-
and a mixing process termed "modulation."
mercial wire telephone systems using this
technique were placed in operation in 1918
band of frequencies (15,300- 18,000 Hz, and the first h -f SSB telephone link was
for example) for transmission on the tele- activated in 1927.
phone circuit, then to reverse the translation CARRIER
16000
VOICE BANDII
process at the receiving terminal to recover OSCILLATOR
IS KHZ
300 -3000 HZ
SlOfA
the original band of frequencies. Experi-
I
15000. c
147001
INPUT
ments proved, however, that a simple and VOICE BANDII TRANSLATOR
VOICE BAND
300 -3000 HZ
300 -3000 Hz
economical apparatus for translation of the 1
12000
and the carrier, and the transmission of Basic SSB A single -sideband signal can be
only the remaining sideband. To date, no best be described as an audio sig-
method exists to directly generate an SSB nal raised (or translated) to the desired
signal. All translation techniques involve radio frequency. The translation process
the use of a carrier wave, and the resulting may not result in the inversion of the
signal includes the original carrier and two audio-frequency components in the signal,
auxiliary sidebands. depending on the sideband selected (figure
The post -World War II acceptance of 4) . For example, a single audio tone of 2000
SSB transmission for military and com- Hz is to be translated into an SSB signal
mercial circuits has stimulated research and in the 455-kHz region. The tone is ampli-
development in this field and has contributed fied and applied to one input of a transla-
to a heightened interest in the technique by tor stage (usually termed a balanced modu-
the radio amateur. Mass production of sharp - lator) . A radio -frequency carrier is applied
cutoff filters and stable translation oscilla- to the other input terminal of the modula-
tors, plus the use of advanced and simplified tor. For this example, the frequency of the
circuitry has brought SSB to the point
of obsoleting simple amplitude -modulation
AUDIO TONE
transmission on the high- frequency amateur 2000 H Z LSD use
bands. Undoubtedly, in the years ahead, 1
further design refinements and technical TRANSLATOR
advances will make the use of SSB even (MIXER)
453 453 457
more advantageous to all concerned with AHZ
transmission of intelligence by electrical CARRIER
455 NHZ
means. OUTPUT SPECTRUM
nal to a large degree, leaving only the two c -wsignal generated by more conventional
sidebands and the audio signal to appear in means. A voice signal, on the other hand,
the output circuit. Some modulators also is a complex band of audio components
balance out the audio signal. Part of the having many frequencies of varying ampli-
job of creating an SSB signal has now been tudes. A simple and useful compromise sig-
accomplished. The high- frequency compon- nal for testing SSB equipment is the two -
ents of the output signal of the balanced tone signal, composed of two equal and sep-
modulator comprise a double -sideband, sup- arate sine waves separated a very small per-
pressed- carrier signal. The remaining step to centage in frequency. If two audio tones
create an SSB signal is to eliminate one of are applied to the input circuit of the
the sidebands and to reduce to minor pro- SSB exciter previously discussed, the output
portions any vestige of carrier permitted to of the 455 -kHz balanced modulator will
pass through the balanced -modulator stage. contain four sideband frequencies (figure 5) .
A sideband filter accomplishes this last step. Assume the audio tones are 700 and 2000
At the output of the filter is the desired Hz. The output frequencies of the balanced
SSB signal. The passband of the filter should modulator will be: 453 kHz, 454.3 kHz,
be just wide enough to pass the intelligence 455 kHz (the partially suppressed carrier),
without passing the carrier wave or the 455.7 kHz and 457 kHz. The two lower
unwanted sideband. For voice communica- frequencies represent the lower sideband,
tion, such filters usually pass a band of radio and the two higher frequencies represent the
frequencies about 2 or 3 kHz wide. upper sideband. With a properly designed
The unwanted carrier and sideband that filter following the balanced modulator,
are eliminated by the filter and balanced both the frequencies in one sideband and
modulator are actually absorbed by the filter the remainder of the carrier will be almost
and modulator and converted to heat. In completely eliminated. If the filter com-
order to hold the cost and size of the filter pletely eliminates the lower sideband and
to a reasonable figure, it is necessary that the carrier, the output of the exciter will
the above process take place at a relatively be two radio frequencies at 455.7 kHz and
low signal level, of the order of a volt or 457 kHz. An observer examining these r-f
two, so that power dissipation is low. signals could not tell if the signals were
generated by two oscillators operating at the
CARRIER UPPER SIDEBAND
FILTER
observed frequencies, or if the two signals
\ PASSBAND were the result of two audio tones applied
to an SSB exciter.
The waveform of the SSB signal changes
drastically as the number of audio tones
is increased, as shown in figure 6. A single -
S tone waveform is shown in illustration A
451 452 453 4 5
fAED UENC r -.
456 57 56 439
and is simply a single, steady sine -wave r -f
output. A signal composed of two audio
Figure 5
tones is shown in illustration B. The two
THE SSB SIGNAL radio -frequency signals are separated by the
The SSB signal may be generated by passing a difference in frequency between the audio
double -sideband -with -carrier signal through a tones and beat together to give the SSB
filter which removes one sideband and partially
suppresses the carrier. In this example, a two - envelope shown. The figure has the shape of
tone audio signal (700 and 2000 Hz) is mixed
with a 455 -kHz carrier signal. The output signal half -sine waves, and from one null to the
from the mixer, or modulator, contains four side- next represents one full cycle of the differ-
band frequencies: 453 kHz, 454.3 kHz, 455.7 kHz,
and 457 kHz, in addition to the carrier at 455 ence frequency. If one tone has twice the
kHz. Additional carrier suppression may be ob-
tained by the use of a balanced modulator. amplitude of the other, the envelope shape
is as shown in illustration C. The SSB
envelope of three equal tones of equal fre-
The SSB Spectrum A single audio tone in a quency spacings and at one particular phase
perfect SSB system remains relationship is shown in illustration D. Illus-
a simple sine wave at all points in the sys- tration E shows the SSB envelope of four
tem and cannot be distinguished from a equal tones having equal frequency spacings
SINGLE SIDEBAND 9.5
CO O
PEAK TO AVERAGE POWER
O O
Figure 6
SSB WAVEFORMS
The waveform of the SSB signal changes with the nature of the modulating signal, and the enve-
lope shape of the SSB wave may not be the same as the original audio waveshape. The peak power
in the SSB wave is a direct function of the r -f waveform, as shown here. Peak and average power
in the SSB wave will be discussed later in this chapter.
and at one particular phase relationship. the SSB transmitter is theoretically unable
Finally, illustration F shows the SSB en- to transmit.
velope of a square wave having an infinite
number of odd harmonics. A pure square
wave requires infinite bandwidth, so in The Received In summary, if an audio spec -
theory the SSB envelope requires infinite SSB Signal tram containing many differ-
amplitude. This emphasizes the point that ent tones (the human voice,
the SSB envelope shape may not be the same for example) is applied to the SSB exciter,
as the original audio waveshape, and usually an r -f spectrum is generated that corres-
bears no similarity to it. This is be- ponds to the audio tones. If the audio spec-
cause the percentage difference between the trum encompasses the range of 300-3000
radio frequencies is small, even though one Hz, the output of the 455 -kHz balanced
audio tone may be several times the other in modulator will be 452 to 454.7 kHz (the
terms of frequency. Because of nonlinearity lower sideband), 455 kHz (the partially
and phase shift in the practical SSB transmit- suppressed carrier), and 455.3 to 458 kHz
ter, the peak amplitude of a transmitted (the upper sideband). An "upper -sideband"
square wave is not so great as predicted by type filter having a passband of 455.3 to
theory through the addition of the harmonic 458 kHz will substantially eliminate the
coefficients, making it impossible to faith- residual carrier and lower sideband.
fully reproduce a square wave. Speech pro- Listening to the output of the SSB exciter
cessing in the form of heavy audio clipping on a typical a -m receiver will divulge a
therefore is of limited value in SSB because series of unintelligible sounds having no ap-
the SSB r -f envelopes are so different from parent relation to the original speech im-
the audio envelopes. A heavily clipped wave pressed on the SSB exciter. (A low- pitched
approaches a square wave which will have voice can be read with difficulty as the syl-
the tendency to exhibit the high amplitude labic content is preserved and is apparent).
peaks shown in illustration 6F, a waveform Injection in the receiver of a local carrier
9.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
P
- ipm X ep justment purposes with the reasonable as-
sumption that the SSB equipment will be
4
properly adjusted for one kilowatt average
Plate Efficiency: power voice operation.
It is difficult to determine the ratio of
N
°
- 4XEb
X ep
peak to average power in the human voice,
as the range of intensity of speech sounds
Two equal tones: may vary as much as 40 decibels. "Aver-
age" speech seems to have an intensity range
DC Plate Current (Meter Reading) :
of about 20 decibels and a ratio of instan-
taneous peak -to- average power of about 14
Ib - 2 X inm
decibels for 99 percent of the time of speech.
SINGLE SIDEBAND 9,7
with a 3.5 -MHz oscillator to provide two new by means of linear amplifiers and mixer
sidebands, one at 3.045 MHz and the other at
3.95 MHz. If the 3.95 -MHz signal is desired, fil- stages, a low frequency SSB signal may be
ter circuits may be used to eliminate the un- amplified and converted to any other fre-
wanted 3.045 -MHz sideband and the 3.5-MHz car-
rier signal from the local oscillator. The 3.95 - quency desirable for communication pur-
MHz signal may now be shifted in frequency by
changing the frequency of the local oscillator. poses.
SINGLE SIDEBAND 9.9
---
RIT AMPLWIER
LOW -Z SHUNT-QUAD 55- kHz WITH HIGH
o- SPEECH
AMPLIFIER PHASE
INVERTER
RING
MODULATOR
MECHANICAL
FILTER
CONVERTER TUNED CIRCUIT
FOR OUTPUT ON
3953- kHz
450-4551H
Figure 8
convert a 455 -kHz SSB signal to 3.95 MHz. value by the proper choice of tubes, their
The operation takes place in a second bal- operating voltages and driving- circuit con-
anced- modulator circuit. One input is the siderations, and by the use of external
455-kHz SSB signal, and the other input negative feedback, as discussed in Chapter
signal is from an oscillator operating on Twelve.
3.500 MHz. The output of the second mix-
er is a partially suppressed carrier (3.500 9 -3 The Balanced
MHz), the lower sideband in the 3.045 - Modulator
MHz range (3.500 -
0.455 = 3.045
MHz), and the upper sideband in the 3.95 -
MHz range (3.500 + 0.455 = 3.95 MHz). The balanced modulator is used to mix
The upper sideband is the desired one, so a the audio signal with that of the local car-
simple auxiliary image filter is used to sep- rier to produce sideband components which
arate it from the unwanted sideband and may be selected for further amplification.
the partially suppressed carrier. In most Any nonlinear element will serve in a modu-
cases, this filter consists of the two or three lator, producing sum and difference signals
parallel -tuned circuits normally associated as well as the original frequencies. This
with the following amplifier stages tuned phenomenon is objectionable in amplifiers
to 3.95 MHz. and desirable in mixers or modulators. The
The Linear Amplifier -The output of simplest modulator is a rapid -action switch,
the last mixer stage is usually of the order commonly simulated by diode rectifiers for
of a few milliwatts and must be amplified r -f service. Either semiconductors or vacu-
to a usable level in one or more linear ampli- um -tube rectifiers may be employed and
fier stages. For lowest distortion, the output some of the more commonly used circuits
of the linear amplifier should be a nearly are shown in figure 10. The simplest mod-
exact reproduction of its input signal. Any ulator is that of figure 10A, the two -diode
amplitude nonlinearity in the amplifier not series -balanced modulator. The input trans-
only will produce undesirable distortion former introduces the audio signal to the
within the SSB signal, but will also produce balanced diode switches, which are turned
annoying spurious products in adjacent off and on by the carrier voltage introduced
channels. Distortion may be held to a low in an in -phase relationship. If the carrier
0
amplitude is large with respect to the audio
signal, the only current flowing in the out-
+o put transformer is due to the action of the
audio voltage added to the carrier voltage.
20 A properly designed DSB output transformer
will filter out the switching transients, the
30 audio component, and the carrier signal,
z fCARRIER leaving only the desired double -sideband out-
O 40 fREOIIEMCY
- put. A shunt version of this circuit is shown
Z 50 in illustration B wherein the diodes form a
W
short- circuit path across the input trans-
< 60 former on alternate half -cycles of carrier
switching voltage.
70
455 410 4e1 4e2 463 464
Four -diode balanced modulators are shown
FREOUENCY(kHzl in illustrations C through E. Circuits C
and E are similar to the two -diode circuits
Figure 9
except that untapped transformers may be
PASSBAND OF CRYSTAL LATTICE used to save cost. The double -balanced ring
FILTER circuit of illustration D is popular as both
A 460.5 -kHz crystal- lattice filter composed of carrier and audio signal are balanced with
eight crystals has an excellent passband for respect to the output, which is advantage-
voice waveforms. Carrier rejection is about -20
decibels, and unwanted sideband rejection is ous when the output frequency is not suf-
better than -35 decibels. Passband is essen- ficiently different from the inputs to allow
tially flat up to 463 kHz, providing an audio
passband of about 300 to 2500 Hz. ready separation by inexpensive filters. The
SINGLE SIDEBAND 9.11
Fm9
CARRIER VOLTAGE
Pawn
CARRIER VOLTAGE
TWO DIODE SERIES BALANCED MODULATOR TWO DIODE SHUNT MODULATOR
O o
r'-'9
CARRIER VOLTAGE
run'59
CARRIER VOLTAGE
FOUR DIODE SHUNT QUAD MODULATOR DOUBLE BALANCED RING MODULATOR
O O
MOD
VOLTAG
r66m1
CARRIER VOLTAGE
FOUR DIODE SERIES QUAD MODULATOR
77
CARRIER VOLTAGE
TWO DIODE SHUNT PAIR MODULATOR
O 0
r5609
CARRIER VOLTAGE
TWO DIODE SERIES PAIR MODULATOR PRACTICAL RING MODULATOR
o Figure 10
0
BALANCED -MODULATOR CIRCUITS
The balanced modulator is used to mix the audio signal with that of the carrier to produce side -
band components. It may also be used as a converter or mixer stage to convert an SSB signal to
a higher frequency. The diodes act as an r -f driven switch and may be arranged in series or shunt
mode as shown in the illustrations. A practical diode modulator incorporating balancing circuits
is shown in illustration H.
series and shunt -quad configuration may be and capacitors must be employed to control
adapted to two diodes as shown in illustra- the path of audio and carrier currents and
tions F and G, substituting a balanced car- balancing capacitors are usually added to
rier transformer for one side of the bridge. null the carrier as shown in the circuit of
In applying any of these circuits, r -f chokes illustration H.
9.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 12
.014
6.44MM
.01e¡`y
761MM
.2)6,11
¡ 11.7 MK
$a
,ou0
.046 OL/711/7
O
062 MN 036 MN "1:135 .414 g22 MM 112MM0
Figure 13
tion, the Q of the filter inductances should band. Where the width of the passband is
be ten times the reciprocal of this, or 160. greater than twice the spacing of the series
For voice communication purposes, the and parallel resonances of the crystal, special
lower frequency response of the sideband circuit techniques must be used.
filter is usually limited to about 300 Hz.
Frequencies above 2500 Hz or so contribute Mechanical Filters Filters using mechanical
little to speech intelligence, moreover, and resonators have been
their elimination permits closer grouping studied by a number of companies and are
for SSB signals. Practical filters for speech offered commercially by the Collins Radio
transmission, therefore, have a passband from Co. They are available in a variety of band-
about 300 to 2500 Hz or so, rejecting sig- widths at center frequencies of 250 and 455
nals in the unwanted passband and those kHz. The 250 -kHz series is specifically in-
above 3000 Hz by over 40 decibels. A ten - tended for sideband selection. The selectivity
pole LC SSB filter and the characteristic attained by these filters is intermediate be-
response is shown in figure 13. tween good LC filters at low center fre-
quencies and engineered quartz -crystal fil-
Crystal Filters Practical and inexpensive SSB ters. A passband of two 250 -kHz filters is
filters may be designed around shown in figure 15. In application of the
quartz crystal resonators at center frequen- mechanical filters some special precautions
cies well into the hf range. Home -made are necessary. The driving and pickup coils
lattice -type filters of the type shown in should be carefully resonated to the operat-
figure 14 may be made of surplus low -fre- ing frequency. If circuit capacitances are
quency crystals. Experimental designs usual- unknown, trimmer capacitors should be used
ly synthesize a selectivity curve by group- across the coils. Maladjustment of these
ing sharp notches at the sides of the pass- tuned coils will increase insertion loss and
Y4
Ta
se
ouT
Figure 14
T, are standard 455 -kHz units. Transformer T, is a standard unit with one winding removed. A bi-
filar primary winding of 25 turns is wound in place of the removed winding. 25-turn winding
is applied, and a second 25 -turn winding placed over it, with the end of the first winding connected
to the beginning of the second. The common connection is the center tap. The transformers are
aligned at the center of the passband (455.5kHz). When properly aligned, carier rejection is better
than -25 decibels and the nominal filter bandwidth is about 2500 Hz.
9.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
AA I
246 247 244 249 250 251 252 253 254 235 the advantage that all electrical circuits
FREQUENCY (kHz)
which give rise to the SSB signal can oper-
Figure 15 ate in a practical transmitter at the nominal
output frequency of the transmitter. Thus,
PASSBAND OF LOWER- AND UPPER - if an SSB signal is desired at 50.1 MHz, it
SIDEBAND MECHANICAL FILTER is not necessary to go through several fre-
quency conversions in order to obtain an
the peak -to- valley ratio. On high -impedance SSB signal at the desired output frequency.
filters (ten- to twenty- thousand ohms) sig- The balanced modulator in the phasing
nals greater than 2 volts at the input should transmitter is merely fed with a 50.1 MHz
be avoided. Direct current should be blocked
carrier and with the audio signal from a bal-
out of the end coils. While the filters are anced phase splitter. Practical considerations,
rated for 5 mA of coil current, they are not however, make the construction of a 6-
rated for dc plate voltage. meter SSB phasing -type exciter a challenge
to the home constructor because of the
closely controlled r -f phase shifts that must
9 -5 The Phasing Type be achieved at that frequency.
SSB Exciter
A Practical A simplified block diagram
Phasing Exciter illustrating the phasing
An SSB signal may be generated by the method of SSB generation
phasing of two a -m signals in such a way isshown in figure 16. An audio signal. is
that one sideband is enhanced, and the other amplified, restricted in bandwidth by a
BALANCEO
MODULATOR,
N 1
-
200 -5000 AUDIO
SPEECH SPEECH PRASE - TO POWER AMPLIFIER STAGES
AMPLIFIER FILTER I
SRLI TIN G OR DIRECTLY TO ANTENNA SYSTEM
NETWORKS
tQ2
^BALANCED
MODULATOR,
H2
-
PHASE O/FEERENCE OE rIEEN Or AND 912 =90*
let e2
PHASE D /FFEPENCE OETWEEN Sr ARO 02 = 90
RADIO-FREO
PHASE -
SPLIrTING
NET WORN
RADIO FREO
SIGNAL AT
CARRIER FREO
Figure 16
speech filter and then split into two branches is used. The output from balanced modula-
(ski and 02) by the audio phase network. tor #1 is represented by the spectrum plot
The resulting signals are applied indepen- of figure 17A, in which the carrier frequency
dently to two balanced modulators. The is represented by the vertical dashed line
audio networks have the property of holding at 3.8 MHz with the symmetrical sidebands
a 90° phase difference between their respec- at 3.798 MHz and 3.802 MHz. The carrier
tive output signals within the restricted frequency is balanced within the modulator
range of audio frequencies passed by the and so does not appear in its output. Simi-
speech filter and applied to their input larly, the output of balanced modulator #2
terminals. In addition, the amplitude re- produces a signal which has an identical
sponse of the networks remains essentially spectrum plot, as shown in figure 17B.
constant over this frequency range. While the spectrum plots appear identical,
Each balanced modulator is driven by a they do not show everything about the out-
fixed- frequency carrier oscillator whose out- put signals of the two modulators as addi-
put is also split into two branches (0, and tion of two identical quantities yields a re-
02) by a 90° r -f phase shift network oper- sult which is simply twice as great as either
ating at the carrier frequency. The alge- quantity. However, the result of the two
braic sum of the output signals of the two simultaneous 90° phase shifts applied to the
balanced modulators appears at the output audio and carrier signals impressed on the
of a combining circuit and is the desired modulators produces sideband signals in
single -sideband, suppressed-carrier signal. their respective outputs that are in phase
The degree of sideband suppression is depen- for the identical upper -sideband frequency
dent on the control of audio phase shift and of 3.802 MHz but 180° out of phase for
amplitude balance through the system; a the lower-sideband frequency of 3.798 MHz
phase error of two degrees, for example, will as shown in figure 17C. Addition of the
degrade the sideband attenuation by over output signals of the two balanced modula-
10 decibels. tors thus doubles the strength of the upper-
By way of illustration, assume that the sideband component while balancing out the
carrier oscillator frequency is 3.8 MHz and lower -sideband component. Conversely, sub-
that a single modulating tone of 2000 Hz traction of the output signals of one bal-
anced modulator from those of the other
LSO use LSB I Use will double the strength of the lower -side-
band component while cancelling the upper -
sideband component. In either case, an SSB
3.718 3.600 3.602 3. 18 3.800 3.602
signal is created. A double -pole, double -
MHZ MHZ throw reversing switch in two of the four
audio leads to the balanced modulators is
use all that is required to switch from one side -
band to the other.
LSB The phase -shift method works not so
much because the system passes a certain
band of frequencies but because it is able
3.718 3.600 3.802
MHZ
to cancel a closely adjacent band of fre-
quencies. The result, however, is equivalent
to that obtained by the use of bandpass
Figure 17 filters.
THE PHASING -TYPE SSB SIGNAL
Two signals having identical spectrum plots Filter versus The phasing system of SSB
may be combined to produce an SSB signal. Phasing?
The signals of illustrations A and B, however, generation does not necessarily
have simultaneous 90- degree phase shifts ap- produce a better or worse sig-
plied to the audio and carrier signals and when
combined produce an SSB signal whose nal than does the filter -type of SSB gener-
ower sidebands are out of phase and whose
Pproperly
upper sidebands are in phase. By use of twin ator. Suppression of the unwanted sideband
balanced modulators, the carrier may be sup- in the phasing generator depends on the
pressed and proper sideband addition and sub-
traction achieved (illustration C). characteristic of the audio phase -shift net-
9.16 RADIO HANDBOOK
AUDI.
INPUT TO DAL.
H MORDI
TO SAL.
MDD2
Figure 19
+105 V. REGULATED
LOW-Q R -F PHASE -SHIFT NETWORK
The r -f phase -shift system illustrated above is Figure 21
convenient in a case where it is desired to
make small changes in the operating frequency A VERSION OF THE DOME
of the system without the necessity of being
precise in the adjustment of two coupled cir- AUDIO- PHASE -SHIFT
cuits as used for r -f phase shift in the circuit NETWORK
of figure 18.
3900
Figure 22
024220N
TO DAL. PASSIVE AUDIO- PHASE -SHIFT
MOD. I
AUDIO NETWORK, USEFUL OVER RANGE
SIGNAL
3900
OF 300 TO 3000 Hz.
3900
9 -6 Single -Sideband
TO DAL
.00535 20 N
1400 2 Frequency Conversion
3900
+130 V. The output signal from the low -level SSB
Figure 20
generator is usually at a fixed frequency
and must be converted, or translated, to the
DOME AUDIO- PHASE-SHIFT NETWORK desired operating frequency. This conversion
This circuit arrangement is convenient for ob- is accomplished by a heterodyne process in-
taining the audio phase shift when it is de- volving converter or mixer stages and suit-
sired to use a minimum of circuit components
and tube elements. able oscillators. Frequency multipliers can-
not be used with the SSB signal since this
rejected sideband. A low -pass 3500 -Hz process would alter the frequency relation-
speech filter should be used ahead of this ships present in the original audio signal.
phase-shift network. The heterodyne process mixes two sig-
A passive audio phase -shift network that nals in a manner to produce new signal
employs no tubes is shown in figure 22. This components equal in frequency to the sum
network has the same type of operating re- and difference of the original frequencies.
stricticns as those described above. Addi- One of the two products is useful and is
tional information concerning phase -shift passed by the tuned circuits of the equip-
9.18 RADIO HANDBOOK
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII'1.IIIIIIIIII11I Ó
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIrIIIIIIIIIII/IIIIIIII
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111Í111111111111111111111
1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111Pd111111111111111111111
1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111G 11111111111111111111111
111111111111111111111IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIII5IIII11111111111111111111
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o
1111111111111111111111111111111111111111!Hh11111
.. ... . .... .... . .. ... .. . .. . .. .. .. ... ..... .. . .. ... .. . . . . .... .
. . . . . . .. . . .
o
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII'/IIIIIIIIIII.IIIIIPd
1IIIIIII1111I111111111II11111111IIIIr,11IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1II11IPiI1
111II11111111111111111111111111111111/A11111111111111111111111111r1111
111111111111111111111111111111111111Pi11111111111111111111111111511111
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
111111111111111111111111111111111115111111111111111111111111 211111111
....
II.I.I.II.I. ,I..r...
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IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII,IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIiIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIl.HI
.I
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I.r.
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11 11111111M1111111111111M111111
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I IjÌ;;;''11
,I,.!.';í:11 ÍIIII 0
O O Ñ
M It c0
O
m el oo o
Ñ.
90
Figure 26
Frequency-Conversion The example in the frequencies are generated. These represent all
Problems previous section shows of the possible combinations of the sum and
the difficult selectivity difference frequencies of all harmonics of the
problem encountered when strong undesired original frequencies. For purposes of test
signals appear near the desired frequency. A and analysis, a tuo -tone test signal (two
high- frequency SSB transmitter may be re-
quired to operate at any carrier frequency
in the range of 1.7 to 30 MHz. The prob-
lem is to find a practical and economical - SIGNALDISTORTION
TO
(S /D) RATION
means of heterodyning the generated SSB
frequency to any carrier frequency in this
range. There are many modulation products
in the output of the mixer and a frequency
scheme must be found that will not have un- I r l 1
When the SSB envelope of a voice or mul- equal -amplitude tones) is used as the SSB
titone signal is distorted, a great many new source. Since the SSB radio- frequency ampli-
9.22 RADIO HANDBOOK
fiers use tank circuits, all distortion products A practical test of linearity is to employ
are filtered out except those which lie close a two -tone, low- distortion signal to drive
to the desired frequencies. These are all odd - the tube or transistor and to use a spectrum
order products; third order, fifth order, etc. analyzer to display a sample of the output
The third -order products are 2p -q and spectrum on an oscilloscope (figure 27). The
2q-p where p and q represent the two SSB test signal, along with spurious intermodu-
r -f tone frequencies. The fifth order products lation products may be seen on the screen,
are 3p -2q and 3q -2p. These and some separated on the horizontal axis by the dif-
higher order products are shown in figure 27 ference in frequency between the two tones.
A, B, and C. It should be noted that the fre- A reading is made by comparing the ampli-
quency spacings are always equal to the dif- tude of a specific intermodulation product
ference frequency of the two original tones. with the amplitude of the test signal. For
Thus when an SSB amplifier is badly over- convenience, the ratio between one of the
loaded, these spurious frequencies can extend test signals and one of the intermodulation
far outside the original channel width and products is read as a power ratio expressed
cause an unintelligible "splatter" type of in- in decibels below the test signal level.
terference in adjacent channels. This is usu- Measurements made on a number of power
ally of far more importance than the distor- tubes have shown typical intermodulation
tion of the original tones with regard to distortion levels in the range of -20 to
intelligibility or fidelity. To avoid interfer- -40 decibels below one tone of a two -tone
ence in another channel, these distortion test signal.
products should be down at least 30 dB below The present state of the art in commercial
the adjacent channel signal. Using a two - and military SSB equipment calls for third -
tone test, the distortion is given as the ratio crder intermodulation products better than
of the amplitude of one test tone to the -40 to -60 decibels below one tone of a
amplitude of a third -order product. This is two -tone test signal. Amateur requirements
called the signal -to- distortion ratio (S /D) are less strict, running as low as -20 deci-
and is usually given in decibels. The use of bels, and may be justified on an economic
feedback r -f amplifiers make S/D ratios of basis since signal distortion, at least to the
greater than 40 dB possible and practical. listener, is a highly subjective thing. To
date, the use of inexpensive TV -type sweep
tubes as linear amplifiers in amateur SSB
gear has been acceptable, regardless of the
rather high level of distortion inherent in
Vacuum -Tube Distortion products caused by these tube types.
Nonlinearity amplifier departure from a
linear condition are termed
intermodulation products and the distortion 9 -9 Speech Processing
is termed intermodulation distortion. This
distortion can be caused by nonlinearity of Several means may be used to keep the
amplifier gain or phase shift with respect to amplitude of distortion products down to
input level, and only appears when a multi - acceptable levels and yet provide a high
tone signal is used to drive the linear ampli- average degree of modulation. One method
fier. This is the case for a voice signal which is to design the amplifier for excellent lin-
is composed of many tones, and intermodu- earity over the expected amplitude or power
lation distortion will show up as a "gravelly" range. A second method is to employ audio
tone on the voice and will create interfer- processing to insure that high amplitude
ence to signals on adjacent channels. The peaks are suitably restricted before they
main source of intermodulation distortion cause trouble. The third method is to limit
in a linear amplifier is the vacuum tube the amplitude of the SSB envelope by em-
or transistor as these components have in- ploying an r -f driven source of processing.
herently nonlinear characteristics. Maximum It should be noted that the r -f wave -
linearity may be achieved by proper choice shapes of the SSB signal are always sine
of tube or transistor and their operating waves because the tank circuits make them
conditions. so. It is the change in gain or phase with
SINGLE SIDEBAND 9.23
signal level in an amplifier that distorts signal and the most effective means of in-
the SSB envelope and generates unwanted creasing talk power is that technique which
distortion products. A processing system may provides the greatest increase in average
be used to limit the input signal to an ampli- power with the least amount of distortion.
fier to prevent a change in gain level caused Increasing the average power by boosting
by excessive input level. microphone gain causes linear amplifier lim-
The processing system is adjusted so the iting (flat -topping) to occur with conse-
power amplifier is operating near its maxi- quent broadening of the transmitter band-
mum power capability and at the same time width in the form of distortion products
is protected from being over- driven. caused by nonlinear operation.
In amplitude- modulated systems it is Speech processing may be judged on a
common to use speech compressors and basis of enhancing speech intelligibility, ex-
speech clipping systems to perform this pressed as the signal -to -noise ratio at the re-
function. These methods are not equally use- ceiver in terms of the average sideband
ful in SSB. The reason for this is that the power at the receiver compared to the noise
SSB envelope is different from the audio en- power at the receiver (the sum of the dis-
velope and the SSB peaks do not necessarily tortion products of the speech processing
correspond with the audio peaks as explained system and the average noise power from
earlier in this chapter. For this reason an r -f other sources). A practical evaluation of
processor of some sort located between the processing techniques is to observe the im-
SSB generator and the power amplifier is provement in speech intelligibility in the
most effective because it is controlled by presence of noise having the same peak
SSB envelope peaks rather than audio peaks. power as the unprocessed signal. Thus, the
signal -to-noise ratio with processing may
be compared to the signal -to -noise ratio of
the unprocessed signal.
Several techniques are available to increase
the average power in the modulation en-
AVERAGE
LEVEL
velope while effectively limiting the en-
velope at the peak power capability point.
These techniques include a -f clipping, r-f
envelope clipping, a -f compression, and r -f
TI ME
compression.
Figure 28 BANDPASS
CD- ÉECH
DIODE
AMP PEAR
CLIPPER
AUDIO
tooILT pt
-0 .1;? CR
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
R -F ENVELOPE CLIPPER ANT
LOCAL
An rf clipper may be placed in the i -f portion OSCILLATOR
SSB transmission. The received SSB signal achieved if a product detector is used to
is amplified, translated downward in fre- recover the audio signal.
quency, further amplified and converted The characteristics of the automatic vol-
into a replica of the original audio fre- ume control (or automatic gain control)
quencies. The SSB receiver is invariably a system of an SSB receiver differ from those
superheterodyne in order to achieve high of a conventional a -m receiver. In the lat-
sensitivity and selectivity. ter, the agc voltage is derived by rectifying
To recover the intelligence from the SSB the received carrier, as the carrier is rela,
signal, it is necessary to restore the carrier tively constant and does not vary rapidly
in such a way as to have the same relation- in amplitude. The agc system can therefore
ship with the sideband components as the have a rather long time constant so that an
original carrier generated in the SSB exciter. S -meter may be used to indicate relative
To achieve this, it is important that the carrier amplitude.
receiver oscillators have good frequency ac- In an SSB receiver, however, the signal
curacy and stability. level varies over a large range at a syllabic
To take advantage of the narrow band- rate and a fast time-constant agc system is
width occupied by the SSB signal, selec- required to prevent receiver overload on
tivity characteristics of the receiver must initial bursts of a received signal. To prevent
be held to narrow limits. Excessive receiver background noise from receiving full ampli-
bandwidth degrades the signal by passing fication when the SSB signal is weak or
unnecessary interference and noise. absent, a relatively slow agc release time is
required (figure 34).
The agc system, moreover, must be iso-
SSB Receivers In a conventional a -m re-
lated from the local -oscillator voltage to
ceiver, the audio intelligence
prevent rectification of the oscillator voltage
is recovered from the radio signal by an
from placing an undesired no- signal static
envelope amplitude detector, such as a
bias voltage on the agc line of the receiver.
diode rectifier. This technique may be used
Thus, the SSB receiver differs from the
to recover the audio signal from an SSB a -m receiver in that it requires a higher
transmission provided the amplitude of the
order of oscillator stability and i -f band-
local carrier generated by the beat oscil-
width, a more sophisticated agc system, and
lator is sufficiently high to hold audio dis- the capability of receiving signals over a
tortion at a reasonable low level. Better per- very wide range of strength without over-
formance with respect to distortion may be load or cross modulation. In addition, the
tuning rate of the SSB receiver should be
substantially less than that of an a -m
TO
SPEAKER
receiver; generally speaking, tuning rates
GAIN\
of 25 to 100 kHz per dial revolution are
FROM
MIXER
ONTROLL
IF common in modern SSB receivers.
AM
Because of variations in the propagation
path, transmitter power, and distance be-
tween stations, the input signal to an SSB
receiver can vary over a range of 120 decibels
or so. The receiver requires, therefore, a
large dynamic range of signal -handling capa-
TNR SNOLD THRESHOLD
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE bility and an enhanced degree of gain -
Figure 34 adjusting capability.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AUTOMATIC
GAIN CONTROL SYSTEM SSB Receiver CircuitryFor minimum spurious
response it is desired
Audio or i -f derived control signal is applied to
low -level gain -controlled i -f amplifier in typi- to have good selectivity ahead of the am-
cal SSB receiver. Age system reduces the gain plifier stages in the SSB receiver. This is
of controlled stage(s) on signal peaks to prevent
receiver overload. Control voltage must he de- possible to a degree, provided circuit sim-
rived from the modulation envelope. since car-
rier is not transmitted with voice SSB signal. plicity and receiver sensitivity are not sacri-
SINGLE SIDEBAND 9.27
ficed. For the case when sensitivity is not Choice of an intermediate frequency low
important, an attenuator may be placed in with respect to signal frequency minimizes
the receiver input circuit to reduce the am- the probability of strong birdie signals
plitude of strong, nearby signals (figure 35). within the receiver passband. The low inter-
To further reduce the generation of cross - mediate frequency, however, may lead to
modulation inteference, it is necessary to image problems at the higher received fre-
carefully select the tube or device used in quencies.
the r -f amplifier stage to determine if it will The bandwidth of the low- frequency i -f
retain its linearity with the applicaton of system determines the overall selectivity
agc -bias control voltage. Suitable r -f stage of the SSB receiver. For SSB voice reception.
circuits are shown in the Radio Receiver the optimum bandwidth at the 6 -dB point
Fundamentals chapter of this Handbook. is about 2 kHz to 3 kHz. It is good practice
INOO
\ $I S2 to place the selective filter in the circuit
OOOUT
ahead of the -f amplifier stages so that
i
Intermodulation distortion within the re- Cross modulation is the transfer of intelli-
ceiver can result in a spurious signal appear- gence from an unwanted strong signal to a
ing at 3.9 MHz as a result of mixing in a wanted weak one. Thus, if a receiver is
nonlinear stage. The product mix is: (2 X tuned to a wanted signal at 3.9 MHz and a
1.5) + 0.9 = 3.9 MHz. strong unwanted signal is at 3.8 MHz, the
This particular spurious signal (often modulation on the second signal may be
termed a spur) is a result of a harmonic of imposed on the wanted signal, even though
the 1.5 -MHz signal being produced in the the second signal is well outside the i -f pass -
receiver and beating against the incoming band of the receiver. Multiple signals, more-
0.9 -MHz signal. Other spurious signals, com- over, can produce multiple crossmodulation
posed of the sums and differences and har- effects. Crossmodulation can be minimized
monics of the fundamental signals exist in by optimum selection of amplifying and
addition to the one at 3.9 MHz. Some of mixing devices and by careful selection of
these products fall at: 0.3, 1.8, 2.1, 2.7, signal levels and operating voltages in the
3.0, 3.3, and 4.5 MHz. Other spurs may be various receiver stages.
generated by higher order linearities. Thus, Intermodulation, crossmodulation and de-
two signals passed through a nonlinear de- sensitization can all occur simultaneously in
vice can create a whole range of unwanted a receiver and the overall effect is a loss
signals. Since the radio spectrum is crowded in intelligibility and signal -to -noise ratio of
with numerous strong signals, all of which the desired signal. These receiver faults may
can create spurious intermodulation products be ascertained by injecting test signals of
simultaneously in varying degrees of sever- various frequencies and amplitudes into the
ity, it is important that high -Q circuits or receiver, a stage at a time.
a number of tuned circuits be used in the Generally speaking, field -effect transistors
front -end of a receiver to prevent out -of- and remote -cutoff vacuum tubes exhibit a
band signals from entering the receiver. In significant improvement in linearity and
addition, the optimum choice of transistor provide enhanced rejection to these un-
or tube must be made for each receiver wanted effects as opposed to bipolar tran-
stage, and its correct operating point estab- sistors, which have a lower linearity figure
lished. than the other devices.
TO PRODUCT
Automatic Gain Control The function of an
LAST
DETECTOR
AGC and Signal Demodulation automatic gain con-
-F 100 RECTIFIER
trol system is to re-
1
TRANS
Hll
TO A -V -C
Hll duce the gain of the controlled stages on
CONTROLLED
STAGES 100
33N signal peaks to prevent receiver overload
and hold constant audio output. Since the
ION 1.2$ carrier is not transmitted in SSB, the re-
BIAS
GAIN ceiver agc system must obtain its signal
voltage from the modulation envelope. The
6A05 .005 « 5363 R
agc voltage may be derived either from
TO A -V -C
CONTROLLED the i -f signal or the audio signal (figure
STAGES
100M
36). Audio -derived agc has the advantage
of easier isolation from the local carrier
voltage, but the i -f system will function
+250V +150 V
on both SSB and a -m signals in a satisfac-
REG. tory manner.
Figure 36 Product detectors are preferred for SSB
reception because they minimize intermodu-
R -F AND A -F DERIVED AGC CIRCUITS lation distortion products in the audio signal
A- Control voltage is derived from r-f signal by and, in addition, do not require a large
agc rectifier placed at end of i -f strip. Thresh-
old gain is set by adjustment of negative bias local -oscillator voltage. The product de-
on the plate of the agc rectifier. Control B- tector also affords a high degree of isolation
voltage is derived from audio signal taken from
output stage of receiver. Threshold gain is set between the carrier oscillator and the agc
by diode bios applied through low -resistance
audio inductance (CH). circuit. The undesired mixing products pres-
SINGLE SIDEBAND 9.29
Figure 37
fA
113
®
DOUBLE CONVERSION
SSB RECEIVER MI%CR 2AINZ MIXER
ISS MINE DOT.
Typical double- conversion SSB receiver employs
tunable first i -f and crystal -controlled local os- TSlNL_
cillator, with tunable oscillator and fixed -fre-
quency i -f amplifier and sideband filter. This CRYSTAL
v-P-o
receiver tunes selected 500 -kHz segments of OSC. 2 9ss 733
the hf spectrum. Additional conversion crystals
are required for complete coverage of the 10-
meter band.
quency vfo is used to tune both transmit Single -Bond An important development is
and receive channels to the same operating Transceivers the single -band transceiver, a
frequency. In addition, a common i -f system simplified circuit designed for
and sideband filter are used. operation over one narrow frequency band.
The transceiver is commonly switched or the S0 -MHz band as well as the popular
from receive to transmit by a multiple -con- h -f amateur bands. Commercial transceiver
tact relay which transfers the antenna and Various designs have been made available
removes blocking bias from the activated designs are usually operated on crystal -con-
stages. Transceivers are ideal for net opera- trolled channels in the h -f and vhf spectrum
tion since the correct frequency may be using a crystal synthesizer for channel con-
ascertained by tuning the received signal to trol. Elaborate synthesizers permit selection
make the voice intelligible and pleasing. of discrete operating frequencies as closely
With practice, the SSB transceiver may be separated as 100 Hz. Some units include a
adjusted to a predetermined frequency with clarifier control which permits a slight fre-
an error of 100 Hz or less by this simple quency adjustment to place the unit exactly
procedure. on the chosen operating channel.
CHAPTER TEN
10.1
10.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
WI
illIAIIIIbillMA './\^/\ detector) may be made to supply the beating
signal, as shown in the autodyne detector
circuit of figure 2. A variation of the auto -
dyne detector makes use of a separate oscil-
lator and is termed a direct conversion re-
ceiver. A product detector may be used and
signal selectivity is obtained at audio fre-
quencies through the use of a low -pass audio
filter.
Li L2
GROUND
1- e
L PRODUCT
DETECTOR
AUDIO
AMPLIFIER
LOW PASS
FILTER
PHONES
1
LOCAL B
OSCILLATOR
Figure 2
use of a high value of grid resistor and receiving location. Below 30 MHz or so,
proper size-blocking and coupling capacitors, external noise, rather than internal receiver
in conjunction with an excess of feedback. noise, is the limiting factor in weak signal
A representative self -quenched superregener- reception.
ative detector circuit is shown in figure 3. A modern hf communication receiver,
The optimum quenching frequency is a generally speaking, should have a c -w signal
function of the signal frequency. As the selectivity of better than one microvolt to
operating frequency goes up, so does the op- provide better than 20 dB signal-plus -noise
timum quenching frequency. When the to noise ratio in a passband of less than
quench frequency is too low, maximum 1000 Hz.
sensitivity is not obtained. When it is too The sensitivity of any receiver may be
high, both sensitivity and selectivity suffer. increased by reducing the bandwidth of re-
In fact, the optimum quench frequency for sponse, within the limits imposed by the
an operating frequency below 15 MHz is mode of transmission being received. The
in the audible range. This makes the super - absolute sensitivity of the receiver may also
regenerator impractical for use on the lower be defined, independent of receiver band-
frequencies. width, in terms of noise factor, as discussed
Superregenerative receivers radiate a in Section 10 -4.
strcng, broad, and rough signal. For this Selectivity The selectivity of a communica-
reason, it is necessary in most applications to
employ a radio- frequency amplifier stage tions receiver is the ability of the
ahead of the detector, with thorough shield-
receiver to separate signals on closely adja-
ing throughout the receiver. cent frequencies. Ultimate selectivity is de-
termined by the bandwidth of intelligence
being received. For reception of double -side-
10-2 Receiver Performance band a -m signals, a bandwidth of about f
Requirements kHz is required. SSB reception bandwidth
may be as little as 2 kHz for voice reception.
Receiver performance may be defined in For c -w reception, bandwidths less than 100
terms of sensitivity, selectivity, spurious re- Hz are often employed. As circuit bandwidth
is reduced, transmitter and receiver stability
sponse, tuning rate, and dynamic signal
range (discussed in Chapter 9, section 6). requirements become more strict and practi-
Other factors may enter into receiver speci- cal bandwidths in receivers may often have
fications, but these properties are of the to be greater than the theoretical minimum
greatest interest to the radio amateur. A requirement to compensate for frequency
well designed communication receiver must drift of the equipment.
be able to receive all modes of emission used
Receiver bandwidth may be defined in
on the amateur bands while meeting mini-
terms of skirt selectivity, or the degree of
mum levels of performance in these impor- attenuation to a signal received at some fre-
tant areas of operation. quency removed from the center frequency
of reception. The bandwidth is taken as the
width of the overall resonance curve of the
Sensitivity The sensitivity of a high -fre- receiver at the 6 -dB nose, as shown in
quency receiver may be defined figure 4.
as the ability of the receiver to detect a weak
signal through the general noise level of the Stability The ability of a receiver to remain
receiving system. Specifically, it is the input tuned to a chosen frequency is a
level to the receiver in microvolts required measure of the stability of the receiver. En-
to give a signal- plus -noise output of some vironmental changes such as variations in
ratio above the noise output of the receiver. temperature, supply voltage, humidity and
A perfect "noiseless" receiver would generate mechanical shock or vibration tend to alter
no internal noise and the minimum detect- the receiver characteristics over a period of
able signal would be limited only by the time. Most receivers, to a greater or lesser de-
thermal noise in the antenna system and the gree, have a steady frequency variation
external noise (or "r -f smog ") about the known as warm -up drift which occurs dur-
10.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
!i
munication receiver is shown by curve B. C -w greater than 40 decibels at its highest operat-
selectivity is shown by curve C. Strong -signal ing frequency, and the majority of birdie
selectivity is determined by bandwidth at 60 -dB signals generated by mixing products within
skirt points.
the receiver should be reduced by the same
ing the first minutes of operation. Once the amount below a one microvolt signal.
receiver components have reached operating
temperature, the drift settles down, or sub- Tuning Rote A good communication receiver
sides. Long -term drift may be apparent over should have a slow tuning rate.
0_1
+0 -I
II
+4
That is, each revolution of the tuning con-
+a
+: .....1.0.11.10 trol should represent only a moderate fre-
quency change when compared to the band-
LL +1
% width of reception. SSB receivers often have
~
CE-
S
Y
0
I
2
311011111
111111::!! r
TANTENNA
---- ----
AUDIO
OUTPUT
r---
!INTERNED- .SECONO
-5
1C::C::=:C::::=:C:11 _
I
I 1 AUDIO
I AMPLIFIER DETECTOR 'AMPLIFIER
L_- - _J
1
I I
0 a 4 e e 10 12 14 le le 20 _ L
M NUTES
Figure 5
a tuning rate of 100 to 500 kHz per tuning plifier, since it operates at a relatively low
dial revolution. Receivers intended for c -w frequency, where conventional pentode-type
reception may have a tuning rate as low as tubes and transistors give adequate voltage
f kHz per dial revolution. The tuning rate gain.
may be determined mechanically by means While the regenerative receiver once
of a step -down gear train or rim -drive proved suitable for c -w reception, and the
mechanism placed between the tuning dial superregenerative receiver provided inexpen-
and the tuning control of the receiver. In sive vhf reception, the overall advantages
some instances, electrical bandspread (see of the superhet circuit have made it the
Section 10 -5) may be employed. Regardless universal choice for general communications
of the technique used, the tuning mechanism reception at all frequencies, from the very
should have a smooth action and be free of low frequencies well up into the uhf range.
mechanical or electrical backlash. Various advantages and shortcomings of the
superhet receiver will be discussed at length
The By changing the frequency in the following sections of this Chapter.
Superheterodyne of received signal to a
a
Receiver lower,fixed, intermediate
frequency before ultimate 10 -3 The Superheterodyne
detection, high gain and selectivity may be Receiver
obtained with a good order of stability. A While superhet receivers are the univer-
receiver that performs this frequency chang- sally accepted type of circuitry for serious
ing (heterodyning) process is termed a radio reception at most commonly used fre-
superheterodyne or superhet receiver. A block quencies, the device has practical disadvan-
diagram of a typical superhet receiver is tages that should be recognized. The greatest
shown in figure 6. handicap of this type of receiver is its sus-
The incoming signal is applied to a mixer ceptibility to various forms of spurious re-
consisting of a nonlinear impedance such as sponse and the complexity of proper adjust-
a vacuum tube, transistor, or diode. The ment to reduce this response. Proper circuit
signal is mixed with a locally generated vari- design will alleviate these problems.
able- frequency signal, with the result that a
third signal bearing all the modulation ap-
Choice of Inter- The choice of a fre-
plied to the original signal but of a fre-
mediate Frequency quency for the i -f am-
quency equal to the difference between the
local oscillator and the incoming signal fre- plifier involves several
quency appears in the mixer output circuit. considerations. One of these considerations
The output from the mixer is fed into a concerns selectivity-the lower the inter-
fixed -tuned intermediate-frequency ampli- mediate frequency the greater the obtainable
fier, wherein it is amplified, detected, and selectivity. On the other hand, a rather high
passed on to an audio amplifier. intermediate frequency is desirable from the
Although the mixing process is inherently standpoint of image elimination, and also
noisy, this disadvantage can be overcome by for the reception of signals from television
including a radio- frequency amplifier stage and f -m transmitters both of which occupy
a rather wide band of frequencies, making
ahead of the mixer, if necessary.
a broad selectivity characteristic desirable.
Images are a peculiarity common to all super-
Advantages of the The advantages of super- heterodyne receivers, and for this reason
Superheterodyne heterodyne reception are they are given a detailed discussion later in
directly attributable to this chapter.
the use of the fixed -tuned While intermediate frequencies as low as
intermediate -frequency (i -f) amplifier. Since SO kHz are used where extreme selectivity
all signals are converted to the intermediate is a requirement, and frequencies of 60 MHz
frequency, this section of the receiver may and above are used in some specialized forms
be designed for optimum selectivity and high of receivers, many communication receivers
amplification. High amplification is easily use intermediate frequencies near 455 or
obtained in the intermediate- frequency am- 1600 kHz. Some receivers make use of high-
10.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
frequency crystal -lattice filters in the i -f strong signal at the oscillator frequency plus
amplifier and use an intermediate frequency the intermediate frequency (14,550 plus
as high as 5 MHz or 9MHz to gain image 450, or 15,000 kHz) will also give a differ-
rejection. Entertainment receivers normally ence frequency of 450 kHz in the mixer
use an intermediate frequency centered about output and will be heard also. Note that the
455 kHz, while many automobile receivers image is always twice the intermediate fre-
use a frequency of 262 kHz. The standard quency away from the desired signal. Images
frequency for the i -f channel of f -m re- cause repeat points on the tuning dial.
ceivers is 10.7 MHz, whereas the majority of The only way that the image could be
television receivers use an i -f which covers eliminated in this particular case would be to
the band between 41 and 46 MHz. make the selectivity of the mixer input cir-
cuit, and any circuits preceding it, great
Arithmetical Aside from allowing the use of enough so that the 15,000 -kHz signal never
Selectivity fixed -tuned bandpass amplifier reaches the mixer input circuit in sufficient
stages, the superheterodyne has amplitude to produce interference.
an overwhelming advantage over the tuned For any particular intermediate frequency,
radio frequency (trf) type of receiver be- image interference troubles become increas-
cause of what it commonly known as arith- ingly greater as the frequency (to which the
metical selectivity. signal- frequency portion of the receiver is
This can best be illustrated by considering tuned) is increased. This is due to the fact
two receivers, one of the trf type and one of that the percentage difference between the
the superheterodyne type, both attempting desired frequency and the image frequency
to receive a desired signal at 10,000 kHz and decreases as the receiver is tuned to a higher
eliminate a strong interfering signal at 10,- frequency. The ratio of strength between a
010 kHz. In the trf receiver, separating these signal at the image frequency and a signal at
two signals in the tuning circuits is practi- the frequency to which the receiver is tuned
cally impossible, since they differ in fre- producing equal output is known as the
quency by only 0.1 percent. However, in a image ratio. The higher this ratio is, the
superheterodyne with an intermediate fre- better the receiver will be in regard to image
quency of, for example, 1000 kHz, the de- interference troubles .
sired signal will be converted to a frequency With but a single tuned circuit between
of 1000 kHz and the interfering signal will the mixer grid and the antenna, and with
be converted to a frequency of 1010 kHz, 400- to 500 -kHz i -f amplifiers, image ratios
both signals appearing at the input of the of 40 dB and over are easily obtainable up to
i -f amplifier. In this case, the two signals frequencies around 2000 kHz. Above this
may be separated much more readily, since frequency, greater selectivity in the mixer
they differ by 1 percent, or 10 times as much
as in the first case. (MACE OF WANTED WANTED UNWANTED
SIGNAL AT SIGNAL AT IMAGE SIGNAL
Double -conversion receivers make use of 29.49 MHZ 29.0 MHZ 30.31 MHZ
two or more separate cascaded i -f amplifiers
working at different frequencies. These re- 1
30.3
ceivers will be discussed later in this chapter. H.F. OSCILLATOR
1
M.F. OSCILLATOR
OF RECEIVER AT OF RECEIVER AT
Images There always are two signal fre- 29.945 MHZ 29.953 MHz
FOR IMAGE FOR SIGNAL
quencies which will combine with a RECEPTION RECEPTION
given frequency to produce the same differ-
ence frequency. For example: assume a super- Figure 7
grid circuit through the use of additional known as double conversion is sometimes
tuned circuits between the mixer and the employed. In this system, the incoming signal
antenna is necessary if a good image ratio is is first converted to a rather high intermed-
to be maintained. iate frequency, and then amplified and again
Image signal reception can he confusing, converted, this time to a much lower fre-
especially in SSB reception, when an image quency. The first intermediate frequency
signal may appear on the opposite sideband supplies the necessary wide separation be-
and tune "in the wrong direction" as com- tween the image and the desired signal,
pared to normal signals. Figure 7 illustrates while the second one supplies the bulk of the
the relationship between image signals when i -f selectivity.
the receiver local oscillator operates on the The double -conversion system, as illus-
high- frequency side of the received signal. trated in figure 8, is receiving two general
The conditions are reversed for oscillator types of application at the present time. The
operation on the low -frequency side of the first application is for the purpose of attain-
received signal. For reasons of economy and ing extremely good stability and image re-
maximum oscillator stability, many receivers jection in a communications receiver through
employ "low- side" oscillator operation on the use of crystal control of the first oscilla-
all but the highest frequency bands, where tor. In such an arrangement the first oscil-
"high- side" operation is often used. lator is crystal controlled and is followed by
a tunable i -f amplifier which then is fol-
Double Conversion As previously mentioned, lowed by a mixer stage and a fixed -tuned
the use of a higher inter- i -f amplifier on a much lower frequency.
mediate frequency will also improve the Through such a circuit arrangement the sta-
image ratio, at the expense of i -f selectivity, bility of the complete receiver is equal to
by placing the desired signal and the image the stability of the oscillator which feeds the
farther apart. To give both good image second mixer, while the selectivity is deter-
ratio at the higher frequencies and good mined by the bandwidth of the second fixed
selectivity in the i -f amplifier, a system i -f amplifier.
t 14 MHz
TUNADLC
R-r
AMPLIFIER
4 MHz
TUNAeLC
I-
AMPLIfICR
MIXER
455 kHz
fI1tED
AMPLIFIER
DEMODULATOR
AND
AUDIO
r-
V
14 MHz 455 kHz
1r-
ii
- - -- -- 50 ION
- -1
--
I
tJsL
777
I I
II
I
VARIA4LC I IIA
14,445 kHz I
505 kHz
OSCILLATOR OSCILLATOR
II
I I
Figure 8
The second common application of the signal for low distortion reception of strong
double- conversion principle is for the pur- signals. A control voltage for automatic gain
pose of obtaining a very high degree of se- control may also be obtained from the de-
lectivity in the complete communications modulator stage.
receiver. In this type of application, as il-
lustrated in figure 8B, the 455-kHz i -f Automatic Automatic gain control (agc)
signal is fed to a fixed -tuned mixer stage Gain Control provides for gain regulation
and then into a much lower intermediate - of the receiver in inverse pro-
frequency amplifier before the signal is de- portion to the strength of the received sig-
modulated and fed to the audio system. The nal. The circuitry holds receiver output
highly selective, second i -f amplifier system relatively constant despite large changes in
normally is operated on a frequency of 175 the level of the incoming signal. In addition
kHz, 85 kHz, or 50 kHz. to control of gain, the agc circuit can also
The recent development of high quality, provide signal strength indication by means
low cost crystal filters has made feasible the of an S- meter, whose reading is proportional
use of a high intermediate frequency in a to the agc control voltage.
single- conversion receiver to provide good
selectivity and a high order of image rejec- Audio Circuitry The communication receiver
tion. Filters in the 5MHz to 10 MHz range has no need to reproduce au-
provide satisfactory selectivity for SSB re- dio frequencies outside of the required com-
ception at less than the cost of a lower - munication passband. The high -frequency
frequency filter and the attendant conver- response of such a receiver is usually limited
sion and mixer stages. by the selective i -f passband. For voice re-
Some specialized high- frequency receivers ception, the lower audio frequencies are also
make use of an intermediate frequency above attenuated in order to make speech crisp and
the tuning range of the receiver (30 MHz, clear. An audio passband of about 200 to
for example). The extremely high i -f per- 2000 Hz is all that is normally required for
mits a high order of attenuation of image good SSB reception of speech. For c -w re-
responses and allows continuous tuning of ception, the audio passband can be narrowed
all frequencies up to 30 MHz or so. In other further by peaking the response to a fre-
designs, dual conversion is accomplished with quency span ranging from 100 to 1000 Hz.
the use of but a single local oscillator, with High -Q audio filters may be used in the
the injection frequency chosen so that os- communication receiver to shape the audio
cillator drift is automatically eliminated. response to the desired characteristic. In ad-
In all double -conversion receivers, the dition, audio or i -f filters may be added to
problem of spurious responses is aggravated either provide a special, narrow response
because of the multiple-frequency signals characteristic, or a sharp rejection notch to
existing within the receiver circuitry. Care- eliminate heterodynes or objectionable in-
ful shielding and filtering of power leads terference.
must be incorporated in a receiver of this
type if birdies and spurious signals are to Control Under normal circumstances, the
be avoided. Circuitry communication receiver is disabled
during periods of transmission. A
The The demodulator (detector, standby control may take the form of a
Demodulator second mixer or second detec- switch or circuit that removes high voltage
tor as it is variously named) from certain tubes or transistors in the re-
retrieves the intelligence from the incoming ceiver. Alternatively, the bias level applied
signal. A simple diode detector is suitable to the r -f and i -f stages may be substantially
for a -m reception, and a beat -frequency increased during standby periods to greatly
oscillator (bfo) can provide a heterodyne reduce receiver gain. This will permit use
note, suitable for c -w reception. For SSB of the receiver as a monitoring device during
reception, the demodulator must have an periods of transmission. In all cases, the
extremely wide dynamic range of operation, input circuitry of the receiver must be
plus a bfo that provides a strong mixing protected from the relatively strong r -f
COMMUNICATION RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 10.9
field generated by the transmitter. Receiver contribution of the first tuned circuit can
control circuitry may be actuated by the be made quite small. Unfortunately, though,
transmitter control devices through the use the major noise contribution in a properly
of suitable interconnecting relay circuits designed receiver is that of the first tube or
(VOX) , as discussed in Chapter 18 of this transistor. The noise contribution due to
Handbook. electron flow and due to losses in the tube
can be lumped into an equivalent value of
Receiver Communications receivers are gen- resistance which, if placed in the grid circuit
Power erally designed to operate from a of a perfect tube having the same gain but
Supplies 120- or 240 -volt, 50- to 60 -Hz no noise would give the same noise voltage
power source, with the possible output in the plate load. The equivalent
addition of auxiliary circuitry to permit noise resistance of tubes such as the 6BA6,
operation from a 12 -volt automotive elec- 6DC6, etc., runs from 500 to 1000 ohms.
trical system. The majority of receivers in- Very high Gm tubes such as the 6BZ6 and
corporate the power supply on the receiver 6EH7 have equivalent noise resistances as
chassis and thus must accommodate the heat low as 300 to 700 ohms. The lower the
the power supply generates during operation. value of equivalent noise resistance, the
Silicon diodes are to be preferred for power lower will be the noise output under a fixed
rectifiers as opposed to vacuum -tube recti- set of conditions.
fiers because of the lesser heat radiation of The equivalent noise resistance of a tube
the solid -state devices. In some instances, must not be confused with the actual input
voltage regulation circuits or devices are loading resistance of a tube. For highest sig-
added to the supply to stabilize the voltages nal -to -noise ratio in an amplifier the input
applied to critical oscillator circuits. In all loading resistance should be as high as pos-
instances, the primary circuit of a well de- sible so that the amount of voltage that can
signed communications receiver is fused to be developed from grid to ground by the
protect the equipment from overload and antenna energy will be as high as possible.
the complete receiver is designed and bull` The equivalent noise resistance should be as
to protect the operator from accidental low as possible so that the noise generated
shock. by this resistance will be lower than that
attributable to the antenna and first tuned
10 -4 Noise and Spurious circuit, and the losses in the first tuned cir-
Products cuit should be as low as possible.
The absolute sensitivity of receivers has
been designated in recent years in government
Because of noise sources within the re-
ceiver, it is impossible to increase receiver and commercial work by the noise factor.
The noise factor is the ratio of noise out-
gain and sensitivity without limit. All am-
put of a "perfect" receiver having a given
plifying and mixing stages contribute to
noise generation with varying degrees. The
amount of gain with a dummy antenna
figure of merit for receiver sensitivity is
matched to its input, to the noise output
expressed as a ratio called noise factor which of the receiver having the same amount of
is independent of input impedance and band-
gain with an injected signal, and the dummy
width, but not of source impedance. Noise antenna matched to its input. Although a
factor is a measure of the degradation of perfect receiver is not a physically realizable
signal -to -noise ratio of a signal as it is proc- thing, the noise factor of a receiver under
measurement can be determined by calcula-
essed by the receiver.
tion from the amount of additional noise
Noise Factor The limiting condition for sen- (from a temperature- limited diode or other
sitivity in any receiver is the calibrated noise generator) required to in-
thermal noise generated in the antenna and crease the noise -power output of a receiver
in the first tuned circuit. However, with by a predetermined amount.
proper coupling between the antenna and The noise factor expression of a transistor
the input element of the amplifying device, is derived from basic physical principles and
through the first tuned circuit, the noise is rather complex and of limited usefulness,
10.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
since many of the parameters of the system noise factor of the overall receiver. The in-
are not specified by transistor manufacturers. put resistance of a tube is very high at fre-
The noise factor, therefore, is best deter- quencies in the broadcast band and gradually
mined by direct measurement. decreases as the frequency increases. Tube in-
The interplay between the sensitivity, put resistance of conventional tube types be-
noise figure, and audio bandwidth (between gins to become an important factor at fre-
the 6 -dB points) is illustrated by the nomo- quencies of about 25 MHz and above. At
graph of figure 9. The graph is based on the frequencies above about 100 MHz the use of
noise figure equation given in Section 10 -18. conventional tube types becomes impractical
assuming an antenna input impedance of 50 since the input resistance of the tube has
ohms and "room temperature" of 80.5 °F. become so much lower than the equivalent
loo- I -0 noise resistance that it is impossible to attain
so- reasonable signal -to -noise ratio on any but
60- OMHZ-
t2 very strong signals.
SO-
0- 3-
The lowering of the effective input re-
sistance of a vacuum tube at higher fre-
30-
IMHZ- 4- e
quencies is brought about by a number of
20- -
x
e factors. The first, and most obvious, is the
I0 plo0 KHZ -
-10 10 r,
fact that the dielectric loss in the internal
insulators, and in the base and press of the
e- Z 10KHZ- t 12 0 tube increases with frequency. The second
3-
4- 0
eKHì- \ 2 -
0 30so 1 14 w factor is due to for
OG
time is required
the fact that a finite transit
an electron to move from
3- aj (..)
KHZ- 40-16 the vicinity of the cath-
2 Q u_ 30 -
6 Z
the space charge in
W ode, pass between the grid wires, and travel
m
0
ro
loo HZ- p-111
so -
IoÓ-+20 Z
e
on to the plate. The fact that the electro-
static effect of the grid on the moving elec-
oHZ- 200
tzz tron acts over an appreciable portion of a
cycle at these high frequencies causes a cur-
300 -
24
-
400
300 -
26
rent flow in the grid circuit which appears to
the input circuit feeding the grid as a resist-
1
60 ze ance. The decrease in input resistance of a
tube due to electron transit time varies as the
eoo
1000 =ao
square of the frequency.
Cathode lead inductance is an additional
Figure 9
cause of reduced input resistance at high
NOISE- FIGURE NOMOGRAPH frequencies. This effect has been reduced in
certain tubes such as the 6EAS and the
To find the noise figure of a receiver, a line 6BCS by providing two cathode leads on
extended between sensitivity and audio band- the tube base. One cathode lead should be
width points will intersect noise -figure line at
right. Dashed line shows bandwidth of 6 kHz connected to the input circuit of the tube
and sensitivity of 10 microvolts gives a noise and the other lead should be connected to
factor of 100, or a noise figure of 20 dB. the bypass capacitor for the plate return of
the tube.
Tube Input As has been mentioned in a pre- Plate- Circuit For the purpose of this section,
Loading vious paragraph, greatest gain Coupling it will be considered that the
in a vacuum -tube receiver is ob- function of the plate load cir-
tained when the antenna is matched, through cuit of a tuned vacuum -tube amplifier is to
the r -f coupling transformer, to the input deliver energy to the next stage with the
resistance of the r -f tube. However, the greatest efficiency over the required band of
higher the ratio of tube input resistance to frequencies. Figure 10 shows three methods
equivalent noise resistance of the tube the of interstage coupling for tuned r -f voltage
higher will be the signal -to -noise ratio of the amplifiers. As the coefficient of coupling
stage -and of course, the better will be the between the circuits of figures 10B and 10C
COMMUNICATION RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 10.11
herent noise present in a mixer usually is If the r -f amplifier stage has its own tun-
considerably greater than in an amplifier ing control, it is often known as a preselec-
stage using a comparable device. tar Some preselectors employ regeneration to
Although this noise cannot be eliminated, boost signal gain and selectivity at the ex-
its effects can be greatly minimized by plac- pense of the signal -to -noise ratio, which
ing sufficient signal- frequency amplification usually is degraded in such a circuit.
having a high signal -to -noise ratio ahead of Generally speaking, atmospheric and man-
the mixer. This remedy causes the signal out- made noises below about 30 MHz are so high
put from the mixer to be large in proportion that receiver sensitivity and signal -to -noise
to the noise generated in the mixer stage. In- ratio is not a serious problem. Above 30
creasing the gain after the mixer will be of
MHz or so, noise generated within the re-
no advantage in eliminating mixer noise dif- ceiver is usually greater than the noise re-
ficulties; greater selectivity after the mixer ceived on the antenna. Vhf and uhf r -f am-
will help to a certain extent, but cannot be plifiers will be discussed in Section II of this
carried too far, since this type of selectivity Chapter.
decreases the i -f bandpass and if carried too
Experience has shown that about an 8 -dB
far will not pass the sidebands that are an noise figure is adequate for weak -signal re-
essential part of a voice -modulated signal. ception under most circumstances below 30
MHz. Interference immunity is very im-
Injection The amplitude of the injection portant below 30 MHz because of the wide-
Voltage voltage will affect the conversion spread use of high -power transmitters and
transconductance of the mixer, high -gain antennas and large -signal handling
and therefore should be made optimum if ability is usually more important to the hf
maximum signal -to -noise ratio is desired. If communicator than is extreme weak -signal
fixed bias is employed on the injection ele- reception.
ment, the optimum injection voltage is quite To minimize receiver overload from strong
critical. If cathode or emitter bias is used, local signals, a variable attenuator such as
the optimum voltage is not so critical; and if the type shown in Chapter 9 may be placed
grid or base bias is employed, the optimum in the receiver input circuit. The attenuation
injection voltage is not at all critical-just can be varied in 10- decibel steps and the unit
so it is adequate. Typical optimum injection is useful in dropping the signal level of
voltages will run from 0.1 to 3 volts for strong, local transmitters.
proper mixing action.
SIGNAL
10 -5 R -F Amplifier Stages /NPU7
ti 2
20 4
USE LEFT HAND SCALE
25
30 e
USE RI GHT HAND SCALE
35
40 e
5
50 o
SS II
60 12
6S 13
70 14
01 02 03 0.5 I O 2.0 SO S0 10 20 30 50 100
oAr
Fr
Figure 12
image- rejection capability may be determined designed for vhf use up to 470 MHz and
with the aid of the universal selectivity many have sufficiently low feedback capaci-
curve shown in figure 12. The operating Q tance so that neutralization is unnecessary.
of the coupled input circuit may be taken The common -emitter amplifier (figure
as about sixty percent of the unloaded Q 13B) corresponds to the grounded -cathode
and the Q of the output circuit may he vacuum -tube circuit and provides the high-
estimated to be about eighty percent of the est power gain of common transistor cir-
unloaded Q, fcr frequencies below 30 MHz. cuitry. As the phase of the output signal
is opposite to that of the driving signal, the
Solid -State Typical common solid -state feedback from output to input circuit is
R -F Amplifiers r -f amplifiers are shown in essentially negative.
figure 13. A common-base am- Field -effect transistors may be used in
plifier is shown in illustration A. To over- common-source, common -gate, or common -
come the possibility of oscillation at the drain configurations. The common -source
higher frequencies, an external neutralizing arrangement (figure 13C) is most fre-
circuit may be added, which consists of a quently used as it provides high input
neutralizing capacitor placed between the impedance and medium -to -high output im-
collector and the lower end of the input pedance. The first neutralized transistor
circuit, which is lifted above ground. If the drives the second connected in common -gate
external feedback circuit cancels both resis- configuration which is used to transform
tive and reactive changes in the input cir- from a low or medium input impedance to
cuit due to voltage feedback, the amplifier a high output impedance. The relatively low
is considered to be unilateralized. If only the voltage gain of the second stage makes dual
reactive changes in the input circuit arc neutralization unnecessary in most cases. The
cancelled, the amplifier is considered to be two FET transistors are arranged in a cas -
neutralized. Neutralization, then, is a special code amplifier circuit, with the first stage
case of unilateralization. Modern silicon inductively neutralized by coil LN. FET
NPN epitaxial planar type transistors are amplifiers of this type have been used to
10.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
3.5 MH2
GATE 2
SOURC GATE
OUTPUT TO
MIXER
TO ACC LINE
(+2 TO +111V.)
TO
MIXER
L2
LI
Figure 13
PENTODE
DA GROUNDED GRID
6CW4
001
INPUT OUTPUT
\
Figure 15
TYPICAL PENTODE
R -FAMPLIFIER STAGE
while the noise figure remains at the low coil. The resistance to be considered in mak-
level of a triode tube. Neutralization of the ing Q determinations is the r -f resistance,
first triode tube is usually unnecessary below not the dc resistance of the wire in the coil.
SO MHz. Above this frequency, a definite The latter ordinarily is low enough that it
improvement in the noise figure may be may be neglected. The increase in r -f resist-
obtained through the use of neutralization. ance over dc resistance primarily is due to
The neutralizing coil (Ls) should resonate skin effect and is influenced by such factors
at the operating frequency with the grid - as wire size and type, and the proximity of
plate capacitance of the first triode tube. metallic objects or poor insulators, such as
coil forms with high losses. Higher values of
Signal- Frequency The signal -frequency tuned Q lead to better selectivity and increased r -f
Circuits circuits in high- frequency voltage across the tuned circuit. The increase
superheterodyne receivers in voltage is due to an increase in the cir-
consist of coils of either the solenoid or uni- cuit impedance with the higher values of Q.
versal -wound (air or powdered -iron core) Frequently it is possible to secure an in-
type shunted by variable capacitors. It is in crease in impedance in a resonant circuit
these tuned circuits that the causes of suc- (and consequently an increase in gain from
cess or failure of a receiver often lie. The
an amplifier stage) by increasing the react-
universal -wound type coils usually are used ance through the use of larger coils and
at frequencies below 2000 kHz; above this smaller tuning capacitors (higher LC ratio).
frequency the single -layer solenoid type of Superheterodyne Because the tunable local os-
coil is more satisfactory. Tracking cillator in a superheterodyne
operates "offset" from the
Impedance The two factors of greatest sig- other front -end circuits, it is often neces-
and Q nificance in determining the sary to make special provisions to allow the
gain -per -stage and selectivity, re- oscillator to track when similar tuning ca-
spectively, of a tuned amplifier are tuned - pacitor sections are ganged. The usual meth-
circuit impedance and tuned -circuit Q. Since od of obtaining good tracking is to operate
the resistance of modern capacitors is low at the oscillator on the high -frequency side of
ordinary frequencies, the resistance usually the mixer and use a series tracking capacitor
can be considered to be concentrated in the to retard the tuning rate of the oscillator.
I-s
The oscillator tuning rate must be slower
PADDING OUTPUT because it covers a smaller range than does
CAPACITOR
MIXER
STAGE the mixer when both are expressed as a per-
SIG. INP.
centage of frequency. At frequencies above
7000 kHz and with ordinary intermediate
frequencies, the difference in percentage be-
SERIES
TRACK INGI
I
tween the two tuning ranges is so small that
CAPACITOR I
OSCI LIATOR
STAGE
it may be disregarded in receivers designed to
cover only a small range, such as an amateur
band.
A mixer- and oscillator- tuning arrange-
ment in which a series tracking capacitor
is provided is shown in figure 17. The value
Figure 17 of the tracking capacitor varies considerably
with different intermediate frequencies and
SERIES TRACKING EMPLOYED
IN THE HF OSCILLATOR OF A
tuning ranges, capacitances as low as 100 pF
being used at the lower tuning -range fre-
SUPERHETERODYNE
quencies, and values up to .01 µF being used
The series tracking capacitor permits the use of at the higher frequencies.
identical gangs in a ganged capacitor, since the
tracking capacitor slows down the rate of fre- Superheterodyne receivers designed to
quency change in the oscillator so that a con- cover only a single frequency range, such as
stant difference in frequency between the oscil-
lator and the r-f stage (equal to the i -f amplifier the standard broadcast band, sometimes ob-
frequency) may be maintained. tain tracking between the oscillator and the
COMMUNICATION RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 10.17
r-f circuits by cutting the variable plates of a coil when all the tuning, bandspread, and
the oscillator tuning section to a different padding capacitors across the circuit are at
shape than those used to tune the r -f stage. their minimum capacitance setting.
In receivers using large tuning capacitors Circuit capacitance can be attributed to
to cover the shortwave spectrum with a two general sources. One source is that due
minimum of coils, tuning is likely to be to the input and output capacitance of the
quite difficult, owing to the large frequency tube when its cathode is heated. The input
range covered by a small rotation of the capacitance varies somewhat from the static
variable capacitors. To alleviate this condi- value when the tube is in actual operation.
tion, some method of slowing down the Such factors as plate load impedance, grid
tuning rate, or bandspreading, must be used bias, and frequency will cause a change in
as shown in figure 18. input capacitance. However, in all except
the extremely high -transconductance tubes,
the published measured input capacitance is
reasonably close to the effective value when
the tube is used within its recommended fre-
quency range. But in the high- transconduct-
ance types the effective capacitance will
vary considerably from the published figures
as operating conditions are changed.
The second source of circuit capacitance,
and that which is more easily controllable, is
that contributed by the minimum capacit-
Figure 18
ance of the variable capacitors across the cir-
BANDSPREAD CIRCUITS cuit and that due to capacitance between
Parallel bandspread is illustrated at (A) and the wiring and ground. In well -designed
(B), series bandspread at (C), and tapped -coil high- frequency receivers, every effort is
band- spread at (D). made to keep this portion of the circuit ca-
pacitance at a minimum since a large capac-
Types of Bandspreading systems are of itance reduces the tuning range available
Bandspread two general types: electrical and with a given coil and prevents a good LC
mechanical. Mechanical systems ratio, and consequently a high- impedance
are exemplified by high -ratio dials in which tuned circuit, from being obtained.
the tuning capacitors rotate much more A good percentage of stray circuit ca-
slowly than the dial knob. In this system, pacitance is due also to distributed capac-
there is often a separate scale or pointer itance of the coil and capacitance between
either connected or geared to the dial knob wiring points and chassis.
to facilitate accurate dial readings. However,
there is a practical limit to the amount of
mechanical bandspread which can be ob-
10 -6 Mixer Stages
tained in a dial and capacitor before the
speed- reduction unit and capacitor bearings The nri.ver, or frequency-converter stage
become prohibitively expensive. Hence, most of a superhet receiver translates the received
receivers employ a combination of electrical signal to the intermediate frequency by
and mechanical bandspread. In such a sys- means of a modulation process similar to
tem, a moderate reduction in the tuning rate that employed in transmitters (figure 19) .
is obtained in the dial, and the rest of the The signal and local- oscillator voltages ap-
reduction obtained by electrical bandspread - pearing in the output circuit of the mixer
ing. are rejected by selective circuits and only the
mixer product at the intermediate frequency
Stray Circuit In this book and in other radio is accepted.
Capacitance literature, mention is sometimes Any nonlinear circuit element will act as
made of stray or circuit capaci- a mixer, with the injection frequencies and
tance. This capacitance is in the usual sense sum and difference frequencies appearing in
defined as the capacitance remaining across the output circuit. Thus any diode, vacuum
10.18 RADIO HANDBOOK
MPF-102
et ftl -F
Figure 21
tricity. All leads should be shorted together A balanced mixer using JFETs is shown
until after the device is connected in the in figure 23. This mixer provides excellent
circuit. The MOSFET should be handled immunity to intermodulation and cross -
by its case and it should never be inserted or modulation effects while exhibiting a noise
removed from a circuit when operating volt- figure of about 8 dB at 150 MHz. A com-
ages are applied. mon -gate configuration is used, with the
The dual gate MOSFET shown in illus- mixing oscillator coupled to the input cir-
tration B has internal protection diodes that cuit. Wideband ferrite -core transformers are
allow it to be handled with ordinary care. used for good performance over the 50 -MHz
Both circuits offer high conversion gain, to 150 -MHz range. A trifilar i -f output
relative immunity from cross modulation, transformer is used to match the input im-
and do not load the local oscillator heavily. pedance of the following stage.
3N14I Voeuum-Tube Vacuum tubes have been used
Mixers for decades as mixers and fig-
ß T( 1F
SóS 7r AMP ure 24 illustrates some of the
more common circuits. The pentogrid con -
verter is shown in illustration A. Tubes of
this type are good conversion devices at me-
dium frequencies, although their perform-
ance tends to drop off above 50 MHz or so.
Electrically, grids 2 and 4 shield the signal
grid from the oscillator section and also act
Q .X rAIMF as an anode for the oscillator portion of the
AMP
3K
tube which is composed of grid 1 and the
cathode. The pentagrid converter is a noisy
device, consequently good design calls for
the use of a high gain, low noise r -f stage
before it.
Triodes and pentodes may also be used as
mixer tubes, the mixing oscillator being in-
Figure 22 jected on the control or screen grid, or even
TYPICAL MOSFET MIXER STAGES on the cathode, as shown in illustrations B
and C. Tubes containing electrically inde-
A- Dual -gate MOSFET mixer. B- Dual -gate MOS-
pendent oscillator and mixer units in the
FET with diode protection. Both circuits offer
high conversion gain and relative immunity from same envelope, such as the 6U8A, find use
cross modulation. in tube -type hf and vhf equipment. Discus-
RFC
dill DO¿
mor-._,
--I
CON ROL
BIAS
RFC
Figure 23
sion of circuits using special tubes of this frequency of the mixing oscillator or oscil-
type will be found later in this chapter. lators. The overall stability of the receiver,
moreover, is determined by the frequency
f 68A7,6BE6 stability of the oscillator. The frequency ac-
curacy for SSB reception is rather precise
when compared with most other communi-
cation systems. A frequency error of, say,
50 Hz in carrier reinsertion results in notice-
able voice distortion, and intelligibility is
impaired when the frequency error is 150 Hz
or greater.
Oscillator stability should be relatively
immune to mechanical shock and tempera-
ture rise of the receiver. A tunable oscillator
should have good resetability and tuning
should be smooth and accurate. Construction
should be sturdy, with short, heavy inter-
connecting leads between components, that
resist vibration. Variable capacitors should
be mounted so that no strain exists on the
bearings and the capacitors should be se-
lected to have good, low- inductance wiping
contacts that will resist aging.
The oscillator coil should be preferably
wound on a ceramic form and the winding
should be locked in position for maximum
stability. Variable inductors with movable
cores should be avoided if possible, because
of possible movement of the core under vi-
bration.
In case of double conversion receivers, one
of the mixing oscillators is usually crystal -
controlled. Information on crystal oscillators
is given in chapter 11 of this handbook.
NPN
JFET
O
MOSFET TO MIXER 4. REGULATED
OUTPUT
Figure 26
TYPICAL VACUUM -TUBE
TUNE OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS
A -Hot cathode circuit with plate at r -f ground
potential. B -Plate feedback circuit with cath-
Figure 25 ode at ground potential.
10 -8 The -F Amplifier
1
coupling the windings provides a flat -top The ideal i -f curve (a rectangle), would
response. have a shape factor of 1.0. The i -f shape fac-
The windings of this type of i -f trans - tor in typical communications receivers runs
former, as well as most others used for low - from 2.0 to 5.5.
frequency work, consist of small, flat, uni- The most economical method of obtaining
versal -wound pies mounted on either an in- a low shape factor for a given number of
sulated core, or on a powdered -iron core. tuned circuits is to employ them in pairs,
The iron -core transfomers generally have adjusted to critical coupling (the value at
somewhat more gain and better selectivity which two resonance points just begin to be-
than equivalent air -core units. come apparent). If this gives too sharp a
The circuit of illustration B utilizes ca- nose or passband, then coils of lower Q
pacitive coupling between the windings of should be employed, with the coupling main-
separate transformers to improve selectivity. tained at the critical value. As the Q is
In some cases, three resonant circuits are lowered, closer coupling will be required for
used, as shown in illustration C. The energy critical coupling.
is transferred from the input to the output Conversely if the passband is too broad,
winding by virtue of the mutual coupling coils of higher Q should be employed, the
to the center winding. coupling being maintained at critical. If the
The selectivity of the i -f amplifier depends passband is made more narrow by using
on the number of transformers used and the looser coupling instead of raising the Q and
Q of the transformer windings. A single i -f maintaining critical coupling, the shape
stage operating at 455 kHz, for example, factor will not be as good.
utilizing two transformers having two wind- The passband will not be much narrower
ings each could exhibit a response having a for several pairs of identical, critically cou-
bandwidth of 3.5 kHz at the -6 dB points, pled tuned circuits than for a single pair.
and 16 kHz at the -50 dB points. Addi- However, the shape factor will be greatly
tional tuned circuits, of course, will sharpen improved as each additional pair is added, up
the skirt selectivity of the amplifier, as dis- to about 5 pairs, beyond which the improve-
cussed in the following section. ment for each additional pair is not signifi-
cant. The passband of a typical communica-
Shape Factor It is obvious that to accept
tion receiver is shown in figure 4.
an SSB signal the i -f amplifier
must pass not a single frequency but a band Miller As mentioned previously, the dy-
of frequencies. The width of this passband, Effect namic input capacitance of a tube
usually 2 kHz to 3 kHz in a good communi- varies slightly with bias. As agc
cation receiver, is known as the passband, voltage normally is applied to i -f tubes, the
and is arbitrarily taken as the width between effective grid- cathode capacitance varies as
the two frequencies at which the response the signal strength varies, which produces
is attenuated 6dB, or is "6 dB down." How- the same effect as slight detuning of the i -f
ever, it is apparent that to discriminate transformer. This effect is known as Miller
against an interfering signal which is stronger effect, and can be minimized to the extent
than the desired signal, much more than 6 that it is not troublesome either by using a
dB attenuation is required. The attenuation fairly low LC ratio in the transformers or
commonly chosen to indicate adequate dis- by incorporating a small amount of degen-
crimination against an interfering signal is erative feedback, the latter being most easily
60 dB. accomplished by leaving part of the cathode
It is apparent that it is desirable to have resistor unbypassed for radio frequencies.
the bandwidth at 60 dB down as narrow as
possible, but it must be done without mak- Bandposs Filters The passband of an i -f am-
ing the passband (6 -dB points) too narrow plifier may be made very
for satisfactory reception of the desired sig- narrow for c -w service through the use of a
nal. The figure of merit used to show the piezoelectric quartz crystal filter employed
ratio of bandwidth at 6 dB down to that at in the series -resonant mode in a bridge cir-
60 dB down is designated as shape factor. cuit. The shape factor of a single crystal filter
10.24 RADIO HANDBOOK
arrangement is quite poor, but the very nar- additional crystals may be added to the filter
row peak passband obtained as a result of the as shown at B. Provided there is no leakage
extremely high Q of the crystal serves as a of signal around the filter, extremely good
useful filter for bandwidths as narrow as 50 shape factors can be achieved with relatively
Hz. A typical single crystal filter circuit is inexpensive crystal filters, operating at a
shown in figure 29. Adjustment of the phas- center frequency as high as 50 MHz. Vhf
ing control can provide a rejection notch filters, moreover, have been used in com-
that will provide good discrimination against mercial and military communication sys-
the audio image provide by beat -note c -w tems.
reception.
CRYSTAL
The Mechanical The mechanical filter is an
01- Filter electromechanical bandpass
SELECTIVITY
TROL
device about half the size
of a cigarette package. As shown in figure
31, it consists of an input transducer, a
PHASING resonant mechanical section comprised of a
CONTROL
number of metal discs, and an output trans-
Figure 29 ducer.
ONE SUPPORTING
DISC AT COUPLING RODS
TYPICAL CRYSTAL FILTER CIRCUIT EACH END RESONANT MECHANICAL SECTION
1
(s RESONANT DISCS) BIAS MAGNET
Bandpass
Crystal
Filters
The sharply peaked response of
the single -crystal filter is ade-
quate for c -w reception but has o) \\
Ii1P(Y'l'Yi1Yi11Y1Y=\
\ ..^
a poor shape factor for voice re-
ception. A band pass filter, which passes a I -
RANSDUCER
MAGNETOSTRICTIVE
band of frequencies, is much more suitable DRIVING ROD COIL
for this mode. Typically, a good bandpass ELECTRICAL SIGNAL ELECTRICAL SIGNAL
filter for SSB reception might have a pass - (INPUT OR OUTPUT) (INPUT OR OUTPUT)
XI XS
0 0
TO
FRON / -F IMP
MIXER
X2 X4
Figure 30 -4 -3 -2 -I 435 4I +2 3 +4
kHz
32. The input and output transducers serve conventional i -f transformers supply in-
only as electrical -to- mechanical coupling de- creased attenuation to these spurious re-
vices and do not affect the selectivity char- sponses, and are sufficient to reduce them to
acteristics which are determined by the an insignificant level.
metal discs. An electrical signal applied to
Diode Filter Two filters of different band-
the input terminals is converted into a me-
Switching widths are commonly used for
chanical vibration at the input transducer
by means of magnetostriction. This mechan- SSB and c -w reception. Me-
ical vibration travels through the resonant chanical switching of such filters may lead
mechanical section to the output transducer, to unwanted coupling between input and
where it is converted by magnetostriction to output, thus seriously degrading the shape
an electrical signal which appears at the out- factor of the filter. By using diode -con-
put terminals. trolled switching (figure 33), the switching
In order to provide the most efficient elec- components may be placed close to the filter
tromechanical coupling, a small magnet in terminals, thus offering a minimum of de-
the mounting above each transducer applies terioration in isolation between ports. The
a magnetic bias to the nickel transducer core. diodes are triggered by a panel switch, and
The electrical impulses then add to or sub- the appropriate diode pair places the desired
tract from this magnetic bias, causing vibra- filter in the i -f signal path. Operation of
tion of the filter elements which corresponds switch S, forward -biases a pair of diodes at
a time and reverse-biases the other pair, al-
to the exciting signal. There is no mechani-
cal motion except for the imperceptible lowing one filter to function at a time.
vibration of the metal discs. DI .ol I .
FL!
D2
NI
Magnetostrictively driven mechanical fil-
I
(
use
ters have several advantages over electrical 6800
1=
6800
equivalents. In the region from 100 kHz to
f OO kHz, the mechanical elements are ex-
I-F
tremely small, and a mechanical filter having ISO UN ISO LIN OUTPUT
better selectivity than the best of conven- ISN
tional i -f systems may be enclosed in a L
package smaller than one i -f transformer.
The frequency characteristics of the me- Olr 150 LIN
I .01I
ISO LIN *--1_01
ISI{
chanical filter are permanent, and no ad-
justment is required or is possible. The filter 6800 6800
is enclosed in a hermetically sealed case.
In order to realize full benefit from the -o 03 .01
FL2
LSe
mechanical filter's selectivity characteristics, 1
it is necessary to provide shielding between 1LSe1 )use
the external input and output circuits, ca- Se Si
pable of reducing transfer of energy external 1lsov.
to the filter by a minimum value of 100 dB. Figure 33
If the input circuit is allowed to couple
energy into the output circuit external to DIODE FILTER SWITCHING
the filter, the excellent skirt selectivity will Diode -controlled switching reduces unwanted
deteriorate and the passband characteristics coupling between input and output circuits of
filters, thus preserving shape factor of the filter.
will be distorted. Appropriate diode pairs are triggered by panel
As with almost any mechanically resonant switch (S,). One diode pair is forward- biased at
a time, allowing proper filter to function.
circuit, elements of the mechanical filter
have multiple resonances. These result in
spurious modes of transmission through the The Transfilter A small mechanical resonator
filter and produce minor passbands at fre- (transfilter) may be used in
quencies outside the primary passband. De- place of an i -f transformer in transistor i -f
sign of the filter reduces these subbands to a circuits (figure 34A). A second transfilter
low level and removes them from the im- resonator may be substituted for the conven-
mediate area of the major passband. Two tional emitter bypass capacitor to enhance
10.26 RADIO HANDBOOK
i -f selectivity. Transfilters may also be em- In the receive mode, the 33K base -bias
ployed in the high -Q oscillator tuned cir- resistor is returned to the receiver cutoff -
cuits. The passband of a single transfilter bias control line, disabling transistor Q,.
i -f stage with emitter resonator is shown
VOX
RECEIVER CUTOF BIAS LINE RELAY
in figure 34B.
L J
TOBALANC
MODULATOR =
3.3K 3.3 K
12V. ACC
Figure 35
BILATERAL I -F AMPLIFIER
FOR TRANSCEIVER
Bilateral i -f amplifier stage functions in both
10
receive and transmit modes in SSB transceiver.
Cutoff -bias lines transfer operation from tran-
sistor Q. to transistor Q, as VOX relay is actu-
ated. Common- emitter stages are used with
20 base -bias control.
PROP
De .AD
FIRST ose II UTDR
14
Figure 37
Ir STAGE DE T
AGC in With a simple diode detector
BFO Equipped of this type having a beat -
Receivers frequency oscillator for the
reception of c -w or SSB sig-
nals, the use of an agc system such as shown
in figure 40 can result in a great loss in sensi-
tivity when the bfo is switched on. This is
AUDIO
© DIODE DETECTOR
Figure 39
because the beat -oscillator output acts ex- A diode ring demodulator is shown in
actly like a strong
received signal, and figure 41B. This demodulator provides better
causes the agc circuit to put high bias on low -signal response than the double -diode
the r -f and i -f stages, thus greatly reducing demodulator and provides a substantial de-
the receiver's sensitivity. Due to the above gree of carrier cancellation. The i -f signal
effect, it is necessary to either isolate the is applied to the ring demodulator in push -
agc voltage or make the agc circuit inopera- pull and the local carrier is applied in a par-
tive when the bfo is being used. The simplest allel mode, where it is rejected by the push -
method of eliminating the agc action is to pull output configuration.
short the agc line to ground when the bfo A simple transistor sideband demodulator
is turned on. This results in no agc action is shown in figure 41C. The transistor is
for SSB reception. heavily reverse - biased to a class -C condition
and the two input signals are mixed in the
SSB Demodulators The product detector is base circuit. The audio product of mixing
a linear demodulator in is taken from the collector circuit.
which two signals are multiplied together to A source-follower product detector em-
produce a resultant output audio signal. ploying two JFETs is shown in figure 41D.
Product detectors are preferred over other Its vacuum -tube counterpart will be recog-
detectors for SSB reception because they nized in figure 42A. The two gates provide
minimize intermodulation distortion prod- high -impedance input for both the i -f signal
ucts in the audio output signal and do not and the carrier oscillator, while providing
require excessively large local carrier voltage. good isolation between the two signals. Both
A simple double -diode product detector is intermodulation distortion and conversion
shown in figure 41A. This circuit has good gain are low in this circuit.
large- signal handling capability and may be
used with an inexpensive high impedance i -f
transformer. TO AVO/O
AMP
Di Da TO AUDIO MPF-102 MPF-102 10K
47 AMP
LOCAL OSC.
O
DI
3N141 ro AUDIO
FROM 1 IOK AMP.
110
T I
AAMP.
Dz
O LOCAL OSC.
IO .01
O
T
LOCAL OSC. +12
AL/0/0
II
TO
AMP
6C4 47K ro AUDIO
I 100 K
j_
=00 =500
AMP.
FROM
/ -F
RFC
LOCAL O5C. 12 V.
4. 7 K
SSB DEMODULATORS
A- Double diode product detector. Simple RC filter is used in audio circuit to remove r-f products
from output. B -Diode ring demodulator. C- Bipolar transistor demodulator. Input and local oscil-
lator are mixed in base circuit. D- Source follower demodulator using two JFETs. E -Dual gate
MOSFET product detector. F-Cathode -biased triode product detector.
COMMUNICATION RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 10.31
A dual -gate MOSFET is used as a product A multigrid converter tube may be used
detector in figure 41E. Various MOS?ETs, as a product detector, with one section of
designed for mixer applications, provide a the tube serving as the carrier oscillator
wide dynamic operating range which permit (figure 42B). An input attenuator is used to
them te handle large signal levels. reduce the i -f signal to the proper level for
Good isolation between i -f signal and car- mixing. The audio product is taken from the
rier signal may be obtained with simple plate circuit through a low -pass filter net-
vacuum -tube product detector circuits. A work.
single- triode product detector is shown in The 7360- beam -deflection tube makes a
figure 41F. The tube is cathode -biased into good balanced demodulator or modulator,
the nonlinear operating region and the de- (figure 43). For demodulator service, the i -f
modulated signal is taken from the plate signal is applied to the beam -deflection plates
circuit through a simple r -f network that in push pull and the carier signal is applied
filters out the unwanted r-f mixing products. to the control grid. The demodulated audio
A dual -triode demodulator circuit (simi- output is taken off in push pull by grounding
lar to the JFET circuit shown in figure 41D) 7360
provides excellent isolation and low .nter-
modulation distortion (figure 42A). The
SSB signal from the i -f amplifier is applied
to a cathode -follower stage that effectively
.001i
7O SD
12ÁT7 4.7 K Al/0/0 R F
IN
470 K
FROM
/ -F
70
6BE6 .01 4.70 Au0/O
Figure 43
7360 BALANCED -MODULATOR
CIRCUIT
7360 may be used as balanced modulator or
product detector. When used as demodulator,
i-f signal is applied in push -pull to beam- deflec-
tion plates and local oscillator is applied to con-
trol grid. Audio is taken from plate circuit.
overload capability. All signal components attack, slow -decay time constant. Circuits
other than the desired audio signal must be having a charge time of 50 to 200 milli-
filtered from the output section of the de- seconds and a discharge time of 0.5 to 3
modulator if good performance is to be seconds have proven successful.
achieved. Carrier injection level should be A simple i -f operated agc circuit with the
adjusted for minimum intermodulation dis- control voltage applied to remote cutoff
tortion on large signals, however, care must pentodes in the r -f and i -f systems is shown
be taken to prevent the carrier signal from in figure 44.
reaching the i -f stages of the receiver by The i -f signal may be used to control the
radiation and conduction along circuit wir- agc system in a solid -state receiver, as shown
ing. Excessive carrier signal may also cause in figure 45. An IC is used as an amplifier
overloading or desensitization of the audio to provide gain and isolation. The resulting
section of the receiver and also cripple the signal is rectified and further amplified by
agc action. Stray coupling from the carrier cascaded dc amplifiers Q, and Q. Transis-
oscillator to other portions of the receiver tor Q, is forward- biased by the agc voltage
circuitry, then, must be carefully controlled. to provide a voltage drop across the collector
load resistor. This voltage biases Q_ more
heavily in the forward direction when a
10-12 Automatic Gain large signal arrives and increases the voltage
drop across the emitter resistor. This voltage
Control varies in accord with the strength of the in-
coming signal and changes the bias voltage
Modern communication receivers include on various signal stages.The agc character-
.a control loop to automatically adjust the
r -f and i -f gain level. The loop holds the
receiver output substantially constant de- R-F
PROD. DET. AGC RECT.
CA-3028A
Q Q2
HEP 254
MPS -A10
FROM
/ -F
+/2 ACC
( +2 ro +/o V.)
Figure 45
SOLID -STATE AGC SYSTEM
IC amplifier stage provides gain and isolation for i -f signal applied to diode rectifier (D,, D,) and
cascaded de amplifiers, Q, and 012. Agc signal is taken from emitter circuit of Q7. Signal -strength
meter (M,) is placed in collector circuit. Agc gain is controlled by the base -bias potentiometer in
the Q, base circuit.
AUDIO
6A A5 put is obtained until the input signal exceeds
a critical peak level (0.6 volt), enough to
F51.1Eit
jDDs turn on the transistor. Once this level is
+
ro
reached, very little additional voltage is
_ +
N3 ACC needed to achieve full output from the agc
120k STAGES
1N4004 1N4004 rectifier. This results in a very flat agc
10011
ACC characteristic.
LEVE
2.2u A different audio -derived agc circuit is
. 1N4004 shown in figure 47B. A JFET serves as a
source follower from the audio line, driving
Figure 46 the gain control transistor (Q,). The no-
AUDIO- DERIVED AGC CIRCUIT signal voltage at the base of Q, is about 0.4
volt, rising to about 0.55 volt before gain
Age level is set by bias potentiometer and drive
signal is taken from plate circuit of audio output reduction starts.
stage. System provides fast -attack, slow -release
response.
Q,
2N 3393 Di
+
;NZ 2.2
DI
+12
Q2= ACC
ACC 3 2N3906
Figure 47
TYPICAL AGC CIRCUITS
S-uETEl1
A-Transistor Q, is operated without base bias
so that no output is obtained until the input
+24 signal exceeds a critical peak level (0.6 volt),
enough to turn on Q,. Audio voltage is rectified
and applied to agc system. 0l7 serves as signal
meter amplifier with milliammeter in emitter
circuit. B -JFET serves as a source follower
driving the gain control transistor.
10.34 RADIO HANDBOOK
FROM
PROD.
DET.
BASE
CONTROL
VOLTAGE
T1
S-METER
FOR I -F
200
STAGES
AUDIO
OUT
820
02 2N3646
1
10
14
2 2
12K
150K
10
1 9
8
5 560K
T 12,
CA3020
p1 2N3904
D2 DI
4
H H
0.1 fl2K 0.2 r,+
5.6K
AGC
IC2
AMP.
2.2
10
vw
220K
I 10 D5
N L 2.2
01 -D5 -1N914 D4 710
Figure 48
AUDIO AND AGC CIRCUITRY USING ICs
This compact audio and agc strip uses two ICs and two transistors. IC, serves as an audio ampli-
fier, driving an external speaker via T,. IC, serves as the agc amplifier and control stage. The de
control voltage is obtained from rectifiers (D,D,). A variable time constant in the control voltage is
achieved, whereby small time constants are obtained at low signal levels and a large time constant
is achieved at a high signal level. Q, inverts the control voltage for correct polarity when applied
to the if
chain of figure 37. This circuit is adapted from a design of K. P. Timmann, DJ9ZR.
COMMUNICATION RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 10.35
to be a compromise.
Peak noise limiters working at the second
detector are much more effective when the
i -f bandwidth of the receiver is broad, be-
cause a sharp i -f amplifier will lengthen the
pulses by the time they reach the second
detector, making the limiter less effective. NOISE
PULSE PULSE TIME
AMPLIFIER SQUARER CONSTANT
ADJUST
l -F Noise I -fnoise limiting is more effective,
Limiters Figure 53
although more complicated, than
audio limiting. In a vacuum -tube NOISE BLANKER FOR I -F SYSTEM
receiver, noise limiting may be accomplished Noise blanker employs i -f signal to drive blank-
in a double -grid tube, such as a 6BE6. The ing diodes (CR2, CR,) which short out one or
received signal is fed into the control grid more tuned circuits in the i -f amplifier. Im-
pulse noise is amplified and processed to pro-
in the normal fashion, while a portion of the vide optimum blanking signal to diodes.
signal is further amplified in a separate noise
amplifier and rectifier. The rectifier is biased sistors may be used in order to reduce cross
in such a fashion that only the objectionable modulation from strong signals and to
noise peaks are rectified. Rectified noise pulses provide the greatest dynamic blanking
are applied as negative voltage to the auxil- range.
iary control grid of the 6BE6, disabling the Several stages of amplification are used
tube, and punching a "hole" in the signal at to provide high -amplitude, squared noise
the instant of the noise pulse. By varying pulses which cause the blanking diodes
the rectifier bias, the negative control voltage (CR _) to conduct, thus disabling the
is adjusted until the impulses are suppressed, tuned circuits of the i -f amplifier. Input
without allowing the modulation of the sig- level to the blanker is adjusted by varying
nal to become badly distorted. the capacitor in the base circuit of the first
A simpler i -f limiter (figure 52) is often transistor.
used in vacuum -tube receivers. This is a full -
wave shunt diode limiter circuit placed in
the primary of the last i -f transformer of
the receiver. The limiter is self -biased and 10 -16 Direct Frequency
automatically adjusts itself to the received Readout
signal level. The time constant is determined
by C, and the shunt resistance, which con-
sists of R, and R_ in series. The limiter is Many receivers and transceivers have a
disabled by opening switch Si. frequency counter incorporated in the design
to provide direct readout of the operating
Noise Blanker The noise blanker (figure 53) frequency. Digital readout can provide fre-
employs the i -f signal to drive quency accuracy comparable with the ac-
blanking diodes which short out one or more curacy of the measuring clock, and readout
of the tuned circuits in the i -f system. Im- to 100 Hz, or better, in the hf region is
pulse noise entering the high -selectivity por- achievable with inexpensive circuitry.
tion of a receiver causes pulse stretching The simplest readout device measures the
(ringing) which makes weak -signal recep- frequency of the conversion oscillator and
tion difficult. Reduction of impulse noise adds the intermediate frequency to it to ob-
prior to amplification by high- selectivity cir- tain the operating frequency (figure 54A).
A counter cf this type is suitable for a -m re-
cuits is desired for effective noise suppression.
In vhf receiving systems utilizing con- ception, but for SSB or c -w reception, a
verters, it is possible to place the noise - more complex interface between the receiver
suppression system between the converter or transceiver and the counter is required.
and the receiver for effective blanking ac- A representative counter for , -w and SSB
tion. Junction field -effect (JFET) tran- reception is shown in figure 54B. For SSB,
10.38 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 54
the counter monitors the frequency of the quency. The counter mixes the two hf oscil-
suppressed carrier of the received signal and lator frequencies, then mixes the resulting
for c -w, the frequency of the incoming sig- signal with the i -f (or beat -frequency) os-
nal is read directly without zero- beating or cillator. Depending on the coupling between
other special tuning. For a double- conver- the counter and the bfo, the counter can
sion receiver, the counter is connected to the either measure the actual tuning frequency,
three oscillators in the receiver which, in or the suppressed carrier frequency of an SSB
combination, determine the received fre- signal.
Vhf and uhf receiver design follows the to the receiver. It is therefore possible to
same general philosophy discussed in the realize superior performance in terms of us-
first part of this chapter, but with impor- able signal -to -noise ratio and sensitivity in a
tant consequences dictated by the peculari- typical vhf /uhf system as opposed to an
ties of radio propagation at frequencies above h -f system, in which external atmospheric
30 MHz. The outstanding factor in vhf noise and man -made interference ( "r -f
uhf reception, as compared to reception at smog ") makes such receiver attributes rela-
the lower frequencies, is that ultimate sys- tively useless.
tem sensitivity is primarily limited by re- Vhf /uhf receivers are externally limited
ceiver noise, rather than by noise external in sensitivity only by extraterrestrial (galac-
II
II10
11
IIII
COMMUNICATION RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 10.39
io
s 1111
11111
111
1111
1111
S
100
!!:::II
mII pull
1111 05111
/111II
111111II
200 300 SOO 700
F
1000
(MHZ)
Figure 1
2000 3000 5000 7000 10000
REPRESENTATIVE RECEIVER
NOISE FIGURE
State -of -the -art receiver noise figure rises from about 1.2 dB at 450 MHz to near 6 dB at 7000 MHz
for specialized solid -state devices operating at room temperature.
tic) noise and some forms of man -made Galactic noise is caused by disturbances
noise. Sophisticated receivers for this portion that originate outside the earth's atmosphere.
of the spectrum can reach the galactic noise The primary sources of such noise are the
level while rejecting man -made noise to a sun and a large number of "radio stars" dis-
great degree. The state -of- the-art receiver tributed principally along the galactic plane.
noise figure is approximately as shown in
figure 1.
le
u
14
Ñ
<
VHF /UHF Noise 12
10 -17 W
Io
Sources O
z s
ó
External noise may be composed of at- V)
graphical location. It is particularly severe noise figure would have ultimate capability
in the tropical areas of the world during the shown by top curve. Reduction of receiver noise
figure becomes increasingly important for weak -
rainy seasons. signal reception above 100 MHz.
10.40 RADIO HANDBOOK
Galactic noise is largely blocked out by at- to its equivalent radiation resistance (this
mospheric noise at frequencies below ap- noise is in addition to any noise of atmos-
proximately 20 MHz. pheric origin) and in the first tuned circuit
Man -made noise tends to decrease with in- due to its equivalent coupled resistance at
creasing frequency, although it may peak at resonance. The noise voltage generated due
some discrete frequency, depending on the to antenna radiation resistance and to equiv-
electrical characteristics of the noise source. alent tuned -circuit resistance is similar to
it can be caused by electrical appliances of that generated in a resistor due to thermal
all types, television receivers, ignition sys- agitation and is expressed by the following
tems, motors, and erratic radiation of high - equation:
frequency components from power lines.
Propagation is by direct transmission over En= (4kTR 0 f ) tiz
power lines and by radiation, induction, and where,
occasionally by ionospheric reflection. En = rms value of noise voltage over the
Thermal noise, or Johnson noise, is caused interval Af,
by the thermal agitation of electrons and k = Boltzman's constant (1.38 X 10'2'
pervades nature. It is only at absolute zero joule per °K),
that such motion ceases. As the temperature T = Absolute temperature °K,
of a conductor rises above absolute zero, the R =Resistive component of impedance
random motion of free electrons increases across which thermal noise is devel-
and this motion corresponds to a minute oped,
electric current flowing in the conductor. Af = Frequency band across which voltage
This "white noise" is generated over a wide is measured.
band of frequencies and the portion of it In the above equation Af is essentially the
falling within the passband of a receiving frequency band passed by the intermediate -
system will contribute to the noise output frequency amplifier of the receiver under
of the system. Limiting system bandwidth, consideration. This equation can be greatly
therefore, will tend to limit the thermal simplified for the conditions normally en-
noise. Thermal noise takes place in the re- countered in communications work. If we
ceiving antenna, the feedline, and the re- assume the following conditions: T=-'300°
ceiver itself, the noise level of the input K or 27° C or 80J° F, room temperature;
stage of the receiver being particularly criti- Af =8000 Hertz (the average passband of
cal as to system performance. an a -m communications receiver or speech
amplifier), the equation reduces to: En =
10 -18 Noise and Receiver 0.0115 VR microvolts. Accordingly, the
Circuitry thermal agitation voltage appearing in the
center of a half -wave antenna (assuming
effective temperature to be 300 °K) having
Input Circuit Since the full amplification a radiation resistance of 73 ohms is approxi-
Considerations of a receiver follows the first mately 0.096 microvolts. Also, the thermal -
tuned circuit, the operating agitation voltage appearing across a 500,-
conditions existing in that circuit and in its 000-ohm input resistor in the first stage of a
coupling to the antenna on one side and to speech amplifier is approximately 8 micro-
the input of the first amplifier stage on the volts under the conditions cited above.
other are of greater importance in determin- Further, the voltage due to thermal agitation
ing the signal -to -noise ratio of the receiver being impressed on the input network of the
on weak signals. first r -f stage in a receiver by a first tuned
circuit whose resonant resistance is 50,000
First Tuned It is obvious that the highest ohms, is approximately 2.5 microvolts. Suf-
Circuit ratio of signal to noise be im- fice to say, however, that the value of ther-
pressed on the input element of mal- agitation voltage appearing across the
the first r -f amplifier device. Attaining the first tuned circuit when the antenna is
optimum ratio is a complex problem since properly coupled to this circuit will be very
noise will be generated in the antenna due much less than this value.
COMMUNICATION RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 10.41
It is common practice to match the im- the receiver is measured with no noise input
pedance of the antenna transmission line to and the generator output is then increased
the input impedance of the amplifying de- until the receiver noise output is doubled.
vice of the first r -f amplifier stage in a re- The noise figure of the receiver is a function
ceiver. This is the condition of antenna of these two levels, and may be computed
coupling which gives maximum gain in the from these measurements.
receiver. However, when vhf tubes and
transistors are used at frequencies somewhat Vacuum Tubes The vacuum tube has been
less than their maximum capabilities, a sig- in VHF /UHF eclipsed for low -noise recep-
nificant improvement in signal -to -noise ratio Receivers tion above 30 MHz by solid -
can be attained by increasing the coupling state devices. Because of the
between the antenna and first tuned circuit hot filament within the tube, thermal agita-
to a value greater than that which gives tion and noise level are excessive for weak -
greatest signal amplitude out of the receiver. signal reception. Vacuum -tube noise is com-
In other words, in the vhf bands, it is possi- posed of shot noise (electron noise), parti-
ble to attain somewhat improved signal -to- tion noise (noise caused by a random division
noise ratio by increasing antenna coupling of space current between the elements of
to the point where the gain of the receiver the tube), and induced grid noise caused by
is slightly reduced. fluctuations in cathode current passing the
It is always possible, in addition, to obtain grid element. The summation of these noises
improved signal -to -noise ratio in a vhf re- is expressed as the equivalent noise resistance
ceiver through the use of devices which have of the vacuum tube. In addition to noise,
improved input -impedance characteristics at most vacuum tubes have comparatively high
the frequency in question over conventional input and output capacitances and a low in-
types. put impedance, all of which inhibit the de-
sign of high -Q, high -impedance tuned cir-
Noise Figure Expressed in decibels, the cuits above SO MHz or so.
noise figure of a receiver is:
f; = 10 logioÑi
where,
N, and NZ are the noise power figures in
watts and represent' the output from an +9
actual receiver, (N2) at 290° K (63 °F),
divided by the noise power output from
an ideal receiver (N,) at the same temper-
ature. 270
The noise power is a function of the noise
voltage (En) and is expressed as:
N =kBT
where,
k= Boltzman's constant,
B =Noise bandwidth in Hz, +12
T =290° K.
Semiconductors Great advances have been or NPN transistors may be used, with due
in VHF /UHF made in recent years in both attention paid to supply polarity. The input
Receivers bipolar and field -effect de- signal is fed to the emitter (source) ; the
vices and these improved base (gate) is at r -f ground potential; and
units have pre -empted the vacuum tube in the output signal is taken from the collector
vhf uhf operation in low -noise receiver cir- (drain) circuit. Stage gain is low and two
cuitry. While the bipolar transistor exhibits or more stages are often cascaded to provide
circuit loading due to low input impedance sufficient signal level to overcome mixer
and often has characteristics that vary noise. The input impedance of the common -
widely with temperature, these problems are base circuit is low and this configuration
being overcome by new design and produc- does not offer as much r -f selectivity as does
tion techniques. The field -effect device, on the common -emitter (source) circuit of fig-
the other hand, exhibits an input impedance ure 4. This circuit often requires neutraliza-
equal to, or better, than vacuum tubes in the tion, accomplished by feeding energy back
vhf uhf region. from the output to the input circuit in
The better solid -state devices are superior proper amplitude and phase so as to cancel
to vacuum tubes as far as good noise factor the effects of spurious signal feedthrough in
is concerned and noise figures of 3 dB or bet- and around the device. Tuning and neutrali-
ter are possible up to 1000 MHz or so with zation are interlocking adjustments.
selected transistors and field -effect devices. The cascode amplifier (figure S) is a
series -connected, ground- emitter (source) ,
10 -19 VHF Receiver grounded -base (gate) circuit. Neutraliza-
Circuitry tion, while not always necessary, may be em-
ployed to achieve lowest noise figure.
A neutralized, IGFET vhf amplifier stage
Vhf r -f receiver circuitry resembles the is shown in figure 6A. Protective diodes D,
configurations discussed for hf receivers to and Dî (discussed in the next section) are
a great degree. Solid -state r -f circuits spe- used in the input circuit. A dual -gate, diode -
cifically designed for efficient vhf operation protected MOSFET is employed in the ampli-
are discussed in this section and they may fier circuit of figure 6B. Input and output
be compared against the circuitry shown points are tapped down the tuned circuits
earlier in this chapter. to reduce stage gain and to remove the ne-
The common -base (or gate) r -f amplifier cessity for neutralization, which otherwise
circuit (figure 3) is often used with bipolar may be necessary.
devices in the vhf range since it is stable Special vacuum tubes, such as high -gain
and requires no neutralization. Either PNP TV pentodes and low -noise triodes may be
ANT. 2N3478 a 0
-OUT
70
+ 2
O
Figure 4
2N4416
OUT
+12
+le
Figure 5
CASCODE R -F AMPLIFIER
Two FET devices are series -connected, the first
being driven at the gate and the second at the
source. Bipolar transistors or tubes are used in
a similar arrangement. Neutralization is required
to achieve highest overall gain and optimum
noise figure.
+12
To optimize the noise figure of all of
these circuits, the input coupling, bias level, O
and neutralizing adjustment (if any) are Figure 6
made with a weak signal source used for
alignment. Adjustment is not complicated FETs IN VHF CIRCUITRY
provided proper vhf construction techniques A- Neutralized IGFET using 1N100 protective
and shielding are used in construction of the diodes in input (gate) circuit. B -Dual -gate,
self -protected MOSFET circuit. Neutralization
amplifier. may be required for maximum stage gain and
optimum noise figure.
Amplifier Vhf solid -state devices are vul-
Protection nerable to burnout by accidental when preceded by a high -gain, low -noise r -f
application of high input signal amplifier chain.
voltage to the receiver. Reverse- connected As the noise figure of the solid -state de-
diodes (either silicon or germanium) placed vice and the vacuum tube falls off above
across the input circuit will limit maximum a few thousand MHz, the usefulness of the
signal voltage to a few tenths of a volt, pro- r -f amplifier stage becomes marginal and it
viding automatic protection against dam- becomes practical to couple the antenna
aging overload. In particular, the protection circuit directly to the mixer stage, following
diodes will absorb r -f energy that leaks
around an antenna changeover relay, or that
is received from a nearby transmitter.
I -F
OUTPUT
fl -f2
VHF /UHF Conventional multiele-
Mixers ment vacuum -tube mixers are
occasionally used in the lower portion of
the vhf spectrum because of their high -
signal overload capability, giving away to Figure 7
solid -state mixers as the noise factor of the LOW -NOISE TRIODE MIXER USEFUL
vacuum tube deteriorates rapidly with in- UP TO 250 MHz OR SO WHEN
creasing frequency. Low -noise triode mixers PRECEDED BY LOW -NOISE R -F
(figure 7) are useful up to 250 MHz or so, AMPLIFIER
10.44 RADIO HANDBOOK
the mixer with a low- noise, high -gain i -f second is low to provide good selectivity.
amplifier. The mixer, thus, becomes the dom- Care must be used in choosing the first in-
inant stage in determining receiver noise termediate frequency or image problems will
figure. arise from signals in the 80- to 130 -MHz
Various diodes are available for use as range, which includes high power f -m trans-
mixers and the hot -carrier diode serves as a mitters and strong aircraft signals.
low -noise mixer for applications up to and It is common practice to construct the
including the uhf region (figure 8) . This r -f amplifier and first conversion circuits in
a separate converter unit, the i -f output of
DI- D=MP2900 which is fed into an hf communications re-
ceiver which serves as the low- frequency
VHF
SIGNAL i -f strip. Choice of the first i -f channel is
IHPUT
fi important, since many vhf /uhf converters
1 I -F provide scant selectivity at the received fre-
OUTPUT
fi-f2 quency, having bandwidths measured in hun-
dreds of MHz. If the image ratio is unity,
the image signal may be as strong as the
wanted signal and the noise figure of the
I
+12 V.
receiving system is degraded by 3 decibels,
regardless of the noise figure of the con-
ISN
verter. The first i -f channel, and the r -f
selectivity of the converter should therefore
0 be sufficiently high so that images are not
f2 O
a problem. Generally speaking a first i -f
channel of 15 MHz to 30 MHz is suitable
for 144 -MHz and 220 -MHz reception and
Figure 8 a frequency in the region of 144 MHz is
HOT- CARRIER DIODE MIXER often used as the first i -f channel for 432 -
Schottky -barrier diode is a planar version of a
MHz (and higher) reception.
conventional point -contact microwave mixer di- In addition to attention to image prob-
ode having closely matched transfer character- lems, care must be taken to ensure that the
istics from unit to unit and high front -to -back
ratio. It provides extremely fast switching time harmonics of the local oscillator of the com-
combined with low internal noise figure. munications receiver used for the i -f strip
do not fall within the input passband of the
device (also known as a Schottky- barrier converter. Attention should also be given
diode) is a planar version of a conventional to the input circuit shielding of the com-
point- contact microwave mixer diode. The munications receiver to prevent break-
hot -carrier diode has closely matched trans- through of strong hf signals falling within
fer characteristics from unit to unit and a the first i -f passband. Unwanted hf signals
high front -to-back ratio. In addition, it pro- may also enter the receiver via the speaker
vides extremely fast switching speed com- wires or the power cord.
bined with low internal noise figure. Input Spurious signals and unwanted "birdies"
and output impedances are low, but overall can be reduced to a minimum by using the
conversion efficiency is high. highest practical injection frequency for the
local oscillator. Most first conversion oscil-
lators in vhf receiving systems are crystal
10 -20 I -F Strips and controlled and high- overtone crystals are to
Conversion Oscillators be preferred as contrasted to lower- frequency
crystals and a multiplier string. Unwanted
To combine good image rejection with a harmonics generated by a multiplier string
high order of selectivity, double frequency must be prevented from reaching the mixer
conversion is normally used for vhf /uhf stage by means of a high -Q trap circuit in
small -signal reception. The first intermediate order to avoid unwanted mixing action be-
frequency is usually rather high to provide tween received signals and the various har-
adequate rejection of image signals and the monics.
COMMUNICATION RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 10.45
100 100
J2
OUTPUT
TO MIXER
STAGE
Figure 9
When low- frequency conversion crystals vibrator circuit sweeps the oscillator by
are employed, the use of multiple tuned in- means of a varactor diode (D1) . Transistors
termediate circuits in the multiplier string Q, and Q, form the multivibrator, providing
is suggested, as shown in figure 9. A simple a sawtooth waveform in the base circuit.
diode multiplier may also be used in place of This voltage is applied to the varactor diode
a tube or transistor, as shown in figure 10. which sweeps the frequency of the variable
oscillator. The scanning rate is determined
412 V.
s by the values of the base resistors (R1) and
OUT
34 af capacitor C,.
For crystal-control service, wherein the
channels are preselected by the choice of
crystals, the scanning receiver selects the
proper conversion crystal and also squelches
the receiver between channels. A unijunction
Figure 10
counter.
The binary coded decimal output from
the counter is fed to a decoder which selects
one of several output lines each time an in- FF2
Figure 13
Figure 12 RQ
The positive going pulse from the logic of the line section. It is given by the equa-
system is used for crystal switching (figure tion for resonance:
14). A standard vhf overtone oscillator is
1
connected to one terminal of the bank of
crystals. The opposite terminal of each crys- 27rfC - Z0 tan l
tal (represented by X, -X4) is returned to equals 3.1416,
77.
ground through transistor QI-Q4, one of f equals the frequency,
which is turned on by command logic. When C equals the capacitance,
Q, is saturated, for example, the collector - Z. equals the surge impedance of the line,
emitter resistance is very low and diode D, tan f equals the tangent of the electrical
is forward- biased. The crystal, in turn is
length in degrees.
grounded and a light -emitting diode is ener-
gized as an indicating device. The logic sys- The capacitive reactance of the capaci-
tem selects each crystal switch in turn to tance across the end is 11(27rfC) ohms. For
completely scan the range represented by the resonance, this must equal the surge im-
crystals. pedance of the line times the tangent of its
electrical length (in degrees, where 90°
equals a quarter wave) . It will be seen that
10 -22 Special twice the capacitance will resonate a line if
its surge impedance is halved; also that a
Consideration in given capacitance has twice the loading ef-
Receiver Design for fect when the freauency is doubled.
UHF Receivers Calculations for capacity -loaded line res-
onators may be simplified by the use of the
As one advances higher into the uhf re- zo (o..MS) /Y (MH2 2 CF) F)I (MHz r CM)
]00- i0.- - eel 0
gion, the physical dimension of an electrical 1 500
half wavelength of radio energy begins to 2
5000
assume the proportions of some of the com- zoo -
a
2 )500
moreover, are fractions of a wavelength long )000
50 -
and their physical size, shape, and inherent 2500
2 icon
a satisfactory amount of selectivity and im- 5- 750
pedance from an ordinary coil and capacitor 30
c L zo
a
10. ;S8
practical dimensions.
Figure 15
Tuning Transistors and tuning capacitors
Short Lines connected to the open end of a
LINE RESONATOR CHART
transmission line provide a ca- Capacitance -loaded resonant line is used in vhf
and uhf ranges in place of typical coil- capacitor
pacitance that makes the resonant length tank circuit. In the example shown a 100 -ohm
less than a quarter wavelength. The amount line is to be used as a resonator at 150 MHz. The
line is 30 cm. long. The product f X (150 x 30)
of shortening for a specified capacitive react- = 4500 and I X C is read at 1200. Capacitance is
I
nomograph shown in figure 15 that estab- Resonant cavities usually are closed on
lishes capacitance and line length as products all sides and all of their walls are made of
of frequency. The fC ordinate is equal to conducting material. However, in some
frequency in MHz times capacitance in pF, forms, small openings are present for the
and the f! ordinate is equal to frequency in purpose of excitation (figure 17).
MHz times line length in centimeters.
Figure 17
METHODS OF EXCITING A
RESONANT CAVITY
Cavities have been produced in several
shapes including the plain sphere, dimpled
sphere, sphere with re- entrant cones of
various sorts, cylinder, prism (including
Figure 16 cube) , ellipsoid, ellipsoid - hyperboloid,
doughnut- shape, and various re- entrant
COUPLING IN AND OUT OF types. In appearance, they resemble in their
COAXIAL RESONATOR simpler forms metal boxes or cans.
A-Input line is tapped on center conductor and The cavity actually is a linear circuit, but
output line is inductively coupled to resonator. one which is superior to a conventional co-
B -Input and output lines are capacitively cou-
pled at high impedance end of center conductor. axial resonator in the uhf range. The cavity
resonates in much the same manner as does a
barrel or a closed room with reflecting walls.
R t Acat its is a closed resonant Because electromagnetic energy (and the
Cavities chamber made of metal. The cav- associated electrostatic energy) oscillates to
ity, having both inductance and and fro inside them in one mode or another,
capacitance, supersedes coil- capacitor and ca- resonant cavities resemble waveguides. The
pacitance loaded transmission -line tuned cir- mode of operation in a cavity is affected by
cuits at extremely high frequencies where the manner in which microwave energy is in-
conventional L and C components, of even jected. A cavity will resonate to a large
the most refined design, prove impractical number of frequencies, each being associated
because of the tiny electrical and physical with a particular mode or standing -wave
dimensions they must have. Microwave cav- pattern. The lowest mode (lowest frequency
ities have high Q factors and are superior to of operation) of a cavity resonator normally
is the one used.
conventional tuned circuits. They may be
employed in the manner of an absorption The resonant frequency of a cavity may
wavemeter or as the tuned circuit in other be varied, if desired, by means of movable
r -f test instruments, and in microwave trans- plungers or plugs, as shown in figure 18A,
mitters and receivers. or a movable metal disc (figure 18B). A
COMMUNICATION RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 10.49
cavity that is too small for a given fre- Figure 19A shows construction of a
quency will not oscillate. single butterfly section. The butterfly -shaped
rotor, from which the device derives its
name, turns in relation to the unconvention-
al stator. The two groups of stator "fins" or
TUNING
SLUGS
sectors are, in effect, joined together by a
semicircular metal band, integral with the
sectors, which provides the circuit induc-
INPUT -_ OUTP T
tance. When the rotor is set to fill the loop
opening (the position in which it is shown
in figure 19A), the circuit inductance and
capacitance are reduced to minimum. When
Figure 18 the rotor occupies the position indicated by
TUNING METHODS FOR CYLINDRICAL the dotted lines, the inductance and capaci-
RESONANT CAVITIES tance are at maximum. The tuning range of
practical butterfly circuits is in the ratio of
The resonant frequencies of simple spheri- 1.5:1 to 3.5:1.
cal, cylindrical, and cubical cavities may be Direct circuit connections may be made to
calculated simply for one particular mode. points A and B. If balanced operation is de-
Wavelength and cavity dimensions (in centi- sired, either point C or D will provide the
meters) are related by the following simple electrical midpoint. Coupling may be ef-
resonance formulas: fected by means of a small single -turn loop
placed near point E or F. The butterfly thus
for cylinder Ar = 2.6 X radius; permits continuous variation of both capaci-
for cube Ar = 2.83 X half of 1 side; tance and inductance, as indicated by the
for sphere Ar = 2.28 X radius. equivalent circuit in figure 19B, while at the
Butterfly Unlike the cavity resonator, which same time eliminating all pigtails and wiping
Circuit in its conventional form is a device contacts.
Butterfly circuits have been applied spe-
which can tune over a relatively
cifically to oscillators for transmitters, super-
narrow band, the butterfly circuit is a tun- heterodyne receivers, and heterodyne fre-
able resonator which permits coverage of a
quency meters in the 100- to 1000 -MHz
fairly wide uhf band. The butterfly circuit frequency range.
is very similar to a conventional coil /vari-
able -capacitor combination, except that both Helical A helical resonator is a modi-
inductance and capacitance are provided by Resonatorsfled cavity configuration often
what appears to be a variable capacitor used in the 30- to 800 -MHz
alone. The Q of this device is somewhat less range and consists of an inductor placed
than that of a concentric -line tuned circuit
but is entirely adequate for numerous appli-
cations.
c
OUT
Figure 19 Figure 20
THE BUTTERFLY RESONANT CIRCUIT VHF HELICAL RESONATOR
Shown at A is the physical appearance of the A- High -Q modified cavity consists of inductor
butterfly circuit as used in the vhf and lower placed within metal enclosure. B- Double -cou-
uhf range. B shows an electrical representation pled resonator. Coupling is achieved via aper-
of the circuit. ture cut in shield between cavities.
10.50 RADIO HANDBOOK
within a metal cavity. It is less expensive, The Strip -Line The strip -line circuit is an-
smaller, and lighter than an equivalent cav- Circuit other modification of the res-
ity resonator for the lower portion of the onant cavity, making use of
vhf /uhf range (figure 20). a flat strip of metal placed within a square
Helical resonators tuned to the same fre- or rectangular cavity or between two ground
quency band can be cascaded to produce a planes. This design is very useful in the vhf
compact, bandpass vhf filter of high un- region, particularly for high -power ampli-
loaded Q. Inter -resonator coupling is pro- fier stages (figure 21A).
vided typically by capacitance or mutual A strip -line circuit may be tuned by a
coupling. movable disc capacitor placed at the high -
Design data for helical resonators may be impedance end of the line. The line, more-
found in the February, 1966 issue of Micro - over, may consist of a "sandwich" of two
Waces magazine, a Hayden publication. plates, separated by insulating material, thus
permitting operating voltage to be applied
to the tube or device, yet isolating the tun-
ing capacitor from the d -c voltage.
w
bi®CONDUCTOR
DIELECTRIC
terl
J
i
CONDUCTOR The microstrip line is a version of the
strip line adapted to circuit -board techniques
(figure 21B). A dual copper surface board
GROUND PLANE
is used, one face being the ground plane, the
board forming the dielectric of the line and
the opposite face being etched to form the
Figure 21 strip line. Design data on strip and micro -
strip lines may be found in Reference Data
STRIP -LINE CIRCUIT For Radio Engineers, Howard W. Sams &
The strip -line circuit is a flat conductor placed Co., Inc.
between ground planes (A). Characteristic im-
pedance is a function of plane spacing (b), con-
ductor width (w) and conductor thickness (t).
Microstrip line (B) is a version of the strip line 10 -23 Representative VHF
adapted for circuit -board techniques. Copper
surfaces of board form ground plane and line. Converter Circuits
Impedance of the line is a function of dielectric
properties (e), and width (w) of strip.
Shown in this section are representative
circuits of converters for the various vhf
14 -1Hz
5
02i
nT 1211
L r L3 i
MPF-102 OUTPUT Ls
ISLN .001 J2
1S
I 3.31c IN
OI
Otl2 V
I S R
2N3564 L
3lMHI
_ .001 110
Figure 22
FET CONVERTER FOR 50 MHz
1,1, -10 turns #20 e, on '/4" diameter slug-tuned form, spaced 3/e" long (approx. 0.7 5H). Use J. W.
Miller 4501. Coils L, and L, mounted with 1" spacing, center to center. L, -Same as L, with 1 -turn
loop of hookup wire at "cold" end LS 1. W. Miller 20A-155-RBI D
D,-1N100 or 1N34A.
COMMUNICATION RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 10.51
bands. The state of the art embracing vhf Initial alignment may be made with a local
solid -state devices advance rapidly and signal, peaking all coils for maximum re-
transistors and FETS used today may be- sponse. Input coil L, should then be adjusted
come obsolete tomorrow. The circuit designs for best signal -to -noise ratio on a weak sig-
shown, however, reflect modern concepts in nal. The 5-pF coupling capacitor between
vhf circuitry and are adaptable to other de- the interstage coils should be set at minimum
vices than those shown, with appropriate capacitance consistent with the bandwidth
voltage changes. response desired.
Except as otherwise indicated, decimal A MOSFET
values of capacitances are in microfarads, all This converter features an in-
Converter ternally protected MOSFET de-
other values are in picofarads. Resistances for 50 MHz vice in the r -f stage, eliminat-
are in ohms or kilohms (K) and are 1/2-watt
values unless otherwise indicated. Tuned cir- ing most of the former problems
cuits are approximate value and are grid - of premature burnout common to unpro-
dipped to frequency. Bypass capacitors are tected devices. Sensitivity, noise figure, and
either feedthrough types, or equivalent low - resistance to crossmodulation are good and
a trade off between noise figure and over-
inductance units suitable for vhf operation.
load capability may be achieved by varying
A FET
the 12K resistor connected between gate 2
The FET converter shown in and ground of the r -f stage. A higher value
Converter figure 22 provides good over-
for 50 MHz
will provide a better noise figure and a
load and crossmodulation char-
lower value will provide greater overload
acteristics. Reverse -connected protection (figure 23).
diodes across the input protect the FET de- The converter is built upon a 2 %2" X 4"
vices from transient voltages. copper- laminate (two sides) board which is
The converter is built on a 3" X S" cop- mounted to the open side of an alumnium
per- laminate (two sides) circuit board which chassis used for shielding and support. Place-
is mounted on the top of an aluminum box
ment of components is not critical. A small
which serves as a shield. Small pieces of board shield made of circuit -board material placed
are soldered to the "chassis" board to provide between coils L, and L_ may be necessary to
interstage shields between the various cir- improve amplifier stability.
cuits.
0.60.1.11.1
L5
i3 It 10 T220
2N706 3ewHZF L3
Figure 23
A JFET This general purpose 2 -meter provide protection and shielding. Placement
Converter converter is ideal for general of parts is not critical. Coils are air -wound
for 144 MHz operation, combining good and soldered at one end directly to the cop-
noise figure with excellent per board. Coils L, and L, are at right angles
overload capability. It is a good beginners to each other coupled by the 2 -pF capacitor.
project as the circuit is simple and easy to A shield is placed between the oscillator and
get working. multiplier circuits and the r -f amplifier and
The converter may be built on a 3" X 5" mixer to reduce unwanted coupling, as
copper -laminate (two sides) circuit board shown in the schematic of figure 25.
and mounted on the top of an aluminum The converter is aligned on a local signal
box to serve as a shield. No internal shields and the input circuit peaked for best signal -
are required. The use of a high- overtone crys- to -noise ratio on a weak signal.
tal eliminates the bothersome "birdie" prob-
lem, common with many converters using A Low Noise This inexpensive and easily ad-
lower- frequency oscillator injection (figure Converter justed converter provides a noise
24). for 432 MHz figure better than 4 decibels at
Tuned circuits are peaked on a local sig- 432 MHz. Two 2N5245 FET
nal and then the input circuit is readjusted devices are used as cascade grounded gate
for best signal -to -noise ratio on a weak sig- amplifiers, followed by a 40237 mixer stage.
nal. Capacitance coupling between L_ and Oscillator injection is at 403.5 MHz for a
L:, should be the minimum value for good 28 -MHz i -f system, as shown in figure 26.
signal response. The converter may be built on a 5" X
7" copper- laminate (two sides) circuit
board with a shield separating the local os-
A General Purpose This simple converter uses cillator chain from the r -f signal stages.
Converter for PNP transistors in a The 470 -pF capacitors in the tuned cir-
144 MHz proven circuit. Compon- cuits are vhf button -mica units soldered
ents are mounted on a 4" directly to small holes drilled in the circuit
X 2" copper- laminate (two sides) board board. The various vhf coils are hairpin
which may be placed within an aluminum loops made of 1/4-inch wide, 20 -gauge flash-
box, or mounted to an aluminum chassis to ing copper and are mounted in place between
100
ze MHz
7 OUTPUT
J2
4
+12 V.
100
Figure 24
JFET CONVERTER FOR 144 MHz
L1, L2-8 turns #22 e. tapped 3 turns from "cold" end. Wound on Micrometals T30-0 miniature ferrite
toroid core
L2-As above, untapped
L ¡3turns #18 e., %" diam., 7/8-inch long
L5 -21 turns #28 e. wound on Micrometals T -37 -10 core. Secondary 3 turns #28 e. over "cold" end of
primary winding.
COMMUNICATION RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 10.53
ANT.
JI s z2 2N4126 2 2N4í26 4 MHZ
OUT Pu T
L4 JZ
2211 _
oáÎ 3.3 u
+ 9V.
Figure 25
the mica capacitors and the piston -type with the center line of the inductors about
variable capacitors. Coil pairs L, L:, and 34 inch apart. The hairpin coils arc mounted
L1, L0 are mounted parallel to each other, vertically with respect to the surface of the
2N5245 2N5245 40237
22MHZ
ANT. S D L2 LS S D L4 OUTPUT
J 1 70
131-1 1--ß
70 .70 70. _ =470 470
120
120
.í2V.
40237 L7 40237
100.2YHZ) 03.! HZ
ML2 )
oo.e75
MHZ
00
100
Figure 26
board. Coil inductance is critical, and the these devices may be obtained from the many
circuits may be grid- dipped to about 440 Hewlett- Packard Co. field engineering offices.
MHz with the transistors out of the circuit.
As in the case of the other converters, Preamplifier Circuitry A view of the 1296 -
preliminary alignment is done with a local and Construction MHz preamplifier is
signal and fine alignment made with a weak shown in figure 27
signal, or noise generator for best signal -to- and the schematic is given in figure 28. A
noise ratio. microstrip -line configuration is used, the
unit being built on a TFE teflon fiberglas
A Low -Noise The availability of low -noise printed -circuit board of 1/32" thickness,
Preamplifier uhf -type solid -state devices measuring 8" X 5" in size. The board is
for 1296 MHz has made practical the de- manufactured by the 3M Company and has
sign and construction of a a dielectric constant of 2.5. The design
high -performance, low -noise preamplifier for shown is based on the use of this particular
1296 MHz use. Shown in this section is a board and substitution of other board ma-
unit designed and built by W6KQG that terial is not recommended.
makes use of two Hewlett- Packard HP -21A The circuit includes an input matching
series NPN silicon transistors. These devices network (L1, L3), an interstage coupling
provide a typical noise figure of 3 dB at 2 network (L4), and an output network
GHz, 4.5 dB at 4 GHz, and usable gain to (L5, L7). The preamplifier input impedance
above 8 GHz. The gain figure, typically, of is a nominal 50 ohms and the first network
a single device is over 11 dB at 2 GHz and transforms this value to the source imped-
over 6 dB at 4 GHz. The transistors are ance of the input transistor which is ap-
available in several different style packages proximately 69.5 + j21 ohms. Two micro -
having various lead dimensions. Full data on strip -line transformer segments of 62 and
Figure 27
«20v +20 V.
o o
Lie LIS L. L15
2K K
SK
R1
Ls Lis Ln
OUTPUT
C3 J2
LININCHES 1.00 .32 .32e i.5e 1.3e I.55 1.00 1.60 I.S
Figure 28
70 ohms respectively achieve the transfor- the first section having an impedance of
mation. 50 ohms and the second 28 ohms.
The various microstrip lines are in a non- In all cases, microstrip -line impedance and
uniform dielectric composed of air and transformation are controlled by the choice
teflon, with the average dielectric constant of length and width of the line for a given
depending on both individual dielectric con- board thickness and dielectric constant. PC
stants and the geometry and impedance of board tapes are available in the following
the microstrip line. An "effective wave- widths which, when used on this board ma-
length" factor can be computed from these terial provide the impedance values given in
constants. parenthesis: 0.0 5 0" (70 ohms) , 0.062"
The interstage network consists of a (62 ohms), 0.093" (48 ohms), 0.125" (40
quarter -wavelength section of 50 -ohm mi- ohms), 0.200" (28 ohms), and 0.250" (24
crostrip line which delivers a near -perfect ohms) .
complex conjugate impedance match be- The transistors are configured in the
tween the output impedance of the first grounded- emitter mode. The dual emitter
stage and the input impedance of the second leads of each device are grounded to the
over the frequency region centered about copper foil on the bottom of the board,
1296 MHz. which serves as a ground plane, by the
The output impedance of the second stage mounting technique shown in figure 29.
is approximately 115- j82.5 ohms and the In addition, quarter -wavelength grounding
conjugate impedance is matched to a nom- lines are placed atop the chassis to ensure
inal 50 -ohm output termination by means that the emitter -to- ground impedance is
of a two section microstrip -line transformer, very low. Ceramic chip capacitors are placed
10.56 RADIO HANDBOOK
Part 1 - HF Circuits
A radio communication or broadcast and a filter system for keeping the har-
transmitter consists of a source of radio fre- monic energy generated in the transmitter
quency power, or carrier; a system for from being fed to the antenna system.
modulating the carrier whereby voice or
telegraph keying or other modulation is
superimposed upon it; and an antenna sys-
tem, including feedline, for radiating the 11 -1 Self- Controlled
intelligence- carrying radio- frequency power.
The power supply employed to convert pri- Oscillators
mary power to the various voltages required
by the r -f and modulator portions of the The amplifying properties of a three- (or
transmitter may also be considered part of more) element vacuum tube, a bipolar tran-
the transmitter. sistor, or an FET give them the ability to
Modulation usually is accomplished by generate an alternating current of a fre-
varying either the amplitude or the fre- quency determined by auxiliary compo-
quency of the radio- frequency carrier in ac- nents associated with them. Such circuits
cord with the components of intelligence to are termed oscillators. To generate ac power
be transmitted or by generation of an SSB with an amplifier, a portion of the output
signal (a form of amplitude modulation). power must be returned or fed back to the
Radiotelegraph keying normally is accom- input in phase with the starting power
plished either by interrupting, shifting the (figure 1) . The power delivered to the load
frequency of, or superimposing an audio tone will be the output power less the feedback
on the radio- frequency carrier in accord- power.
ance with the intelligence to be transmitted. AMPLIFIER PACKAGE
The complexity of the radio- frequency
generating portion of the transmitter is de- R F OUT
.001 RFC
OA HARTLEY © CLAPP
001 RFC
i
® COLPITTS
7K
50
z z
.0011
© TUNED PLATE, TUNED GRID D ELECTRON COUPLED VACKAR e+
Figure 3
for optimum drive level such that the tran- which make use of the negative- resistance
sistor is not driven to cutoff or saturation. characteristic between different elements in
The output level, when properly adjusted, is some multigrid tubes.
about 4 volts peak -to -peak for a 9 -volt One version of the transitron circuit uses
supply. The emitter -bias resistor is bypassed a pentode tube with the suppressor element
for r -f and audio frequencies to eliminate a coupled to the screen. The negative resistance
tendency for the circuit to oscillate at a is obtained from a combination of secondary
parasitic frequency that is low in compari- emission and interelectrode coupling. A
son to the working frequency. The value of representative transitron circuit is shown in
capacitors C3 and C, are approximately: figure 6A.
The chief distinction between a conven-
3000 tional negative -grid oscillator and a negative-
C (pF) resistance oscillator is that in the former the
f (MHz)
tank circuit must act as a phase inverter in
The frequency of oscillation is approxi- order to permit the amplification of the tube
mately: to act as a negative resistance, while in the
latter the tube acts as its own phase inverter
(figure 6B). Thus a negative- resistance
1
f (uec) oscillator requires only an untapped coil
27r VL (C1 + C2) and a single capacitor as the frequency -
determining tank circuit, and is classed as a
The Seiler The Seiler oscillator is another two- terminal oscillator. In fact, the time
Oscillator variation of the Clapp circuit, constant of an RC circuit may be used as
permitting one end of the tank the frequency- determining element and such
coil to be at ground potential, and exhibiting an oscillator is rather widely used as a
slightly less loading of the tuned circuit tunable audio- frequency oscillator.
than either the Vackar or the Clapp con-
The Franklin The Franklin oscillator makes
figuration. The large capacitors placed across
Oscillator use of two cascaded tubes to
the amplifying tube or transistor tend to
swamp out any reactive changes in the obtain the negative -resistance
active device and also limits the harmonic effect (figure 7). The tubes may be either
output, thereby enhancing frequency sta- a pair of triodes, tetrodes, or pentodes; a dual
bility. A Seiler oscillator designed for SSB triode; or a combination of a triode and a
service is shown in figure 5. multigrid tube. The chief advantage of this
oscillator circuit is that the frequency -de-
4714 termining tank only has two terminals, and
one side of the circuit is grounded.
The second tube acts as a phase inverter to
R F OUT. give an effect similar to that obtained with
the dynatron or transitron, except that the
effective transconductance is much higher.
If the tuned circuit is omitted or is replaced
by a resistor, the circuit becomes a relaxa-
tion oscillator or a multivibrator.
TRANSISTORIZED SEILER OSCILLATOR
Seiler oscillator is a variation of the Clapp cir- Oscillator The oscillator providing minimum
cuit which permits one end of the tank coil to
be at ground potential. Coil is 22 turns 3t 16e., Stability coupling between the active de-
11/4" dram., closewound for range of 5.0-5.6 MHz.
vice and the tuned circuit has
Negative -Resist- Negative - resistance oscilla- proven to have the highest degree of sta-
once Oscillators tors often are used when un- bility. However, this inherently good stabil-
usually high frequency sta- ity is with respect to tube or transistor varia-
bility is desired, as in a frequency meter. The tions; instability of the tuned circuit with
dynatron of a few years ago and the newer respect to vibration or temperature will of
transitron are examples of oscillator circuits course have as much effect on the frequency
11.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
68A6
Figure 6
TRANSITRON OSCILLATOR
C -0.01 44F mica for rf 10 -µF elect. for of
pA TRANSITRON OSCILLATOR C2- 0.00005 -µF mica for rf 0.1µF paper for of
C3- 0.003µf mica for rf 0.5 -AF paper for of
C.- 0.01 -µF mica for rf 8 -AF elect. for of
R. -220K 1/2 -watt
R2 -1800 ohms 1/2-watt
12AÚ7
-R3-22K 2 -watt
R. -22K 2 -watt
CATHODE -COUPLED OSCILLATOR
C -0.00005 4F mica for rf 0.1 -µF paper for audio
C:- 0.003µF mica for rf 8 -AF elect. for audio
R -47K 1/2-watt
R2-1K 1 -watt
1 1 -2 Quartz -Crystal
Figure 7
Oscillators
THE FRANKLIN OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT Quartz is a naturally occurring crystal
A separate phase- inverter tube is used in the
oscillator to feed a portion of the output back having a structure such that when plates
to the input in the proper phase to sustain
oscillation. The values of C, and C, should be are cut in certain definite relationships to
as small as will permit oscillations to be sus- the crystallographic axes, these plates will
tained over the desired frequency range.
show the piezoelectric effect. That is, the
GENERATION AND AMPLIFICATION OF R -F ENERGY 11.7
plates will be deformed in the influence of Practical Quartz While quartz, tourmaline,
an electric field, and, conversely, when such Crystals Rochelle salts, ADP, and
a plate is deformed in any way a potential EDT crystals all exhibit the
difference will appear on its opposite sides. piezoelectric effect, only quartz has a low
A quartz -crystal plate has several me- temperature coefficient and exhibits chemi-
chanical resonances. Some of them are at cal and mechanical stability. The greater
very -high frequencies because of the stiff- part of the raw quartz used today for fre-
ness of the material. Having mechanical quency control is man -made rather than
resonance, like a tuning fork, the crystal natural and crystal blanks are produced in
will vibrate at a frequency depending on large quantities at low prices. The crystal
the dimensions, the method of electrical blank is cut from a billet of quartz at a
excitation, and crystallographic orientation. predetermined orientation with respect to
Because of the piezoelectric properties, it is the optical and electrical axes, the orienta-
possible to cut a quartz plate which, when tion determining the activity, temperature
provided with suitable electrodes, will have coefficient, thickness coefficient, and other
the characteristics of a resonant circuit hav- characteristics of the crystal.
ing a very high LC ratio. The circuit Q of The crystal blank is rough -ground almost
a crystal is many times higher than can be to frequency, the frequency increasing in
obtained with conventional inductors and inverse ratio to the oscillating dimensions
capacitors of any size. The Q of crystals (usually the thickness, but often the
ranges from 10,000 to several million. length). It is then finished to exact fre-
The equivalent electrical circuits of a quency by careful lapping, by etching, or
quartz -crystal plate are shown in figure 8. by plating. Care is taken to stabilize the
The shunt capacitance of the electrodes and crystal so frequency and activity will not
holder is represented by G
and the capaci- change with time.
tance between the electrodes with quartz as Unplated crystals are mounted in pressure
the dielectric is C,. The series capacitance holders, in which an air gap exists between
(CO represents the motional elasticity of the crystal and electrodes. Only the corners
of the crystal are clamped. At frequencies
requiring a low ratio of length to thickness
(usually below 2 MHz or so) a "free" air
gap is required because even the corners of
the crystal move.
Control of the orientation of the blank
when cut from the quartz billet determines
the characteristics of the crystal. The turn-
Figure 8 ing point (point of zero temperature coeffi-
cient) may be adjusted to room temperature,
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A usually taken as 20° C. A graph of the
QUARTZ PLATE normal frequency ranges of popular crystal
The equivalent series- resonant circuit of the cuts is shown in figure 9. For frequencies
crystal itself is at the left. with shunt capaci-
tance of electrodes and holder (Co) and ca- between 550 kHz and 55 MHz, the AT -cut
pacitance between electrodes with nuartz as crystal is now widely used. A large quantity
the dielectric (C.) at right. The composite circuit
may exhibit both series resonance and narallel of BT -cut crystals in the range of 6 MHz
resonance (antiresonance). the separation in to 12 MHz exists as surplus stock from
frequency between the two modes being very
small and determined largely by the ratio of World War II. These crystals are mounted
series capacitance (C,) to shunt capacitance. in the obsolete FT -243 style holder. The
AT -cut, however, is now used because mod-
the quartz, while the inductance (L1) is a ern techniques allow it to be produced
function of the mass. The series resistance cheaply, and in quantity.
(R1) represents the sum of the crystal losses, Crystal Crystals are normally purchased
including friction, acoustic loading, and Holders ready- mounted. Modern high -fre-
power transmitted to the mounting struc- quency crystals are mounted within
ture. metal holders, hermetically sealed with glass
11.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
BOO
J PLATE 2.H,
1 I I I
LExUNE BA
IIIII
50.111 E PLATE 250.M:
I 11111
)5.11x OTCU 00 11x
111
9I.11xl GT Cul 50 Mx
II
3CC.11x Cl .uT 800.11x
55550.041 Al Cu 55811
1 11 1111111
Hz 5.11x 0 Mx 50.Mx OO 11: 500.Mx 1000.11x 811x *MHz 50M11: 00M11x
xNEGUEY"T
Figure 9
Figure 10
overtone and harmonic should not be used Series and The shunt capacitance of
interchangeably. The overtone is a mechan- Parallel Resonance the electrodes and associ-
ical phenomenon and its frequency differs ated wiring is consider-
from the harmonic by virtue of the mechan- ably greater than the capacitive component
ical loading of the crystal. The harmonic is of an equivalent series LC circuit, and unless
an electrical phenomenon and is an exact the shunt capacitance is balanced out, the
multiple of the fundamental frequency.) crystal will exhibit both series- and parallel -
By grinding the crystal especially for resonance frequencies, the latter being some-
overtone operation, it is possible to enhance what higher than the former. The series -
its operation as an overtone resonator. AT- resonant condition is employed in filter cir-
cut crystals designed for optimum overtone cuits and in oscillator circuits wherein the
operation on the 3rd, 5th, and even the crystal is used in such a manner that the
7th overtone are available. The 5th- and phase shift of the feedback voltage is at
7th -overtone types, especially the latter, re- the series- resonant frequency.
quire special holders and circuits for satis- The only difference between crystals de-
factory operation, but the 3rd -overtone type signed for series -resonance and those for
needs little more consideration than a reg- parallel- resonance operation is the oscillator
ular fundamental type. It is possible in some input reactance (capacitance) for which
circuits to operate a crystal on the funda- they are calibrated. A crystal calibrated for
mental and 3rd overtone simultaneously and parallel resonance will operate at its cali-
produce an audio beat between the third brated frequency in a series- resonant circuit
harmonic and the third overtone. Unless with the addition of an appropriate value of
specifically desired, this operation is to be series capacitance. Thus, a crystal cannot
avoided in conventional circuits. be specified in frequency without stating the
The overtone frequency for which the reactance with which it is to be calibrated.
crystal is designed is the working frequency The older FT -243 fundamental crystals were
which is not the fundamental, since the usually calibrated with a parallel capacitance
crystal actually oscillates on this working of 3SpF, while many of the new hermetic
frequency when it is functioning in the sealed crystals are calibrated with a capaci-
proper manner. The O of an overtone crys- tance of 32 pF.
tal, moreover, is much higher than that of a
fundamental crystal of the same frequency.
As a result, overtone crystals are less prone Crystal Grinding Crystals may be raised in
to frequency change brought about by Techniques frequency by grinding
changes of oscillator input capacitance. them to smaller dimensions.
Many frequency- standard crystals in the hf Hand grinding can be used to raise the fre-
range, therefore, are overtone types. quency of an already finished crystal and
this can be accomplished without the use
of special tools or instruments. In the case
of the surplus FT -243 style of crystal, the
Crystal Drive Crystal dissipation is a function
blank may be raised in frequency up to sev-
Level of the drive level. Excessive eral hundred kilohertz, if it is a fundamental -
crystal current may lead to frequency cut.
frequency drift and eventual fracture of A micrometer is required to measure the
the blank. The crystal oscillator should be crystal thickness and grinding is done on a
run at as low a power level as possible to small sheet of optically flat glass. A piece of
reduce crystal. heating. Drive levels of S plate glass will suffice for the home work-
milliwatts or less are recommended for shop. A grinding compound composed of
fundamental AT blanks in HC -6 /U style carborundum powder and water is required.
holders, and a level of 1 milliwatt maximum A few ounces of #220 and #400 grits are
is recommended for overtone crystals or suggested.
fundamental crystals above 10 MHz in HC- Before grinding is started, the crystal
6/U holders. The older FT -243 style crystal should be checked in an oscillator to make
is capable of somewhat greater drive levels cure it is active. Activity of the crystal can
by virtue of the larger blank size. be rechecked during the grinding process to
11.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
make sure that the faces of the crystal re- crometer to determine the degree of flatness.
main parallel. Normally, the corners are one to three ten -
One face of the crystal is marked with a thousandths of an inch thinner than the
pencil as a reference face. All grinding is center of the blank. A thick corner will
done on the opposite face in order to main- tend to reduce activity. Grinding the edge
tain a reference flat surface. A small amount of the crystal will restore activity in some
of #400 grinding grit is placed on the glass cases.
disc and enough water added to make a When reassembling the FT -243 holder
paste. The unmarked side of the crystal is make sure that the raised corners of the top
placed face down on the disc and the blank electrode press against the blank; these are
is rubbed in a figure -8 motion over the disc, the only points of the electrode that make
using just enough pressure from the index contact with the crystal.
finger to move the crystal.
After about a dozen figure -8 patterns 11 -3 Crystal- Oscillator
have been traced (depending on the amount
of frequency change desired), the crystal is Circuits
washed with water and wiped dry. The cry-
stal is then placed in the holder for a fre- A crystal may replace the conventional
quency check. The process is repeated a tuned circuit in a self- excited oscillator, the
number of times until the crystal is gradu- crystal oscillating at its series- or parallel -
ally moved to the new frequency. resonant frequency. Basic oscillator circuits
For larger movement of the crystal fre- are shown in figure 11. Series mode operation
quency, the #220 grit may be used. Addi- of the crystal is used in these circuits. In
tional grit should be added to the glass plate the solid -state circuits, the holder capaci-
as the compound gradually looses its cutting tance of the crystal package is parallel -res-
power with use. onated by the shunt -connected r -f choke,
If crystal activity drops with grinding, assuring that the crystal oscillates at the
the blank should be measured with a mi- correct overtone, as marked on the holder.
+12 V. +12V
RFC RFC
.01 01
O HARTLEY COLPITTS
Bipolar transistors have a much lower in- is optional. Its omission will reduce both
put impedance than the grid of a vacuum crystal current and oscillator efficiency, re-
tube and this makes the use of the transistor sulting in somewhat more output for a given
impractical in circuits that use parallel -res- crystal current. The tube usually is an audio
onant crystals, such as the Pierce oscillator. or video beam pentode or tetrode, the plate -
Other possible oscillator circuits are sug- grid capacitance of such tubes being suffi-
gested in figure 12. cient to ensure stable oscillation but not so
high as to offer excessive feedback with
Tuned -Plate The Miller, or tuned -plate resulting high crystal current. The 6CL6
Crystal Oscillator crystal oscillator is shown makes an excellent all- around tube for this
in figure 13A. The plate type circuit (figure 13B).
tank is tuned on the low capacitance side of
resonance and oscillation occurs near the Pentode The usual type of crystal -
parallel- resonant frequency of the crystal. Harmonic Crystal controlled hf transmit -
The diagram shown in figure 13A is the Oscillator Circuits ter operates, at least part
basic circuit. The most popular version of of the time, on a fre-
the tuned -plate oscillator employs a pentode quency which is an approximate multiple of
or beam tetrode with cathode bias to pre- the operating frequency of the controlling
vent excessive plate dissipation when the cir- crystal. As a result, oscillator circuits which
cuit is not oscillating. The cathode resistor are capable of providing output on the crys-
9 V.
2N1180
ss HEP -2
56
OUT
RIC
2.5 MN
OUT
70
0+12v
OUT
.12V.
.150V +12 V
OUT
.001
Figure 12
tal frequency if desired, but which also can The Tritet oscillator circuit of figure 13C
deliver output energy on harmonics of the provides good harmonic output with low
crystal frequency have come into wide use. crystal current. The cathode circuit is tuned
to approximately 1.S times the crystal fre-
6C4.ETC F quency and adjusted for maximum power
output consistent with minimum crystal
current. In some cases, an r -f choke is sub-
stituted for the grid resistor and cathode
A bias is added to provide additional power
output and some protection for the tube
*1 OV in case oscillation stops.
The Colpitts harmonic oscillator of figure
BASIC TUNED-PLATE OSCILLATOR 13D provides equivalent performance to the
tritet circuit but requires no adjustable cath-
6C Li ode circuit. In addition, one side of the
crystal is at ground potential, which facili-
tates crystal switching circuits.
In all these circuits, the crystal current
B
can be monitored by placing a 60 -mA 2 -volt
pilot lamp in series with the crystal.
+250 V.
coil. 6J6
3F DR 5F
9,100R15F
20
" 0
L-
10.4 IK
61' 114 ox 17'1
126 WIRE
1
71
60 500
I5K
Figure 15
Tí05
REG
Figure 16
.MOW
VARIABLE -FREQUENCY CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR
C CATHODE FOLLOWER OVERTONE OSCILLATOR
Inductive loading of crystal permits frequency
Figure 14 change as great as two percent of nominal
crystal frequency. Range covers from slightly
VARIOUS TYPES OF OVERTONE above to nearly two percent below resonant fre-
quency. Coil LI is 30 AH. Maximum range is
OSCILLATORS USING MINIATURE adjusted by capacitor C. Circuit is tuned by
DOUBLE -TRIODE VACUUM TUBES capacitor C2.
11.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
in figure 15 is a circuit for use with an a device is shown in figure 18. The basic
overtone crystal in the 45 -MHz range element of frequency synthesis is the phase -
which provides a variation of plus or minus lock loop circuit in which the output of a
20 kHz at the operating frequency. A cir- voltage- controlled oscillator (VCO) is con-
cuit of this type is termed a variable crystal stantly compared with the frequency of the
oscillator (VXO) A lower frequency, tube . master crystal oscillator. Any unwanted
version VXO is shown in figure 16. change or drift in frequency of the variable
oscillator with respect to the master oscil-
lator is detected by the phase comparator.
1 1 -4 Frequency Synthesis MASTER
CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR
The combination of a master signal with a O O O
secondary signal in a suitable mixer provides CONTROL VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE O CONTROLLED OUT
the choice of a number of controlled fre- IOO KHZ
FILTER E RROR
VOLTAGE OSCILLATOR
quencies (figure 17). If a stable variable-
FS' 100 RHZ FR FO
SINGLE CRYSTAL SYNTHESIZER
HARMONIC
MIXER
TUNABLE
e e
0SC DIVIDE .CENER ATOR FIXED KHZ VARIABLE
100 KHZ
BY 10 10
KHZ
060 600
KHZ
FILTER
DIV DER
(- By loo )
FR=
IRHZ
PHASE
- eYN) o-
FD.I
COMPARATOR '0--
FEED BACK
SIGNAL
i
01 V I DER
%._
HARMONIC
GE NERATOM 00 RHZ
3600 RHZ
DIVIDER CONTROL
X 30
Figure 18
100
It 1
110 I 1
120 130
SYNTHESIZED OUTPUT
1 /00 ro 1630 KHZ /N
When a phase difference exists, a phase de-
KHZ RHZ KHZ RHZ 700 KHZ STEPS tector generates a control (error) voltage
1200
which returns the VCO to the correct fre-
RHZ quency. If, for example, the phase difference
1 1 1 1 1 changes 360° a second, the difference in fre-
00
1000 1100 12001T
300 1400
T
1500
quency between the oscillators is one Hz.
The long term stability of the phase -lock
1
signal by 100. Two "divide -by -ten" flip- will change to bring the frequency of the
flop multivibrators (see Chapter 8, Section VCO to the new value demanded by the
3) are commonly used, which provide a setting of the variable divider. If the new
square -wave output reference signal (FR) at frequency is outside the capture range of
1 /100 the frequency of the master oscillator, the circuit, the VCO frequency may be
or 1 kHz. manually set by another panel control to
In a like manner, the output signal of the within the newly established capture range
voltage -controlled oscillator (Fo) is divided of the device, or a control signal could be
down by a variable divider(C). If, for ex- energized that would sweep the VCO
ample the output frequency of the VCO is through its entire operating range. As the
3500 kHz, and divider C is set to divide VCO frequency enters the new capture
down from 3500 kHz, the output frequency range of the phase -lock loop, the loop will
(FD) of the divider is 1 kHz. This signal is take over frequency control.
compared with the 1 -kHz signal from di-
vider B in phase comparator D. Any phase 1 1 -5 Spurious Frequencies
difference is detected, and a resultant pulse
train is applied through an integrating cir-
Spurious frequencies (spurs) are generated
cuit (Chapter 3, Section 3) and a low -pass
filter (E) to the voltage -controlled oscil- during every frequency conversion in a re-
lator. When signals FD and FR are equal and ceiver or transmitter. These unwanted fre-
in phase, the control loop is "locked." quencies mix with the harmonics generated
The phase comparator (D) may consist of by the mixing oscillators to produce un-
a flip-flop multivibrator providing a square -
desired signals that either interfere with re-
output signal, the pulse width of which is ception of the wanted signal or can be radi-
proportional to the phase difference between ated along with the desired signal from the
+ transmitter. If the spurs are known, this
information can help to determine the re-
quired r -f and i -f selectivity characteristics,
the number of conversions, the allowable
harmonic content of the oscillators, and the
r OUT
R
optimum intermediate frequencies.
+ CONTROL The severity of interference from a given
VOLTAGE
spur depends upon its proximity to the de-
sired signal frequency, rather than the ab-
solute frequency difference. For example, a
Figure 19 simple tuned circuit has sufficient selectivity
to reject a spur 4 MHz away from a 1 -MHz
VOLTAGE -CONTROLLED
OSCILLATOR
frequency, while much more complicated
means are needed to reject a spur that is 4
Varactor diode (D,) acts as capacitance whose MHz away from a frequency of 100 MHz.
value varies in proportion to dc control voltage
across it. Diode is placed across portion of tank Spur interference is dependent on the ratio
circuit of oscillator. of the spur frequency to the tuned fre-
the two input signals. The ouput signal, quency, and the lower the ratio, the more
after being processed and filtered provides a serious the problem.
dc control voltage that is highest when the Another indication of the importance of
phase difference is greatest. If this voltage a particular spur is contained in the order of
is correctly applied to the VCO, it will keep response. This order may be defined as the
it.on the desired frequency. sum of the signal and oscillator harmonics
The output frequency of the synthesizer that produce the spur. For example, a spur
can be changed by varying the divide ratio produced by the second harmonic of the sig-
of the variable divider (C). This is com- nal and the third harmonic of the oscillator
monly done by decade switches on the con- is known as a fifth -order spur. Lower -order
trol panel of the synthesizer. When the fre- spurs are more serious because higher har-
quency is changed within the capture rang( monics of both input signals are easier to
of the phase -lock loop, the control voltage reject by circuit design techniques.
11.16 RADIO HANDBOOK
A Spur Graphical relationships between the quency by Fo. The curves cover all spurious
Chart frequencies of the various spurious products up to the sixth order for spur -
.II
signals and the desired signal are pre- signal frequencies that fall within an octave
sented by the spur chart of figure 20. A of the signal frequency. Each line on the
m.
chart represents a normalized frequency
.0..A
given ratio of spur to desired frequency is
represented by a constant horizontal distance difference of I for mFo +nFR where in and
on the chart. n may be positive or negative integers. The
The local -oscillator frequency is repre- heavy, central lines labeled FR -Fo and
sented by FR and the relative signal fre- Fo -FR are plots of the desired frequency
=m... RaRa=.................
_M=...............N _i__=..
.M
1.m. 11IiMIN=....
wimmmmiminism.
9,
NO....
;1IIMIIIIIIIIM IFJ
MIIIIIMEMM.MMI111111 =m..
S......tiMNIRaRaRa=Ra.............RaI
7,
11I111IIIN1GMM
11I11111111=1111111111MIIIP /AIII-M
IMM..
!t..i.ii
.
11111I11111P2111MMI /ME
s0
NEM
f0 gloom
iII11111111111 1111111111!/.N t%/i1I
"IIII11111II111111III1511111IÌ
111111111111111/%1:III%Ì 11E1
i.i.
t°
IIIIIIIlllr.''d,.l,!:.
I
3
s.. t.t ,.
i111111111
2
,
!..
sIII ii /i.r.iN !
i.tt.tt.U.fiA..P/,...AM,MtiW
Rititit-.
iíi
Illlllllll_MIIIIIII,
t=tim
fifiRaRaRa..I././ij.
tl==
M..t...1 //.i
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.r/I,/r..r/Itai / Ra,.=I..
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4ii Ann/i./ rr..i/,/ I1ii..
t..í.d.r.
rtr...
6 // iOSi I AM
M
%. ,
. /AMMO
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S11II1, .IirII..
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9.. IIII/i I.%Y
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II... .
m.
ICí
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./.í//MM..Ra..
AIiit.IiI
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RRtIirl%i:.%
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11IIII/I Ì 4%i/%Í/Q
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tt.Ittarw/!..'..
to
. F. EP ,
1111II/4
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110111111111%,,. Ar 4II%//Ir
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iiMErir
y.1..lIII
.
I%/l
.r rr .t
í,Í.iir.I.
i.i t4 ,t..to
i.r
./,G11,G/,%1 .
i1I11111//t-/u!'
ill!z11;ii 1 llar111III,'
ri/iiifir.aÍ%IIIImoilII 1
.....i1 / i
III1!%il % ,..%/// . .
...ii,i.iiiiiiuIiiiiii
,-
tltllll.tl.l.....
.III..................8....
% i,.
/.... I.111
,
iíTiitlii..I....6.......
Íi11IIIIM
IMI..s.......
á.I.6.%
iir
I...V-/
SF//// .
iCÍ1/.//
s<'/.ilÍ
/. I.IOI
/ //11111
/.Ii .I/t.rIt.Ilt/...t....tt.ttltt.tt..
7v lri
'IU....P.MIi.ZIARa........i...RaRaMRaRa.i
.r/./,i
LI.rILrdr
.
r' r%
%'
1s 30 40 50 60 70
1.5 2 3 3 6 7 11 9 10
F0 -RELATIVE SIGNAL FREQUENCY
Figure 20
SPUR CHART
Curves cover all spurious mixer products that fall within an octave of the signal frequency.
GENERATION AND AMPLIFICATION OF R -F ENERGY 11.17
conversion when the oscillator frequency is low -level signal is brought up to the desired
either higher or lower than the signal fre- power level by means of radio -frequency
quency. Whichever line represents the de- amplifiers. The three classes of vacuum tube
sired signal, the other line represents the r -f amplifiers that find widest application in
image spur. modern radio transmitters are the class -AB,,
To determine the spurious environment class -B, and class -C types.
for a given conversion, first normalize the The angle of plate- current conduction
desired signal and oscillator frequencies by determines the class of operation. Class B
dividing both frequencies by the mixing out- is a 180- degree conduction angle and class
put frequency. Then locate the desired point C is less than 180 degrees. Class AB is the
on one of the heavy lines representing either region between 180 degrees and 360 degrees
Fo -FR or FR -Fo. Since the oscillator fre- of conduction. The subscript "1" indicates
quency does not change for spurs, simply that no grid current flows, and the sub-
trace horizontally in either direction to de- script "2" means that grid current is present.
termine the relative frequency of the spurs. The class of operation has nothing to do with
Example: Desired signal frequency is 10 whether the amplifier is grid driven or
MHz. cathode driven (grounded grid). A cathode -
Mixing output frequency is 2 MHz. driven amplifier, for example, can be oper-
Oscillator frequency is 12 MHz. ated in any desired class, within limitations
Then, relative signal frequency Fo is 10 imposed by the tube.
MHz /2 MHz = 5.
And, relative oscillator frequency FR is 12 The Classes of The class -AB amplifier can be
MHz /2 MHz = 6. Amplifiers operated with very low inter-
Since oscillator frequency is higher, we use modulation distortion in lin-
the FR -Fo curve. ear amplifier service. Typical plate effi-
Locate the F 0 5 , FR = 6, point on the ciency is about 60 percent, and stage gain
curve. Tracing horizontally to the left, the is about 20 to 25 decibels. The class -B
spur lines intercepted on the Fo scale are: amplifier will generate more intermodula-
3Fo -2FR at Fo of 4.35, or signal frequency tion distortion than the class -AB circuit
that causes the spur is 8.70 MHz (2 MHz X but the distortion level is acceptable in
4.35). many applications. Typical plate efficiency
2FR -3Fo at Fo of 3.70, equivalent to a is about 66 percent and power gains of 15
signal frequency of 7.40 MHz. to 20 decibels are readily achieved. The
2Fo -FR at Fo of 3.50, equivalent to a class -C amplifier is used where large amounts
signal frequency of 7.00 MHz. of r -f power are to be amplified with high
Tracing right, nearest spur lines are: efficiency. Class -C amplifiers operate with
2FR -2F0 at Fo of 5.50, equivalent to a considerably more than cutoff bias, much
signal frequency of 11.0 MHz. like a limiter; therefore, this configuration
3FR -3Fo at Fo of 5.70, equivalent to a cannot amplify a modulated signal without
signal frequency of 11.4 MHz. serious distortion. Class -C amplifiers are
3Fo -3FR at Fo of 6.36, equivalent to a used for high -level amplitude modulation
signal frequency of 12.7 MHz. wherein the plate voltage (or plate and
And the image frequency, Fo -FR, occurs screen voltages for tetrodes) is modulated
at 7.00 or 14.0 MHz. at an audio rate. The output power of a
class -C amplifier, adjusted for plate modula-
tion, varies with the square of the plate
11-6 R -F Vacuum -Tube voltage. That is the same condition that
would take place if a resistor equal to the
Amplifiers voltage on the amplifier, divided by the
The output of the oscillator stage in a plate current, were substituted for the
transmitter must be held down to a com- amplifier. Therefore, the stage presents a
paratively low level to maintain stability resistive load to the plate modulator. Typical
and to retain a factor of safety from frac- plate efficiency is 70 percent and stage
ture of the crystal when one is used. The gain is 8 to 10 decibels.
11.18 RADIO HANDBOOK
Grid -Modulated Ifthe grid current to a class - tralized for operation as r -f amplifiers at fre-
Class C C amplifier is reduced to a quencies above about 500 kHz. Those
low value, and the plate screen -grid tubes, pentodes, and beam
loading is increased to the point where the tetrodes which have a plate -to -grid capaci-
plate dissipation approaches the rated value, tance of 0.1 pF or less may be operated as an
amplifier without neutralization in a well -
the amplifier may be grid modulated
for radiotelephony. If the plate voltage is designed amplifier up to 30 MHz provided
high, efficiency up to 40 percent is possible. the stage gain is less than the overall feed-
back gain from output to input circuit.
tank circuit. Phase reversal in the tank cir- veloped across a balanced grid circuit, and
cuit is obtained by grounding the center of coupled through NC to the single-ended
the tank coil to radio- frequency energy by plate circuit of the tube. The equivalent
capacitor C1. Points A and B are 180 degrees
out of phase with each other, and the cor-
rect amount of out -of -phase energy is
coupled through the neutralizing capacitor
(NC) to the grid circuit of the tube. The
equivalent bridge circuit of this is shown in
figure 22A. It is seen that the bridge is not
in balance, since the plate -filament capaci-
tance of the tube forms one leg of the bridge,
and there is no corresponding capacitance BRIDGE EQUIVALENT OF FIGURE
from the neutralizing capacitor (point B) O 21-A
ground will increase, both in direct propor- figure 24. The grid -to -plate capacitance in
tion to the amount of circuit unbalance. the triode amplifier tube acts as a capacitive
The use of this circuit is not recommended reactance, coupling energy back from the
above 7 MHz, and it should be used below plate to the grid circuit. If this capacitance
that frequency only with low internal ca- is paralleled with an inductance having the
pacitance tubes. same value of reactance of opposite sign, the
reactance of one will cancel the reactance of
Push -Pull Two tubes of the same type the other and a high- impedance tuned cir-
Neutralization can be connected for push - cuit from grid to plate will result.
pull operation so as to obtain This neutralization circuit can be used on
twice as much output as that of a single ultra high frequencies where other neutrali-
tube. A push -pull amplifier, such as that zation circuits are unsatisfactory. This is
shown in figure 23 also has an advantage true because the lead length in the neutrali-
in that the circuit can more easily be bal- c
anced than a single -tube r-f amplifier. The r ;`i
various interelectrode capacitances and the
neutralizing capacitors are connected in such
a manner that the reactances on one side of
the tuned circuits are exactly equal to those
on the opposite side. For this reason, push -
pull r -f amplifiers can be more easily neu-
Figure 24
COIL- NEUTRALIZED AMPLIFIER
This neutralization circuit is very effective with
triode tubes on any frequency, but is particu-
larly effective in the vhf range. Coil L is ad-
justed so that it resonates at the operating
frequency with the grid -to -plate capacitance of
the tube. Capacitor C may be a very small unit
of the low -capacitance neutralizing type and is
used to trim the circuit to resonance at the
Figure 23 operating frequency. If some means of varying
the inductance of the coil a small amount is
available, the trimmer capacitor is not needed.
STANDARD CROSS- NEUTRALIZED
PUSH -PULL TRIODE AMPLIFIER zation circuit is practically negligible. The
circuit can also be used with push -pull r -f
tralized in vhf transmitters; also, they usual- amplifiers. In this case, each tube will have
ly remain in perfect neutralization when its own neutralizing inductor connected
tuning the amplifier to different bands. from grid to plate.
The main advantage of this arrangement
Shunt or Coil The feedback of energy is that it allows the use of single -ended tank
Neutralization from grid to plate in an circuits with a single -ended amplifier.
unneutralized r -f amplifier The chief disadvantage of the shunt neu-
is a result of the grid -to -plate capacitance of tralized arrangement is that the stage must
the amplifier tube. A neutralization circuit be neutralized each time the stage is re-
is merely an electrcial arrangement for nulli- turned to a new frequency sufficiently re-
fying the effect of this capacitance. All moved that the grid and plate tank circuits
the previous neutralization circuits have must be retuned to resonance. However, by
made use of a bridge circuit for balancing the use of plug -in coils it is possible to
out the grid -to -plate energy feedback by change to a different band of operation by
feeding back an equal amount of energy of changing the neutralizing coil at the same
opposite phase. time that the grid and plate coils are
Another method of eliminating the feed- changed.
back effect of this capacitance, and hence of The 100 -pF capacitor in series with the
neutralizing the amplifier stage, is shown in neutralizing coil is merely a blocking ca-
GENERATION AND AMPLIFICATION OF R -F ENERGY 11.21
pacitor to isolate the plate voltage from the increases or decreases the driving voltage,
grid circuit. depending on the values of grid inductance
and internal capacitances of the tube. A
certain frequency exists at which these two
Neutralization of Stable operation of the feedback paths nullify each other and this
Cathode-Driven cathode -driven (grounded - self -neutralizing frequency may be moved
Amplifiers grid) amplifier often re- about by adding either positive or negative
quires neutralization, par- reactance in the grid circuit, as shown in the
ticularly above 25 MHz or so. Complete illustration. If the operating frequency is
circuit stability requires neutralization of above the self- neutralizing frequency a
two feedback paths, as shown in figure 25. series capacitance is used to reduce the grid
The first path involves the cathode -to- inductance. If the operating frequency is
plate capacitance and proper neutralization below the self -neutralizing frequency, the
may be accomplished by a shunt inductance series grid inductance should be increased.
cr by a balanced -bridge technique. The For most tubes of the amateur power class,
bridge technique is less critical of adjustment the self -neutralizing frequency lies between
than the shunt -inductance circuit, and a 50 and 150 MHz.
reasonable bridge balance over a wide fre-
quency range may be achieved with a single
setting of the neutralizing capacitance. 11-8 Neutralizing
The second feedback path includes the
grid -to -plate capacitance, the cathode -to- Procedures
grid capacitance and the series inductance
of the grid -to- ground path (figure 26). Voltage feedback from output to input
If this path is not neutralized, a voltage ap- through the distributed constants of the
pears on the grid of the tube which either vacuum tube has a deleterious effect on
Ln amplifier performance. The magnitude,
phase and rate of change with respect to
frequency of this feedback voltage deter-
mine the stability of the amplifier. Control
of feedback is termed neutralization. The
OUT purpose of neutralization of an amplifier
is to make the input and output circuits
independent of each other with respect to
voltage feedback. Proper neutralization may
he defined as the state in which, when out-
put and input tank circuits are resonant,
maximum drive voltage, minimum plate
I
current, and maximum power output occur
simultaneously.
I
OUT
The state of correct neutralization, there-
fore, may be judged by observing these
Figure 25 operating parameters or by observing the
degree of feedback present in the amplifier.
NEUTRALIZATION OF CATHODE The amplifier may be neutralized in the
DRIVEN AMPLIFIER active or passive state provided proper in-
A- Cathode -to -plate feedback path may be neu- strumentation is used.
tralized by making it part of a parallel-tuned
circuit by addition of neutralizing coil L,. Series
capacitor removes plate voltage from neutraliz- Passive An amplifier may be neutral -
ing coil. Adjustments tend to be frequency
sensitive. Neutralization ized in the passive state with
B- Cathode -to -plate feedback path is neutralized the aid of a signal generator,
by introducing out -of -phase voltage from drive
circuit into plate circuit by means of capacitor an r-f voltmeter, and a grid -dip oscillator.
NC. Inductor Lg represents grid -lead inductance The input and output circuits of the ampli-
of vacuum tube, whose effects are not cancelled
by either neutralizing circuit. fier are resonated to the operating frequency
11.22 RADIO HANDBOOK
and a small signal from the generator is ap- plate tank circuit. This adjustment is nor-
plied to the input circuit of the amplifier. mally accomplished with input and output
An r -f voltmeter (or well -shielded receiver) circuits resonated and with a suitable dum-
is connected to the output circuit of the my load connected to the amplifier.
amplifier. Neutralizing adjustments are now Plate (and screen) voltage should be com-
pletely removed by actually opening the
dc plate- current return. If a direct- current
return circuit exists, a small amount of plate
OUT current will flow when grid excitation is
applied, even though no high voltage exists
on the amplifier stage. Once neutralization
has been established, a more accurate
check may be made by applying high volt-
age, and tuning and loading the amplifier
while noting if maximum grid and screen
current occur at the same point of tuning
IN OU, on the plate circuit tuning capacitor as
minimum plate current. As the plate tuning
capacitor is detuned slightly from resonance
Figure 26 on either side, plate current should rise,
and the grid (or screen) current on the
NEUTRALIZATION OF GRID LEAD stage should decrease smoothly without any
INDUCTANCE sudden jumps on either side of the resonance
A -When amplifier is operated below self -neu- point. This technique will be found to be a
tralizing frequency of tube (hf range, for exam- very precise indication of accurate neutrali-
ple) additional inductance (Ln) in grid- return
lead may be required to achieve complete neu- zation so long as the amplifier stage is
tralization of amplifier. coupled to a load which presents a resistive
B -When amplifier is operated above self -neu-
tralizing frequency of tube (the vhf ranee. for
impedance at the operating frequency.
example) grid inductance is compensated by
addition of series capacitance which is adjusted Neutralization of Radio - frequency amplifiers
to minimize interaction between input and out-
put circuits of amplifier. Screen -Grid R -F using screen -grid tubes can
Amplifiers be operated without any
made to reduce to a minimum the feed -
additional provision for
through voltage reaching the receiver from neutralization at frequencies up to about I f
the signal generator. Adjustments may be MHz, provided adequate shielding has been
made with no filament or plate voltage ap- provided between the input and output
plied to the amplifier. Once a null adjust- circuits.
ment has been achieved, the amplifier may None of these tubes, however, has perfect
be activated and the neutralization adjust- shielding between the grid and the plate, a
ment touched up at full power level. condition brought about by the inherent in-
Passive neutralization is a highy recom- ductance of the screen leads within the tube
mended technique since no voltages are ap- itself. In addition, unless "watertight" shield-
plied to the equipment, and adjustments ing is used between the grid and plate cir-
and circuit modifications may be made with- cuits of the tube a certain amount of ex-
out danger to the operator of accidental ternal leakage between the two circuits is
shock. present. These difficulties may not be serious
enough to require neutralization of the stage
to prevent oscillation, but in many instances
Active An amplifier may be neu- they show up in terms of key- clicks when
Neutralization tralized by the application the stage in question is keyed, or as parasitics
of excitation with plate and when the stage is modulated. Unless the
screen voltage removed. A neutralizing in- designer of the equipment can carefully
dicator is coupled to the plate circuit and check the tetrode stage for miscellaneous
the neutralizing adjustment manipulated for feedback between the grid and plate circuits,
an indication of minimum r-f voltage in the and make the necessary circuit revisions to
GENERATION AND AMPLIFICATION OF R -F ENERGY 11.23
CH
Figure 27
grid to ground will be effectively equal to Note that both these methods of stabi-
the reactance of the grid -to- cathode capaci- lizing a beam -tetrode vhf amplifier stage by
tance in parallel with the stray grid -to- cancellation of screen -lead inductance are
ground capacitance, since the high resonant suitable only for operation over a relatively
impedance of the tuned circuit in the grid narrow band of frequencies in the vhf range.
has been effectively isolated from the feed- At lower frequencies both these expedients
back path. It is important to note that the for reducing the effects of screen -lead in-
effective grid -to- ground capacitance of the ductance will tend to increase the tendency
tube being neutralized includes the rated toward oscillation of the amplifier stage.
grid -to- cathode or input capacitance of the
tube, the capacitance of the socket, wiring
capacitances and other strays, but it does not 11 -9 Grounded -Grid
include the capacitances associated with the Amplifiers
grid- tuning capacitor.
Certain triodes such as the 3-500Z have
Cancellation of The provisions discussed in a grid structure and lead arrangement which
Screen -Lead the previous paragraphs are result in a very low plate -to- filament capaci-
Inductance for neutralization of the tance when the grid is grounded, the grid
small (though still important acting as an effective shield much in the
at the higher frequencies) grid -to -plate ca- manner of the screen of a tetrode tube. By
pacitance of beam-tetrode tubes. However, connecting such a triode in the typical cir-
in the vicinity of the upper frequency limit cuit of figure 28 taking the usual precau-
of each tube type the inductance of the tions against stray capacitive and inductive
screen lead of the tube becomes of consid- coupling between input and output circuits,
erable importance. With a tube operating at a stable power amplifier is realized which
a frequency where the inductance of the requires no neutralization in the hf region.
screen lead is appreciable, the screen will al- A high -ia triode may not require grid bias to
low a considerable amount of energy leak - operate in the class -B mode, however, some
through from plate to grid even though the amount of grid bias may be added to achieve
socket terminal on the tube is carefully by-
class -C operation.
passed to ground. This condition takes place
even though the socket pin is bypassed since
the reactance of the screen lead will allow a 3-500Z
moderate amount of r -f potential to appear PC Q=10
on the screen itself inside the electrode as-
II
sembly in the tube.
The effect of screen -lead inductance on JI 1 001 OUT
The grounded -grid (cathode- driven) am- The pulses ABC, EFG, and JKL in fig-
plifier requires considerably more excitation ure 29 illustrate 180 -degree excitation pulses
than if the same tube were employed in a under class -B operation, the solid straight
conventional grounded- cathode circuit. The line indicating cutoff bias. If the bias is in-
additional drive power required to drive a creased by N times, to the value indicated
tube in a grounded -grid circuit is not lost, by the dotted straight line, and the excita-
however, as it shows up in the output cir- tion increased until the peak r -f voltage
with respect to ground is the same as before,
cuit and adds to the power delivered to the
then the excitation frequency can be cut in
load. Nevertheless it means that a larger
half and the effective excitation pulses will
driver stage is required for an amplifier of have almost the same shape as before. The
given output power as a portion of the drive only difference is that every other pulse is
power is delivered to the load (f eedthrough missing; MNO simply shows where the
power). Stage gains of 10 to 12 decibels are missing pulse would go. However, if the Q
common in grounded -grid circuits. of the plate tank circuit is high, it will have
Some tetrodes may be strapped as triodes sufficient flywheel effect to carry over
(screen and grid grounded) and operated as through the missing pulse, and the only
class -B grounded -grid tubes. Data on this effect will be that the plate input and r -f
class of operation may often be obtained output at optimum loading drop to approxi-
from the tube manufacturer. mately half. As the input frequency is half
the output frequency, an efficient frequency
11 -10 Frequency doubler is the result.
Multipliers By the same token, a tripler or quadrupler
can be analyzed, the tripler skipping two ex-
Quartz crystals and variable- frequency os- citation pulses and the quadrupler three. In
cillators are not ordinarily used for direct each case the excitation pulse ideally should
be short enough that it does not exceed 180
control of the output of high- frequency
degrees at the output frequency; otherwise
or vhf transmitters. Frequency multipliers
are often used to multiply the crystal fre-
the excitation actually is bucking the output
quency to the desired value. The multiplier over a portion of the cycle.
TANK CIRCUIT OUTPUT VOLTAGE
nn:I
operates on exact multiples of the excitation e P¡ K N T X
--t-- ----
)
Chief among these is the effective neutral- duration. Such an amplifier is always oper-
ization of the fundamental and all odd har- ated into a tuned inductance- capacitance or
monics, an advantage when spurious emis- tank circuit which tends to smooth out these
sions must be minimized. Another advantage pulses, by its storage or tank action, into a
is that when the available excitation is low sine wave of radio- frequency output. Any
and excitation pulses exceed 90 degrees, the waveform distortion of the carrier frequency
output and efficiency will be greater than for results in harmonic interference in higher -
the same tubes connected in parallel. frequency channels.
A class -A r -f amplifier would produce a
Push -Pull Frequency It is frequently desir- sine wave of radio -frequency output if its
Triplers able in the case of uhf exciting waveform were also a sine wave.
and vhf transmitters However, a class -A amplifier stage converts
that frequency multiplication stages be bal- its dc input to r -f output by acting as a
anced with respect to ground. Further it is variable resistance, and therefore heats con-
just as easy in most cases to multiply the siderably. A class -B or -C amplifier driven
crystal or vfo frequency by powers of three hard with short pulses at the peak of the
rather than multiplying by powers of two as exciting waveform acts more as an electronic
is frequently done in lower- frequency trans- switch, and therefore can convert its dc
input to r -f output with relatively good
efficiency.
This value of resonant impedance (R,,) With these two assumptions as to the normal
is the r -f load which is presented to the class -B ,'C amplifier, the expression for the
class -C amplifier tube in a single -ended cir- plate r -f load impedance can be greatly sim-
cuit such as shown in figure 31. plified to the following approximate expres-
sion, which also applies to class -AB, stages:
DYNAMIC
CHARACTER
Rd .e,
p O O RL= 1.8
+Eb
PARALLEL RESONANT
RFC
C6 I- - -; -- - --- TANK CIRCUIT Q °10
CI C2
TYNE LOAD 50 ft OUTPUT
Li La
COMPONENT
R -F PLATE LOAD RESISTANCE (OHMS) ' Eb
Q. to lb r AMPERES 21 b
7.0
( CI
F1
14.0
225
112
112
56
75
36
66
33
45
23
36
19
33
to
26
14
21.0 75 37 25 22 IS 12 II 9
28.0 56 23 19 17 12 9 6 7
50.0 31 I] II 9 7 5 3
21.0 75 0.7
28.0 56 0.5
50.0 31 0.3
Figure 32
circuit Q of about 10 any increase will not simple ratio. For example, with a given value
afford appreciable reduction in the third - of plate voltage to plate current ratio, re-
harmonic energy, so that additional harmon- vised values of constants for a Q of 12 may
ic filtering circuits external to the amplifier be found by multiplying the capacitance
proper must be used if increased attenuation by 12/10 and the inductance by 10/12.
of higher -order harmonics is desired. The When a split tank circuit is used (figure 34B,
curves also show that push -pull amplifiers D), the capacitance value may be reduced as
may be operated at Q values of 6 or so, since shown and the inductance raised, while still
the second harmonic is cancelled to a large maintaining a constant value of circuit Q.
extent if there is no unbalanced coupling be-
tween the output tank circuit and the an-
tenna system.
Plate Tank Circuit The chart of figure 32
Design Chart shows circuit capaci-
tance (C) required for
a circuit Q of 10, generally considered to be
a good compromise value for class AB, B,
and C amplifier stages. The capacitance value
includes the output capacitance of the tube
and stray circuit capacitances. Total stray
capacitance may run from perhaps 5 pF 4L
for a low -power vhf stage to as high as
50 pF for a high -power, h -f stage. Also in-
cluded in the chart are appropriate values
for the tank ' nductance (L,).
r-.
II111111111111111111111
e 111111111111111111111111111111
11111111111111111111111111111
11111111111,11111111111111111111 Figure 34
1111111111V1111111111111111111 PARALLEL -TUNED TANK CIRCUITS
111111111hEM111111111111 A- Single ended, use chart of figure 32 for
11Y1111111111111111 1111111 values of L and C. B- Single- ended, split tank.
Multiply values of L by four. Each section of
11111 ammo. 1 01111111111111 split- stator capacitor is 1/2 value listed in figure
1111111 11111=1ìi. oIIIIII -Split tank with single-section
32. C capacitor.
N'ï ,5':':::N!!IIiï
Capacitor value is +/4 value listed in figure 32.
11111111 D- Push -pull circuit with split- stator capacitor.
'10 20 25 ?0 Each section of capacitor is 1/2 value indicated
TANK CIRCUIT Q in figure 32.
Figure 33
At the higher frequencies, stray circuit
RELATIVE HARMONIC OUTPUT capacitance may be larger than the value
PLOTTED AGAINST TANK CIRCUIT Q determined for a Q of 10. In this case, the
Q must be raised to a higher value. Circuit
While tank circuit constants are deter- Q values of 15 to 50 are often unavoidable
mined by the r -f load resistance, as discussed and commonly used in the vhf range because
earlier, this chart has been modified to read of high stray circuit capacitance.
in terms of the dc load resistance, as deter- At the lower frequencies, on the other
mined by the ratio of dc plate voltage to hand, circuit Q may be decreased to as low
twice the value of the maximum (peak) dc as 3 to reduce the cost of the tank tuning
plate current in amperes. For linear ampli- capacitor and to reduce circuit selectivity to
fier service, the maximum plate current may eliminate sideband clipping. The increased
be taken as that noted for proper loading at harmonic content of the output waveform,
resonance with full carrier injection. in this instance, is reduced by placing a
If a different value of circuit Q is desired, suitable harmonic filter in the transmission
a new Q value may be established by a line from amplifier to antenna.
11.30 RADIO HANDBOOK
impedance of the transmission line. The cir- The L- Network The L- network is the sim-
cuit Q of the link- capacitor combination may plest of the matching net-
be as low as 2. In such a case, the value of works and may take either of the two forms
series capacitance is quite large and the value of figure 38. The two configurations are
may be reduced to a more practical amount equivalent, and the choice is usually made
by placing an auxiliary inductance (L) in on the basis of other component and circuit
series with the link coil as shown in figure considerations apart from the impedance
?6. matching characteristics. The circuit shown
in illustration (B) is generally preferred be-
OUT cause the shunt capacitor (C) provides a
low impedance path to ground for the high-
er harmonic frequencies.
The L- network is of limited utility in
Figure 36 impedance matching since its ratio of im-
pedance transformation is fixed at a value
AUXILIARY LOADING COIL (L) equal to (Q2+1). The operating Q may be
USED IN SERIES -TUNED ANTENNA
CIRCUIT TO ACHIEVE MAXIMUM L
COUPLING
,6,á,
Q2 RA (APPROX.)
RP
Q,
XLXC
RP APPROX. p/1TC vOLTeGr=
PLATC CURRENT
RP= 225 RA
FOR OPERATING CIRCUIT
Qor15. XCik
XL
7S
Eb
Figure 39 Roc - XCZ =-RA
Ib RA(Q2RL +1 )- RL
tEb
PI- NETWORK Q =10
Cl C2 SO OUTPUT
TUNE LOAD
21.0 75 50 38 30 25 21 19 7
28.0 56 37 26 23 18 1 3
50.0 32 22 16 13 e
Figure 41
Li
I
I
IL-NETWORK L-NETWORK
*2
L2
R
I
I
L-NETWORK
>ta
frf
La
A
/ Ozia
loading capacitor (C2) is determined by the I
CzATI
+Eb ---
PI -L NEiWORK Q-101
RFC 1
CS LI L2
11111 /1111
TUNE
U CZ
LOAD
?V Son OUTPUT
21.0 75 50 36 30 23 21 19 17
28.0 55 37 26 23 1 16 14 13
50.0 32 22 16 I3 11 9 5 7
, ..-
F (MHz) 1.8 3.5 I 4.0 7.0 14.0 r 21.0 28.0 50.0
Figure 43
Pi -L NETWORK CHART
Component values are listed for class AB /B /C service for a Q of 10. For other values of Q, use
conversion transformations listed in figures 40 and 42. Image impedance of 300 ohms is used for
calculations.
11.36 RADIO HANDBOOK
__-
u_
SO
...-
z
o 04-3
ï -14 Grid Bias
á
I
40
30
1000
-
2000
-P1-2D
r3000
PLATE LOAD IMPEDANCE, RL (0uu3)
4000
-
6000
11
Figure 47
Figure 46
COMBINATION SELF- AND
SELF BIAS FIXED BIAS
The grid resistor on an amplifier or multiplier Self -bias often is used in conjunction with a
stage may also be used as the shunt feed im- fixed minimum value of power supply bias. This
pedance to the grid of the tube when a high arrangement permits the operating bias to be
value of resistor (greater than perhaps 20,000 established by the excitation energy, but in the
ohms) is used. When a lower value of grid absence of excitation the electrode currents to
resistor is to be employed, an r -f choke should the tube will be held to safe values by the
be used between the grid of the tube and the fixed- minimum power supply bias. If a relatively
grid resistor to reduce r-f losses in the grid low value of grid resistor is to be used, an r -f
resistance. choke should be connected between the grid of
the tube and the resistor.
voltage in an r-f amplifier may be excessive. ment or cathode return circuit (figure 50).
Often just enough cathode bias is em- The 1 N4 S 51, for example, has a nominal
ployed in an r -f amplifier to act as safety voltage drop of 4.7 volts and an impedance
bias to protect the tubes in case of excita- of 0.1 ohm, making it ideal for this service.
tion failure, with the rest of the bias coming At this value of bias, the zero -signal plate
from a grid resistor. current of a 3 -500Z at a plate potential of
3250 volts is reduced from 160 to approxi-
Separate Bias An external supply often is mately 90 mA.
Supply used for grid bias, as shown in The 1N4551 diode may be bolted directly
figure 49. The bleeder re- to the chassis which will act as a heat sink.
sistance across the output of the filter can
be made sufficiently low in value that the
grid current of the amplifier will not appre- 11 -15 Protective Circuits
ciably change the amount of negative grid - for
bias voltage. Alternately, a voltage -regulated
grid -bias supply can be used. This type of Transmitting Tubes
bias supply is used in class -B audio and
The tetrode transmitting tube requires
three operating voltages: grid bias, screen
voltage, and plate voltage. The current re-
BLEEDER
RESISTOR quirements of these three operating voltages
LBIAS.i
are somewhat interdependent, and a change
tDif1ti in potential of one voltage will affect the
current drain of the tetrode in respect to the
Figure 49 other two voltages. In particular, if the grid
SEPARATE BIAS SUPPLY excitation voltage is interrupted as by key-
A separate bias supply may be used for triodes
ing action, or if the plate supply is momen-
or tetrodes. Bias is applied across a low- resis- tarily interrupted, the resulting voltage or
tance bleeder. Grid current (if any) flowing
through bleeder will boost bias voltage over current surges in the screen circuit are apt
nominal value of supply. Bias supply for AB, to permanently damage the tube.
linear amplifier, even though no grid current is
encountered, must still have low -resistance
bleeder to help overcome rise in bias due to The Series A simple method of obtain -
collection of primary electrons on grid of tube.
Screen Supply ing screen voltage is by means
class -B r -f linear amplifier service where the of a dropping resistor from
voltage regulation in the bias supply is the high- voltage plate supply, as shown
important. in figure 51. This circuit is recommended
for use with low power tetrodes (6146,
Zener Bias 5763, etc.) in class -C service. Because
A few volts of bias may be
of poor regulation with varying screen
needed to reduce the zero- signal
plate current of a "zero-bias" triode. A low -
current it should not be used in a linear
amplifier stage. Since the current drawn
impedance bias source is required and the
by the screen is a function of the exciting
simplest way of obtaining well- regulated bias voltage applied to the tetrode, the screen
voltage is to place a zener diode in the fila-
voltage will rise to equal the plate voltage
rROM
DRw
under conditions of no exciting voltage. If
the control grid is overdriven, on the other
Figure 50
ZENER CATHODE BIAS
Zener diode may be used to obtain a few volts
of well -regulated cathode bias. This circuit may Figure 51
be used to reduce zero -signal plate current of
high -u triodes in cathode -driven (grounded -grid)
service. DROPPING -RESISTOR SCREEN SUPPLY
GENERATION AND AMPLIFICATION OF R -F ENERGY 11.39
hand, the screen current may become exces- quires for proper operation, a series wattage -
sive. In either case, damage to the screen and limiting resistor may be added to the circuit
its associated components may result. In ad- as shown in figure 53. With this resistor in
dition, fluctuations in the plate loading of the circuit it is possible to apply excitation
to the tetrode tube with screen voltage pres-
ent (but in the absence of plate voltage)
and still not damage the screen of the tube.
RFC
The value of the resistor should be chosen so
that the product of the voltage applied to
+B the screen of the tetrode times the screen
NEGATIVE
OPERATING CLAMP
current never exceeds the maximum rated
8/AS curs
OFF CLAMP
TUBE screen dissipation of the tube.
rue!
Figure 52
The Clamp Tube A clamp tube may be added Screen In designing equipment using
to the series screen supply,
Protection high -power tetrodes, considera-
as shown in figure 52. The clamp tube is nor-
tion must be given to control of
mally cut off by virtue of the dc grid bias secondary emission from the screen element
drop developed across the grid resistor of the of the tube. The screen is normally operated
tetrode tube. When excitation is removed at a relatively low potential to accelerate the
from the tetrode, no bias appears across the electrons emitted from the cathode. Not all
grid resistor, and the clamp tube conducts of the electrons pass through the screen grid
heavily, dropping the screen voltage to a on the way to the plate, some of them being
safe value. When excitation is applied to the intercepted by the grid. In the process of
tetrode the clamp tube is inoperative, and striking the screen grid, other electrons are
fluctuations of the plate loading of the emitted, some of which may be attracted
tetrode tube could allow the screen voltage by the higher potential of the plate. The
to rise to a damaging value. Because of this result is a flow of electrons from the screen
factor, the clamp tube does not offer com- to the plate. It is possible that more electrons
plete protection to the tetrode. will leave the screen than will arrive and a
screen meter will indicate a reverse electron
flow, or negative screen current, under this
The Separate A low -voltage screen supply condition. A low- impedance path to ground
Screen Supply may be used instead of the must be provided for this flow, otherwise
series screen -dropping resis- the screen voltage will attempt to rise to
tor. This will protect the screen circuit from the value of the plate voltage, by virtue
excessive voltages when the other tetrode of the voltage drop created by the negative
operating parameters shift. However, the screen current flowing across the high -
screen can be easily damaged if plate or bias impedance screen circuit. As the screen
voltage is removed from the tetrode, as the voltage rises, the plate current of the tetrode
screen current will reach high values and the increases and the tube is in a runaway con-
screen dissipation will be exceeded. If the dition. The addition of a resistor from
screen supply is capable of providing slightly screen to ground will compensate for the
more screen voltage than the tetrode re- effect of negative screen current. The value
11.40 RADIO HANDBOOK
of this resistor will be such that the bleeder points in the circuit or tube may possibly
current will run from 20 mA to as high as occur. The impedance of an arc is very low,
of the order of an ohm or so, and extremely
rROM_J
high values of fault current flow during the
DRIVCR flashover. Fault current flowing through a
small resistance or impedance creates a high
voltage drop in unexpected places and may
TUNE
-BIAS result in damaged equipment. A flashover in
+SCREEN a dc plate circuit, for example, can discharge
the power -supply filter capacitor in a frac-
Figure 54 tion of a second and allow thousands of
SCREEN CONTROL CIRCUIT amperes of current to pass through the arc
and any components in series with the dis-
The dc return path to ground for screen of a
tetrode should not be broken. Resistor R2 com- charge path.
pletes the circuit and screen high- voltage lead
may be open to reduce stage gain for tuneup
purposes.
PLATE
CIRCUIT
70 mA, depending on the tube type. Tube
data sheets normally state the amount of
bleeder current required to counteract the
emission current.
A correct circuit for the screen supply of
a linear amplifier, including a "tune- operate"
switch is shown in figure 54. In the "tune"
position, screen voltage is removed, permit-
ting adjustments to be made to the circuit
at a very low power level for tuneup pur-
poses.
Grid
Figure 55
The impedance of the grid cir-
Protection cuit must be considered, par- FLASHOVER PROTECTION
ticularly in class AB1 amplifiers Equipment can be protected from flashover and
wherein a regulated bias source is required. high flashover currents by placing spark gap
(G) from grid to ground, zener diode fuse in
Primary grid emission can cause trouble if cathode lead and reverse -connected diodes
the impedance of the grid circuit is too high. placed across metering circuit. Spark gap arcs
over at a predetermined voltage to provide low -
The dc resistance to ground of the bias impedance path from grid to ground, thus pro-
tecting r -f choke and grid bypass capacitor.
supply should be sufficiently low (below Cathode fuse opens under heavy arc current,
1000 ohms or so) to prevent appreciable protecting zener diode, while shunt resistor
provides path to ground for fault current. Re-
reverse bias from being developed by the verse- connected diodes across plate and grid
meters provide low -impedance shunt when volt-
flow of emission current through the in- age across meters reaches level of forward
ternal resistance of the bias supply. The voltage drop across the diodes (about 0.4 to 0.8
volt, depending on diode temperature). Filter
reverse bias produced by this effect tends to capacitors in the power supply may also be
series- connected with a high-voltage quick- action
subtract from the grid bias, causing a run- fuse to prevent discharge through fault circuit
away condition if not controlled. in the equipment.
to carry the fault current, as shown in the ment capacitance of the driven tube is
illustration. placed directly across the driver tuned cir-
cuit. This condition sometimes makes the r -f
amplifier difficult to neutralize, and the in-
creased minimum circuit capacitance makes
11 -16 Interstage Coupling it difficult to use a reasonable size coil in the
vhf range.
Energy is usually coupled from one circuit Capacitive coupling, generally speaking,
does not provide a high degree of attenua-
of a transmitter into another either by ca-
pacitive coupling, inductive coupling, or tion to harmonics of the driving signal and
link coupling. The latter is a special form of its use (particularly in driver chains for
inductive coupling. The choice of a coupling vhf equipment) should be tempered
with caution.
method depends on the purpose for which it
is to be used.
Inductive Inductive coupling (figure 57)
Coupling results when two coils are electro-
Capacitive Capacitive coupling between an
Coupling amplifier or doubler circuit and magnetically coupled to one an-
a preceding driver stage is shown
other. The degree of coupling is controlled
in figure 56. The coupling capacitor (C)
by varying the mutual inductance of the
isolates the dc plate supply from the next two coils, which is accomplished by chang-
grid and provides a low- impedance path for ing the spacing or the relationship between
the rf energy between the tube being driven the axes of the coils.
Inductive coupling is used extensively for
and the driver tube. This method of cou-
coupling r -f amplifiers in radio receivers
pling is simple and economical for low -power
and in vhf exciters to attenuate harmonics
amplifier or exciter stages, but has certain
and subharmonics of the signal frequency.
disadvantages, particularly for high -fre-
quency stages. The grid leads in an amplifier
should be as short as possible, but this is Unity Coupling If the grid- tuning capacitor
difficult to attain in the physical arrange- of figure 57 is removed and
ment of a high -power amplifier with respect the coupling increased to the maximum
to a capacitively coupled driver stage. practicable value by interwinding the turns
of the two coils, the circuit insofar as r -f
is concerned, acts like that of figure 56, in
which one tank serves both as plate tank
for the driver and grid tank for the driven
stage. The interwound grid winding serves
simply to isolate the dc plate voltage of the
driver from the grid of the driven stage, and
Figure 56 to provide a return for dc grid current.
This type of coupling is known as unity
CAPACITIVE INTERSTAGE COUPLING coupling. Because of the high mutual induc-
tance, both primary and secondary are reso-
Disadvantages of One significant disadvan- nated by the one tuning capacitor.
Capacitive tage of capacitive coupling
Coupling is the difficulty of adjust-
ing the load on the driver
stage. Impedance adjustment can be accom-
plished by tapping the coupling lead a part
of the way down on the plate coil of the
tuned stage of the driver circuit; but often
when this is done a parasitic oscillation will
take place in the stage being driven.
One main disadvantage of capacitive cou- Figure 57
pling lies in the fact that the grid- to -fila- INDUCTIVE INTERSTAGE COUPLING
11.42 RADIO HANDBOOK
Link A modified form of inductive pedance levels of the driver output and am-
Coupling coupling termed link coupling is plifier input circuits.
often used in transmitting equip-
ment when two stages are separated by a
distance comparable to a fraction of the 11 -17 Solid -State HF
operational wavelength. A low- impedance
r -f transmission line couples the two tuned Power Circuits
circuits together. Each end of the line is
terminated in one or more turns of wire, or Most high- frequency power transistors are
links, wound around the coils which are silicon, planar, diffused NPN structures hav-
being coupled together. These links should ing a high ratio of active to physical area.
be coupled to each tuned circuit at the point Upward of 200 watts average power at fre-
of zero r -f potential, or nodal boint. A quencies in the neighborhood of 450 MHz
ground connection to one side of the link may be handled by modern silicon power
usually is used to reduce harmonic coupling, transistors of advanced design. In the corn-
or where capacitive coupling between two ing decade the efficiency, power gain, and
circuits must be minimized. Coaxial line is temperature stability of these devices will
commonly used to transfer energy between lead to their use in many r -f amplifier appli-
the two coupling links (figure 58). cations heretofore solely reserved for elec-
tron tubes.
the package are the emitter and base lead cuit, in other words, will have a different
inductances. These undesired parameters resonant frequency for a strong drive signal
can lead to oscillations, most of which oc- than for a weak one. Usually, these difficul-
cur at frequencies below the frequency of ties can be eliminated or minimized by
operation because of the increased gain of careful choice of base bias, by proper choice
the transistor at lower frequencies. Because of ground connections, and by the use of
transistor parameters change with power transistors having minimum values of para-
level, instabilities can be found in both sitic capacitance and inductance. Circuit
common- emitter and common -base circuits. wiring should be short and direct as possible
Some of the more common difficulties are and all grounds should be concentrated in
listed below: a small area to prevent chassis inductance
Parametric Oscillation -Parametric insta- from causing common -impedance gain de-
bility results because the transistor collector - generation in the emitter circuit. In com-
base capacitance is nonlinear and can cause mon- emitter circuits, stage gain is dependent
low- frequency modulation of the output fre- on series emitter impedance and small
quency. This effect can be suppressed by care- amounts of degeneration can cause reduced
ful selection of the bypass capacitors, and circuit gain at the higher frequencies and
by the addition of a low -frequency bypass permit unwanted feedback between output
capacitor in addition to the high- frequency and input circuits.
bypass capacitor (figure 60).
Low Frequency Oscillation -With transis-
Thermal All semiconductor devices
tor gain increasing at about 6 dB per octave,
Considerations are temperature sensitive to
any parasitic low -frequency circuit can cause
oscillation. Inadequate bypassing plus the a greater or lesser degree and
use of high -Q, resonant r -f chokes can lead the operating temperature and power dissi-
to this difficulty. This effect can be elimi- pation of a given unit must be held below
nated by placing small resistances in series the maximum specified rating either by lim-
with the r -f choke, or by the use of low Q iting the input power or by providing
chokes of the ferrite -bead variety. some external means of removing the excess
TO TUNED heat generated during normal operation.
CIRCUITS
Low power devices have sufficient mass and
R-F IN
RFC 2
heat dissipation area to conduct away the
RFC heat energy formed at the junctions, but
RFC 3 higher power devices must use a heat sink
to drain away the excess heat.
70 Transistors of the 200 -watt class, for ex-
10 .UF
III
RFC RFC
ample, have a chip size up to 1/4-inch on a
side and the excess heat must be removed
4- TO
DRIVER from this very small area. For silicon de-
vices, the maximum junction temperature is
Figure 60
usually in the range of 135°C to 200 °C. The
WIDEBAND DECOUPLING CIRCUIT heat generated in the chip is passed directly
FOR POWER TRANSISTOR to the case through the collector -case bond.
To suppress parametric oscillation collector by- The heat sink is a device which takes the
pass circuit must be effective at very low fre- heat from the transistor case and couples it
quencies. Multiple bypass capacitors and series
r-f chokes provide an adequate filter when used into the surrounding air. Discrete heat sinks
in conjunction with regular hf and vhf filtering
techniques. are available in various sizes, shapes, colors
and materials. It is also common practice to
Hysteresis- Hysteresis refers to discon- use the chassis of the equipment as a heat
tinuous mode jumps in output power that sink. The heat dissipation capability of the
occur when the input power or operating heat sink is based on its thermal resistance,
frequency is increased or decreased. This is expressed in degrees per watt, where the
caused by dynamic detuning resulting from watt is the rate of heat flow. Low power
nonlinear junction capacitance variation semiconductor devices commonly employ a
with change in r -f voltage. The tuned cir- clip -on heat sink while higher power units
11.44 RADIO HANDBOOK
require a massive cast -aluminum, finned, The use of a thermal conductive com-
radiator -style sink. pound such as a zinc -oxide, silicone com-
The interface between transistor case and pound (Corning PC -4), for example is rec-
sink is extremely important because of the ommended to fill the air insulating voids
problem of maintaining a low level of between the transistor case and the sink to
thermal resistance at the surfaces. If it is achieve maximum heat transfer across the
required to electrically insulate the device interface.
from the sink a mica washer may be used Figure 61 is a nomograph for obtaining
as an insulator and the mounting bolts are the physical dimensions of a heat sink as a
isolated with nylon or teflon washers. Some function of its thermal resistance. The data
case designs may have a case mounting stud pertain to a convection- and radiation -
insulated from the collector so that it can cooled sink that is unpainted.
be connected directly to the heat sink.
If the transistor is to be soldered into the Input Once the dynamic input impedance
circuit, the lead temperature during the Circuits has been determined from published
soldering process is usually limited to about data or from measurements, the in-
25O °C for not more than 10 seconds and put circuit may be designed. In practice, the
the connections should not be made less than input circuit must provide a match between
1 32 inch away from the case. a source impedance that is high compared
J
4
J4
MOUNTING z a
J
z J4
POSITION í0.r
¢
r¢ Ñ
¢ ¢
o
x > I
o
THICKNESS (INCHES)
6 2 6 2 6 2 16 2
--
O
m
O -- _N - n=
-N
-.-N
N-_
N -- N-- _Ñ-
c or
_
-- n -- - n --
A
=
1
-- - h
M
AREA
= Oa
-
=
o
-
,-N
N
_
,--
_.
-
-
n
N ,_
-.-
-
- M- --
.-
-
M
-
-- V---
OF ONE
SIDE OF
HEAT -= ,^
n
N
_, = N
--Mf
-- n
SINK OR
-Ñ -^ --
-_ --
=
CHASSIS
(SOUARE ,.=_.
-
_=K1 -
_
O
INCHES) A
-<
Q
A--
-n
--
=a
-= =_
-- -,
_
m -_ t0 - n A 1 0 n=
=
1-=-,,,
_- e
=r
=
--- o =
-to
_ -
r- _
=
rr
=
= - -= - -
r+
_ io o
_.=-..._ r
-r- -
= r
- n-_
-
=_-_
Figure 61
to the input impedance of the transistor, figurations of this type. The low -loss porce-
which may be of the order of a few tenths lain units are expensive, but their cost is
of an ohm. Lumped LC circuits are used in still small compared to the expensive transis-
the high- frequency region and air -line or tors needed to produce appreciable power at
strip -line circuits are used in the vhf region, the very high frequencies.
as shown in figure 62.
The reactive portion of the input circuit Output In most transistor power amplifiers.
is a function of the transistor package in- Circuits the load impedance (R,.) presented
ductance and the chip capacitance; at the to the collector is dictated by the
lower frequencies the input impedance is required power output and the allowable
capacitive, and at the higher frequencies it peak dc collector voltage, and thus is not
becomes inductive; at some discrete inter- made equal to the output resistance of the
mediate frequency, it is entirely resistive. transistor. The peak ac voltage is always less
The inductive reactance present at the higher than the supply voltage and the collector load
frequencies may be tuned out by means of resistance may be expressed as:
a line section presenting capacitive reactance
to the transistor. This advantageously results _ (Vrr)z
in an appreciable increase in overall line R' 2 XPo
length, as compared to the more common
quarter -wave matching transformer (figure where,
62D)
At the very high frequencies, the input \',-r equals supply voltage,
impedance of a power transistor is commonly P equals peak power output.
inductive and the interstage network of The nonlinear transfer characteristic of
figure 63 is often used. A representative 20- the transistor and the large dynamic voltage
watt, 150 -MHz silicon device may have a and current swings result in high -level har-
series input impedance of about 1 + j2 ohms. monic currents being generated in the col-
Because of the low input impedance, net- lector circuit. These currents must be sup-
work design and assembly is critical and care pressed by proper design of the output
should be taken to observe the high circula- coupling network, which offers a relatively
ting currents flowing in the final network high impedance to the harmonic currents
loop, particularly through the shunt capaci- and a low impedance to the fundamental
tance (Cs). Current values in the amperes current (figure 64) . Parallel- tuned, or pi-
range may flow through this capacitor at network circuitry may be used, with the
drive powers of well less than 5 watts or reactive component of the output admit-
so. Special ceramic microwave capacitors tance tuned out by the proper design of the
having an extremely high value of O and series choke (RFC,) . At the lower frequen-
low lead inductance are available for con- cies, the collector of the transistor may be
USEFUL TO 30 MHz
Figure 62
COMMON- EMITTER
INPUT CIRCUITRY
Gain of common -emitter circuit is
very dependent on emitter series
impedance which should be low.
Base input impedance is usually
less than one ohm and a match-
ing circuit must be provided from
a source impedance that is high
compared to input impedance. A
low- impedance inductive circuit
(A) may be used, or various tuned
networks that combine impedance
transformation with rejection of
harmonic frequencies (B). A linear
pi network is shown at C. If the
input circuit is inductive, the re-
actance may be tuned out by
means of a line section (L,) that
presents a capacitive reactance to
the transistor (D).
11.46 RADIO HANDBOOK
RFC RFC
12V.
0.67 UN
RFC
6LN
loo J2
111150/1 OUTPUT
/7J MHZ
LI 40 W
60RINPUT
/75 MHZ
0.2 W. 100 - RFC RFC RFC I 100
0.66LN 0.47 UN °0.4]LN 1
Two
Figure 66
30
25
m o
D
20 U1 20
z s
U. IS 0 -30
a
W J
10 7 o
O
0
î
O
cc
W
H
Z 0
2 3 4 S IO 20 30 30 S lO IS 20 23 30
f(NHZ) PEP POWER OUTPUT (WATTS)
O
Figure 67
10 UN AND
low load impedance levels when power de-
0.47 A vices are connected directly in parallel. These
problems are minimized through the use of
signal splitting techniques in both the input
and output networks.
Shown in figure 69 are two power tran-
sistors combined to provide twice the output
Figure 68 power capability of a single device. Induc-
BASE BIAS CIRCUIT FOR 2N5070 IN tor L, in conjunction with capacitors C, -C,
LINEAR AMPLIFIER SERVICE provides an impedance match between the
driver impedance and the very low input
Zener diode D, is also used to temperature-
compensate the transistor by mounting it on impedance of Q, and Q. This is a modified
common heat sink. form of pi- network, inductor L_ in the col-
GENERATION AND AMPLIFICATION OF R -F ENERGY 11.49
Figure 69
lector circuit divides the load between the to assure stable operation, since the device
transistors and permits the power output of gain is very high and the normal transmitter
each device to be combined at a higher im- load is essentially removed by series coupling
pedance level at the common output termi- capacitor C, at these frequencies. In addi-
nating point. tion, the inductors must have a low dc re-
External capacitors have been added at or sistance to permit efficient operation at the
near the base of each transistor to provide dc current levels involved.
an impedance match at the operating fre- Because of lead inductance and other par-
quency and a low -impedance path to ground asitic effects, actual capacitance values may
at the second harmonic frequency for im- deviate significantly from the design values,
proved efficiency. In some transistors, these particularly at the higher frequencies and
capacitors are incorporated in the device. representative capacitors should be measured
Resistors R, and R, help compensate for at the desired operating frequency. For ex-
differences that may occur in transistor power ample, a mica capacitor having a nominal
gains and input impedances and therefore low- frequency value of 125 pF can exhibit
help equalize load sharing between the two an effective capacitance as high as 147 pF
devices. This results in improved amplifier at 175 MHz.
stability as collector voltage and drive levels
are varied. Under symmetrical conditions.
signals equal in phase and amplitude will ap- Broadband The use of transmission -line type
pear on each terminal of R, and each ter- Circuitry wideband transformers permits
minal of R, and thus no current will flow the construction of a single -
through the resistors. In a practical case, a ended broadband amplifier (figure 70),
small current will flow but its effect on the whose power gain versus frequency per-
matching network is minimal. formance is shown in figure 67. The special
The inductors L:, and L, function as r -f transformers consist of a low -impedance,
chokes, but also must present a low im- twisted wire transmission line wound about
pedance at frequencies below the lowest op- a ferrite toroid. These devices have a much
erating frequency. This is necessary in order wider frequency response than conventional
11.50 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 70
4 LIGHT WIRES
Figure 71
SOLDERED TOGETHER
BROADBAND FERRITE TOROID
4 DARK WIRES
TRANSFORMER
SOLDERED TOGETHER
A short transmission line made of twisted con-
4LIGHT WIRES ductors is wound on the ferrite core. In this ex-
SOLDERED TOGETHER ample, each conductor consists of four wires in
parallel.
Figure 72
BROADBAND FERRITE-CORE TRANSFORMERS
These small transformers are used with two power transistors to provide high-frequency coverage
from 3 to 30 MHz. The primary of the transformer consists of two brass tubes connected together
at one end by a copper clad plate, forming a U -turn. The opposite ends of the tubes are provided
with insulated terminations for direct connection to the transistors (see transformer at right). The
secondary winding is made up of parallel- connected lengths of flexible hookup wire. Ferrite cores
are slipped over the brass tubes to complete the assembly. The larger transformer is 13/4" long and
uses /2" diameter ferrite cores. It is rated at 200 watts PEP input. The transformer at right is 114"
1
Figure 73
core -coupled or air-coupled transformers due allel are used for each line, colored insulation
to the utilization of transmission -line tech- being used for ready identification of wires.
niques and design. A representative trans- The ferrite core selected for the hf trans-
former is shown in figure 71. The charac- former is material usually used at frequencies
teristic impedance of the twisted line is the below 10MHz. Optimum performance over
geometric mean between the two impedances the hf range is achieved with a low -fre-
to be matched and the optimum length of quency core, since these transformers are not
the line is somewhat shorter than an eighth - core- coupled and the primary function of
wavelength at the highest frequency of op- the core is to increase winding inductances
eration. The impedance of the line is affected to improve performance at the lower end of
by the wire size, tightness of the twist (des- the operating frequency range.
ignated in crests per inch) and the number Transformation ratios of 4:1 or 9:1 may
of wires in the line. In general, the imped- be achieved with the proper winding connec-
ance may be decreased by using larger wires, tions. Two series -connected transformers can
a tighter twist, or increasing the number of be used to achieve greater ratios, if required.
wires. In the transformer shown in the illus- Additional information on transformer de-
tration, four small wires connected in par- sign may be obtained in Motorola Applica-
11.52 RADIO HANDBOOK
The representative circuits discussed in the maximum impedance realizable in the plate
first part of this chapter apply equally as circuit. Lead inductance of tube and socket
well to the vhf portion of the spectrum as create undesirable r -f voltage drops so that
they do to the lower frequencies. At the the available driving voltage does not appear
very-high frequencies, however, the clear across the tube elements (figure 1A). In ad-
distinction between external lumped circuit dition, the interelectrode capacitance of the
parameters and the amplifying device be- tube approaches a large fraction of the capaci-
comes indistinct and different design tech- tance required to establish circuit resonance
niques are required to achieve proper circuit with the result that the tank circuit may
and tube efficiency. "disappear" within the tube (figure 1B). The
combination of lead inductance and inter -
electrode capacitance of the tube will cause
11 -19 Vacuum -Tube an internal resonance in the upper vhf re-
Limitations gion, possibly leading to parasitic oscillation
and instability.
The vacuum tube becomes progressively
frequency of operation is
less efficient as the Cathode Lead Tube gain is adversely af-
raised requiring more drive power for a given Inductance fected by cathode lead induc-
power output level. At the same time, the tance which, in conjunction
input impedance of the tube drops as does the with grid -cathode capacitance, causes a re-
GENERATION AND AMPLIFICATION OF R -F ENERGY 11.53
sistive load to appear across the input of the shown in figure 3 or by utilizing the grid
tube. This load results from a voltage drop structure of the tube as a screen and placing
across the cathode lead inductance which the exciting signal on the cathode (figure
drives the cathode as in a grounded -grid 4). The cathode lead inductance is now a
amplifier stage. A portion of the drive signal part of the input tuned circuit and the grid
thus appears in the output circuit (termed lead inductance (while having a voltage drop
feedthrough power) which must be supplied
by the driving stage. As the frequency of
operation is raised, input loading due to
cathode lead inductance rises, roughly as the
square of the increase in frequency. Thus, 4111111M11111
input loading is nine times as great at 432 A111111111=11
MHz as it is at 144 MHz for a given tube. DPI VE
MO1111111-11
SIGNAL CATHODE
LEAD
INDUCTANCE
CI
ACTUAL
GRID VOLTAGE
100 300 300 1000 2000 S000
GI\ G2
CI (PF)
DRIVING
VOLTAGE
eLK
0
SOCKET
es LEAD Figure 2
INDUCTANCE
DRIVING
VOLTAGE
Figure 3
pacitance the lower the reactance and the cuit design as the frequency of operation is
greater the exciting current needed to charge raised. The cathode- driven amplifier mini-
the capacitance. The driving stage must sup- mizes feedback capacitance since the cath-
ply the current to charge this capacitance. ode -plate capacitance is usually quite small
Stray input capacitance external to the tube in most vhf tetrode tubes, with the grid (or
must be held to the minimum value, and peak grids) shielding the output from the input
driving voltage should be limited by opera- circuit.
ting with low bias to reduce the effects of Regardless of circuitry, the higher the op-
charging current and accompanying waste erating frequency is, the greater are the
of drive power. The charging current can
cause heating of the tube seals and expansion
and detuning of the resonant circuits. 1-1I LI
RI C2 Rz
The cathode -driven amplifier has a lower
input capacitance for a given tube than the ¶
grid- driven equivalent since the input ca-
pacitance consists only of the cathode -grid
RI>Rz
capacitance, and its use is widespread in vhf
equipment. XLI = QL R2
/Rz(4L2+1)
XCI = RI / RI
Feedback The feedback capacitance in
R2(QL2+1)
Capacitance a grid- driven amplifier is the XC2 -
QL (XCI
grid -plate capacitance of the
tube, which becomes a larger factor in cir- QL' LOADED Q OF NETWORK
Figure 5
Circuit and The power losses associated fraction of one operating cycle, electrons in
Tube Losses with tube and circuit all tend transit will be "out of step" with instantan-
to increase with frequency. In eous grid potential, and the resulting plate
the vhf region all r -f current flows in the current pulses are not as sharp and defined
surface layers of a conductor because of skin as the current pulses liberated from the
--".
effect. Resistance and r -f losses in a conduct- cathode. This increases the conduction angle
or increase with the square root of the fre- of operation and reduces the plate efficiency
quency, since the layer in which the current of the tube.
flows decreases in thickness as the frequency
of operation increases. Additional circuit 11-20 Input and Output
losses will accrue due to radiation of energy
from wires and components carrying r -f
Circuitry
current. The power radiated from a short Single -ended vhf amplifiers make use of
length of conductor increases as the square linear versions of parallel -tuned or network
of the frequency. circuits in the input and output configura-
Dielectric loss within insulating supports
tions. A practical and simple input circuit
in the tube and in external circuitry increases
for a cathode- driven amplifier is the version
.,
soo can be made up of lumped constants.
2
A'
The output circuitry, in addition to
z
ó ",_, matching the tube to the transmission line
::hii .1
W
u may also be called upon to dissipate the
z
V-
anode heat of the tube. In order to do this,
u and to prevent rapid detuning of the circuit
W
cr
-.',z
70
> be as low as practicable. The strip -line tech-
nique (see chapter 10, part II) is often
ú
á
u
o -1\yr used since it provides a large thermal capac-
ity and requires a minimum of machine
o
work, as compared to a coaxial cavity.
i o
2
11.101
1Ik
3 D 7 10
CAPACITANCE (PF)
20 30 50 70 100
The strip line (or cavity) can operate in
the 1/4-, %a- or 3/4 -wave mode, with increas-
ing loaded Q, increasing impedance, and de-
creasing bandwith as the electrical length is
Figure 6 increased. The impedance of the output cir-
REACTANCE CHART FOR VHF BANDS cuit is limited by tube and stray output ca-
pacitance:
directly with frequency and is due to the Xe = Z0 X tan l
molecular movements produced within the
dielectric by the electric field. Both dielec- where,
tric and radiation loss contribute to a gen- X = tube and stray output capacitance,
eral reduction in tube and circuit efficiency Z = characteristic impedance of line or
as the frequency of operation is raised. cavity,
1 = length of line or cavity in electrical
degrees.
Transit -Time Transit time is the finite time For minimum loaded Q and greatest band-
Effect an electron takes in passing width, the ratio Xc /Z should approximate
from the cathode to the grid 0.5 for a quarter -wave circuit and 0.83 for
of a tube and is a function of the grid -to- a half-wave or three quarter -wave circuit.
cathode spacing and grid -to- cathode voltage, Strip -line or coaxial circuit design may be
increasing as the frequency of operation is aided by the charts of figures 6 and 7. For
increased. If transit time is an appreciable example, a 3CX1000A7 high -mu triode in
11.56 RADIO HANDBOOK
grounded -grid configuration has an average pedance end of the line close to the tube
output capacitance (plate -to -grid) of 15 sccket terminals. A single ended, half -wave
pF. Circuit stray and tuning capacitance are strip -line circuit is shown in figure 8 with
estimated to total 15 pF. At 144 MHz, X, the tuning adjustment placed at the high -
is about 35 ohms for the total value of 30 impedance end of the line at the point of
1.3 low impedance and minimum r -f voltage.
I.. The whole circuit, including the output ca-
pacitance of the tube, becomes an electrical
1.3
half wavelength, capacitively loaded at one
1.2
end by the tube, and at the other by the
1.1 tuning capacitor.
1.0 Though plate circuitry is shown in these
0.9 examples, the principle applies equally well
to grid circuitry.
uoo.e
xN
0.7
Ó
0 0.9 Tank The characteristic impedance of
0.s Circuit the transmission line making up
rt Impedance
0.4 the resonant tank circuit must
be known in order to determine
0.3
LENGTH (INCHES) 32-e
fMi2 the physical attributes of the configuration.
0.2
The characteristic impedance of parallel and
0.1
coaxial lines having an air dielectric are given
00
I0 20 30 40 50 e0 70 e0 90
in figure 9. The impedance of an open
e 'CLCCTRICAL LENGTH (DEGREES trough line having height to width ratios of
0.33, 0.50 and 0.66 may be determined from
Figure 7 the graph of figure 10. The characteristic
impedance of a strip line having various
ELECTRICAL LENGTH OF LINE AS height to width ratios can be calculated with
FUNCTION OF Xc /Z the aid of the nomograph of figure 11.
pF. For an X,. Z ratio of 0.5 and given the
X,. value of 35 ohms the line impedance 11 -21 Solid -State VHF
should be about 70 ohms. From figure 7, the Circuitry
point X,., Z = 35 is found and the line
length noted to be 27 electrical degrees, or Power transistors are available that pro-
about 6%8 inches. This is the total physical vide up to 150 watts power output to over
length of the strip line and includes the 200 MHz and up to 100 watts power output
path through the tube anode cooler and to 500 MHz for class -C service. Experimen-
tuning capacitor. If this short a line poses tal transistors can provide upward of 50
coupling problems, the experimenter may go watts in class -C operation at frequencies in
to a longer half wavelength line, with the excess of 1000 MHz. These devices make
attendant problems of increased circuit Q practical, low cost solid -state power ampli-
for the longer length. fiers for amateur f -m service up through
The line, in any event, resonates with a 432 MHz.
fixed value of capacitance and decreasing Vhf power transistors are tailored for
line impedance increases the electrical length,
operation over certain popular frequency
whereas increasing line impedance decreases ranges (25 -80 MHz, 100 -200 MHz, or 200-
the electrical length. 600 MHz, for example) and the power
capability and reliability require that the
The Half- The half -wavelength line or user operate the device within the intended
Wavelength cavity is useful when the ca- range, since the ruggedness of the vhf power
Line pacitance of the tube is ap- transistor is a function of both voltage and
preciable and the use of a frequency. A transistor rated for operation
quarter -wavelength line places the low im- near 175 MHz, will be less rugged at 100
GENERATION AND AMPLIFICATION OF R -F ENERGY 11.57
-?
Figure 8
MHz and may be too delicate for use at large role in circuit design. Impedance levels
30 MHz. In addition, the device must be of one ohm, or less, are common and lead
operated well within the manufacturer's length in r -f circuitry of 0.1 inch or so be-
rating and due attention paid to the stand- come quite critical. Special vhf ceramic
ing -wave ratio appearing on the transistor capacitors having ribbon leads may be used
output load network. in impedance matching circuits and uncased
For f -m service, the vhf transistor is oper- mica /porcelain chip capacitors used for high
ated in the zero bias, class -C mode and strip - r -f current paths. The technique of ground-
line circuitry is commonly employed. ing the r-f components becomes a very criti-
cal aspect of the circuit design as a result
Circuit Transistor input and output of the very low impedance characteristics
Techniques impedances are extremely low of the transistor.
and stray circuit inductance The common-base or common- emitter
and ground current return paths play a lead should be grounded at the body of the
Ì
11.58 RADIO HANDBOOK
220 ia
1./11l
0 TO OHMS
o
z 220
200 11111111M/NI
111 20
ú 180
1111/./11l11111
mo1l1
160 1111111
o
î
140
120
/%11111i
.11l11E11! ge PARALLEL WIRE MEMO ioo
_1óAi/.
00
80 80
/.11111111;11 iI
n 60
I1I. 111
z 90
20
/_í111111
II1111!:í1l1MI11
111l1
z o
1
a O
a 1.0 2 I 4 1.6 I 8 2 24 3 4 5 6
0
1
x
Did
O TO 700 OHMS
fI 700 IMNIM//MMIIMIII
o MEN 1111/i1111111
z 600 MIN I.d111111111111
MEOW
MMIV OM
EMrMri1
2 3
500 PARALLEL WIRE
ú
IMMMMOMM M1
M! W/01
400
°a
ñ 300
u 200
*7-
loo
.IÌ!'X MI1
i/111// MM1 /.
AL
Figure 10
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF
OPEN TROUGH LINE FOR VARIOUS
HEIGHT TO WIDTH RATIOS
°W` o '
p-
4 6 8 4 6 8 4 68 The stud -mounted transistor should be
4
á
x
u
10
0 100 1000
mounted on a flat surface (figure 13) for
proper heat transfer. The flange connections
d
should not be twisted or bent, and should
not be stressed when the transistor is
torqued to the heat sink. Silicone grease
PARALLEL WIRES should always be used on the stud to lower
IN AIR COAXIAL the thermal resistance between transistor
FOR
Za= 120 cosh
Z
D»d
o P.27610 a,o
1
20
d
138
CURVE IS FOR
,
Ioq,Od and sink.
The transistor user should remember that
the vhf power transistor will not tolerate
E =1.00
overload as the thermal time constant of the
Figure 9
small chip is very fast, thus, the allowable
dissipation rating of the transistor must be
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF capable of handling momentary overloads.
PARALLEL AND COAXIAL LINES Generally speaking, for class -C operation,
HAVING AIR DIELECTRIC the r -f output level of the vhf power tran-
sistor should be held to about 50 percent of
transistor for proper performance. With the the power dissipation rating.
strip -line package, the device may be
mounted to a ground plane (such as a
printed -circuit board) as shown in figure VHF Circuit Vhf transistor circuitry in-
12. Dual -surface board is used, with the Design volves impedance matching net-
top and bottom ground planes connected works and dc feed systems. It
together using straps under each emitter is common practice to make networks up
lead. Capacitors in the input matching net- of simple, cascaded L- sections which pro-
work require a good ground and extremely vide low -pass filter characteristics and am-
low inductive impedance. Two small chip ple impedance transfer. If the Q of each
capacitors are often used in parallel at this step of the network is held to a low figure
point, as shown in the illustration. (2 or 3) , the bandwidth of the amplifier
GENERATION AND AMPLIFICATION OF R -F ENERGY 11.59
. n .,,777
If-I
w
_1 b
G/!!///Iiiii/4.
220 BO
!IIIh91iII 70
iIIIIHiII
180 60
Uf
îZ
\
_
o
o 160 50 z
z
o 0:111161111111111 o
MINMEIM111111 6
WilMilillill .
140
120 1510010.111. 30
aielemegoomm
100 WV P031111111111 20
MIIMOVIIIIIIII
80 IO
0.1 02 03 04 05 06 08 10 20 30 40
w/b
Figure 11
GROUND PLANE
MOUNTING -GROUND
Figure 12 HOLE
a11,1.S3í.1.
VHF TRANSISTOR MOUNTED IN
STRIP -LINE CONFIGURATION
(A) Two emitter leads of transistor are connected
SECTION THRU GOARO
to ground plane. Base and collector leads are Ar B -B
soldered to resonant strip lines. Dual- surface
board is used with top and bottom ground
planes connected together with straps under
each emitter lead (B). Small ceramic chip ca
pacitors are often placed in parallel at base
terminal to form portion of input matching net-
work (C). Extremely low impedance to ground is
required at this point because current flowing
in capacitors is heavy.
11.60 RADIO HANDBOOK
INPUT CIRCUIT
SA
5OftIN
Figure 15
Figure 18
PARAMETRIC FREQUENCY
999 YHZ OUT
MULTIPLIER
Bipolar transistor makes use of
base -collector depletion capaci-
tance to work as frequency multi-
plier. Idler circuits are used to re-
flect undesired harmonics back to
collector -base capacitance.
1j
V.!" ^.*rFNI ./
)
wr !w r I . ... irip.R... -
.AI
--
R-F Feedback
Comparatively high gain is required in amplifiers. Tests with large receiving and
single -sideband equipment because the signal small transmitting tubes showed that ampli-
is usually generated at levels of one watt or fiers using these tubes without feedback de-
less. To get from this level to a kilowatt re- veloped signal -to- distortion ratios no better
quires about 30 dB of gain. High gain tet- than 30 dB or so. Tests were run employing
rodes may be used to obtain this increase cathode -follower circuits, such as shown in
with a minimum number of stages and cir- figure 1A. Lower distortion was achieved,
cuits. Each stage contributes some distor- but at the cost of low gain per stage. Since
tion; therefore, it is good practice to keep the voltage gain through the tube is less than
the number of stages to a minimum. It is unity, all gain has to be achieved by voltage
generally considered good practice to operate step -up in the tank circuits. This gain is
the low -level amplifiers below their maxi- limited by the dissipation of the tank coils,
mum pewer capability in order to confine since the circuit capacitance across the coils
most of the distortion to the last two ampli- in a typical transmitter is quite high. In ad-
fier stages. R -f feedback can then be utilized dition, the tuning of such a stage is sharp
to reduce the distortion in the last two because of the high-0 circuits.
stages. This type of feedback is no dif- The cathode -follower performance of the
ferent from the common audio feedback tube can be retained by moving the r -f
used in high -fidelity sound systems. A sam- ground point of the circuit from the plate
ple of the output waveform is applied to to the cathode as shown in figure 1B. Both
the amplifier input to correct the distortion ends of the input circuit are at high r -f po-
developed in the amplifier. The same ad- tential so inductive coupling to this type of
vantages can be obtained at radio frequen- amplifier is necessary.
cies that are obtained at audio frequencies Inspection of figure IB shows that by
when feedback is used. moving the top end of the input tank down
on a voltage- divider tap across the plate
tank circuit, the feedback can be reduced
12 -1 R -F Feedback from 100c; , as in the case of the cathode-
Circuits follower circuit, down to any desired value.
A typical feedback circuit is illustrated in
R -f feedback circuits have been developed figure 2. This circuit is more practical than
by the Collins Radio Co. for use with linear those of figure 1, since the losses in the input
IrB.
B
BIAS
IA! O
Figure 1
A equals grid -to -plate voltage amplifica- rent in an unneutralized tetrode r -f ampli-
tion, fier varies from a low value with the plate
O equals angle of load. circuit tuned on the low- frequency side of
resonance to a high value on the high -fre-
In a typical unneutralized tetrode ampli-
quency side of resonance. The grid current
fier having a stage gain of 33, the input
is proportional to the r -f voltage on the grid
capacitance of the tube with the plate cir- which is varying under these conditions. in
cuit in resonance is increased by 8 pF duc a tetrode class -AB, amplifier, the effect of
to the unneutralized grid -plate capacitance.
grid -plate feedback can be observed by plac-
This is unimportant in amplifiers where the
ing a r -f voltmeter across the grid circuit
gain (A) remains constant but if the tube
and observing the voltage change as the
gain varies, serious detuning and r -f phase
plate circuit is tuned through resonance.
shift may result. A grid or screen modulated If the amplifier is over -neutralized, the ef-
r -f amplifier is an example of the case where
fects reverse so that with the plate circuit
the stage gain varies from a maximum down
tuned to the low frequency side of resonance,
to zero. The gain of a tetrode r -f amplifier the grid voltage is high, and on the high fre-
operating below plate- current saturation quency side of resonance, it is low.
varies with loading so that if it drives a fol-
lowing stage into grid current the loading
increases and the gain falls off. Amplifier A useful "rule of thumb"
The input of the grid circuit is also af- Neutralization method of checking neutrali-
fected by the grid -plate capacitance, as Cheek zation of an amplifier stage
shown in this equation: (assuming that it is nearly
Input resistance - 1
le
R, F. INO( 1p --I 7r 9,-7
F.u.
Figure 5
BASIC CIRCUIT OF TWO -STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH R -F FEEDBACK
Feedback voltage is obtained from a vnitage divider across the output circuit and apnlied directly
to the cathode of the first tube. The input tank circuit is thus outside the feedback loop.
12,4 RADIO HANDBOOK
through other paths which are not balanced pling is ideal, but the extra tank circuits
out by the particular neutralizing circuit complicate the tuning of a transmitter
used. which uses several cascaded amplifiers with
feedback around each one. The grid could
be coupled to a high source impedance such
Feedback and Figure 6 shows an r -f am-
as a tetrode plate, but the driver then cannot
Neutralization plifier with negative feed- use feedback because this would cause the
of a One -Stage back. The voltage devel-
source impedance to be low. A possible solu-
R -F Amplifieroped across C, due to the
tion is to move the circuit ground point from
divider action of G, and C, the cathode to the bottom end of the grid
is introduced in series with the voltage de-
tank circuit. The feedback voltage then
veloped across the grid tank circuit and is appears between the cathode and ground
in phase -opposition to it. The feedback can (figure 8) The input can be capacitively
.
R,F,iN
Figure 6
SINGLE STAGE R -F AMPLIFIER
WITH FEEDBACK RATIO OF
C IC, to C,, /C,r DETERMINES
STAGE NEUTRALIZATION Figure 8
stated previously, it is neces- UNBALANCED INPUT AND OUTPUT
For reasons
CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE -STAGE
sary to neutralize this amplifier, and the re- R -F AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK
lationship for neutralization is:
ground potential when r -f is impressed on
Cs the cathode. The output voltage available
C, C,; t with capacity coupling, of course, is less
than the plate- cathode r -f voltage developed
It is often necessary to add capacitance
by the amount of feedback voltage across
from plate to grid to satisfy this relation-
C,.
ship.
Figure identical to figure 6 except
7 is
that it redrawn to show the feedback in-
is 12 -2 Feedback and
herent in this neutralization circuit more Neutralization of a
clearly. CN and C replace C:, and C4, and the Two -Stage R -F Amplifier
main plate tank tuning capacitance is C5. The
Feedback around two r -f stages has the
advantage that more of the tube gain can be
realized and nearly as much distortion reduc-
tion can be obtained using 12 dB around two
stages as is realized using 12 dB around each
of two stages separately. Figure 9 shows a
basic circuit of a two -stage feedback ampli-
Figure 7 fier. Inductive output coupling is used, al-
NEUTRALIZED AMPLIFIER AND though a pi- network configuration will also
INHERENT FEEDBACK CIRCUIT work well. The small feedback voltage re-
Neutralization is achieved by varying the quired is obtained from the voltage divider
capacity of CN.
(C,-C2) and is applied to the cathode of the
circuit of figure 7 presents a problem in driver tube. C, is only a few pF so this feed-
coupling to the grid circuit. Inductive cou- back voltage divider may be left fixed for
R -F FEEDBACK 12.5
Figure 9
TWO -STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK
Included is a capacitor (C,) for neutralizing the cathode -grid capacity of the first tube. V, is
neutralized by capacitor C5, and V, is neutralized by the correct ratio of CdC,.
a wide frequency range. If the combined and to avoid common coupling between the
tube gain is 160, and 12 dB of feedback is feedback on the cathode and the interstage
desired, the ratio of C_ to C1 is about 40 to circuit. A slight amount of degeneration oc-
1. This ratio in practice may be 100 pF to curs in the first stage since the tube also acts
2í pF for example. as a grounded grid amplifier with the screen
A complication is introduced into this as the grounded grid. The p of the screen
simplified circuit by the cathode -grid ca- is much lower than that of the control grid
pacitance of the first tube which causes an so that this effect may be unnoticed and
undesired coupling to the input grid circuit. would only require slightly more feedback
It is necessary to neutralize out this capaci- from the output stage to overcome.
tance coupling, as illustrated in figure 9. The
relationship for neutralization is: Tests For Neutralizing the circuit of
C3 Cgr Neutralization figure 9 balances out cou-
C, Cfi pling between the input
The input circuit may be made unbalanced tank circuit and the output tank circuit, but
by making C, five times the capacity of C:,. it does not remove all coupling from the
This will tend to reduce the voltage across plate circuit to the grid- cathode tube input.
the coil and to minimize the power dissipated This latter coupling is degenerative, so ap-
by the coil. For proper balance in this case. plying a signal to the plate circuit will cause
C6 must be five times the grid -filament ca- a signal to appear between grid and cathode,
pacitance of the tube. even though the stage is neutralized. A
Except for tubes having extremely small bench test for neutralization is to apply a
grid -plate capacitance, it is still necessary to signal to the plate of the tube and detect
properly neutralize both tubes. if the ratio of the presence of a signal in the grid coil by
C, to C, is chosen to be equal to the ratio of inductive coupling to it. No signal will be
the grid -plate capacitance to the grid -fila- present when the stage is neutralized. Of
nient capacitance in the second tube (V_,), course, a signal could be inductively coupled
this tube will be neutralized. Tubes such as a to the input and neutralization accomplished
4X -150A have very low grid -plate capaci- by adjusting one branch of the neutralizing
tance and probably will not need to be neu- circuit bridge C; for example) for minimum
tralized when used in the first (V1) stage. signal on the plate circuit.
If neutralization is necessary, capacitor C Neutralizing the cathode -grid capacitance
is added for this purpose and the proper of the first stage of figure 9 may be accom-
value is given by the following relationship: plished by applying a signal to the cathode
of the tube and adjusting the bridge balance
Co, Cg
C, - - c,Us
C-:
for minimum signal on a detector induc-
tively coupled to the input coil.
If neither tube requires neutralization, the
bottom end of the interstage tank circuit Tuning a Two -Stage Tuning the two -stage
may be returned to r -f ground. The screen Feedback Amplifier feedback amplifier of
and suppressor of the first tube should then figure 9 is accomplished
be grounded to keep the tank output capaci- in an unconventional way because the out-
tance directly across this interstage circuit put circuit cannot be tuned for maximum
12.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
P,.
CGPL,o
0
O
TC9 I
TCGF
Ar -
c,T pour
/P.
I
Cis
Tl° T T
RFC
Hit 1- 1-
BIAS B4 BIAS f
Figure 13
TWO -STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK CIRCUIT
12.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
quency side of resonance: If grid current to off a little, since it partially compensates for
next stage (or power output of the stage that error.
under test) increases, more neutralizing ca- Neutralization The method of neutralization
pacitance is required and vice versa. Techniques employing a sensitive r -f de-
If the driver tube operates class A so that tector inductively coupled to
a plate current dip cannot be observed, a dif-
a tank coil is difficult to apply in some cases
because of mechanical construction of the
equipment, or because of undesired coupling.
Another method for observing neutralization
can be used, which appears to be more ac-
curate in actual practice. A sensitive r -f de-
tector such as a receiver is loosely coupled to
the grid of the stage being neutralized, as
Figure 14 shown in fieure 15. The coupling canaci-
FEEDBACK SHORTING DEVICE k
crease in input capacitance may be as great it may prove helpful to remove filament
as three or four pF, and since this is part of power from the preceding stage or disable its
the neutralizing bridge circuit it must be input circuit in some manner.
taken into consideration. The result of this It should be noted that in each of the
change in input capacitance is that the neu- above adjustments that minimum reaction
tralizing adjustment of such tubes must be on the grid is desired, not minimum voltage.
made when they are conducting normal plate Some residual voltage is inherent on the grid
current. Stray coupling must be avoided, and when this neutralizing circuit is used.
- 7.0.11170,,, - P.
fr
- . .
r
;.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Exciter systems for f -m and single -side- est in f -m was stimulated by a quantity of
band transmission are basically similar in obsolete commercial mobile f -m gear avail-
that modulation of the signal in accordance able on the surplus market at modest prices.
with the intelligence to be transmitted is Vhf commercial two -way mobile radio
normally accomplished at a relatively low is now standardized on channelized fre-
level. Then the intelligence- bearing signal is quency- modulation techniques which pro-
amplified to the desired power level for ulti- vide superior rejection to random noise,
mate transmission. True, amplifiers for the interference, and fading as compared to
two types of signals are basically different; conventional a -m systems. When the ampli-
linear amplifiers of the class -A or class -B tude of the r -f signal is held constant (lim-
type being used for SSB signals, while class -C ited) and the intelligence transmitted by
or nonlinear class -B amplifiers may be used varying the frequency or phase of the
for f -m amplification. But the principle of signal, some of the disruptive effects of noise
low -level modulation and subsequent ampli- can be eliminated. In addition, audio squelch
fication is standard for both types of trans- circuits silence noise peaks and background
mission. effects in the receiver until an intelligible
signal appears on the frequency. The combi-
13 -1 Frequency nation of noise rejection and squelch control
provides superior range for a given primary
Modulation power, as compared to an equivalent a -m
power allocation.
Early frequency -modulation experiments Amateur vhf f -m techniques are based on
were conducted by Major Edwin H. Arm- the channel concept. Transmitters and re-
strong of Columbia University based on the ceivers are mainly crystal controlled on a
belief that noise and static were amplitude given frequency and random tuning tech-
variations that had no orderly variations in niques common to the lower frequency
frequency. In 1934 Armstrong conducted amateur bands are absent. F -m channels on
his classic f -m transmissions in the old 21A the 10 -meter band are standardized by com-
meter amateur band in conjunction with mon agreement at 40 kHz separation, start-
W2AG in Yonkers, N.Y. Subsequent ama- ing at 29.55 MHz. A national calling chan-
teur experiments in 1936 showed that f -m nel is reserved at 29.60 MHz. On the 6 -meter
promised excellent prospects for static -free, band the f -m channels start at 52.50 MHz,
reliable, mobile communication in the vhf with 52.525 MHz reserved as a national call-
bands. ing frequency. Channel spacing is 40 kHz
Postwar vhf development centered around beginning at 52.60 MHz. F -m channels are
amplitude modulation in the amateur bands spaced 30 kHz apart on the 2 -meter band,
for over two decades, aided by the flood of beginning with 146.01 MHz, the repeater
surplus military vhf gear, and it was not output channels being 600 kHz higher than
until the "mid- sixties" that amateur inter- the input channels up to 146.97 MHz. Above
13.1
13.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
tance as far as the process of modulation is characteristics about amplitude- and fre-
concerned; it is the method, by which this quency- modulated waves. First, it is seen
intelligence is made to give a distinguishine that while the amplitude (power) of the sig-
characteristic to the radio wave which will nal is varied in a -m transmission, no such
enable the receiver to convert it back into variation takes place in frequency modula-
intelligence,that determines the type of mod- tion. In many cases this advantage of fre-
ulation being used. quency modulation is probably of equal or
Figure 1 is a drawing of an r -f carrier greater importance than the widely publi-
amplitude- modulated by a sine -wave audio cized noise- reduction capabilities of the sys-
voltage After modulation the resultant mod- tem. When 100 percent amplitude modula-
ulated r -f wave is seen still to vary about tion is obtained, the average power output
the zero axis at a constant rate, but the of the transmitter must be increased by SO
strength of the individual r -f waves is percent. This additional output must be
proportional to the amplitude of the mod- supplied either by the modulator itself, in
ulation voltage. the high -level system, or by operating one or
FREQUENCY MODULATION AND REPEATERS 13.3
more of the transmitter stages at such a low side frequencies is equal to one -half that of
output level that they are capable of produc- the carrier.
ing the additional output without distortion Under frequency modulation, the carrier
in the low -level system as is commonly done wave again becomes distorted, as shown in
in SSB-a form of amplitude modulation. figure 2. But, in this case, many more than
On the other hand, a frequency -modulated two additional frequencies are formed. The
transmitter requires an insignificant amount first two of these frequencies are spaced from
of power from the modulator and needs no the carrier by the modulation frequency, and
provision for increased power output on the additional side frequencies are located out
modulation peaks. All of the stages between on each side of the carrier and are also spaced
the oscillator and the antenna may be op- from each other by an amount equal to the
erated as high -efficiency class -B or class -C modulation frequency. Theoretically, there
amplifiers or frequency multipliers. are an infinite number of side frequencies
formed, but, fortunately, the strength of
Carrier -Wove The second characteristic of those beyond the frequency swing of the
Distortion f -m and a -m waves revealed transmitter under modulation is relatively
by figures 1 and 2 is that both low.
types of modulation result in distortion of One set of side frequencies that might be
the r-f carrier. That is, after modulation, the formed by frequency modulation is shown
r -f waves are no longer sine waves, as they in figure 4. Unlike amplitude modulation,
would be if no frequencies other than the the strength of the component at the carrier
fundamental carrier frequency were present. frequency varies widely in frequency mod-
It may be shown in the amplitude- modula- ulation and it may even disappear entirely
tion case illustrated, that there are only two under certain conditions. The variation of
additional frequencies present, and these are strength of the carrier component is useful
in measuring the amount of frequency mod-
UNMODULATCO CARRIER AMPLITUDE
ulation, and will be discussed in detail later
in this chapter.
CARRIER
One of the great advantages of frequency
SIDE FREQUENCY t SIDE FREQUENCY
modulation over amplitude modulation is the
UNMODULATED CARRIER AMPLITUDE
CARRIER
FREQUENCY
reduction in noise at the receiver which the between a modulating frequency and devia-
system allows. If the receiver is made re- tion. In this case, however, the deviation in
sponsive only to changes in frequency, a question is the peak frequency shift obtained
considerable increase in signal -to -noise ratio under full modulation, and the audio fre-
is made possible through the use of fre- quency to be considered is the maximum
quency modulation, when the signal is of audio frequency to be transmitted. When
greater strength than the noise. The noise - the maximum audio frequency to be trans-
reducing capabilities of frequency modula- mitted is 5000 Hz, for example, a deviation
tion arise from the inability of noise to cause ratio of 3 would call for a peak deviation of
appreciable frequency modulation of the 3 X 5000, or 15 kHz at full modulation.
noise -plus- signal voltage which is applied to The noise -suppression capabilities of frequen-
the detector in the receiver. cy modulation are directly related to the
deviation ratio. As the deviation ratio is in-
creased, the noise suppression becomes better
F -M Terms Unlike amplitude modulation, if the signal is somewhat stronger than the
the term percentage modulation noise. Where the noise approaches the signal
means little in f -m practice, unless the re- in strength, however, low deviation ratios
ceiver characteristics are specified. There are, allow communication to be maintained in
however, three terms, deviation, modulation many cases where high- deviation-ratio fre-
index, and deviation ratio, which convey quency modulation and conventional ampli-
considerable information concerning the tude modulation are incapable of giving
character of the f -m wave. service. This assumes that a narrow -band
Deviation is the amount of frequency f -m receiver is in use. For each value of r -f
shift each side of the unmodulated carrier signal -to -noise ratio at the receiver, there is a
frequency which occurs when the transmit- maximum deviation ratio which may be used,
ter is modulated. Deviation is ordinarily beyond which the output audio signal -to-
measured in kilohertz, and in a properly noise ratio decreases. Up to this critical
operating f -m transmitter it will be directly deviation ratio, however, the noise suppres-
proportional to the amplitude of the modu- sion becomes progressively better as the
lating signal. When a symmetrical modula- deviation ratio is increased.
ting signal is applied to the transmitter, For high -fidelity f -m broadcasting pur-
equal deviation each side of the resting fre- poses, a deviation ratio of S is ordinarily
quency is obtained during each cycle of the used, the maximum audio frequency being
modulating signal, and the total frequency 1 5,000 Hz, and the peak deviation at full
range covered by the f -m transmitter is modulation being 7S kHz. Since a swing of
sometimes known as the swing. If, for in- 150 kHz is covered by the transmitter, it is
stance, a transmitter operating on 1000 kHz obvious that wide -band f -m transmission
has its frequency shifted from 1000 kHz to must necessarily be confined to the vhf range
1010 kHz, back to 1000 kHz, then to 990 or higher, where room for the signals is avail-
kHz, and again back to 1000 kHz during able.
one cycle of the modulating wave, the de- In the case of television sound, the devia-
viation would be 10 kHz and the swing 20 tion ratio is 1.67; the maximum modulation
kHz. frequency is 1 5,000 Hz, and the transmitter
The modulation index of an f -m signal is deviation for full modulation is 25 kHz. The
the ratio of the deviation to the audio mod- sound carrier frequency in a standard TV
ulating frequency, when both are expressed signal is located exactly 4.S MHz higher
in the same units. Thus, in the example than the picture carrier frequency. In the
above if the signal is varied from 1000 kHz intercarrier TV sound system, which is wide-
to 1010 kHz to 990 kHz, and back to 1000 ly used, this constant difference between the
kHz at a rate (frequency) of 2000 times a picture carrier and the sound carrier is em-
second, the modulation index would be S, ployed within the receiver to obtain an f -m
since the deviation (10 kHz) is S times the subcarrier at 4.5 MHz. This 4.5 MHz sub -
modulating frequency (2 kHz). carrier then is demodulated by the f -m de-
The deviation ratio is similar to the modu- tector to obtain the sound signal which
lation index in that it involves the ratio accompanies the picture.
FREQUENCY MODULATION AND REPEATERS 13.5
Narrowband Narrowband
f -m trans- widths are allowed above 29 MHz and above
F -M Transmissionmission has become stand- 52.5 MHz.
ardized for use by the
mobile services such as police, fire, and F -M Sidebonds Sidebands are set up when
taxicab communications, and is also au- a radio- frequency carrier is
thorized for amateur work in portions of frequency modulated. These sidebands differ
each of the amateur radiotelephone bands. from those resulting from a -m in that they
A maximum deviation of 15 kHz has occur at integral multiples of the modulating
been standardized for the mobile and com- frequency; in a -m a single set of sidebands
mercial communication services, while a is generated for each modulating frequency.
maximum deviation of 3 kHz is authorized A simple method of determining the ampli-
for amateur n b f m hf communication. For tude of the various f -m sidebands is the
a maximum audio frequency of 3000 Hz, family of Besse! curves shown in figure 5.
the maximum deviation ratio is 1.0. For vhf There is one curve for the carrier and one
f -m, the deviation ranges from 3 kHz to for each pair of sideband frequencies up to
15 kHz for a deviation ratio of up to 5.0. the fourth.
The new channelized f -m concept for The Bessel curves show how the carrier
amateur communication has standardized on and sideband frequency pairs rise and fall
5 kHz deviation on 10 meters and 6 meters, with increasing modulation index, and il-
5 to 15 kHz deviation on 2 meters, and 40 lustrate the particular values at which they
to 50 kHz deviation on the higher vhf disappear as they pass through zero. If the
bands. F.C.C. amateur regulations limit the curves were extended for greater values of
bandwidth of f -m to that of an a -m trans- modulation index, it would be seen that the
mission having the same audio characteristics carrier amplitude goes through zero at mod-
below 29.0 MHz and in the 50.1 to 52.5 ulation indices of 5.52, 8.65, 11.79, 14.93,
,,
MHz frequency segment. Greater band- etc. The modulation index, therefore, can
1 0
0.9
0.6
0.7 1it,,,
0.6
0.5
0 4
I Lill
°,1.
0.5
0 2
0.I
4TH SIGE °ANO
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
0 40
0 5 10 1 S 2 0 2.5 S 0
MODULATION INDEX
Figure 5
reactance modulator provides linear fre- more involved than in the case of a simple
quency modulation, and is capable of pro- self -controlled oscillator for transmitter fre-
ducing large amounts of deviation. quency control. If desired, the oscillator it-
There are numerous possible configurations self may be made perfectly stable under
of the reactance modulator circuit. The dif- voltage changes, but the presence of the
ference in the various arrangements lies frequency modulator destroys the beneficial
principally in the type of phase -shifting cir- effect of any such stabilization. It thus be-
cuit used to provide an input voltage which comes desirable to apply the stabilizing ar-
is in phase quadrature with the r-f voltage rangement to the modulator as well as the
at the output of the modulator. A repre- oscillator.
sentative tube circuit showing four phase - h1PF-201
shift arrangements is shown in figure 7. AUDIO IN
cuit must be kept small to retain this char- cillators and to obtain directly crystal -con-
acteristic when an audio voltage is used to trolled frequency modulation. In the final
vary the frequency in place of the dc volt - analysis, phase modulation is simply frequen-
TO MODULATOR
CONTROL ELEMENT
cy modulation in which the deviation is
directly proportional to the modulation fre-
quency. If an audio signal of 1000 Hz
causes a deviation of 0.5 kHz, for example,
a 2000 -Hz modulating signal of the same
amplitude will give a deviation of 1 kHz,
and so on. To produce an f -m signal, it is
necessary to make the deviation independent
of the modulation frequency, and propor-
FIGURE 9 tional only to the modulating signal (figure
11) . With phase modulation this is done by
REACTANCE -MODULATOR including a frequency- correcting network
LINEARITY CHECKER in the transmitter. The audio -correction net-
age with which the characteristic was work must have an attenuation that varies
plotted. directly with frequency, and this require-
ment is easily met by a very simple resist-
The Diode When a resistor and a capacitor ance capacitance network.
Modulator are placed in series across an os- The only disadvantage of phase modula-
cillator tank circuit, the current tion, as compared to direct frequency mod-
flowing in the series circuit is out of phase ulation such as is obtained through the use
with the voltage. If the resistance or ca- of a reactance modulator, is the fact that
pacitance is made variable, the phase differ- very little frequency deviation is produced
ence may be varied. If the variation is con- directly by the phase modulator. The devia-
trolled at an audio rate, the resultant current tion produced by a phase modulator is inde-
can be used to frequency -modulate an oscil- pendent of the actual carrier frequency on
lator (figure 10). The diode modulator which the modulator operates, but is de-
may be a vacuum tube acting as a variable pendent only on the phase deviation which
is being produced and on the modulation
resistance or a solid -state voltage -variable
frequency. Expressed as an equation:
capacitor whose capacitance varies inversely
as the magnitude of the reverse bias. The
variable element is placed in series with a
Fd = M9 X modulating frequency
small capacitance across the tank circuit of
an oscillator to produce a frequency -modu- where,
lated signal. The bias voltage applied to the F11 is the frequency deviation one way
diode should be regulated for best results. from the mean value of the carrier,
AUDIO DI C MI, is the phase deviation accompanying
IN
modulation expressed in radians (a ra-
T
'
BIAS
z g g
OSC. TANK
CIRCUIT
dian is approximately 57.3°) .
Thus, to take an example, if the phase
VARIABLE CAPACITANCE
deviation is %z radian and the modulating
frequency is 1000 Hz, the frequency devia-
Figure 10 tion applied to the carrier being passed
THE DIODE MODULATOR through the phase modulator will be 500
Hz.
It is easy to see that an enormous amount
13 -3 Phase Modulation of multiplication of the carrier frequency is
required in order to obtain from a phase
modulator the frequency deviation of 75
By means of phase modulation (pm) it is kHz required for commercial f -m broad-
possible to dispense with self -controlled os- casting. However, for amateur and com-
FREQUENCY MODULATION AND REPEATERS 13.9
20 20
N
FREQUENCY MODULATION
s
z
O_
1-
W
Io
0
o >
U
z
w e JQ
O !
w
LL
10 20 30 o so o 2 3
MODULATING AMPLITUDE MODULATING FREQUENCY (KHz)
Figure 11
merciai f -m work only a quite reasonable For high- fidelity broadcasting, the deviation
number of multiplier stages are required to produced by phase modulation is limited to
obtain a deviation ratio of approximately an amount equal to about one -third of the
one. lowest modulating frequency. But for nbfm
Many vhf f -m transmitters employ crys- work the deviation may be as high as 0.6
tal control with the crystal frequency one of the modulating frequency before distor-
twenty-fourth or one thirty- second of the tion becomes objectionable on voice modula-
carrier frequency. A deviation of 15 kHz tion. In other terms this means that phase
at 144 MHz, for example, is equivalent to deviations as high as 0.6 radian may be used
a deviation of 0.625 kHz at a crystal fre- for amateur and commercial nbfm transmis-
quency of 6 MHz, which is well within the sion.
linear capability of a phase modulator. Some
high -frequency f -m gear for the 30 -MHz The Phase A change in the phase of a signal
region employs crystals in the 200- to 500 - Modulator can be produced by passing the
kHz region to achieve sufficient frequency signal through a network con-
multiplication for satisfactory phase mod- taining a resistance and a reactance. If
ulation at the crystal frequency. the series combination is considered to be
Odd -harmonic distortion is produced when the input, and the output voltage is taken
frequency -modulation is obtained by the from across the resistor, a definite amount
phase -modulation method, and the amount of phase shift is introduced, the amount
of this distortion that can be tolerated is the depending on the frequency of the signal
limiting factor in determining the amount of and the ratio of the reactance to the resist-
phase modulation that can be used. Since the ance. When the resistance is varied with an
aforementioned frequency -correcting net- applied audio signal, the phase angle of the
work causes the lowest modulating frequency output changes in direct proportion to the
to have the greatest amplitude, maximum audio signal amplitude and produces a phase -
phase modulation takes place at the lowest modulated signal.
modulating frequency, and the amount of A representative phase modulator is shown
distortion that can be tolerated at this fre- in figure 12. The basic RC phase -shift net-
quency determines the maximum deviation work is composed of the resistance repre-
that can be obtained by the p -m method. sented by the FET and the capacitor placed
13.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
between input and output terminals of the lator, with the modulating network in the
modulator. The modulator is placed after gate circuit. Two inexpensive silicon diodes
the crystal oscillator and before the fre- used as varactors across a phasing coil are
quency multiplier stages. Phase modulation driven by the modulating voltage. The r -f
occurs as the modulator, in effect, detunes output of the 2N5459 is about 30 milliwatts.
the amplifier tank circuit and thus varies
the phase of the tank current to achieve AUDIO INPUT
phase modulation. The degree of phase shift ADJUST
100 DIODE BIAS
that occurs during the detuning process de- f12V REG.
of modulation. Since the relationship be- from the carrier by the modulation fre-
tween the amplitudes of the various side - quency. The unmodulated carrier is ac-
bands and carrier to the audio modulating curately tuned on the receiver. Then
frequency and the deviation is known, a sim- modulation from the audio oscillator is ap-
ple method of measuring the deviation of plied to the transmitter, and the modulation
a frequency -modulated transmitter is possi- is increased until the first carrier null is
ble. In making the measurement, the result obtained. This carrier null will correspond
is given in the form of the modulation index to a modulation index of 2.405, as previously
for a certain amount of audio input. mentioned. Successive null points will cor-
The measurement is made by applying a respond to the indices listed in the table.
sine -wave audio voltage of known frequency A heterodyne deviation meter is shown in
to the transmitter, and increasing the mod- figure 15. This device provides a quick and
ulation until the amplitude of the carrier easy means of "netting" an f -m transmitter.
component of the frequency -modulated wave A diode mixer is used in conjunction with a
reaches zero. The modulation index for zero local oscillator to provide an audio signal
carrier may then be determined from the which is amplified and clipped in an opera-
table below. As may be seen from the table, tional amplifier, IC,. The resulting signal is
the first point of zero carrier is obtained a square wave which is applied to a rectifier
when the modulation index has a value of 2N5459
2.405-in other words, when the deviation FROM XITAL
OSCILLATA
6e (r) LI
.. ...
is 2.405 times the modulation frequency. 1N645
For example, if a modulation frequency of
1000 Hz is used, and the modulation is in-
creased until the first carrier null is obtained,
the deviation will then be 2.405 times the 100
RFC C
S IA
2
1 OFF
2.1kHz
3. 10 kHz
4 20 kHz
SIB
0 -100pA
4
1N914
ON
C1.015+.001
50 C2.008+50
+9 V C3 1000+30
AD! FRED
Figure 15
F -M DEVIATION METER
Simple direct -conversion receiver is coupled to a meter whose reading is proportional to the fre-
quency of the applied audio signal. In this case, the audio signal is produced by the beat between
the crystal harmonic frequency and the observed frequency.
tion is applied to the transmitter under test representative clipping and filtering circuit
and the deviation level adjusted for the is shown in figure 16.
amount desired, as indicated on the meter of
the instrument. 13 -4 Reception of F -M
IM 2N4302 022
1/ AUDIO
ozz
2M
TOO
1 1!
01
OUT
7.5K 4 iIN
Figure 16
MODULATION LIMITING
Deviation in an f -m transmitter can be controlled by a clipping circuit which holds peak audio
level within prescribed limits. Simple audio filter removes higher harmonics of clipped signal.
FREQUENCY MODULATION AND REPEATERS 13.13
f -m broadcast stations, TV sound, and mo- The third requirement, and one which is
bile communications. necessary if the full noise -reducing capabil-
The f -m receiver must have, first of all, a ities of the f -m system of transmission are
bandwidth sufficient to pass the range of desired, is a limiting device to eliminate
frequencies generated by the f -m transmit- amplitude variations before they reach the
ter. And since the receiver must be super- detector.
heterodyne if it is to have good sensitivity
at the frequencies to which frequency mod- The Frequency The simplest device for con -
ulation is restricted, i -f bandwidth is an Detector verting frequency variations
important factor in its design. to amplitude variations is an
The second requirement of the f -m re- "off- tune" resonant circuit, as illustrated in
ceiver is that it incorporate some sort of de- figure 18. With the carrier tuned in at point
A, a certain amount of r -f voltage will be
vice for converting frequency changes into
amplitude changes, in other words, a detec- developed across the tuned circuit, and, as
tor operating on frequency variations rather the frequency is varied either side of this
frequency by the modulation, the r -f voltage
than amplitude variations. Most f -m equip-
will increase and decrease to point C and B
ment operates in the vhf region, and at
in accordance with the modulation. If the
these frequencies it is not always possible
voltage across the tuned circuit is applied
to obtain optimum performance at reason-
to an ordinary detector, the detector output
able cost with a single- conversion super-
will vary in accordance with the modulation,
heterodyne receiver. When good adjacent -
the amplitude of the variation being propor-
channel selectivity is necessary, a low i -f tional to the deviation of the signal, and
channel is desirable; this, however lowers the the rate being equal to the modulation fre-
image rejection ability of the receiver. Sim- quency. It is obvious from figure 18 that
ilarly, if good image rejection is desired, a only a small portion of the resonance curve
high i -f channel should be used, but this is usable for linear conversion of frequency
is not compatible with good adjacent -
channel rejection unless an expensive i -f
filter is employed.
These difficulties are compromised by the
use of a double- conversion receiver, such as
the one shown in the block diagram of fig-
ure 17. In many receiver designs, the high
i -f channel is chosen so that a harmonic of
F R E Q U E N C Y
the mixing oscillator used for the second
mixer may be used with the first mixer to Figure 18
reduce the number of crystals in the re- SLOPE DETECTION OF F-M SIGNAL
ceiver. In other cases, a frequency syn-
thesizer is used to generate the proper mixing variations into amplitude variations, since
frequencies. the linear portion of the curve is rather
short. Any frequency variation which ex-
ceeds the linear portion will cause distortion
R-f
RN^t /F/ER
of the recovered audio. It is also obvious by
inspection of figure 18 that an a -m receiver
used in this manner is vulnerable to signals
on the peak of the resonance curve and also
to signals on the other side of the resonance
F-N curve. Further, no noise -limiting action is
OE)ECrOR
afforded by this type of reception.
Ru0/O
Double -Tuned A better frequency detector
fOUEtC YP.F/E Discriminator or discriminator, is shown in
Figure 17
figure 19A. In this arrange-
DOUBLE -CONVERSION RECEIVER ment two tuned circuits are used, one tuned
FOR VHF F -M RECEPTION on each side of the i -f amplifier frequency,
13.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
and with their resonant frequencies spaced at the i -f midfrequency is received, the
slightly more than the expected transmitter voltages across the load resistors are equal
swing. Their outputs are combined in a dif- and opposite, and the sum voltage is zero.
ferential rectifier so that the voltage across As the r -f signal varies from the midfre-
series load resistors R, and R_ is equal to quency, however, these individual voltages
the algebraic sum of the individual output become unequal, and a voltage having the
voltages of each rectifier. When a signal polarity of the larger voltage and equal to
DISCRIMINATOR
the difference between the two voltages ap-
r TRANSFORMER
j 1N67A
I
AUDIO
OUTPUT pears across the series resistors, and is applied
to the audio amplifier. The relationship be-
000 tween frequency and discriminator output
LAST
LIMITER voltage is shown in figure 20A. The separa-
STAGE
tion of the discriminator peaks and the lin-
OO M earity of the output voltage- versus -frequency
AO L_ - J1N67Aa curve depend on the discriminator fre-
quency, the Q of the tuned circuits, and the
DISCRIMINATOR
TRANSFORMER
value of the diode load resistors.
r
SO .OI AUDIO
1N67A Foster- Seeley A popular form of discrimi-
LAST
LIMITER
100 0
Discriminator nator is that shown in figure
STAGE 1000
19B. This type of discrimi-
1N67A
nator yields an output voltage- versus -fre-
quency characteristic similar to that shown
Figure 19 in figure 20B. Here, again, the output volt-
THE F -M DETECTOR age is equal to the algebraic sum of the
voltages developed across the load resistors of
A-The double -tuned discriminator uses two sec- the two diodes, the resistors being connected
ondary windings on the detector transformer,
one tuned on each side of the i -f amplifier in series to ground. However, this Foster -
center frequency. On either side of center fre- Seeley discriminator requires only two tuned
quency a voltage of polarity and magnitude
proportional to direction and magnitude of fre- circuits instead of the three used in the pre-
quency shift is developed. B- Foster -Seeley dis- vious discriminator. The operation of the
criminator employs a single, tapped secondary circuit results from the phase relationships
winding. Vector diagram of summed output
voltages is shown in figure 20BC. existing in a transformer having a tuned
SECONDARY VOLTAGE
B
FREOUENC,
A
Figure 20
DISCRIMINATOR CHARACTERISTICS
A- Discriminator of figure 19A produces zero voltage at the center frequency. On either side of this
frequency it gives a voltage of a polarity and magnitude which depend on the direction and
amount of frequency shift.
B- Vector diagram of discriminator of figure 19B. Signal at the resonant frequency will cause sec-
ondary voltage to be 90 degrees out of phase with the primary voltage and the resultant voltages
(R and R ) are equal.
C -If the signal frequency changes, the phase relationship changes and the resultant voltages are
no longer equal. A differential detector is used to provide an output voltage proportional to the
difference between R and R'.
FREQUENCY MODULATION AND REPEATERS 13.15
U2.6 U2C
330 6136
FRMO I
7
AUDIO OUT
-F FF1 FF2 UIF
I
1
T
STRIP
OOI
6.66
106
+3.6 V. UI=MC789P
U2=MC790P
45V.
FROM 02
I -F
STRIP
Figure 22
UNUSUAL F-M DETECTORS MAKE USE OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
A-Pulse counting detector uses two small ICs and provides quieting and linear detection over wide
frequency ranges. First three stages provide limiting and produce a pulse train which is fed to a
"divide -by- four" pair of flip -flops. Low -frequency pulses trigger a multivibrator (U,,,) whose repetition
rate varies in direct proportion to frequency variation of i -f signal. Pulses are converted to audio
signal by RC de- emphasis network at output of detector. B- Single IC performs as phase -locked loop
detector for f -m. Error voltage proportional to frequency deviation is applied to voltage-controlled
oscillator, locking it to incoming signal. Error voltage is replica of frequency shift on incoming signal.
so that agc should be used on the stage prc- verted to an audio signal by the RC de-
ccding the detector. emphasis network at the output of U,F
The Pulse- Counting Shown in figure 22A is The Phase -Locked The phase -locked loop,
Detector compact detector that
a Loop Detector discussed in Chapter 11
provides inherent quiet- is now available in a
ing and linear detection over wide frequency single IC package or in separate building
ranges. Two ICs (RTL logic) provide the block ICs. The PLL consists of a phase de-
functions of a limiter and discriminator. tector, a filter, a dc amplifier, and a voltage -
The first inverter serves as a signal amplifier controlled oscillator which runs at a fre-
and the following two stages provide limit- quency close to that of an incoming signal.
ing to produce a pulse train at the inter- The phase detector produces an error voltage
mediate frequency. This train is fed to a proportional to the difference in frequency
"divide -by- four" circuit composed of flip - between the oscillator and the incoming
flops FF, and FF_. The low -frequency sig- signal, the error voltage being applied to the
nal triggers a monostable multivibrator voltage- controlled oscillator. Any change in
(U,t)), whose period is about 0.5 that of frequency of the incoming signal is sensed,
the i -f signal. The output pulses of the and the resulting error voltage readjusts the
multivibrator have a repetition race which oscillator frequency so that it remains locked
varies in direct proportion to the frequency to the incoming signal. As a result, the error
vaiation of the i -f signal. The pulses are voltage is a replica of the audio variations
amplified by two inverter stages and con- originally used to shift the frequency of
FREQUENCY MODULATION AND REPEATERS 13.17
the f -m signal, and the PLL functions di- for maximum audio level, or the coil may be
rectly as an f -m detector. The functional adjusted to null the noise level on an un-
bandwidth of the system is determined by a mcdulated signal.
filter placed on the error voltage line. The
Signctics NE565 is especially designed for Limiters The limiter of an f -m receiver
this service (figure 22B). using a conventional discriminator
serves to remove amplitude modulation and
The Quadrature The quadrature detector pass on to the discriminator a frequency -
Detector (figure 23) demodulates modulated signal of constant amplitude; a
an f -m signal by combin- typical circuit is shown in figure 24. The
ing two versions of the i -f signal which are limiter tube is operated as an i -f stage with
in quadrature (a phase difference of 90 very low plate voltage and with grid- resistor
degrees). bias, so that it overloads quite easily. Up to
The input stages in the representative IC a certain point the output of the limiter will
f -m quadrature detector are wideband limit- increase with an increase in signal. Above
ing amplifiers which remove the a -m com- this point, however, the limiter becomes
ponent of the wave and pass on a clipped, overloaded, and further large increases in
squarewave series to a signal splitter which signal will not give any increase in output.
feeds a portion of the signal to an external, To operate successfully, the limiter must be
90- degree phase -shift network (illustration supplied with a large amount of signal, so
B). The shifted signal is fed to one input that the amplitude of its output will not
port of the synchronous detector. The gated change for rather wide variations in ampli-
detector integrates the pulsed signals to ex- tude of the signal. Noise, which causes little
tract the audio signal. frequency modulation but much amplitude
Alignment of the quadrature detector re- modulation of the received signal, is virtual-
quires that the phase -shift coil be adjusted ly wiped out in the limiter.
AUDIO
150 I( 10 10 IA OUTPUT
AFC
o
3.0MF
CRYSTAL
FILTER
U1 PHASE
I-F MC1357, DM 11 ADJUST
INPUT
0.051330
t, =9O
PHASE SHIFT
WIDEBAND HIGH -GAIN GATED AUDIO
LIMITING AMPLIFIER SYNCHRONOUS OUTPUT
DETECTOR o
If SIGNAL \\
INPUT B SIGNAL
SPLITTER
Figure 23
The voltage across the grid resistor varies gain being achieved in the i -f amplifier chain.
with the amplitude of the received signal. The high gain level amplifies internal and
For this reason, conventional amplitude- external noise and an annoying blast of noise
modulated signals may be received on the emits from the speaker of the f -m receiver
f -m receiver by connecting the input of the unless some form of audio squelch is pro-
audio amplifier to the top of this resistor, vided, as discussed later in this chapter.
rather than to the discriminator output.
When properly filtered by a simple RC cir- Receiver One of the most important fac-
cuit, the voltage across the grid resistor may Bandwidth tors in the design of an f -m
also be used as age voltage for the receiver. receiver is the frequency swing
6AÚ6
which it is intended to handle. It will be
apparent from figure 20 that if the straight
portion of the discriminator circuit covers
a wider range of frequencies than those
generated by the transmitter, the audio out-
To
DISCRIM- put will be reduced from the maximum value
INATOR
of which the receiver is capable.
In this respect, the term modulation per-
Figure 24 centage is more applicable to the f -m re-
LIMITER CIRCUIT ceiver than it is to the transmitter, since the
modulation capability of the communication
One, or sometimes two, limiter stages normally
precede the discriminator so that a constant system is limited by the receiver bandwidth
signal level will be fed to the f -m detector. This and the discriminator characteristic; full
procedure eliminates amplitude variations in utilization of the linear portion of the char-
the signal fed to the discriminator, so that it
will respond only to frequency changes. acteristic amounts, in effect, to 100 percent
modulation. This means that some sort of
When the limiter is operating properly age is standard must be agreed on, for any particu-
neither necessary nor desirable, however, for lar type of communication, to make it un-
f -m reception alone. necessary to vary the transmitter swing to
A two -stage solid -state limiter is shown in accommodate different receivers.
figure 25. Two considerations influence the receiver
Proper limiting action calls for a signal bandwidth necessary for any particular type
of considerable strength to ensure full clip- of communication. These are the maximum
ping, typically several volts for tubes and audio frequency which the system will
about one volt for transistors. Limiting ac- handle, and the deviation ratio which will
tion should start with an r -f input of 0.2 be employed. For voice communication, the
IN, or less, at the receiver antenna terminals, maximum audio frequency is more or less
consequently a large amount of signal gain fixed at 3000 to 4000 Hz. In the matter of
is required between antenna and the limiter deviation ratio, however, the amount of
stages. Typically 100 dB to 140 dB gain is noise suppression which the f -m system will
used in modern f -m receivers, most of this provide is influenced by the ratio chosen,
since the improvement in signal -to -noise
Figure 25 ratio which the f -m system shows over am-
TWO -STAGE SOLID -STATE
FIRST LIMITER SECOND LIMITER
F -M LIMITER TI at Ta Qa T3
820 so DISC. TRANS.
F limiter circuit serves to re-
-m
move amplitude variations of in-
coming f -m signal. Limiter satu-
rates with small signal and fur-
ther increases in strength of in-
coming signal will not give any
increase in output level. Noise,
which causes little f-m but much
a -m, is virtually eliminated in ef-
fective limiter stages.
-12 V.
FREQUENCY MODULATION AND REPEATERS 13.19
-
LOW I-F
QI
4-Ì
Q2 QS 2 Q Q5
SECOND
MIXER
FROM
HIGH
FL 1 --{I
I-F .001
s2R TO
LAST
I -F
AND
005 DISC
O5C.
b
-9V
Figure 26
TRANSISTOR I -F STRIP USES CASCODE CIRCUIT
Transistors in pairs (Q, -Q, and Q4 -Q0 are placed in series in regard to the supply voltage in the
manner of a cascade amplifier so that each transistor of a pair has half the dc voltage across it.
A crystal or mechanical filter provides good adjacent -channel selectivity.
13.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
values of circuit impedance are given in impedance of the MPS -A10 amplifier is quite
figure 27. low and suitable for running into an audio
R 02 line, if required.
FROM
DISCRIMINATOR TO AUDIO GRID
ME..
13 -5 The F -M Repeater
11
T
R. 220K, C= 3A13 PF R 4 7 '. , C = 1600 PF Since radio transmission in the vhf region
R= too K, C=750PF R 22 K, C 3400 PF
= =
is essentially short range, a form of radio
Figure 27 relay station termed a repeater may be em-
ployed to expand the communication range
75- MICROSECOND DE- EMPHASIS
of base or mobile stations over an extended
CIRCUIT
distance. Various types of relays are in use
The audio signal transmitted by f -m and TV in the United States, their operation depend-
stations has received high -frequency pre -
emphasis, so that a de- emphasis circuit should ing on the requirements of the communica-
be included between the output of the f-m tions circuit.
detector and the input of the audio system. The relay unit is a fixed repeating station
whose specific purpose is to extend station -
Squelch Squelch circuits are used to mute to- station communication capability. The
Circuits the audio of an f -m receiver when user's transmitter is on the input frequency
no signal is present. In a high -gain while his receiver is on the output frequency
receiver, speaker noise can be very annoying of the relay (figure 29). When desired, di-
to the operator who must monitor a chan- rect communication between stations may
nel for a long period. When the receiver is take place by using a closely spaced fre-
squelched, no background noise is heard; quency domain and a two- frequency trans-
when an r-f signal comes on, squelch is mitter.
turned off and the audio system becomes The remote base is a form of relay unit
operative. Squelch circuits may be carrier whose location has a height or tactical ad-
operated or noise operated. vantage. Means must be provided to control
A solid -state squelch circuit is shown in such an installation which in amateur serv-
figure 28. Audio voltage is amplified and ice most often is working in conjunction
rectified and applied to the gate of a JFET with a pair of frequencies -input and out-
which acts as a series audio gate. Squelch put. In so doing, remote bases serve on com-
level is controlled by varying the signal gate mon frequencies by which individual groups
voltage of the MPF -103 device. The output operating their own installation can cross-
ADJUST 15K
I 2 V.
Figure 28
SOLID -STATE SQUELCH CIRCUIT
Audio voltage is amplified, rectified, and applied to the gate element of a JFET which acts as a
series audio gate. Squelch level is controlled by varying the signal gate voltage of MPF -103 squelch
amplifier stage.
FREQUENCY MODULATION AND REPEATERS 13.21
Figure 30
be achieved through the use of a single de- (Touchtone) technique. Touchtone com-
coder by the use of tone filters and phase - mand signals are generated with a conven-
locked loops (figure 32). tional Touchtone telephone dial which has
One of the most promising tone -control an integral multitone encoder. The system
techniques makes use of the multitone makes use of eight discrete tone frequencies
-12 V
Kl
FROM SQUELCH
CONTROL
CIRCUIT 4 o
ADJ DELAY I.8K
10K
MPS-A55
41PS-A55
Figure 31
INPUT
0.47
ADJ
3
NUMBER ONE
NE567
DECODER
2.2
r--
TO NEXT
NE567 DECODER
- OUT TO
CONTROL
FREQ
5
0.1
Figure 32
PLL DECODER BUILDING BLOCK
Phaselock loop (PLL) basic building block. Seven NE 567 ICs are used in the decoder section,
each centered on a particular tone frequency. Four TTL quad gates are used in the logic section.
When a tone is received, the output goes from a logic high to a logic low. The output of the gate
can be used to drive a relay or a function decoder. Proper interconnections to the logic sections
can provide for encoded pair of tones, two low inputs switching the gate to a high level, for
example.
arranged in two groups of four tones each (a of whether the transmitter is activated or
high group and a low group). Sixteen digits not. Since the repeater equipment must run
can then be represented by the combination continuously (probably in a remote spot
of one tone from the high group with one without air conditioning) it must be well
tone from the low. The individual frequen- ventilated. Most repeaters have air contin-
cies and various combinations are shown uously circulated about within the cabinet
in figure 33, which is a schematic of the or enclosure by means of exhaust and intake
standard 25A3 10- button Tonchtone tele- fans as shown in figure 35.
phone pad. The supply voltage is fed to the Transmitter Noise- Broadband noise may
pad over the same path as the output of the be radiated by any r -f generating equipment
tones. as the result of random noise components
The Tonchtone encoder pad can be con- generated and amplified in the driver stages,
nected directly into the microphone am- which are amplified and passed on to the
plifier of an f -m transmitter for transmission antenna through the relatively broad selec-
of the tones over the air to the decoder unit tivity of the amplifier output circuitry.
at the repeater site. Enough noise may be radiated to degrade the
The Tonchtone signal can be decoded by performance of a nearby receiver operating
separating the two -tone combination via several MHz away (figure 36A). Transmit-
bandpass and band- elimination filters into ter noise is bothersome as "off- channel" noise
groups so that each tone can be regulated, which cannot be filtered out at the receiver,
limited, and applied to the desired control competing with the desired signal and re-
circuit. ducing effective receiver sensitivity.
Other tone systems exist, including the Receit er Desensitization -This form of
dual -tone (Secode) system and the single - interference is the result of a strong off -
tone approach. The latter may be used with channel frequency signal entering the front -
a telephone dial pulsing system, as shown in
end of the receiver, upsetting critical voltage
figure 34. Control pulses are sent serially, at and current levels, and reducing receiver
a rate of about 10 pulses per second to in-
gain.
itiate a command function at the repeater.
lntermodulation- Intermodulation is the
The Repeater The repeater is a receiver - generation of spurious frequencies in a non-
transmitter combination cap- linear circuit element. The undesired fre-
able of duplex operation. That is, the receiver quencies correspond to the sum and diffier-
must be capable of functioning regardless ences of the fundamental and harmonics of
13.24 RADIO HANDBOOK
10EooÓL
GRN WHT WHT-BLU BLK RED RED GRN ORG -DIX BLU
Figure 33
TOUCHTONE PAD
o
+12
V DC Figure 34
PHONE DIAL
SECODE -TYPE 600/1500 -Hz
PULSING
OSCILLATOR
CONTACTS
J
TO ADJUST TONE FREQUENCY, FI RST OPEN
THE TELEPHONE DIAL PULSING CONTACTS.
SELECT THE0.133-pF CAPACITOR FOR
1500 -Hz OUTPUT. CLOSE THE DIAL
TO XMTR MIKE
PULSING CONTACTS, AND SELECT THE 0.68
INPUT
yF CAPACITOR FOR 600 -Hz OUTPUT.
NOISE SKIRT
z
o
<z
-RECEIVER
zo FRS e4ueNCr
WO
1-0
<o
-2 fo +a +4 +E +5
(MHZ)
TRANSMITTER
_ RECEIVER
\
o FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
ksil°17.....AIR
FLOW
1
NOISE RECEIVER
SKIRT PASSBAND
AT LEAST 1"
CLFARANCE
FRQh1 FLOOR BOTTQ41 OF CABINET
Figure 35
METHODS FOR MOUNTING
VENTILATING FANS -z fo +2 +4 +5 +5
(MHZ)
A-Top -mounted exhaust fan. B- Bottom-
mounted forced -air type.
Figure 36
A- Broadband noise is radiated by an f -m
transmitter as result of random noise com-
two or more frequencies passing through the ponents amplified and passed to antenna
element, as discussed in Chapter 16. through relatively broad selectivity of output cir-
cuitry. Enough noise may be radiated to de-
Intermodulation interference may occur grade performance of nearby receiver operating
from signals outside the normal operating several MHz away from transmitting frequency.
range of the equipment to produce a product B- Bandpass cavity on output of transmitter
and input of receiver provides sufficient attenu-
which can interfere with a desired signal. ation and rejection of off -channel noise to pro-
tect receiver from desensitization.
Receiver Sufficient electrical isolation be- receiver to reject frequencies outside of the
Protection tween receiver and transmitter at cavity passband (figure 37). The cavity
a repeater site will protect the resonator is placed in the antenna circuit in
receiver from desensitization, intermodula- such a way as to pass the received frequency
tion, and spurious transmitter noise. Re- and reject the transmitted frequency. A
ceiver protection may be brought about by second cavity on the output of the trans-
physically separating the receiver and trans- mitter will reduce off- frequency transmitter
mitter antennas in space and by the use of a noise passing to the antenna, as shown in
high -Q bandpass cavity at the input of the figure 36B.
13.26 RADIO HANDBOOK
22" HIGH
6 -12"DIA.
ROD ATTACHED
TO PISTON
CENTER COND.
SLITTED WITH SAW,
FINGERS
SQUEEZED IN
D1/ D2: 3.66 BOTTOM PLATE
SCREWED ON 8 -12
PLACES AT LEAST.
NOTE: FOR PISTON ROD SCREW, USE 5116-16 THREADED ROD. SECURE AT TOP WITH LOCKNUT.
ROTATES
3 SCREWS WITH
Figure 37
Specialized Amateur
Communications Systems and
Techniques
OUTPUT TRANSMITTING
RECEIVING I WATT ANTENNA
ANTENNA NO I
145.925 MHz TO
INPUT
145.875 MHz
144.075 MHz TO
144. 125 MHz
29.975 MHz TO 145.925 MHz
30.025 MHz 3 STAGES 145. 875 MHz
TRF AMP 3 STAGES
B.W. 50 kHz
29.975 MHz TO
44.1 30 MHz 30.025 MHz
145 9 MHz
MHz CRYSTAL 30 MHz
REJECT MIXER
! 25 BANDPASS AMP
FILTER
kHz FILTER
175. 9 MHz
CRYSTAL
OSC
114.1 MHz
DELAY BIAS
87 95 MHz
CRYSTAL
OSC
PEAK
RESPONDING
DETECTOR
POWER SUPPLY
18 VDC
-- TO TRANSLATOR R -F SAMPLE
NICKEL-SILVER
BATTERY
--0- TO TELEMETRY AND BEACON
TRANSMITTERS
Figure 3
OSCAR -3 was a frequency -translating satellite that received a 50 -kHz segment of the two -meter
band, amplified it, and translated it to another portion of the band for retransmission. Maximum
transmitter power was watt, PEP. There was no detection and remodulation, and within the
1
bandwidth limitations of the system, any mode of communication was possible. This was the
first multiple- access device ever launched. Input signals were received on a separate antenna,
filtered, and passed to conventional amplification and mixer stages. The intermediate frequency
was 30 MHz. A second mixer converted the i -f passband back to 144 MHz for further amplifica-
tion. A second antenna was used to radiate the received signals. A special ALC circuit acted to
reduce overload from strong signals.
and Bulgaria and Alaskan amateurs heard chiding the first two -way satellite contact
signals from the United States via the satel- hrtween the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R.
lite.
Continuing the program, OSCAR -4 was Australis Demonstrating the worldwide na-
launched in December, 1965 (figure 4). OSCAR -5 ture of Project Oscar, the fifth
This communication satellite featured an up- amateur satellite was designed and
link in the 144 -MHz band and a down- constructed by students at Melbourne Uni-
link in the 432 -MHz band. The goal was to versity in Australia, under the auspices of
place the 3 -watt repeater in a semisynchro- the Wireless Institute of Australia. Working
nous orbit, about 18,000 miles above the with the Radio Amateur Satellite Corpora-
earth. At this altitude, the satellite would tion (AMSAT), a Washington, D.C. based
move with the speed of the earth's rotation, international organization of radio amateurs,
and thus hang steady over the northern tip the satellite was prepared and qualified for
of Brazil, providing vhf communication launch by NASA in early 1970. It was car-
over the American hemisphere for radio ried as a secondary payload on the Itos -1
amateurs. weather satellite mission. OSCAR -5 included
While the satellite equipment functioned, a two -band beacon on 144 MHz and 29.45
the desired orbit was not achieved, the satel- MHz, the latter incorporating a command
lite being placed in a highly elliptical orbit, control permitting it to be turned on and
tumbling rapidly as it revolved about the off from the ground tracking stations. This
earth. Nevertheless, a number of successful was an important demonstration that the
contacts were made through the repeater, in- emissions from the amateur satellite could
14.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
TOM
IN COMMAND 2MIIOM BEACON 1.3WIOUT 435.1 MHz
RECEIVER TRANSPONDER OSC PEP BEACON
29.45 MHz TRANSMITTER
400 mW
ON/OFF TRANSMITTER
ON /OFF
SELECTED MODULATION
COMMAND RECEIVER AUDIO
24 V UNREGULATED o-
ENABLED (SABLE ITO TRANSPONDER & BEACON TRANSMITTER) Y
AGC LOOP
SOLAR
COMMAND
DECODER
121
Ij
I
11 DECODER
COMMANDS
EXPERIM
CONTROL
N
+10V REGo
-6V REG
-10V REGO
o- SWITCHING
REGULATOR
12REDUNDANT
CIRCUITS)
250 mA
MAX
ARRAY
-Y
LOGIC SOLAR
FUNCTIONS( CODE STORE
ARRAY
MODULATION 4 TLM
CODE STORE OUTPUT MODULATION OUTPUT +Z
RUN /LOAD MODE
SELECT TELEMETRY RATE SOLAR
10 WPM/120 WPM ARRAY
CODE STOB
)896B1 SH FT
REGISTER
24 ANALOG
TELEMETRY
§
1
MORSE CODE
TELEMETRY
ENCODER 18
6A
iCd
N
BATTERY
CELLS
- -Z
SOLAR
ARRAY
MEMORY)
Figure 5
Block diagram of the repeater showing command and control circuitry. OSCAR -6 incorporated
a digital decoder activated by an up -link command signal. Twenty one command functions are
available. Codestore system uses a reprogrammable shift -register memory to transmit binary
messages loaded on ground command. Repeater block diagram is shown in figure 6.
repeater in that the satellite repeater repro- makes break -in, or duplex, contacts possible
duces a frequency spectrum which may con- and the power level and frequency of each
tain a multitude of separate signals. Tn some station can be adjusted for best perform-
instances, spectrum "translation" is inverted, ance. If a transmitter is vfo controlled, its
as shown in figure 7. frequency can be continually adjusted to
keep the apparent down -link frequency con-
Using the
stant in the presence of Doppler shift, which
The spacecraft repeater of OS-
Repeater
can be as much as ± 4.5 kHz during an
CAR-6 is typical and its use overhead pass.
will be described briefly. While
Experience with satellite-repeated signals
the repeater will handle most forms of nar- leads to operating expertise and various tech-
row -band modulation, SSB and c -w are rec-
niques have been developed to assist the op-
ommended as they make the most efficient erator in making the best use of a particu-
use of the repeater because a number of
lar satellite. Additional information on the
users can operate simultaneously, each tak-
subject may be obtained from AMSAT, Box
ing different proportions of the repeater's
27, Washington DC 20044.
power capability at a given moment.
Most amateurs engaging in repeater con-
tacts monitor their own down -link signals OSCAR -7 The OSCAR -7 spacecraft was
which enables them to hear their signal as launched in late 1974, while
others hear it. This requires that a separate OSCAR -6 was still functioning. For the
receiver and antenna be available for down- first time, amateur radio operators had two
link reception while up -link transmission is operable communication satellites in orbit
being accomplished. This type of operation at the same time. OSCAR -7 was many mag-
14.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
TEN -METER
TWO METER MONOPOLE
W RECEIVING ANTENNA
FIRST
MIXER SECOND MIXER
BALANCED
MIXER
DIPOLE TRANSMITTING
ANTENNA
45.9
R -F
AMPLIFIER
2N 3478
2N3478
039 10 MHz©
2N918
3.485
I
3.5- MHz
-F AMPLIFIER
8E167
2N918
DRIVER
2N3866 ^ FINAL
AMPLIFIER
2N3375 29.45 MHz
TO
146.0 MH
50 kHz
+
MHz
50 kHz 29.50 MHT TO
29. 55 MHz
+50 kHz
35.6 MHz 26.0 MHz
106. 8 MHz
CRYSTAL CRYSTAL
OSCITRIPLER OSCILLATOR
2N 708 2N918
29.45 MHz
CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR
KEY 2N918
CLOCK TIMER
AGC ELEMETRY BEACON
CODE STORE
MORSE CODE THREE -TRANSISTOR
MESSAGE
TELEMETRY
STORAGE AGC AMPLIFIER 4I
ENCODER
UNIT
Figure 6
The linear repeater "listens" over the range of 145.9 MHz to 146.0 MHz, converting received
signals to the first -f of 39.1 MHz and the second -f of 3.5 MHz. After 35 dB of amplification,
i i
the passband is up- converted to 29.45 to 29.55 MHz. Maximum power output is 1.3 watts, PEP.
The power source is a 24 -volt Nicad battery charged by solar cells. The repeater also contains
a beacon oscillator on 29.45 MHz. Input and output filters are used to reduce spurious responses
and to eliminate television -band signal interference with the repeater.
nitudes more complex than the previous powerful solar cell power supply (figure 8).
amateur satellites and was designed for long The satellite contained two repeaters and
life. It was built in an octahedral configu- two tracking beacons and both Morse Code
ration to allow sufficient surface area for a and teletype telemetry encoders. Down -link
144. 075 MHz 144.100 MHz 144.125 MHz 145. 875 MHz 145. 900 r.'r,: 145.925 MHz
1 750 MHz
NOT TO SCALE
SI S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 58 S9 S9 S8 S7 S6 S5 S4 S3 S2 SI
SATELLITE SATELLITE
RECEIVING BAND TRANSMITTING BAND
50 kHz 50 kHz -
Figure 7
The frequency translation satellite receives a 50-kHz segment falling between 144.075MHz
and 144.125 MHz. All energy in this spectrum will be processed by the translator. This
device inverts the spectrum, that is, signals at the low- frequency end of the input band
(S S,) appear at the high- frequency end of the output band. A station transmitting
upper -sideband 5513 will be retransmitted as a lower -sideband 558 signal. Other satellites
may not necessarily invert the spectrum, but the principle of translation still applies.
SPECIALIZED AMATEUR COMMUNICATIONS 14.7
Figure 8
AMSAT OSCAR -7
This is an applications communications space- craft designed for noncommercial public serv-
ice and educational use by the amateur radio community. OSCAR stands for Orbiting Satellite
Carrying Amateur Radio. Developed by the Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation (AMSAT), a
nonprofit scientific corporation headquartered in Washington, D.C., the purpose of tie space-
craft is to have students around the world work with their teachers to get a direct urderstand-
ing of space science by actually participating in demonstrations through local radic amateur
operators anywhere in the world. OSCAR -7 was launched by the National Aeronaitics and
Space Administration -the third oscar to be launched by NASA as a piggy -back spacecraft
aboard a Delta rocket from Vanden burg Air Force Base, California. (Photograph co urtesy
of NASA)
telemetry and stored message data could be formation on the 435 -MHz beacon at the
routed to either of the beacons. It was thus same time, using two ground receivers.
possible, for example, to receive Morse Code The satellite normally alternated between
on the 10 -meter beacon and Codestore in- a 144 MHz to 10 meters repeater and a 432
14.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
1000
900
TYPICAL
SATELLITE IN POLAR ORBIT
ORBITAL PLANE
800
700
600
LAUNCH
SPOT
500
START OF ORBIT
400 NO.1 WHEN
SATELLITE FIRST
CROSSES EQUATOR
300 SOUTH -TO -NORTH
200
100
o
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Figure 11
GROUND RANGE AS A FUNCTION OF As the earth rotates within the orbit of the
SATELLITE ALTITUDE satellite, all areas on the earth's surface will
pass beneath the satellite if it is in a polar or-
bit. If the orbital plane is tipped, areas of high
The ground range is the distance measured longitude will lie outside the orbit of the satel-
along the surface of the earth from the ground lite. Orbit number 1 starts when the satellite
station to a point on the earth directly below first crosses the equator in a south -to -north
the satellite. At an altitude of 500 miles, for direction.
example, the ground range is nearly 2000 miles
and two stations broadside to the satellite path satellite for two -way communication, it is
and 4000 miles apart could theoretically com-
municate with each other through a repeater therefore necessary to take into considera-
satellite orbiting at that height. tion the length of time the satellite will be
within the simultaneous range of all ground
passes, he is now watching south -to -north stations involved. Communication will be
passes (figure 12) . possible with any other ground station hav-
How long the satellite will remain within ing the satellite within its range at the same
range of a ground station is dependent on time, but the length of time of contact will
two factors: the distance it will be at the vary with the position of the ground sta-
point of closest approach (PCA) to the sta- tion relative to the satellite, as shown in
tion and the altitude of the satellite. The figure 13.
longest duration at any altitude will occur The higher a satellite is, the greater the
on orbits that pass directly over the station effective range of a ground station using it
location, and the duration of the pass will will have. Since higher satellites are further
decrease for orbits that pass further away away from the ground station, signal
from the station (figure 13). For example, strengths will be less due to path losses un-
a satellite in a 1000 mile high orbit would less either more powerful transmitters or
be within line of sight range of a ground higher gain receiving systems are used. The
station for about 25 minutes on an over- greater the line -of -sight path distance be-
head pass, about 20 minutes when it comes tween user and satellite, the more circuit
within 1000 miles of the ground station and gain will be required to maintain adequate
only about 10 minutes with a 2000 -mile signal levels. Therefore, although high alti-
distance of closest approach. When using a tude satellites will allow Contacts with more
14.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
CONTACT COMPLETED
TYPICAL OSCAR ORBIT
GROUND STATION
_I- -_
,
RANGE
CIRCLE
Figure 13
Problems of tuning transmitted and re- of the earth to a satellite in orbit (point
ceived frequencies are reduced when the C). The spot where this line intersects the
satellite receiver and transmitter frequencies earth's surface is called the sub- satellite
are sufficiently far apart to permit the point (B) Point D is the location on the
.
ground station to monitor its down -link earth of an amateur station. Line CD is
while it is transmitting, as for example, called the slant range to the satellite. Arc
when the up -link is 2 meters and the down- BD is the distance along the earth's surface
link is 10 meters. This allows maximum ef- between the station and the sub -satellite
ficiency of spectrum use since mutual inter- point. This distance can be plotted on a
ference between stations on the same fre- map of the earth to locate the satellite to
quency can be immediately detected. see if it is within range of a particular
ground station. The distance may be ex-
Satellite In determining the position of a pressed as a distance of angular degrees (one
Position satellite and predicting its future degree on the earth's surface being equal to
location some knowledge of terms 69.09 statute miles, 59.97 nautical miles, or
and orbital relationships is useful. Satellite 111.14 km). All points on the diagram ex-
distances and speeds may be expressed in cept points A and D are continually chang-
different ways. Nautical and statute miles, ing as the earth rotates and the satellite
as well as meters and kilometers are com- moves. A station at point B would observe
monly used. A summary of these terms is the satellite directly overhead.
shown in Table 2. 90 90o
Figure 14 summarizes satellite position. BO
ffió
50
40 ORBIT
INCLINATION
5 30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
PERCENT OF ORBIT
Figure 15
Line ABC is the distance from the earth's cen- All factors in a satellite's orbit are inter-
ter to a satellite in orbit (C). The spot where related and much can be determined from
this line intersects the earth (B) is the sub -
satellite point. Point D is the location of a a few known facts. For instance, the velo-
ground station and distance CD is the slant city of a satellite through space is a func-
range to the satellite. Arc BD is the distance
along the earth's surface between the station tion of altitude and the period and time of
and the subsatellite point. An observer at B one revolution are a function of altitude
would see the satellite directly overhead. and velocity. Rough orbital predictions can
/
north equatorial crossings in GMT. the
points of crossing in degrees of west longi-
tude and the time of pass over major cities
on the earth. Once you have heard a satel- 13-114" 133.7 cml 1 13 -114" 133.7 cm)
lite in your vicinity on one orbit, all that is RG-58/U \ RG -5941
MATCHING SECTION
really needed to predict when it will again
be within your range is the orbital period,
the progression per orbit and the time it B
takes to reach your location from the equa-
torial crossing point (figure 15).
Ground Station The most recent OSCAR
TO RG-59/U
Antennas satellites have operated in FEEDLINE
the 432 -MHz, 144 -MHz,
and 10 -meter amateur bands. For 10 -meter Figure 16
reception of satellite signals a 10 -meter ro- TURNSTILE ANTENNA WITH SCREEN
tary beam is satisfactory. When mounted REFLECTOR FOR SATELLITE
well in the clear it provides a low angle of COMMUNICATION AT 144 MHz
radiation which is desirable for maximum
communication range when the satellite is This simple antenna provides an omnidirec-
just over the horizon. For passes close to the tional, high -angle pattern suitable for satellite
ground station. a dipole antenna mounted reception above the horizon. Full coverage is
provided at angles above 20 degrees. Crossed
at a lower height (having a high angle of dipoles are mounted above a ground screen
radiation) is useful. measuring SO inches on a side. The screen
For transmitting to the satellite on the reflector may be made of galvanized wire hav-
ing openings less than one -half inch square.
vhf bands, many amateurs use a simple high Window screen can serve as a substitute. The
gain, Yagi antenna. Experience with the turnstile antenna is placed 12 inches above the
screen. A phasing harness (B) provides the cor-
OSCAR satellites, however, has shown that rect 90- degree phase difference between the
rapid fading of the signals repeated by the dipoles. Antenna is designed to be fed with a
70 -ohm coaxial line.
satellite is partially due to the radiation pat-
tern nulls of the vhf beam antenna. In addi- will provide a circularly polarized pattern.
tion, because of the random positioning of The maximum lobe of the radiation pattern
the satellite in the orbital path, cross polar- is vertical, providing a broad lobe that is
ization of the transmitting and receiving effective at all elevation angles above ap-
antennas can contribute to observed fading. proximately 40 degrees. A practical turn-
Cross -polarization fading can be reduced stile antenna array for 144 MHz is shown
by using circular polarization at the ground in figure 16.
station and radiation pattern nulls can be Crossed -Yagi antennas can be used to pro-
compensated for by using either a null -free vide circular polarization and details on the
antenna or a continuously tracking antenna construction of such an antenna is contained
that holds the satellite at the center of the in the VHF Handbook For Radio Amateurs,
radiation pattern. available from Radio Publications, Inc., Box
A simple turnstile antenna mounted about 149, Wilton, Conn., 06897. Additional in-
a quarter -wavelength above a reflector screen formation on satellite techniques may be
SPECIALIZED AMATEUR COMMUNICATIONS 14.13
found in SAecialized Communications Tech- The EME The moon is about 2160 miles in
niques, published by the American Radio Circuit diameter and orbits the earth at a
Relay League, Newington, Conn., 06111. A distance that varies from 221,463
quarterly newsletter covering amateur satel- miles to 252,710 miles. The orbital period
lite activity is published by AMSAT, Box is 28 days and because the orbit is some-
27, Washington, DC 20044. what eccentric, the moon travels along a
somewhat different path each night of the
lunar month.
14 -2 EME (Moonbounce) As a target for radio reflection, the moon
Communication subtends an arc of about one -half degree
The moon presents a good radio target when seen from the earth. The reflection
when it rides high in the sky and by the coefficient of the moon's surface is about 7
end of World War II circuits and techniques percent so the remaining 93 percent of the
were available to use it as a passive reflector signal striking the moon is absorbed. The
for radio signals. The first instance of ama- portion of the signal that is reflected is dif-
teur moon- reflected signals was the recep- fused all over space and only a minor portion
tion of W4AO's 144 -MHz signals by of it is returned to earth. A smaller fraction
W3GKP in mid -1950. In 1960, the first of the returned signal is captured by the
two -way moonbounce contact took place on receiving antenna, which is small compared
the 1296 -MHz band between W6HB and to the earth surface area facing the moon;
W1BU using dish antennas and experimen- about 98,470,000 square miles. Thus, the
tal, 1- kilowatt vhf klystron tubes in the EME path loss is quite high and moon -
transmitters. From these early tests, moon - bounce communication at the maximum
bounce communication has grown rapidly, amateur power level is a challenge to the
as interested vhf operators turned to this best talents of many of the world's most
new and exciting mode of communication. skillful radio amateurs.
Today, moonbounce activity is taking place Radio signals travelling through space are
on the various vhf bands, with the major attenuated as the square ratio of the fre-
interest concentrating on the 144- and 432 - quency. Consequently the EME path loss is
MHz bands (figure 17). about 8.3 times (9 dB) greater on 144 MHz
Figure 17
The array consists of 180 elements arranged in 32 Yagi beams formed into eight 20- element
collinear assemblies, stacked four wide. Overall antenna size is 33 feet wide, 24 feet high, and 8
feet deep. Gain is estimated to be approximately 23 decibels. Similar arrays are also in use on
the 432-MHz band by active "moonbouncers ".
14.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
than on 50 MHz, and a similar increase in losses are based on a transmitter power out-
path attenuation takes place between the put of 600 watts to the antenna, a zero -
144 -MHz and 432 -MHz bands. In addition, decibel noise figure and a receiver bandwidth
transmitter efficiency tends to decrease and of 100 Hz. As an example, at 144 MHz, for
receiver noise figure and transmission line an average signal -to -noise ratio of zero deci-
loss increase with increasing frequency. bels, the total antenna gain should be about
On the other hand, the power gain of a 42 decibels. Thus, two 21 -dB antennas are
directive antenna of a given size increases required, one at each end of the path. If the
by the same ratio that the path loss in- gain of one antenna is higher than this, the
creases and, because the antenna gain is real- gain of the other may be correspondingly
ized during both transmission and reception lower to achieve the same signal -to -noise
at each end of the circuit, there is a net ratio.
signal gain with increase in frequency, not- Under the best of conditions, then, using
withstanding the increased circuit losses. the maximum legal power, the most sensi-
The free space loss for the EME circuit tive receiver and the largest possible antenna
varies about 2 dB depending on whether the array, two -way amateur communication via
moon is at perigee or apogee. Typically, the the moon is a marginal means of communi-
circuit loss at perigee (the point of closest cation. Even so, the number of successful
approach of the moon) is 216 dB for 50 c -w and SSB contacts via moon reflection
MHz, 225 dB for 144 MHz, 235 dB for speak well for the experimenters doing this
432 MHz, and 244 dB for 1296 MHz. The fascinating, space-age means of world -wide
nomograph of figure 18 illustrates antenna vhf communication.
TOTAL
ANTENNA Faraday Rotation During the passage of a
GAIN dB
radio signal to and from
- 35
the moon, it may rotate in polarization sev-
-, 40 eral times. This effect is called Faraday Ro-
tation and is thought to be produced by the
FREQUENCY
MHz AVERAGE SIN
r r i45 the effect of the earth's magnetic field on
5000
3300
-
-
RATIO dB
--20 r ,r -50 the signal. Faraday Rotation produces a cy-
- clic fading in the signal received, as the
r i/
55
--10 path length between the earth and the moon
- 60 is constantly changing. The fade is quite
- r sú
i
1296
- 65 rapid at the lower frequencies and the pe-
i+-10 riod increases with frequency until it ceases
420- - 70
to be significant above 1000 MHz. Special
-20
.
i' i
+
vhf bands has its own unique system, the 1953 using a shift of 850 Hz. Since that
majority of which convey information with date, interest in RTTY has grown rapidly
a series of dashes, since dots have a low among radio amateurs.
energy content and tend to disappear in the
noise. Radioteleprinter The dc pulses that com-
On 144 MHz, for example, the TMO Re- Systems prise the teleprinter signal
port System is used. The letter T is sent re- may be converted into
peatedly when the signal can be heard but three basic forms of emission suitable for
no intelligence can be detected. The letter radio transmission.
M is sent when portions of call letters can These are: (1) frequency -shift keying
be copied, and the letter O is sent when a (FSK), designated as F1 emission; (2)
complete call set is copied. Once contact is make -break keying (MBK), designated as
established, and the signals are loud enough, Al emission; and (3) audio frequency-shift
normal amateur procedure is commonly keying (AFSK), designated as F2 emission.
used. At 144 MHz, where the Faraday Rota- Frequency -shift keying is achieved by
tion is long, the usual moonbounce calling varying the transmitted frequency of the
sequence is 2 minutes, whereas at 50 MHz, radio signal a fixed amount (usually 850
where the Faraday Rotation is rapid, the Hertz or less) during the keying process.
calling sequence is 30 seconds. In all cases, The shift is accomplished in discrete inter-
the sequence is agreed to beforehand and vals designated mark and space. Both types
synchronized with time signals from WWV. of intervals convey information to the tele-
For more information about moonbounce printer. Make -break keying is analogous to
experiments and activity, write to Amateur simple c -w transmission in that the radio
Service Department, EIMAC division of carrier conveys information by changing
Varian, 301 Industrial Way, San Carlos, CA from an on to an off condition. Early RTTY
94070 and ask for their free bulletin series circuits employed MBK equipment, which
AS -49 (Almost Everything You Want to is now considered obsolete since it is less
Know About Moonbounce). reliable than the frequency -shift technique.
Audio frequency -shift keying employs a
steady radio carrier modulated by an audio
14 -3 Radioteletype tone which is shifted in frequency accord-
ing to the RTTY pulses. Other forms of in-
Systems formation transmission may be employed by
Teleprinting is a form of communication a RTTY system which also encompass trans-
based on a simple binary (on -off) code de-
lation of binary pulses into r-f signals.
signed for electromechanical transmission.
The code consists of dc pulses generated
by a special electric typewriter, which can The Teleprinter The teleprinter code con -
be reproduced at a distance by a separate Code sists of 26 letters of the
machine. The pulses may be transmitted alphabet and additional
from one machine to another by wire or by characters that accomplish machine func-
a radio circuit. When radio transmission is tions, such as line feed, carriage return,
used, the system is termed radioteletypr bell, and upper- and lower -case shift. These
(RTTY). The name teletype is a registered special characters are required for the com-
trademark of Teletype Corporation and the plete automatic process of teleprinter opera-
term teleprinter is used in preference to the tion in printing received copy. Numerals,
registered term. punctuation, and symbols may be taken
Although the first, teleprinter machine care of in the case shift, since all transmit-
was put in service in the United States be- ted letters are capitals (figure 19).
fore World War I, radio amateur RTTY The teleprinter code is made up of spaces
experiments did not start until about 1946 and pulses, for transmission at 60, 67, 75, or
using make -and -break (c -w) keying on the 100 words per minute. Each character (at
80 -meter band and audio keying on the 60 w.p.m.) is made up of five elements, plus
144 -MHz band. Frequency - shift keying a 22 millisecond start space and a 31 milli-
(FSK) was permitted on the hf bands in second stop pulse. All characters are equal
14.16 RADIO HANDBOOK
O W E R i Y U 1 O
AO 65tE D OF G H Ol K L
O x O O 60,
SPACE
Figure 19
j
MARK sending apparatus a whole code sequence
for that character is generated in the form
J % of pulses and spaces. When this code se-
quence is received on a remote machine, a
type bar is selected and made to print the
SPAC E
22 MS, 22 MS
!A
22 MS
3 s
22 MS 22 MS 22 MS
lí
31 M S
KEYBOARD
163 MS
TIME -A
Figure 20
THE TELEPRINTER CODE SYNCHRONIZED
ay 60 -MERTZ
POWER SOURCE
Teleprinting is based on a simple binary code
made up of spaces and pulses, each of 22 milli-
seconds duration. Normal transmission is at the
rate of 60 w.p.m. The sequence of mark and
space pulses for the letter R are shown here.
PRINTER o- TERMINAL
UNIT
o- RECEIVER
letter corresponding to the key pressed. pulse code or Morse code. In the RTTY
Synchronization of machines is accom- mode, transmission at standard data rates of
plished by means of start and stop pulses 60, 66, 75, or 100 w.p.m. is available. In
transmitted with each character. An electro- the c -w mode, transmission at speeds be-
mechanical device driven by the motor of tween 8 and 60 w.p.m. is possible. In either
the teleprinter is released when a key is mode, a built -in sidetone oscillator allows
pressed and transmission of the complete the operator to monitor the transmission. A
character is automatic. block diagram of the dual -mode keyboard
The receiving apparatus operates in re- is shown in figure 23.
verse sequence, being set in operation by the
transmitter mechanism. While each charac-
ter is sent at the speed of 60 w.p.m., actual
transmission of a sequence of characters may 14 -4 RTTY Transmission
be much slower, depending on the speed of The pulsed dc voltage generated by the
the operator. A simplified diagram of a one - teleprinter is used to operate a keyer circuit
way RTTY circuit is shown in figure 21. in the radio transmitter to shift the carrier
Many amateurs have obtained these ma- frequency back and forth in accord with
chines from surplus channels and, although the mark and space signals of the RTTY
obsolete, they are still in use on the amateur code. Frequency shift keying (FSK), or F 1
75 MODE SELECT
SHIFT 1
.166. CONTROL NNING
SCAKEY
147 BIT
"HERE IS
MORSE
60
1 ENCODER
BUFFER FULL
INDICATOR
DIODE
ROM
MATRIX
--I
CO
AUX
I
VH0
I
KEYBOARD/
2048 B IT
BUFFER
ROM
HO CONTROL
216 DIVIDER
4
8 BIT TRANS CATHODE )
KEYING
BUFFER SWITCH GRID BLOCK I
MORSE
RTTY 10 BIT SHIFT S IDE TONE
CHARACTER
CONTROL REGISTER OSC ILLATOR
1.
"-
GENERATOR V OLUME
1
CASE CODE MORSE MORSEf
GENERATOR CONTROL OSCILLATOR 1
CHARACTER
COUNTER
RTTY
LOOP
SWITCH
I I
END OF LINE RTTY LOOP
INDICATOR (FLOATING)
Figure 23
Keying speeds are controlled by four crystal oscillators. The 46 -key matrix (driven by the key-
board) is connected to a large -scale IC key encoder whose output is a seven -bit digital code
which is the ASCII equivalent of the character to be transmitted. The digital code is applied to
the eight address inputs of the ROM (read -only memory) and addresses a particular eight -bit
address in the memory. In that location is stored the correct code for the character, which ap-
pears at the ROM output. The ASCII code is thus converted to the Morse or RTTY bit pattern.
The ROM output is fed to an eight -bit buffer memory which stores the code until the shift regis-
ter is cleared and ready to accept new data. The ten -bit shift register now transforms the in-
formation from a parallel to a series mode. Clock pulses are applied to the register, causing the
bits to appear in sequence at the register output. Depending on the setting of the mode switch,
the register output activates either the Morse character generator or the RTTY loop- switching
circuit. For Morse transmission, the bits are converted to pulses of unequal length, forming dots
and dashes. The generator output activates the Morse keying transistor and the sidetone oscillator.
Frequency Shift A widely used FSK de- the shift capacitor at ground, thus lower-
Circuitry vice is the diode switch ing the frequency of the oscillator. The
(figure 24). Upon receiv- series -connected choke and associated by-
ing a pulse from the teleprinter, the diode pass capacitors remove the r -f from the
conducts and places the open terminal of keying leads. C -w identification is provided
SPECIALIZED AMATEUR COMMUNICATIONS 14.19
ADJUST
FROM 'Si( SHIFT
L
KEYBOARD B1
Figure 25
Figure 24
DIODE KEYER FOR INVERTED KEYING
DIODE KEYER FOR FREQUENCY - is biased to conduct, the teleprinter
The diode
SHIFT KEYING OF VFO pulses removing the bias during the keying
cycle.
12 REG
FLIP-FLOP
IK
OSCILLATOR
MPS -3702
2.2K ,
MPS -3102
ADJ
MPS -3394 FREQ
FROM 2125
PPS
nRTTY
l'
15914
SET 2N 4811
SHIFT
170-Hz SHIFT
120 TO LOW -PASS
MPS - 3394S
FILTER AND XMTR
27
850-Hz SHIFT
10K 52K
Figure 26
A portion of the Mainline AK -1 AFSK unit. Keyboard providing a positive voltage for the space
character is required. The frequency of the unijunction pulse generator is set by R -C A mylar .
capacitor is used for maximum frequency stability. The shift is set by a selector switch. UJT
generator runs at 4250 pulses per second and flip -flop divides by two to provide 2125 pulses per
second. Flip -flop also squares pulses. Audio pulses are then passed through a low -pass filter to
remove all harmonics above 3000 Hz, changing the square wave into a sine wave. Since the
UiT generator does not have an LC circuit to determine the frequency, keying transients are
minimized when shifting from mark to space.
14.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
TERMINAL UNIT
'F r
TERMINAL UNIT
-
DISCRI M- MARK -SPACE
RECEIVER LIMITER NATOR RECEIVER LIMITER FILTERS
PRINTER REVER
A B
PRINTER
Figure 28
I -F AND AUDIO TERMINAL UNITS
A shows a block diagram of an i -f terminal unit employing f-m discriminator technique. I -f con-
verter requires that selectivity and interference rejection be achieved by means of selective
tuned circuits of the receiver. B shows a block diagram of audio -frequency terminal unit. Mark
and space filters are used ahead of audio discriminator, followed by a low -pass audio filter. Beat
oscillator of the receiver is used to provide audio beat tones of 2125 and 2975 Hz required for
nominal 850 -Hz shift system.
gram of a simple audio- frequency demodu- teleprinter will continue even during periods
lator is shown in figure 28B. An audio of severe fading.
limiter is followed by mark -frequency and A representative audio frequency RTTY
space- frequency filters placed ahead of the demodulator is shown in figure 29. This
discriminator stage. A low -pass filter and simple unit works either with 2125 -2975
electronic keyer provide the proper signal mark and space tones for the 1275 -2125
required by the teleprinter. The beat oscil- tones required by some SSB receivers. Two
lator of the receiver may be used to provide small op -amps and a 300 -volt rated transis-
the beat tones of 2125 and 2975 Hz re- tor are used, along with nine diodes.
quired in the 850 -Hz shift system. Either The first op -amp is a high gain limiter.
frequency may be used for either mark or Reverse- connected zener diodes in the input
space, and the signal can be inverted by circuit protect the amplifier against an ex-
tuning the beat oscillator to the opposite cessive signal level. The 25K balance po-
side of the i -f passband of the receiver. tentiometer compensates for a small degree
The demodulator may ignore one tone and of offset input voltage.
concentrate on the other tone, the space The output of the op -amp is fed to the
tone generally being used to actuate the discriminator filters which use surplus 88-
printer, which is biased to rest on the mark mH toroidal inductors (T1, T2). Full -wave
tone. It is more reliable, however, to take rectification and a simple RC low -pass filter
advantage of both tones, providing nega- remove the audio component of the signal
tive keying voltage for one tone and posi- as the shifting audio tones are converted
tive voltage for the other, as is done in the into dc pulses in a slicer stage. This op -amp
more sophisticated converters. takes the small voltages from the tuned
High- frequency RTTY signals often ex- filters and changes them to +10 volts for
hibit severe fading, with the mark and space mark and -10 volts for space. Overall gain
frequencies fading independently as sky- is sufficient so that the unit will operate
wave reflection varies. Selective fading can with shifts as low as a few cycles.
often obliterate one frequency and then the The keyer transistor (Q,) has a 300 -volt
other in a random sequence and even the collector- emitter rating and will pass the
demodulation of both tones will often not 60 mA loop current required for teleprint-
permit proper copy during a prolonged fade ers. A simple RC network in the collector -
period, but with properly designed circuitry, emitter circuit protects the transistor from
normal operation of the demodulator and the back -emf developed by the inductance
14.22 RADIO HANDBOOK
ro scope 2.3 K
+160 v.
3000MM
AUDIO
tISOK MJE-340
022 200
INPUT
yI
IK 2
Q1
701
DI3.6V
360 IOK
3100K
0.1-
132,2,3."
.51k
1N270
5.66
Figure 29
REPRESENTATIVE RTTY DEMODULATOR (CONVERTER)
This solid -state audio RTTY demodulator is based on a design by W6FFC (the Mainline ST-5). It
uses two 709C operational amplifiers, one as an audio limiter, and the other as a trigger stage
to drive the keyer transistor, which has a 300-volt collector- emitter rating. Reverse -connected
zener diodes limit the drive signal to the demodulator unit and the mark and space tones are
separated by tuned filters, which are built around surplus 88 -mH toroid inductors (TI, T2).
of the selector magnets in the printer. The frequency- shifted audio tones from the sta-
teleprinter keyboard may be connected in tion receiver and converts them into dc
series with the printer magnets, both seriesed pulses to operate a teleprinter or a video
through jack ,11, if desired. display (figure 30).
The ST -6 is designed to accept various
An Ad d The Mainline ST -6 de- shifts, the most widely used of which are
RTTY Demodulator modulator, designed by 850 Hz and 170 Hz. Bandpass filters at the
W6FFC, is a popular input of the device provide a high order of
unit and provides many advantages over selectivity to eliminate interfering signals.
the more simple circuits. The ST -6 accepts The filters are followed by a limiter having
TO SCOPE
LOW-PASS
ACTIVE FILTER
SLICER
DISC U2 U3 THRESHOLD U4
AND DET CORRECTOR
BANDPASS KEYER
FILTERS
LOOP
UI -U4 u 17090 AUTO START
FROM RECEIVER .
SUPPLY
Figure 30
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ST -6 RTTY DEMODULATOR
The Mainline U-6 demodulator accepts frequency -shifted tones from the station receiver and con-
verts them into dc pulses to operate a teleprinter or video display. A commercial version of the
ST-6 is produced by HAL Communicalions Corp.
SPECIALIZED AMATEUR COMMUNICATIONS 14.23
a dynamic range of about 90 dB to correct start control, and an antispace circuit that
for signal fading. The output signal from locks the printer to mark -hold when a non -
the limiter is fed to a discriminator and RTTY signal in the space channel tends to
detector stage which provides the low -fre- activate the printer. A tuning meter is
auency switching pulses. A lowpass active provided to allow the operator to correctly
filter after the discriminator /detector pro- tune the receiver to "straddle" the RTTY
vides over 50 dB attenuation to transients signal.
nomally encountered above the keying speed Additional features of the ST -6 are a
in service. normal- reverse switch for copying stations
The filter is followed by a threshold cor- having inverted mark /space characteristic
rector which provides symmetry to the and an optional limiterless operation where-
pulses and corrects the effects of the low - in copy may be made from mark -only or
pass filter, which tends to change the de- space -only signals.
sired square wave into a sine wave. The
processed signal then passes to a slicer which
is a low- frequency amplifier compensated RTTY Video recent development in
A
for proper response to the control signals. Display RTTY apparatus is the video
The output of the slicer drives the keyer display generator which con-
stage which provides a mark -hold signal to verts the output of a demodulator unit into
the teleprinter when there is no input from RTTY readout which may be fed to a TV
the slicer. Auxiliary equipment include a monitor or to a standard TV receiver (figure
loop supply for the teleprinter, automatic 31A). The display generator block dia-
Figure 31
5 B IT OUTPUT
SHIFT
REGISTER
B
PAGE LINE
MEMORY MEMORY
CONTROL CONTROL
CHARACTER
FROM INPUT MEMORY MEMORY GENERATOR
SECTION
14.24 RADIO HANDBOOK
gram is shown in figure 31B. The RTTY ed, with picture information in one side-
characters are shown as white letters on a band and voice in the other sideband.
black background and are made up as a
SSTV Transmission A representative SSTV
5 X 7 dot matrix. There are 40 characters
per line and 25 lines per page, displaying signal consists of a 1500 -
1000 characters per screen. Characters are Hz tone which is shifted down to 1200 -Hz
continually on the screen and new informa- for sync information and modulated up-
tion is written letter by letter as it is re- ward to 2300 -Hz for video (picture) infor-
ceived on the bottom line of the display, mation. The 1500 -Hz frequency represents
much in the manner of a typewritten page. the black level and the 2300 -Hz frequency
When the screen is filled, the top line is is the white level, with tones in between
pushed off the screen by the next bottom giving shades of gray. The sync pulse dura-
line of display. tions are 5 milliseconds for the horizontal
Video signal bandwidth is about 4 MHz, and 30 milliseconds for the vertical. The
the line rate is 15,750 kHz and the field scanning sequence is left to right and top
rate is 60 Hz. Frame rate is 30 Hz, with to bottom. Normally, 120 lines are scanned
262.5 lines per field and two fields per per frame, with an aspect ratio of 1:1. For
frame, with interlaced lines. This provides 60 -Hz areas, the horizontal sweep rate is
15 Hz and the vertical sweep rate is 6 to
a compatible signal with U.S. television
8 seconds. Since picture transmission time
standards.
is only a few seconds, it permits rapid alter-
nation of voice and picture transmission
14 -6 Slow-Scan over the same circuit.
Television Slow -scan picture transmission evolved
out of facsimile transmitting techniques
Slow -scan television (SSTV) is a narrow - wherein video images were transmitted over
band system for transmitting video images wire lines. A block diagram of an elementary
approved by the FCC for use in various SSTV picture generator is shown in figure
amateur bands. Signal bandwidth of an 32. The system uses a cathode -ray tube
SSTV image is limited to 3 kHz. This trans- "flying spot" scanner to develop a 120 -line
formation is commonly accomplished by picture, scanned once every 8 seconds or so.
converting the video information to a vary- The image (in this case a negative or a
ing tone which is fed into the audio system transparency) is directly scanned by the
of an amateur transmitter. Either a -m, SSB, raster image projected from a very short -
or f -m transmission may be used. SSB is persistence cathode -ray tube. The flying spot
used for SSTV on the hf bands and f -m sweeps quickly across the face of the CRT
on the vhf bands. Because of the restricted and does not leave a "tail" of undecayed
bandwidth, the video signal may be received brightness behind it as does a medium- or
on a communication receiver and may be long- persistence tube. The spot faintly il-
preserved on an audio tape recorder running luminates a pickup device (or scanner) ,
at 31/4 inches per second, or more. which is usually a photomultiplier tube.
The first experiments with SSTV were The small photocathode current is amplified
conducted by WOORX in the early 50's on over 40,000 times by the secondary emission
the then -available 11 -meter band, the only action of the tube. The output voltage of
portion of the hf spectrum where emissions the photomultiplier tube is thus a video
of this type were permitted. As a result of signal whose instantaneous amplitude fol-
these early experiments, the FCC granted lows the variations in picture brightness as
permission for SSTV transmissions on an the transparency is scanned.
experimental basis on the 14- and 28 -MHz The photo pickup assembly is contained
bands. Since 1958 SSTV has been permitted within a light -tight box. The raster signal
in the Advanced and Extra Class portions is derived from a scanning generator which
of all hf bands, and in the General Class supplies the vertical and horizontal sweep
portion (phone) of the 10- and 6- meter pulses.
bands, as well as in the vhf bands.Inde- The video signal from the photomultiplier
pendent sideband transmission is permitt- tube is passed through a dc amplifier and
SPECIALIZED AMATEUR COMMUNICATIONS 14.25
CRT TRANSPARENCY
3AP5
/^\ LENS, LENS
=a:
SYNC. MIXER
AND
DC AMPLIFIER
BALANCED
MODULATOR
SSTV AUDIO OUTPUT
TO SSB TRANSMITTER
PHOTO -
MULTIPLIER
TUBE
SWEEP SCANNI
MPLIFIERS GENERATONCR
Figure 32
Cathode -ray tube (3AP5) serves as a "flying spot" scanner to develop a 120 -line picture, scanned
once every eight seconds or so. The image (a negative or transparency) is directly scanned by the
raster image projected from the short-persistence cathode -ray tube. The scanned image is picked
up by a photomultiplier tube, the output voltage of which is a video signal whose instantaneous
amplitude follows the variations in picture brightness as the transparency is scanned.
into a balanced modulator which mixes the permits rapid adjustment of camera focus
video signal with the 2000 -Hz subcarrier and scene content.
oscillator and suppresses the video signal,
whose components lie between 0 and 1000 SSTV Reception The audio- frequency output
Hz. The output of the modulator is the of a communications re-
sideband signal which is applied directly to ceiver may be used to receive the SSTV
the SSB transmitter as an audio signal. signal. A block diagram of a simple SSTV
adapter is shown in figure 34. A long -per-
A SSTV Camera The "flying spot" scanner sistence SUP7 cathode -ray tube (CRT) is
has been superseded by used. The slow -scan audio signal from the
more modern techniques, such as the sam- receiver is amplified, limited, and fed to a
pling camera, shown in block diagram in detector and a low -pass filter which removes
figure 33B. This device provides a f requency- the audio components above 1000 Hz. The
shifted audio signal tailored to amateur resulting video signal is used to intensity -
standards at a slow scan rate, as derived modulate the long -persistence CRT. The
from a relatively fast -scanned picture. A output of the amplifier-limiter is also fed
vidicon tube is used, scanned with a 4 -kHz to a sync separator which separates the sync
vertical rate and a 15 -Hz horizontal rate. Pulses from the composite sync and video
A timing and sampling circuit picks out signal. The 30 -ms and 5 -ms pulses are sep-
individual picture elements from the fast - arated for the two scanning signals in an
scan picture. These are stretched in time to integrator. Blanking and retrace circuitry
form a slow -scan signal which modulates are excited at this point and the pulses drive
the audio subcarrier to produce the camera multivibrators which supply the deflection
output. The slow -scan pulses are generated signals to the picture tube.
by a sync generator, with the horizontal
frequency scanning rate obtained by count- A Slow -Sean The block diagram of a mod-
down from the 60 -Hz power line fre- TV Monitor ern SSTV monitor is shown
quency. Normal scan time for a complete in figure 3 SB. This device is
picture is 8 seconds. designed to be used in conjunction with a
Fast -scan video information may be SSB receiver or transmitter. Image band-
taken from the camera to provide a picture width is limited to 2 kHz to be compatible
on a viewfinder that displays motion. This with the narrow SSB filters and a complete
14.26 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 33
OUTPUT
CONDITIONING
BLANKING
15 Hz
-T- SYNC
lI8 Hz
FRAME SAW COMPARATOR
AMP INJECTION
4kHz 15 Hz
60 Hz FRAME PULSE
I. OSC ILLATOR DIVIDER GENERATOR
114 o o 1 2
FULL
DIVIDE BY 4
4 kHz
OSCILLATOR
4 kHz
PULSE GEN
4
SAW GEN
kHz
-y 4kHz
DEFLECTION -
SYNC
15 Hz
PULSE GEN
15 Hz
SAW GEN
15 Hz
DEFLECT ION
-.x
picture is transmitted every 8 seconds. A ployed to retain the picture during the time
long -persistence cathode -ray tube is em- it is "painted," line by line.
SPECIALIZED AMATEUR COMMUNICATIONS 14.27
CRT
5UP7
SSTV
AUDIO
I NPUT AMPLIFIER
LIMITER
DETECTOR
AND
FILTER
a VIDEO
AMPLIFIER
O
SYNC.
SEPARATOR
- VERTICAL
SYNC.
ISC LLATOR
I
HORIZON.
SYNC.
VER
I,IPLI FIE R
NORIZON.
MLIFIER
OSCILLATOR
Figure 34
SSTV RECEIVING ADAPTER
Figure 35
LED
TUNING
INDICATOR
INPUT FM VIDEO
LIMITER AMPLIFIER
DISCRIMINATOR
PHASE LOCKED
OSC ILLATOR
HORIZONTAL
DEFLECTION
AMPLIFIER
rr SWEEP FAILURE
PROTECTION
VERTICAL
INTEGRATOR
DEFLECTION
AND GATE
AMPLIFIER
/
APERTURE
PHOTOTUBE
a cylinder which is rotated about its axis CONDENSER LENS
*MOTION OF
while a light spot is projected on the image. LAMP OPTICAL SYSTEM
The light reflected from the image is fo-
cused on a photomultiplier tube whose out- Figure 37
put is a function of the varying light
intensity reflected from the image on the FACSIMILE SCANNING SYSTEM
drum. As the drum is turned, the photo-
electric tube is moved slowly by a lead Material to be transmitted is placed on a re-
volving drum. A scanning spot of light explores
screw causing a slight separation of the the area of the subject material. The light is
scanning lines, much in the manner of focused on the drum and the reflection is
picked up by a photocell. The optical system
operation of a stereo pickup head on a rec- moves along the axis of the revolving drum to
ord (figure 37). provide coverage of the subject by the scanner.
SPECIALIZED AMATEUR COMMUNICATIONS 14.29
brightness of the scanned picture elements tal impulses for initiating the motion of the
conveyed by the camera signal; (2) the scanning spot along each horizontal line and
blanking of the scanning signal at the re- vertal impulses for initiating motion of the
ceiver during the retrace motions, by the scanning spot vertically at the beginning of
blanking level, or pedestal of the signal; and each field.
(3) the synchronization of the scanning
signal by the vertical and horizontal syn- ATV Reception Since ATV standards are the
chronization signals. When the video signal same as commercial TV, the
is imposed on the carrier wave, the envelope least expensive reception technique is to
of the modulated carrier constitutes the make use of a conventional black -and-
video signal waveform. white TV receiver, in conjunction with a
The portion of the carrier envelope below 432 -MHz converter. Tunable converters
the black level is called the camera signal are in general use, as opposed to a crystal -
and polarity of transmission is negative, controlled converter, as it is desirable to be
that is, increased light on the camera results able to tune off to one side of the ATV
in a decrease in carrier amplitude. The maxi- carrier to obtain the clearest picture con-
mum white level is 15 percent or less of sistent with local interference and the shape
maximum carrier amplitude. of the receiver passband. Since amateur TV
The synchronizing pulses are above the transmits both sidebands, instead of one as
black level (in the infrablack region) and is done in commercial practice, it is con-
do not produce light in the received image. venient to be able to tune to either sideband
The synchronizing signals contain horizon- for best reception.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Amplitude Modulation
and Audio Processing
When voice, music, video, or other intelli- component does not vary. Also, as long as
gence is superimposed on a radio frequency the amplitude of the modulating voltage
carrier by means of a corresponding variation does not vary, the amplitude of the sidebands
in the amplitude of the radio frequency out- will remain constant. For this to be apparent,
put of a transmitter, amplitude modulation however, it is necessary to measure the am-
is the result. Telegraph keying of a c -w plitude of each component with a highly
transmitter is the simplest form of amplitude selective filter. Otherwise, the measured
modulation, while video modulation in a
television transmitter represents a highly
complex form.
Low-level amplitude modulation (a -m) is
OT
1. l 1l' JJ U l I 6;9
J
C.W. OR UNMODULATED CARRIER
I
-I A
ZA/2
A/
50% MODULATED CARRIER
15-1 Sidebands
A
Modulation is essentially a form of mixing,
or combining, already covered in a previous A
O
chapter. To transmit voice at radio frequen-
cies by means of amplitude modulation, the ÛV
ovv- A
A
voice frequencies are mixed with a radio - 00% MODULATED CARRIER
frequency carrier so that the voice frequen-
cies are converted to radio-frequency side -
bands. Figure 1
15.1
15.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
multiple frequencies, as is the case with to a value of twice the unmodulated carrier
voice or music modulation, two sidebands wave amplitude because the amplitude can-
will be formed by each modulating frequen- not go below zero on downward portions of
cy (one on each side of the carrier), and the modulation cycle. Figure 1D illustrates
the radiated signal will consist of a band of the maximum obtainable distortionless mod-
frequencies. The bandwidth, or channel, taken ulation with a sine modulating wave, the r -f
up in the frequency spectrum by a conven- voltage at the peak of the r -f cycle varying
tional double -sideband amplitude- modulated from zero to twice the unmodulated value,
signal, is equal to twice the highest modu- and the r-f power varying from zero to four
lating frequency. For example, if the highest times the unmodulated value (the power
modulating frequency is 5000 Hz, then the varies as the square of the voltage) .
signal (assuming modulation of complex and While the average r -f voltage of the mod-
varying waveform) will occupy a band ex- ulated wave over a modulation cycle is the
tending from 5000 Hz below the carrier to same as for the unmodulated carrier, the
5000 Hz above the carrier. average power increases with modulation. If
Frequencies up to at least 2000 Hz, and the radio- frequency power is integrated over
preferably 2500 Hz, are necessary for good the audio cycle, it will be found with 100
speech intelligibility. If a filter is incorpo- percent sine-wave modulation the average r -f
rated in the audio system to cut out all fre- power has increased 50 percent. This addi-
quencies above approximately 2500 Hz, the tional power is represented by the sidebands,
bandwidth of an a -m signal can be limited because, as previously mentioned, the carrier
to 5 kHz without a significant loss in intel- power does not vary under modulation.
ligibility. However, if harmonic distortion is Thus, when a 100 -watt carrier is modulated
introduced subsequent to the filter, as would 100 percent by a sine wave, the total r -f
happen in the case of an overloaded modula- power is 150 watts -100 watts in the carrier
tor or overmodulation of the carrier, new and 25 watts in each of the two sidebands.
frequencies will be generated and the signal
will occupy a band wider than 5 kHz.
Modulation So long as the relative propor-
Percentage tion of the various sidebands
15 -2 Mechanics of making up voice modulation is
Modulation maintained, the signal may be received and
detected without distortion. However, the
A c -w or unmodulated r -f carrier wave is higher the average amplitude of the side-
represented in figure 1A. An audio- frequency bands, the greater the audio signal produced
sine wave is represented by the curve of at the receiver. For this reason it is desirable
figure 1B. When the two are combined or to increase the modulation percentage, or de-
"mixed," the carrier is said to be amplitude gree of modulation, to the point where maxi-
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND AUDIO PROCESSING 15.3
mum peaks just hit 100 percent. If the and Emin is the minimum amplitude; E,. , .
The use of the proper polarity of the in- ative peak modulation indicator (figure 3)
coming speech wave in modulating a trans- can be used to monitor this form of clipping.
mitter can allow a useful increase in the av-
erage level of intelligence that may be placed
on the signal. If the modulating amplitude
15 -3 Systems of Amplitude
is adjusted so that the peak downward (neg- Modulation
ative) modulation is held to 100 percent, or There are many different systems and
less, the peak upward (positive) modulation
methods for amplitude-modulating a carrier,
may reach a greater value. If the modulation
but most may be grouped under three gen-
envelope reproduces the waveform of the
eral classifications: (1) variable -efficiency
modulating signal, there is no distortion. In
systems in which the average input to the
broadcast practice, positive peak modulation
as high as 125 percent is achieved with ac-
stage remains constant with and without
ceptable distortion.
modulation and the variations in the effi-
ciency of the stage in accordance with the
Overmodulation
modulating signal accomplish the modula-
If the peak negative modu- tion; (2) constant -efficiency systems in
lation level is too great, a which the input to the stage is varied by an
period of time will exist during which the external source of modulating energy to ac-
instantaneous voltage applied to the modu- complish the modulation; and (3) so- called
lated stage is zero, or negative, and the stage high -efficiency systems in which circuit com-
is cut off. The shape of the modulation en- plexity is increased to obtain high plate -
velope is then no longer accurately repro-
circuit efficiency in the modulated stage
duced and the modulation is distorted. This
without the requirement of an external high -
condition is called overmodulation and re-
level modulator. The various systems under
sults in the creation of new, additional side
each classification have individual character-
frequencies generated on both sides of the
istics which make certain ones best suited to
carrier. These spurious frequencies widen the
sidebands of the signal and can cause severe
particular applications.
adjacent channel interference termed splatter.
The splatter is a direct consequence of Variable -EfficiencySince the average input
Modulation remains constant in a
clipping the r -f waveform at the zero axis
during peaks of negative modulation. A neg- stage employing variable -
ro efficiency modulation, and since the average
MODULATED power output of the stage increases with
AMPLIFIER
modulation, the additional average power
output from the stage with modulation must
come from the plate dissipation of the tubes
in the stage. Thus, for the best relation be-
MODULATORI
tween tube cost and power output, the tubes
employed should have as high a plate dissi-
pation rating per unit cost as possible.
The plate efficiency in such an amplifier
001
is doubled when going from the unmodu-
lated condition to the peak of the modula-
tion cycle. As a result, the unmodulated ef-
B = ficiency of such an amplifier must always be
I_-
less than 40 percent, since the maximum
Figure 3 peak efficiency obtainable in a conventional
NEGATIVE PEAK OVERMODULATION amplifier is in the vicinity of 80 percent.
INDICATOR Since the peak efficiency in certain types of
amplifiers will be as low as 60 percent, the
The milliammeter will show a reading on mod- unmodulated efficiency in such amplifiers will
ulation peaks that carry the instantaneous volt-
age on the plate -modulated amplifier below be in the vicinity of 30 percent.
zero. Bias voltage (B) may be adjusted to pro. There are many systems of efficiency mod-
vide indication of negative modulation peaks of
any value below 100 percent. ulation, but they all have the general lim-
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND AUDIO PROCESSING 15.5
r ~f
te
a presents approximately a square -law imped-
ance to the modulating signal over the region
of signal excursion where the screen is posi-
tive with respect to ground.
6J5, ETC. STEPUP 6L6
MIDGET CHOKE
2SK 10w
in,pl (To
.025 4711
Figure 5
2A3 5Y3G
CATHODE-FOLLOWER
SCREEN -MODULATION CIRCUIT
325 325 V.
V.
Another factor which must be considered
QQD00, in the design of a screen- modulated stage, if
i20
f 060
SMALL O-O MA.
full modulation is to be obtained, is that the
8 C TRANSFORMER power output of a screen -grid stage with
zero screen voltage is still relatively large.
Figure 4 Thus, if anything approaching full modu-
lation or. negative peaks is to be obtained,
GRID -BIAS MODULATOR CIRCUIT the screen potential must be made negative
with respect to ground on negative modula-
The modulation obtained in this way is not tion peaks. In the usual types of beam
especially linear as the impedance of the tetrode tubes the screen potential must be
screen grid with respect to the modulating 20 to SO volts negative with respect to
signal is nonlinear. However, screen-grid ground before cutoff of output is obtained.
modulation does offer other advantages and This condition further complicates the prob-
the linearity is quite adequate for communi- lem of obtaining good linearity in the audio
cations work. modulating voltage for the screen -modulated
A screen -grid modulated r -f amplifier op- stage, since the screen voltage must be driven
erates as an efficiency- modulated amplifier, negative with respect to ground over a
the same as does a class -B linear amplifier and portion of the cycle.
a grid -modulated stage. The plate circuit The cathode -follower modulator circuit of
loading is relatively critical as in any effi- figure 5 is capable of giving good quality
ciency- modulated stage, and must be ad- screen -grid modulation, and in addition the
justed to the correct value if normal power circuit provides convenient adjustments for
output with full modulation capability is to the carrier level and the output level on
be obtained. As in the case of any efficiency - negative modulation peaks. This latter con-
modulated stage, the operating efficiency at trol (P_), allows the amplifier to be ad-
the peak of the modulation cycle will be justed in such a manner that negative -peak
between 70 and 80 percent, with efficiency clipping cannot take place, yet the negative
at the carrier level (if the stage is operating modulation peaks may be adjusted to a level
in the normal manner with full carrier) just above that at which sideband splatter
about half of the peak- modulation value. will occur.
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND AUDIO PROCESSING 15.7
The voltage applied to the plate of the rated plate dissipation of the stage. It is im-
cathode follower should be about 100 volts portant that the input to the screen grid be
greater than the rated screen voltage for the measured to make sure that the rated screen
tetrode tube as a c -w class -C amplifier. dissipation of the tube is not being exceeded.
Then potentiometer (P1) in figure 4 should Then the audio signal is applied to the sup-
be adjusted until the carrier -level screen pressor grid. In the normal application the
voltage on the modulated stage is about one- audio voltage swing on the suppressor will
half the rated screen voltage specified for be somewhat greater than the negative bias
the tube as a class -C c -w amplifier. The on the element. Suppressor-grid current will
current taken by the screen of the modu- flow on modulation peaks, so that the source
lated tube under carrier conditions will be of audio signal voltage must have good
about one - fourth the normal screen current regulation.
for c -w operation.
-
0 MA.
called plate - modulation systems) and those
Is= P.70 MA.
44M systems in which the additional power to
-1S0V.
6J5 effect modulation is supplied as direct cur-
2:1 STCPUP +1100 V.
rent from the plate supply.
A -F INPUT PEAK SWING FOR FULL
Under the former classification comes
MODULATION' 210 V. Heising modulation (probably the oldest
type of modulation to be applied to a con-
tinuous carrier), class -B plate modulation,
+300V -210V.
and cathode modulation. These types of mod-
Figure 6 ulation are by far the easiest to get into
AMPLIFIER WITH SUPPRESSOR -GRID operation, and they give a very good ratio
MODULATION of power input to the modulated stage to
Recommended operating conditions for linear
power output; 65 to 80 percent efficiency
suppressor -grid modulation of a 4E27/5-125B is the general rule.
stage are given on the drawing. Modulation systems coming under the
In tuning a suppressor-grid modulated second classification have been widely ap-
plied to broadcast work. There are quite
amplifier, the grid bias, grid current, screen
a few systems in this class. Two of the more
voltage, and plate voltage are about the
same as for class -C c -w operation of the widely used are the Doherty linear amplifier,
stage. But the suppressor grid is biased and the Terman- Woodyard high -efficiency
negatively to a value which reduces the grid -modulated amplifier. Both systems oper-
plate- circuit efficiency to about one -half the ate by virtue of a carrier amplifier and a
maximum obtainable from the particular peak amplifier connected together by elec-
amplifier, with antenna coupling adjusted trical quarter -wave lines. They will be de-
until the plate input is about 1.5 times the scribed later in this section.
15.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
Plate Plate modulation is the appli- The average power output of the modula-
Modulation cation of the audio power to tor will depend on the type of waveform. If
the plate circuit of an r -f am- the amplifier is being Heising modulated by
plifier. The r-f amplifier must be operated a class -A stage, the modulator must have an
class C for this type of modulation in order average power output capability of one -half
to obtain a radio- frequency output which the input to the class -C stage. If the mod-
changes in exact accord with the variation ulator is a class -B audio amplifier, the aver-
in plate voltage. The r-f amplifier is 100 age power required of it may vary from
Percent modulated when the beak ac voltage one -quarter to more than one -half the class -
from the modulator is equal to the dc volt- C input depending on the waveform. How-
age applied to the r -f tube. The positive ever, the peak power output of any modu-
peaks of audio voltage increase the instan- lator must be equal to the class-C input to
taneous plate voltage on the r-f tube to twice be modulated.
the dc value, and the negative peaks reduce
the voltage to zero. Heising Heising modulation is the old-
The instantaneous plate current to the r -f Modulation est system of plate modulation,
stage also varies in accord with the modu- and usually consists of a class -A
lating voltage. The peak alternating current audio amplifier coupled to the r-f amplifier
in the output of a modulator must be equal by means of a modulation choke, as shown
to the dc plate current of the class -C r -f in figure 7.
stage at the point of 100 percent modula- The dc plate voltage and plate current of
tion. This combination of change in audio the r -f amplifier must be adjusted to a value
voltage and current can be most easily re- which will cause the plate impedance to
ferred to in terms of audio power in watts. match the output of the modulator, since
In a sinusoidally modulated wave, the an- the modulation choke gives a 1 -to -1 cou-
tenna current increases approximately 22 pling ratio. A series resistor, bypassed for
percent for 100 percent modulation with a audio frequencies by means of a capacitor,
pure tone input; an r-f meter in the antenna must be connected in series with the plate of
circuit indicates this increase in antenna cur-
rent. The average power of the r-f wave in- MODULATED CLASS -C
R-F AMPLI FIER
the r-f amplifier to obtain modulation up to sine wave. This is due to the high harmonic
100 percent. The peak output voltage of a content of such waveform, and to the fact
class -A amplifier does not reach a value equal that this high harmonic content manifests
to the dc voltage applied to the amplifier itself by making the wave unsymmetrical
and, consequently, the dc plate voltage im- and causing sharp peaks of high energy con-
pressed across the r -f tube must be reduced tent to appear. Thus for unclipped speech,
to a value equal to the maximum available the average modulator plate current, plate
ac peak voltage if 100; modulation is to dissipation, and power output are approx-
be obtained. imately one -half the sine wave values for a
given peak output power.
Class -B High -level class -B plate For 100 percent modulation, the peak
Plate Modulation modulation is the least ex- (instantaneous) audio power must equal the
pensive method of plate class -C input, although the average power
modulation. Figure 8 shows a conventional for this value of peak varies widely depend-
class -B plate -modulated class -C amplifier. ing on the modulation waveform, being
The statement that the modulator output greater than 50 percent for speech that has
power must be one -half the class -C input for been clipped and filtered, 5 0 percent for a
100 percent modulation is correct only if sine wave, and about 2 S percent for typical
the waveform of the modulating power is a unclipped speech tones.
sine ware. Where the modulator waveform
is unclipped speech waveforms, the average
modulator power for 100 percent modulation Plate- and-Screen When only the plate of a
is considerably less than one -half the class -C Modulation tetrode tube is modulated,
input. it is difficult to obtain
CLASS -C
AMPLIFIER
high -percentage linear modulation under
ordinary conditions. The plate current of
such a stage is not linear with plate voltage.
However, if the screen is modulated simul-
taneously with the plate, the instantaneous
screen voltage drops in proportion to the
drop in the plate voltage, and linear modula-
tion can then be obtained. Two satisfactory
CLASS -e
MODULATOR circuits for accomplishing combined plate
and screen modulation are shown in figure 9.
The screen r -f bypass capacitor (C_)
should not have a greater value than 0.005
¡IF, preferably not larger than 0.001 µF. It
should be large enough to bypass effectively
all r-f voltage without short -circuiting high -
frequency audio voltages. The plate bypass
capacitor can be of any value from 0.002
MOO. +0 R-P +0 /IF to 0.005 p.F. The screen- dropping re-
sistor (R,) should reduce the applied high
Figure 8
voltage to the value specified for operating
CLASS -B PLATE MODULATION the particular tube in the circuit.
This type of modulation is the most flexible in
Figure 9B shows another method which
that the loading adjustment can be made in a uses a third winding on the modulation
short period of time and without elaborate test transformer, through which the screen grid
equipment after a change in operating fre-
quency of the class -C amplifier has been made. is connected to a low- voltage power supply.
The ratio of turns between the two output
Power Relations in It has been determined windings depends on the type of screen -grid
Speech Waveforms experimentally that the tube which is being modulated. Normally it
ratio of peak -to- average will be such that the screen voltage is being
power in a speech waveform is approximately modulated 60 percent when the plate voltage
4 to 1 as contrasted to a ratio of 2 to 1 in a is receiving 100 percent modulation.
15.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
8+ 8+
e+ S.G. 8+
Figure 9
15 -5 The Doherty and the circuits of the two tubes. This line is de-
signed to have a characteristic impedance of
Terma n-Woodya rd one-half the value of load into which the
Modulated Amplifiers carrier tube operates under the carrier con-
These two amplifiers will be described to- ditions. Then a load of one -half the charac-
teristic impedance of the quarter -wave line
gether since they operate on very similar
is coupled into the output. It is known that a
principles. Figure 10 shows a greatly simpli-
fied schematic diagram of the operation of
quarter -wave line will vary the impedance
at one end of the line in such a manner that
both types. Both systems operate by virtue
the geometric mean between the two ter-
of a carrier tube, (V1 in both figures 10 and
minal impedances will be equal to the charac-
11) which supplies the unmodulated carrier,
teristic impedance of the line. Thus, if a
and whose output is reduced to supply neg- value of load of one -half the characteristic
ative peaks, and a peak tube, (V_) whose
impedance of the line is placed at one end,
function is to supply approximately half the the other end of the line will present a value
positive peak of the modulation cycle and of twice the characteristic impedance of the
whose additional function is to lower the
lines to carrier tube V,.
load impedance on the carrier tube so that This is the situation that exists under the
it will be able to supply the other half of carrier conditions when the peak tube merely
the positive peak of the modulation cycle. floats across the load end of the line and
- %RD
ELECTRICAL A/4
LIME Zo-R contributes no power. Then as a positive
o- 1-t-
V2
peak of modulation comes along, the peak
tube starts to contribute power to the load
LOAD
2 until at the peak of the modulation cycle it
is contributing enough power so that the
impedance at the load end of the line is equal
to R, instead of the R/2 that is presented
Figure 10 under the carrier conditions. This is true
DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF because at a positive modulation peak (since
THE DOHERTY LINEAR it is delivering full power) the peak tube
subtracts a negative resistance of R/2 from
The peak tube is able to increase the the load end of the line.
output of the carrier tube by virtue of an Now, since under the peak condition of
impedance-inverting line between the plate modulation the load end of the line is termi-
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND AUDIO PROCESSING 15.11
nated in R ohms instead of R /2, the imped- ciency, while the peak tube again is biased
ance at the carrier -tube will be reduced from so that it draws almost no plate current.
2R ohms to R ohms. This again is due to the Unmodulated r -f is applied to the grid cir-
impedance -inverting action of the line. Since cuits of the two tubes and the modulating
the load resistance on the carrier tube has voltage is inserted in series with the fixed
been reduced to half the carrier value, its bias voltages. From one -half to two- thirds
output at the peak of the modulation cycle as much audio voltage is required at the grid
will be doubled. Thus the necessary condi- of the peak tube as is required at the grid
tion for a 100 percent modulation peak ex- of the carrier tube.
ists and the amplifier will deliver four times
as much power as it does under the carrier
conditions.
On negative modulation peaks the peak L, p
tube does not contribute; the output of the 1
carrier tube is reduced until, on a 100 per-
cent negative peak, its output is zero.
EXCITA-
TION
c,1
DIAS l- La
/ slAS v
The Electrical While an electrical quarter -
Quarter -Wave wave line (consisting of a pi ppo
L20
Line network with the inductance e TO
ANT.
and capacitance units having
a reactance equal to the characteristic im-
a
r
pedance of the line) does have the desired
impedance-inverting effect, it also has the
undesirable effect of introducing a 90° phase Figure 11
shift across such a line. If the shunt elements
are capacitances, the phase shift across the SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC OF A
"HIGH- EFFICIENCY" AMPLIFIER
line lags by 90 °; if they are inductances, the
phase shift leads by 90 °. Since there is an The basic system, comprising a "carrier" tube
(V,) and a "peak" tube (Vi) interconnected by
undesirable phase shift of 90° between the lumped- constant quarter -wave lines, is the same
plate circuits of the carrier and peak tubes, for either grid -bias modulation or for use as a
an equal and opposite phase shift must be linear amplifier of a modulated wave.
introduced in the exciting voltage of the
grid circuits of the two tubes so that the Operating The resting carrier efficiency of
resultant output in the plate circuit will be Efficiencies the grid -modulated amplifier
in phase. This additional phase shift has been may run as high as is obtain-
indicated in figure 10 and a method of ob- able in any class -C stage -80 percent or
taining it has been shown in figure 11. better. The resting carrier efficiency of the
linear will be about as good as is obtainable
Comparison Between The difference between in any class -B amplifier -60 to 70 percent.
Doherty and Terman- the Doherty linear am- The overall efficiency of the bias -modulated
Woodyard Ampliers plifier and the Terman- amplifier at 100 percent modulation will run
Woodyard grid - modu- about 75 percent; of the linear-about 60
lated amplifier is the same as the difference percent.
between any linear and grid- modulated In figure 11 the plate tank circuits are de-
stages. Modulated r -f is applied to the grid tuned enough to give an effect equivalent to
circuit of the Doherty linear amplifier with the shunt elements of the quarter-wave
the carrier tube biased to cutoff and the "line" of figure 10. At resonance, coils L1
peak tube biased to the point where it draws and L_ in the grid circuits of the two tubes
substantially zero plate current at the carrier have each an inductive reactance equal to
condition. the capacitive reactance of capacitor C,.
In the Terman- Woodyard grid- modulated Thus we have the effect of a pi network
amplifier the carrier tube runs class -C with consisting of shunt inductances and series
comparatively high bias and high plate effi- capacitance. In the plate circuit we want a
15.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
phase shift of the same magnitude but in Such clipping theoretically can be accom-
the opposite direction; so our series element plished simply by increasing the modulation
is inductance L:, whose reactance is equal to until the average level of loud syllables ap-
the characteristic impedance desired of the proaches 90 percent. This is equivalent to in-
network. Then the plate tank capacitors of creasing the speech power of the consonant
the two tubes (C., and C:,) are increased an sounds by about 10 times or, conversely, that
amount past resonance, so that they have a of 10 dB of clipping has been applied to the
capacitive reactance equal to the inductive voice wave. However, the clipping when ac-
reactance of the coil L:,. It is quite important complished in this manner will produce
that there be no coupling between the in- higher order sidebands known as "splatter,"
ductors. and the transmitted signal would occupy a
relatively tremendous spectrum width. So
Other High-EfficiencyMany other high -effi- another method of accomplishing the desir-
Modulation Systems ciency modulation sys- able effects of clipping must be employed.
tems have been de- A considerable reduction in the amount of
scribed since about 1936. The majority of splatter caused by a moderate increase in the
these, however, have received little applica- gain of the speech amplifier can be obtained
tion either by commercial interests or by by phasing the signal from the speech ampli-
amateurs. Nearly all of these circuits have fier to the amplitude- modulated transmitter
been published in the Proceedings of the such that the high-intensity peak occurs
IRE (now IEEE) and the interested reader on upward or positive modulation. Over-
can refer to them in back copies of that loading on positive modulation peaks pro-
journal. duces less splatter than the negative-peak
clipping which occurs with overloading on
15 -6 Speech Clipping the negative peaks of modulation. This
aspect of the problem has been discussed in
Speech waveforms are characterized by more detail in the section on Speech Wave-
frequently recurring high -intensity peaks of form Dissymmetry earlier in this chapter.
very short duration. These peaks will cause The effect of deriving proper speech polarity
overmodulation if the average level of mod- from the speech amplifier is shown in fig-
ulation on loud syllables exceeds approxi- ure 12.
mately 30 percent. Careful checking into the A much more desirable and effective meth-
nature of speech sounds has revealed that od of obtaining speech clipping is actually to
these high -intensity peaks are due primarily employ a clipper circuit in the earlier stages
to the vowel sounds. Further research has of the speech amplifier, and then to filter out
revealed that the vowel sounds add little to the objectionable distortion components by
intelligibility, the major contribution to in- means of a sharp low -pass filter having a
telligibility coming from the consonant cutoff frequency of approximately 3000 Hz.
sounds such as y, b, k, s, t, and 1. Measure- Tests on clipper -filter speech systems have
ments have shown that the power contained shown that 6 dB of clipping on voice is just
in these consonant sounds may be down 30 noticeable, 12 dB of clipping is quite accept-
dB or more from the energy in the vowel able, and values of clipping from 20 to 25
sounds in the same speech passage. Obvious- dB are tolerable under such conditions that a
ly, then, if we can increase the relative en- high degree of clipping is necessary to get
ergy content of the consonant sounds with through heavy interference. A signal with
respect to the vowel sounds it will be possi- 12 dB of clipping doesn't sound quite natu-
ble to understand a signal modulated with ral but it is not unpleasant to listen to and
such a waveform in the presence of a much is much more readable than an unclipped
higher level of background noise acid inter- signal in presence of strong interference.
ference. Experiment has shown that it is The use of a clipper -filter in the speech
possible to accomplish this desirable result amplifier of an a -m transmitter, to be com-
simply by cutting off or clipping the high - pletely effective, requires that phase shift be-
intensity peaks and thus building up in a tween the clipper -filter stage and the final
relative manner the effective level of the modulated amplifier be kept to a minimum.
weaker sounds. However, if there is phase shift after the
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND AUDIO PROCESSING 15.13
Figure 12
SPEECH -WAVEFORM
AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
Showing the effect of using the 100% NEG MOOULATION
proper polarity of a speech wave
for modulating an a -m transmit-
ter. A shows the effect of oroper
speech polarity on a transmitter
having an upward modulation cap-
ability of greater than 100 percent.
B shows the effect of using proper
speech polarity on a transmitter AVERAGE LEVEL
having an upward modulation cao-
ability of only 100 percent. Both
these conditions will give a clean
signal without objectionable splat-
ter. C shows the effect of the use 100% NEG. MODULATION
of improper speech polarity. This
condition will cause serious splat-
ter due to negative -peak clipping 100 % POS. MODULATION
in the modulated -amplifier stage.
AVERAGE LEVEL
clipper -filter the system does not completely 2. I m prof cthe low- frequency response
break down. The presence of phase shift characteristic insofar as it is possible in
merely requires that the audio gain follow- the stages following the clipper -filter.
ing the clipper -filter be reduced to the point If a cathode -ray oscilloscope is available
where the cant apparent on the clipped speech the modulated envelope of the a -m transmit-
waves still cannot cause overmodulation. ter should be checked with 30- to 70 -Hz
This effect is illustrated in figures 13 and 14. sawtooth waves on the horizontal axis. If the
The cant appearing on the tops of the upper half of the envelope appears in general
square waves leaving the clipper -filter centers the same as the drawing of figure 13C, all is
about the clipping level. Hence, as the fre- well and phase -shift is not excessive. How-
quency being passed through the system is ever, if much more slope appears on the tops
lowered, the amount by which the peak of
the canted wave exceeds the clipping level of the waves than is illustrated in this figure,
it will be well to apply the second step in
is increased.
compensation in order to ensure that side -
band splatter cannot take place and to af-
Phase -Shift Ina normal a -m transmitter
ford a still higher average percentage of
Correction having a moderate amount of modulation. This second step consists of the
phase shift the cant applied to addition of a high -level splatter suppressor
the tops of the waves will cause overmodu- such as is illustrated in figure IS.
lation on frequencies below those for which The use of a high -level splatter suppressor
the gain following the clipper -filter has been after a clipper -filter system will afford the
adjusted unless remedial steps have been result shown in figure 16 since such a device
taken. The following steps are advised: will not permit the negative -peak clipping
1. Introduce bass suppression into the which the wave cant caused by audio- system
speech amplifier ahead of the clipper - phase shift can produce. The high -level splat-
filter. ter suppressor operates by virtue of the fact
15.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 13
AVEP AGE LEVEL
ACTION OF A CLIPPER -
NEGATIVE CLIPPING LEVEL FILTER ON A SPEECH WAVE
Drawing A shows the incoming
speech wave before it reaches the
clipper stage. B shows the output
of the clipper -filter, illustrating the
manner in which the peaks are
INCOMING SPEECH WAVE clipped and then the sharp edges
of the clipped wave removed by
the filter. C shows the effect of
phase shift in the stages follow-
ing the clipper -filter and the man-
P_OSITIVECUPPING_ LEV( L ner in which the a -m transmitter
may be adjusted for 100 -percent
modulation of the "canted" peaks
AVERAGE LEVEL of the wave, the sloping top of
the wave reaching about 70%
NEGATIVE CLIPPING LEVEL modulation.
CLIPPED AND FILTERED SPEECH WAVE
AVERAGE LEVEL
70 % NEGATIVE MODULATION
100 NE TIVE TION
MODULATED WAVE AFTER UNDERGOING PHASE SHIFT
Figure 14
J ILLUSTRATING THE EFFECT OF PHASE
3000% WAVE SHIFT AND FILTERED WAVES OF
DIFFERENT FREQUENCY
Sketch A shows the effect of a clipper and a
filter having a cutoff of about 3500 Hz on a
wave of 3000 Hz. Note that no harmonics are
present in the wave so that phase shift follow-
ing the clipper -filter will have no significant
effect on the shape of the wave. B and C show
the effect of phase shift on waves well below
the cutoff frequency of the filter. Note that the
10001. WAVE
"cant" placed on the top of the wave causes
the peak value to rise higher and higher above
the clipping level as the frequency is lowered.
It is for this reason that bass suppression be-
fore the clipper stage is desirable. Improved
low- frequency response following the clipper -
filter will reduce the phase shift and therefore
the "canting" of the wave at the lower voice
frequencies.
300 1. WAVE
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND AUDIO PROCESSING 15.15
r
PLATO - MODULATED
FIL. TRANS.
CLASS -C AMPLIFIER
7200 -10 000 OHMS
in the clipping process. A simple RC low -
INSULATED
FOR M.V.
LOAD
pass filter starts to round -off the waveform
at about 2.5 kHz. The output level of
4./3 MOD. 120 4a R -F FINAL about 0.5 volt peak -to -peak is ample to
drive most speech amplifiers with gain to
Figure 15 spare. The degree of clipping is adjusted by
HIGH -LEVEL A -M SPLATTER variation of the microphone level in con-
SUPPRESSOR junction with the proper setting of the gain
This circuit is effective in reducing splatter
potentiometer.
caused by negative -peak clipping in the mod- The circuit of figure 18 has an adjust
ulated amplifier stage. The use of a two -section clipping control in addition to the adjust
filter as shown is recommended, although either ,gain potentiometer. The gain control deter-
a single m- derived or a constant -k section may
be used for greater economy. Suitable chokes, mines the modulation level of the transmit-
along with recommended capacitor values, are ter. This control should be set so that over-
available from several manufacturers.
modulation is impossible, regardless of the
that it will not permit the plate voltage on amount of clipping used. Once the gain
the modulated amplifier to go completely to control has been set, the clipping control
zero regardless of the incoming signal ampli- may be used to set the modulation level
tude. Thus, negative -peak clipping with its to any percentage below 100 percent. As
attendant splatter cannot take place. Such a the modulation level is decreased, more and
device can, of course, also be used in a trans- more clipping is introduced into the circuit,
mitter which does not incorporate a clipper until a full 12 to 14 dB of clipping is used.
filter system. However, the full increase in This means the gain control may be ad-
average modulation level without serious vanced some 12 dB past the point at which
distortion, afforded by the clipper -filter sys- the clipping action started. Clipping action
tem, will not be obtained. should start at about 90- percent modulation
when a sine wave is used for circuit adjust-
Clipper
ment purposes. In all cases, the use of a
Two effective low -level clipper cir- monitor oscilloscope to adjust clipping level
Circuits cuits are shown in figures 17 and is highly recommended.
18. The circuit of figure 17 is tran-
sistorized, with a modified input circuit suit- High -Level Even though all frequencies
able for use with high -impedance (crystal) Filters above or 3.5 kHz may be re-
3
microphones having an average output level moved through the use of a filter
of about 10 millivolts, peak -to -peak. Three system such as shown in the circuits of
amplifier stages boost the microphone level figures 17 and 18, higher frequencies may
to about 5 volts peak -to -peak and the out- again be introduced into the modulated
put of the last stage is fed to a double -diode wave by distortion in stages following the
Figure 16
100 A POS MODULATION
ACTION OF HIGH -LEVEL
SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR
A high -level splatter suppressor
may be used in a transmitter with- ERO AXIS
out a clipper-filter to reduce nega-
tive -peak clipping, or such a unit
may be used following a clipper -
filter to allow a higher average
modulation level by eliminating 100 % NEG. MOOULATION
the negative -peak clipping which
the wave cant caused by phase
shift might produce.
-- i SPLATTER- CAUSING
NEGATIVE OVERMOOULATION PEAR
CUT OFF DT "HIGH-LEVEL
.SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR -
15.16 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 17
CHICAGO TRANS
LPF-2 FILTER
TO NEXT
GRID
220 Sea
PEAK OUTPUT APPROX
3V MAX WITH 1208
OF CLIPPING
ADJUST CLIP.
Figure 18
CLIPPER FILTER USING 6AL5 STAGE
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND AUDIO PROCESSING 15.17
J .02
AUDIO
OUT
level of the system and an audio input of
10 mV at the microphone jack will produce
about 10 dB of compression. Rise time is
about 30 mS and release time is about 100
+250
CONTROL. mS, both of which are controlled by the
VOLTAGE IN
1N34A (JO v PEAK) 1 -µF capacitor in the base circuit of the
transistor.
A solid -state compressor /amplifier is shown
in figure 22. It is designed to be used with
a dynamic microphone having an impedance
Figure 20 in the range of 500 to 2000 ohms, and pro-
SPEECH COMPRESSOR FOR USE WITH vides a compression range of approximately
CRYSTAL MICROPHONE 20 dB.
Compression is achieved by change of gain
This basic volume compressor derives control
voltage from a high -level stage in the exist- brought about by variation of the emitter
ing speech amplifier. A signal of about 30 bypass capacitance in the first -stage tran-
volts peak is required to provide up to 20
decibels of compression. Compressor is de- sistor. With the emitter load impedance
signed to be placed between microphone and about twice the value of the collector load,
station amplifier.
and with unbypassed emitter, the first stage
A simple and inexpensive compression gain is about 0.5. In series with the emitter
circuit suitable for amplitude modulation bypass capacitor (CO is a variable resistance
or SSB is shown in figure 21. A two stage composed of a diode network. Control volt-
12AX7 preamplifier is used, the input cir- age derived from the output of the amplifier
cuit of which is shunted with a silicon tran- is applied to the diode which, in effect, isolates
sistor working as a dc amplifier whose gain bypass capacitor C1 from signal voltages,
is inversely proportional to the audio output effectively lowering the stage gain. Maxi-
voltage of the amplifier. The compression mum stage gain is approximately the ratio of
amplifier is suitable for use with a dynamic the collector load resistance (2.7K) to the
15.18 RADIO HANDBOOK
2N1305 2N1305
Figure 22
-220
SOLID -STATE COMPRESSOR
AMPLIFIER FOR
LOW I DYNAMIC MICROPHONE
AUDIO OUT
forward resistance of the cathode control plate -modulated class -C amplifier linear, al-
diode (D,) and minimum stage gain is though such operating conditions will make
about 0.5. more difficult the problem of TVI reduction.
Small coupling capacitors are used be- If this still does not give adequate linearity,
tween amplifier stages to limit the low -fre- the preceding buffer stage may be modulated
quency response of the system. 50 percent or so at the same time and in the
same phase as the final amplifier. The use of
a grid resistor to obtain the majority of the
Boss Suppression Most of the power repre-
bias for a class -C stage will improve its
sented by ordinary speech
(particularly the male voice) lies below 1000 linearity.
Hz. If all frequencies below 400 or 500 Hz
are eliminated or substantially attenuated, 15-8 High Level
there is a considerable reduction in power Modulation
but insignificant reduction in intelligibility.
This means that the speech level may be
increased considerably without overmodula-
Tetrode In regard to the use of tetrodes,
Modulators the advantages of these tubes
tion or overload of the audio system. In
addition, if speech processing is used, atten- have long been noted for use in
uation of the lower audio frequencies before modulators having from 10 to 100 watts
the clipper or compressor will reduce phase output. The 6AQ5, 6L6GC and 6146 tubes
shift and canting of the clipper output. have served well in providing audio power
A simple method of bass suppression is to outputs in this range. The higher-power
reduce the size of the interstage coupling tetrodes such as the 813, and 4 -250A, and
capacitors in a resistance -coupled amplifier. the zero -bias triodes such as the 3 -400Z are
popular as high -level audio amplifiers. The
Modulated -Amplifier The systems described beam tetrodes offer the advantages of low
Distortion in the preceding para- driving power (even down to zero driving
graphs will have no power for many applications) as compared to
effect in reducing a broad signal caused by the high driving -power requirements of the
nonlinearity in the modulated amplifier or usual triode tubes having equivalent power -
in linear- amplifier stages. Even though the output capabilities.
modulating waveform impressed on the
modulated stage may be distortion free, if A High -Power Listed in Table 1 are rep -
the modulated amplifier is nonlinear, distor- Modulator with resentative operating con -
tion will be generated in the amplifier. The Beam Tetrodes ditions for various tetrode
only way in which this type of distortion tubes providing power levels up to 1500
can be corrected is by making the modu- watts of audio. Complete operating data on
lated amplifier more linear. Degenerative these tube types may be obtained from the
feedback which includes the modulated am- manufacturer. Class -AB, operation of the
plifier in the loop will help in this regard. modulator is recommended since it places
Plenty of grid excitation and high grid less demand on the driver stage, and a sim-
bias will go a long way toward making a ple transformer -coupled voltage amplifier
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND AUDIO PROCESSING 15.19
CRYSTAL
MIC. S1
JI 47R
IOLF
450 = 47n
I
..`10LF
45r
Figure 23
Modulators can make use of triodes such 811 -A 1000 0 45-350 7,400 245
as the 811A or 810 tubes with
811 -A 1250 0 50-350 9,200 310
operating plate voltages between 750 and
2500 (Table 2). Because of the grid driving 811 -A 1500 -4.5 32.315 12,400 340
power required, a low- impedance driving 810 2000 -50 60-420 12,000 450
source is necessary for this class of service.
Push -pull, low -p. triodes, such as the 2A3 810 2500 -75 50 -420 17,500 500
Table 1.
Typical Operating Conditions For
Class ABA Tetrode Modulator
Plate Screen Grid P -P Plate Power
Tubes
Volts Volts Bias Load Current Output
V., V2
(El ICI (D) (Ohms) (mA) (Watts)
4 -125A 2500 600 -96 20,300 235 330
type are commonly used as the driver stage. meter when the high- voltage supply is in
A well regulated bias supply for the class -B operation! An audio oscillator should be con-
stage is also required, as the triodes draw nected to the audio input circuit of the ex-
heavy grid current when the grids are driven citer- transmitter and the audio excitation
into the positive region. to the high -level modulator should be in-
creased until the ac voltmeter across the
Modulator When the modulator has been dummy -load resistor indicates an rms read-
Adjustment wired and checked, it should be ing that is equal to 0.7 (70ry) of the plate
tested before being used with voltage applied to the modulator. If the
an r-f unit. A satisfactory test setup is modulator plate voltage is 2500 volts, for
shown in figure 24. A common ground lead example, the ac meter should indicate 1750
should be run between the speech amplifier volts developed across the 600 -ohm dummy -
and the modulator. A number of 1000 -ohm load resistor. This is equivalent to an audio
100 -watt resistors are connected in series and output of 500 watts. Under these conditions,
placed across the high- voltage terminals of the oscilloscope may be used to observe the
the modulator unit to act as an audio load. audio waveform of the modulator when cou-
Bias should be adjusted to show the indicated pled to point "A" through the 10,000 volt
value from grid terminal to ground as mea- coupling capacitor.
sured with a high -resistance voltmeter. If an When the frequency of the audio oscillator
oscilloscope is available, it should be coupled is advanced above 3500 Hz the output level
to point "A" on the load resistor through a of the modulator as measured on the ac
500 -pF ceramic TV capacitor of 10,000 volts voltmeter should drop sharply indicating
rating. The case of the oscilloscope should be that the low -pass audio network is function-
grounded to the common ground point of ing properly (if low -pass network is used).
the modulator.
The listed plate voltage is now applied
to the modulator, and bias is adjusted for 15 -9 Auxiliary Clipper
proper resting plate current. Amplifier
DYNAMIC
OR XTAL
M I C.
100
1
Figure 25
AUXILIARY CLIPPER /AMPLIFIER
-
R
duty cycle of the modulator tube. A square -
PULSE
ULSE N V
wave signal of about 70 kHz is pulse -width
MIA- DURATION DRIVER
MOD /AMP MODU LATOR SUPPLY modulated by the audio signal, whose ampli-
Figure 26
tude causes the symmetry of the square
wave to vary. The audio signal is imposed
GATES PULSE -DURATION on the 70 -kHz square wave train at a low
MODULATION SYSTEM level and the resulting signal is amplified to
The audio signal is combined with a 70 -kHz the modulating level. The square -wave com-
square -wave signal and processed to produce ponent is then filtered out to leave the
a modulated pulse -width modulated train which
is amplified and applied to the cathode of the amplified audio voltage, plus a dc com-
class -C r -f amplifier through a low -pass filter ponent that is the modulated plate voltage
that removes the 70 -kHz signal and its side -
bands. thereby recovering the original audio. for the class -C amplifier. This technique
The modulator tube acts like a variable resist-
ance whose value varies with the amplitude eliminates the need of a modulation trans-
and frequency of the anplied audio signal. The former and modulation choke.
driver stages for the modulator are simple "on "- A block diagram of the Gales VP -100
"off" switches. A damper diode is connected
between the output of the modulator and the pulse- duration modulated a -m transmitter
high -voltage supply to conduct when the modu-
lator does not. is shown in figure 26.
*v 1.11114,19,7
-1
"
'
,
;.
1-
i.
: .r
=4:1 iá.
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
The radio amateur may be the cause, or tion. Unfortunately, this is not being done
the victim, of radio frequency interference at the present time. The burden of RFI,
(RFI) . Equally troublesome is the fact that then, falls mainly upon the radio amateur,
he may be accused of creating RFI for which as he is a visible source of RFI to his neigh-
he is not responsible. bors and -at the same time -uniquely quali-
In 1973 the Federal Communications fied to assist his neighbors in understanding
Commission received over 42,000 complaints and correcting RFI problems.
of RFI. The greater percentage of these in-
volved home -entertainment equipment of
which a large portion had no provision for
protection from nearby r -f energy. Basic 16-1 Television
design deficiencies in most equipment of this Interference
type, therefore, are a cause of a great deal of
the RFI that is reported. Television interference (TVI), while not
Even while only a small proportion of the the problem it was a decade ago, is still an
population lives in the vicinity of a radio annoyance to many viewers. More likely
amateur, the tremendous growth in radio than not, TVI is often blamed on the ama-
communications over the past decade has re- teur, regardless of the cause. Over the years,
sulted in a high density of radio transmitters amateur transmitting equipment has been
in urban and suburban areas. In addition to designed with the idea in mind of reducing
radio amateurs, there are over one million TVI- causing harmonics and spurious emis-
transmitters operating in the Citizens Radio sions and, as a result, modern SSB equipment
Service, in addition to hundreds of thousands is relatively TVI -free. The F.C.C. reports
of transmitters in the Land Mobile Service that over 90 percent of all TVI complaints
and the television and broadcast service. In can be cured only at the TV receiver. If your
addition there are thousands of transmitters own TV set is free of interference from your
in the military, microwave -repeater, and station, it is likely that interference to a
maritime services, all of which could be po- more distant TV receiver at your neighbors'
tential sources of radio frequency interfer- home is not the fault of your equipment.
ence to a poorly designed electronic device. All amateur equipment, however, is not
A second type of prevalent RFI is radio TVI -free and certain precautions must be
noise. Impulse noise generated by a spark taken to make sure that your station does
discharge or by solid -state switching devices not cause interference to nearby television
creates an annoying type of interference that receivers.
can be transmitted for many miles by con-
duction and radiation. A serious form of im- Types of There are two main causes
pulse noise is power line interference, with TV Interference of TVI which may occur
appliance interference as an additional source singly or in combination as
of widespread radio noise. caused by emissions from an amateur trans-
Many of the problems associated with RFI mitter. These causes are:
could be alleviated if there was some control
over spurious r-f emissions and if technical 1. Overload of the television receiver by
standards were set for the protection of elec- the fundamental signal of the trans-
tronic equipment against unwanted radia- mitter.
16.1
16.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
1 1 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
HIGH -PASS TRANSMISSION
LINE FILTERS RESONANT STUB FOR 50 -MHz
PROTECTION
The arrangement of A will stop the passing of
all signals below about 45 MHz from the an-
tenna transmission line into the TV set. Coils A 1/4-wave open stub will provide protection
L, are each 1.2 microhenrys (17 turns No. 24 against a local 50 MHz transmitter. The stub is
enam. closewound on 1/4 -inch dia. polystyrene placed in parallel with the 300 -ohm ribbon line
rod) with the center tap grounded. It will be at the antenna terminals of the TV set. Using
found best to scrape, twist, and solder the line with a velocity of propagation of 0.84, the
center tap before winding the coil. The number line should be about 50 inches long. It is trim-
of turns each side of the tap may then be med a quarter -inch at a time for minimum TVI.
varied until the tap is in the exact center of If it is too short, it will affect reception of TV
the winding. Coil L, is 0.6 microhenry (12 turns channel 2.
No. 24 enam. closewound on 14 -inch dia. poly-
styrene rod). The capacitors should be about Transmission Line Pickup -In
most cases,
16.5 pF, but either 15- or 20 -pF ceramic capaci- the "ribbon line" connecting the antenna to
tors will give satisfactory results. A similar
filter for coaxial antenna transmission line is the television receiver is longer in terms of
shown at B. Both coils should be 0.12 micro - wavelengths than the TV antenna is, espe-
henry (7 turns No. 18 enam. spaced to 1'2 inch
on 1/4 -inch dia. polystyrene rod). Capacitors
cially at the high frequencies represented by
C, should be 75 -pF midget ceramics, while C, the amateur bands up through 6 meters.
should be a 40 -pF ceramic. Thus, the transmission line will actually pick
mounted in holes cut in the interior shields up more energy from a nearby amateur
of the box, if such an assembly is used. Vari- transmitter than will the TV antenna.
ous commercial filters are also available. In- The induced currents flowing in the TV
put and output terminals of the filter may line flow in parallel and in phase, the two -
be standard TV connectors, or the inexpen- wire line acting as a single wire antenna.
sive terminal strips usually employed on Most TV input circuits respond strongly to
"ribbon" lines. such parallel currents and the nearby signal
Operation on the S0 -MHz amateur band at the input circuit of the tuner is much
in an area where TV channel 2 is in use stronger than if the interference were only
imposes a special problem in the matter picked up by the relatively small TV an-
of receiver blocking. High -pass filters of tenna.
the normal type simply are not capable of A solution to this form of overload is to
giving sufficient protection to channel 2 use a shielded transmission line from the an-
from a strong 50 -MHz signal whose fre- tenna to the television receiver. Balanced,
quency is so close to the necessary passband ticinax 300 -ohm line is readily available, or
of the filter. In this case, a resonant circuit coaxial line may be used for an unbalanced
element, such as shown in figure 3 is recom- feed system. In either case, the outer shield
mended to trap out the transmitter signal of the line should be grounded to the TV
at the input of the television set. The stub receiver chassis.
16.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
WF
Figure 4
34
VIDEO
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RADIO INTERFERENCE (RFI)
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16.5
a very serious succession of light and receiver. The home receiver may be bor-
dark bands across the TV picture. rowed for these tests. A portable "rabbit
3. A moderate strength c -w signal with- ears" antenna is useful since it may be
out transients, in the absence of over- moved about the transmitter site to examine
loading of the TV set, will result the intensity of the interfering harmonics.
merely in the turning on and off of The first step is to turn on the transmit-
the herringbone on the picture. ter and check all TV channels to determine
To discuss condition 1 above, the herring- the extent of the interference and the num-
bone is a result of the beat note between the ber of channels affected. Then disconnect
TN' video carrier and the amateur harmonic. the transmitting antenna and substitute a
Hence the higher the beat note the less ob- shielded dummy load, noting the change in
vious will be the resulting crosshatch. Fur- interference level, if any. Now, remove
ther, it has been shown that a much stronger excitation from the final stage of the trans-
signal is required to produce a discernible mitter, and determine the extent of inter-
herringbone when the interfering harmonic ference caused by the exciter stages.
is as far away as possible from the video car- In most cases, it will be found that the
rier, without running into the sound carrier. interference drops materially when the
Thus, as a last resort, or to eliminate the last transmitting antenna is removed and a
vestige of interference after all corrective dummy load substituted. It may also be
measures have been taken, operate the trans- found that the interference level is rela-
mitter on a frequency such that the interfer- tively constant, regardless of the operation
ing harmonic will fall as far as possible from of the output stage of the transmitter. In
the picture carrier. The worst possible inter- rare cases, it may be found that a particular
ference to the picture from a continuous car- stage in the transmitter is causing the inter-
rier will be obtained when the interfering ference and corrective measures may be ap-
signal is very close in frequency to the video plied to this stage. The common case, how-
carrier. ever, is general TVI radiating from antenna,
cabinet, and power leads of the transmitter.
Isolating Throughout the testing pro- The first corrective measure is to properly
the Source of cedure it will be necessary to bypass the transmitter power leads before
the Interference have some sort of indicating they leave the cabinet. Each lead should be
device as a means of deter- bypassed to chassis ground with a .01 -SF,
mining harmonic field intensities. The best 1.6 -kV ceramic capacitor, or run through
indicator, of course, is a nearby television a 0.1 -ttF, 600 -volt feedthrough ( Hypass)
16.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
capacitor. If possible, the transmitter chassis As a result, the majority of low -pass filters
should be connected to an external ground. are designed for a characteristic impedance
The next step is to check transmitter of 50 ohms, so that RG -8 /U cable (or RG-
shielding. Paint should be removed from 58 /U for a small transmitter) may be used
mating surfaces wherever possible and the between the output of the transmitter and
cabinet should be made as "r -f tight" as the antenna transmission line or the antenna
possible in the manner discussed in Chap- tuner.
ter 33. Transmitting-type low -pass filters for
amateur use usually are designed in such a
manner as to pass frequencies up to about
16 -3 Low Pass Filters 30 MHz without attenuation. The nominal
cutoff frequency of the filters is usually be-
After the transmitter has been shielded, tween 38 and 45 MHz, and m- derived sec-
and all power leads have been filtered in such tions with maximum attenuation in channel
a manner that the transmitter shielding has 2 usually are included. Well- designed filters
not been rendered ineffective, the only re- capable of carrying any power level up to
maining available exit for harmonic energy one kilowatt are available commercially from
lies in the antenna transmission line. Thus,
several manufacturers. Alternatively, filters
the main burden of harmonic attenuation in kit form are available from several manu-
will fall on the low -pass filter installed be- facturers at a somewhat lower price. Effec-
tween the output of the transmitter and the tive filters may be home constructed, if the
antenna system. test equipment is available and if sufficient
Experience has shown that the low -pass care is taken in the construction of the as-
filter can best be installed externally to the sembly.
main transmitter enclosure, and that the
transmission line from the transmitter to the Construction of Shown in figure 6 is a sim-
low-pass filter should be of the coaxial type. Low -Pass Filters ple low -pass filter suitable
for home construction. The
SHIELD SHIELD filter provides at least 30 dB attenuation to
all frequencies above 54 MHz when prop-
erly built and adjusted. The filter is built
in a small aluminum utility box measuring
21/4" X 21/4" X 5 ". Two aluminum par-
titions are installed in the box to make three
compartments. Small holes are drilled in the
partition to pass the connecting leads.
The coils are self -supporting and wound
of #14 enamel or formvar covered copper
wire. The ceramic capacitors are bolted to
the side of the box. Since appreciable r -f cur-
rent flows through the capacitors, heavy -
Figure 8 duty ceramic units of the type specified must
be used. In the case of the center capacitor,
SIMPLE LOW -PASS FILTER FOR
two units connected in parallel by a %s -inch
1.8- TO 30 -MHz TRANSMITTER
wide copper strap are used. The capacitors
This filter is suitable for high frequency trans- are placed side by side so that minimum
mitters of up to 2 kW PEP power operating up strap length is achieved. The coils are con-
to 30 MHz. Capacitors designated C, are 50 -pF,
5 -kV ceramic units (Centralab type 050S-50Z) nected between capacitor terminals and the
Capacitor C, is composed of two 75 -pF, 5 -kV coaxial fittings mounted on the end walls of
units connected in parallel (Centralab type NOS-
75N). Coils designated L, are 4 turns of #12 the box.
enamel wire, +/z -inch inside diameter, I/2 -inch Once the filter is complete, it is adjusted
long. Coils designated L, are 7 turns wound as before the lid of the box is bolted in place.
same as L, and about 1 inch long. Coils L, and
L, are mounted at right angles to each other. To check the end sections, the coaxial can -
The filter is designed for use in a 50 -ohm coax- nectors are shorted out on the inside of the
ial line. Receptacles J, and J, are matching
units, such as $0.239 for type PL -259 plugs. case with short leads and the resonant fre-
RADIO INTERFERENCE (RFI) 16.7
Capacitors C1, C,, C and C:, can be If a filter, being fed from a high -power
standard manufactured units with normal S transmitter, is operated into an incorrect ter-
percent tolerance. The coils for the end sec- mination it may be damaged; the coils may
tions can be wound to the dimensions given be overheated and the capacitors destroyed
(L,, L,;, and L7). Then the resonant fre- as a result of excessive r-f currents. Thus,
quency of the series -resonant end sections it is wise when first installing a low -pass
should be checked with a grid -dip meter, filter, to check the standing -wave ratio of
after the adjacent input or output terminal the load being presented to the output of the
has been shorted with a very short lead. The filter with a standing -wave bridge.
coils should be squeezed or spread until
resonance occurs at 57 MHz.
The intermediate m- derived section in the
filter of figure 7B may also be checked with Lt I L2
1
a grid -dip meter for resonance at the cor-
rect rejection frequency, after the hot end Tc3 c4'[_,
of L, has been temporarily grounded with a
low-inductance lead. The variable- capacitor
portion of C3 can be tuned until resonance at Figure 8
the correct frequency has been obtained.
Note that there is so little difference between SCHEMATIC OF THE SINGLE -SECTION
the constants of this intermediate section for HALF -WAVE FILTER
channels S and 6 that variation in the setting
The constants given below are for a character-
of C3 will tune to either channel without istic impedance of 50 ohms, for use with
materially changing the operation of the RG -8 /U and RG -58/U cable. Coil L, should be
filter. checked for resonance at the operating fre-
quency with C and the same with L, and C,.
The coils in the intermediate sections of This check can be made by soldering a low -
the filter (L_, L3, L,, and L5 in figure 7A, inductance grounding strap to the lead be-
tween L, and L, where it passes through the
and L2, L3, L5, and L,; in figure 7B) may be shield. When the coils have been trimmed to
checked most conveniently outside the filter resonance with a grid -dip meter, the ground-
ing strap should of course be removed. This
unit with the aid of a small ceramic capaci- filter type will give an attenuation of about
tor of known value and a grid -dip meter. 30 dB to the second harmonic, about 48 dB to
the third, about 60 dB to the fourth, 67 to the
fifth, etc., increasing at a rate of about 30 dB
per octave.
Using Low -Pass The low -pass filter con - C,, C,, C,, C,- Silver
mica or small ceramic for
Filters nected in the output trans- low power, transmitting type ceramic for high
power. Capacitance for different bands is given
mission line of the transmit- below.
ter is capable of affording an enormous de- 160 meters -1700 pF
gree of harmonic attenuation. However, the
filter must be operated in the correct manner
80
40
20
meters-
meters
meters-
-pF
pF
pF
850
440
220
or the results obtained will not be up to ex- 10 meters- pF 110
8 meters- pF 60
pectations. L L= May be made up of sections of B &W
In the first place, all direct radiation from Miniductor for power levels below 250 watts,
or of No. 12 enam. for power up to one kilo-
the transmitter and its control and power watt. Approximate dimensions for the coils are
leads must be suppressed. This subject has given below, but the coils should be trimmed
to resonate at the proper frequency with a
been discussed in the previous section. Sec- grid -dip meter as discussed above. All coils
ondly, the filter must be operated into a load except the ones for 160 meters are wound 8
impedance approximately equal to its design turns per inch.
160 meters -4.2 , H; 22 turns No. 18 enam. 1"
characteristic impedance. The filter itself dia. 2" long
will have very low losses (usually less than 80 Meters -2.1 ,H; 13 t. 1" dia. (No. 3014 Mini -
ductor or No. 12 at 8 t.p.i.
0.5 dB) when operated into its nominal 40 meters-1.1 AH; 8 t. 1" dia. (No. 3014 or No.
value of resistive load. But if the filter is 12 at 8 t.p.i.
20 meters -0.55 , H; 7 t. 3/4" dia. (No. 3010 or
not terminated correctly, its losses will be- No. 12 at 8 t.p.i.
come excessive, and it will not present the 10 meters -0.3 AH; 6 t. /x" dia. (No. 3002 or No.
1
12 at 8 t.p.i.)
correct value of load impedance to the trans- 6 meters-0.17 µH; 4 t. /2" dia. (No. 3002 or
1
The Holf -Wove Filter A half -wave filter is of the second harmonic and better than 60
an effective device for decibels suppression of higher harmonics of
TVI suppression and is easily built. It offers a six-meter transmitter (figure 9). The
the advantage of presenting the same value unit is composed of a half -wave filter with
of impedance at the input terminal as appears added end sections which are tuned to 100
as a load across the output terminal. The MHz and 200 MHz. An auxiliary filter ele-
filter is a single -band unit, offering high at- ment in series with the input is tuned to
tenuation to the second- and higher -order 200 MHz to provide additional protection
harmonics. Design data for high- frequency to television channels 11, 12, and 13.
half -wave filters is given in figure 8. The filter (figure 10) is built in an alumi-
num box measuring 4" X 4" X 10" and
A High-Power The second and higher har- uses type -N coaxial fittings. The half -wave
Filter for monics of a six -meter trans - filter coils are wound of 3/16-inch diameter
Six Meters mitter fall directly into the copper tubing and have large copper lugs sol-
f -m and uhf and vhf tele- dered to the ends. The 60 -pF capacitors are
vision bands. An effective low -pass filter is made up of three 20 -pF, f kV ceramic units
required to adequately suppress unwanted in parallel. A small sheet of copper is cut in
transmitter emissions falling in these bands. triangular shape and joins the capacitor
Described in this section is a six -meter TVI terminals and a coil lug is attached to the
filter rated at the two- kilowatt level which center of the triangle with heavy brass bolts.
provides better than 75 decibels suppression The parallel -tuned 200 -MHz series filter
FROM TRANS. TO RECEIVER
element at the input terminal is made of a
length of copper strap shunted across a 50-
pF, 5kV ceramic capacitor. In this particular
filter, the parallel circuit was affixed to the
output capacitor of the pi- network tank cir-
cuit of the transmitter and does not show in
the photograph.
The filter is adjusted by removing the
30
connections from the ends of the half -wave
40 sections and adjusting each section to 50
MHz by spreading the turns of the coil with
50
a screwdriver while monitoring the resonant
60 frequency with a grid -dip oscillator. The
70
next step is to ground the top end of each
series -tuned section (C2, L_ and C7, L5) with
60 a heavy strap. The input section is tuned to
100 150 200 aso 300 400
F (MHZ) 100 MHz and the output section to 200
MHz. When tuning adjustments are com-
Figure 9
pleted, the straps are removed and the top
SIX METER TVI FILTER of the filter box is held in place with sheet -
CI -50-pF Centralab 8505 -50Z. Resonates with
metal screws.
L, to 200 MHz.
-4
C,, C, -pF piston capacitor. JFD type VC-4G.
C C4, C C4-6O pF. Three 20 -pF capacitors in
parallel. Centralab 853A -20Z.
L,- Copper strap, 1/2" wide, 2V4" long, 17/6" 16-4 Stereo -FM
between mounting holes, approximately 0.01"
thick. Strap is bent in U -shape around capaci-
Interference
tor and bolted to capacitor terminals. With the growing popularity of imported,
L,-11 turns #18 enam. wire, V4" diameter, 3/4"
l
long, airwound. Resonates to 100 MHz with
capacitor C,.
L4 -3
turns 3/16" tubing, 11/4" i.d., spaced
to occupy about 21/2". Turns are adjusted to
resonate each section at 50 MHz.
solid -state stereo f -m equipment the problem
of interference to these devices has become
severe in the past few years. Most of this
home -entertainment equipment has little or
L,-8 turns #18 enam. wire, 1/4" diameter, no effective filtering to prevent RFI and is
3/e" long, airwound. Resonates to 200 MHz with
capacitor C,. "wide open" to nearby, strong signals. Un-
16.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
'fa
Figure 10
fortunately, the prospective purchaser of of the equipment. A power -line filter, such
such a device has little or no knowledge of as described for a television receiver in an
the subsceptibility to RFI of the various earlier Section of this chapter is recom-
imports and the burden falls on any nearby mended in the first case. Power line -type
amateur to convince the neighbor that the interference can be checked by pulling the
set, and not the amateur, is at fault when plug out of the wall receptacle while the
RFI shows up. interference is manifesting itself. If the RFI
RFI rejection in stereo f -m equipment is is entering the equipment via the ac line it
especially poor when the device is solid state will disappear the instant the plug is pulled;
and uses printed- circuit boards wherein a if it is being picked up by the internal wir-
good, r -f ground is almost impossible to ing of the stereo equipment it will slowly
maintain. This description covers the ma- fade away as the power supply filter capaci-
jority of home entertainment devices sold tors discharge.
today. If the interference seems to be arriving
via the speaker leads, the leads should be
Reduce External Most stereo f -m units have made as short as possible and each lead
Pickup long leads running between bypassed to the chassis (ground) of the
the speakers and the set, equipment by a .01-µF disc ceramic capa-
with additional leads running to the citor. If interference is still present to a
changer and or auxiliary equipment. These degree, the speaker leads may be wrapped
leads make excellent antennas and are the around a ferrite rod, or core, at the equip-
major path for unwantd r -f energy to enter ment. About 20 turns around the core will
the equipment. The first step, then, in trying suffice. Leads to the pickup may be treated
to eliminate the RFI path is to remove the in the same manner using a small ferrite
input leads to the equipment, one at a time, core. An extra ground lead between the
and Hite which one reduces or eliminates the changer pickup and the stereo chassis may
interference. The speaker leads can be dis- also be of assistance in reducing r -f pickup.
connected and a pair of low impedance ear-
phones with short leads substituted for the
interference tests. Equipment R-f interference to solid -state
If interference is still present with the Problems amplifiers is caused primarily by
leads disconnected, the interference may be the rectifying action of the tran-
entering the equipment via the power line, sistor junction which demodulates a strong,
or else is picked up by the internal wiring nearby signal. A small ceramic capacitor
RADIO INTERFERENCE (RFI) 16.11
16 -5 Broadcast
Interference
Interference to broadcast signals in the
540- to 1600 -kHz band is a serious matter
to those amateurs living in a densely popu-
FEEDBACK LOOP - lated area. Although broadcast interference
(BCI) has been overshadowed by TVI and
Figure 11 stereo problems, BCI still exists, especially
RFI SUPPRESSION IN for amateurs working the lower frequency
STEREO EQUIPMENT bands.
A small ceramic bypass capacitor is placed be-
tween the base -emitter junction in the first Blanketing
stages of the amplifier. Ferrite beads can also This is not a tunable effect, but
be used in the input and feedback circuits to a total blocking of the receiver.
further suppress RFI. The collector supply is A more or less complete "washout" covers
also bypassed with a ceramic disc capacitor.
the entire receiver range when the carrier
is switched on. This produces either a com-
should be connected between the emitter- plete blotting out of all broadcast stations,
base junction (figure 11) . A ferrite bead or else knocks down their volume several
in series with the base lead may also be of decibels-depending on the severity of the
benefit. An additional ferrite bead on the interference. Voice modulation causing the
feedback line is recommended. blanketing will be highly distorted or even
In spite of shielded patch cords being used unintelligible. Keying of the carrier which
in modern stereo gear, the cords are poor produces the blanketing will cause an annoy-
shields as far as r -f energy goes. In many ing fluctuation in the volume of the broad-
cases, the "shield" consists of a spirally cast signals.
wrapped wire partially covering the main Blanketing generally occurs in the imme-
lead. Substituting coaxial cable (RG -59 /U, diate neighborhood (inductive field) of a
for example) for the original leads will also powerful transmitter, the affected area being
help in stubborn cases of RFI. directly proportional to the power of the
If it is apparent that the interference is transmitter. Also, it is more prevalent with
entering the equipment via the f -m antenna, transmitters which operate in the 160 -meter
installation of a TV -type high -pass filter and 80 -meter bands, as compared to those
will attenuate the interfering signal. Only operating on the higher frequencies.
as a last resort should shielding of the stereo The great majority of "modern" broadcast
equipment itself be attempted as many units receivers employ a loopstick antenna con-
have floating ground circuits. It is possible, cealed within the receiver cabinet. Loopstick
however, to make small shields out of alumi- pickup at the higher frequencies is quite
num foil that may be clipped or fastened restricted and the receiver may be physically
in place around critical circuits. oriented for minimum pickup of the inter-
Each piece of stereo equipment must be fering signal. In addition, bypassing each side
handled as a special case, but if these broad of the receiver power line to the chassis or
guidelines are followed, it should be possible negative return bus with a pair of .01 -µF,
to suppress the majority of RFI cases. The L6 -kV ceramic disc capacitors is recom-
techniques outlined in this section also apply mended. The remedies applicable to the stereo
to electronic organs or other home entertain- receiver circuits, previously discussed, also
ment devices. apply to a broadcast receiver.
16.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
Phantoms With two strong local signals are interrupted, signaling withdrawal of
applied to a nonlinear imped- one party of the union. This is especially
ance, the beat note resulting from cross baffling to the inexperienced interference
modulation between them may fall on some locater, who observes that the interference
frequency within the broadcast band and suddenly dissapears, even though his own
will be audible at that point. If such a transmitter remains in operation.
"phantom" signal falls on a local broadcast
frequency, there will be heterodyne interfer- ll
ence as well. This is a common occurrence
(.4"
<
oaz
<
oa
i oo=
311
°
with broadcast receivers in the neighborhood E3 31.0.1 E3
signal appearing between grid and cathode. Image Interference In addition to those types
The r-f signal may get to the tube as a result of interference already
of direct signal pickup due to the lack of discussed, there are two more which are corn -
shielding, but more commonly will be fed mon to superhet receivers. The prevalence of
to the tube from the power line as a result these types is of great concern to the ama-
of the series heater string. teur, although the responsibility for their
The remedy for this condition is simply to existence more properly rests with the broad-
ensure that the cathode and grid of the cast receiver.
high -µ audio tube (usually a 12AV6 or The mechanism whereby image production
equivalent) are at the same r -f potential. takes place may be explained in the following
This is accomplished by placing an r-f bypass manner: when the first detector is set to the
capacitor with the shortest possible leads frequency of an incoming signal, the high -
directly from grid to cathode, and then frequency oscillator is operating on another
adding an impedance in the lead from the frequency which differs from the signal by
volume control to the grid of the audio tube. the number of kHz of the intermediate
The impedance may be an amateur band r-f frequency. Now, with the setting of these
choke (such as a National R -100U) for best two stages undisturbed, there is another
results, but for a majority of cases it will signal which will beat with the high -fre-
be found that a 47,000 -ohm Va -watt resistor quency oscillator to produce an i -f signal.
in series with this lead will give satisfactory This other signal is the so- called image,
operation. Suitable circuits for such an oper- which is separated from the desired signal
ation on the receiver are given in figure 13. by twice the intermediate frequency.
In many ac /dc receivers there is no r -f Thus, in a receiver with a 175 -kHz inter-
bypass included across the plate -supply recti- mediate frequency tuned to 1000 kHz; the
fier for the set. If there is an appreciable hf oscillator is operating on 1175 kHz, and
level of r -f signal on the power line feeding a signal on 1350 kHz (1000 kHz plus 2 X
the receiver, r -f rectification in the power 175 kHz) will beat with this 1175 -kHz
rectifier of the receiver can cause a particu- oscillator freqency to produce the 175 -kHz
larly bad type of interference which may be i -f signal. Similarly, when the same receiver
received on other broadcast receivers in the is tuned to 1450 kHz, an amateur signal on
vicinity in addition to the one causing the 1800 kHz can come through.
rectification. The soldering of a 0.01 -µF, If the image appears only a few Hz or
1.6 -kV disc ceramic capacitor directly from kHz from a broadcast carrier, heterodyne
anode to cathode of the power rectifier interference will be present as well. Other-
(whether it is of the vacuum -tube or silicon - wise, it will be tuned in and out in the
rectifier type) usually will bypass the r -f manner of a station operating in the broad-
signal across the rectifier and thus eliminate cast band. Sharpness of tuning will be com-
the difficulty. parable to that of broadcast stations produc-
HIGH -U TUBE
SUCH AS 6ÁV6
ing the same avc voltage at the receiver.
The second variety of superhet interfer-
ence is the result of harmonics of the receiver
high -frequency oscillator beating with ama-
teur carriers to produce the intermediate
frequency of the receiver. The amateur
transmitter will always be found to be on
a frequency equal to some harmonic of the
receiver hf oscillator, plus or minus the
intermediate frequency.
As an example: when a broadcast superhet
with 465 -kHz intermediate frequency is
tuned to 1000 kHz, its high- frequency oscil-
Figure 13 lator operates on 1465 kHz. The third har-
CIRCUITS FOR ELIMINATING AUDIO - monic of this oscillator frequency is 4395
STAGE RECTIFICATION kHz, which will beat with an amateur signal
16.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
on 3930 kHz to send a signal through the phones require only a .01 -µF ceramic capa-
i -f amplifier. The 3930 kHz signal would be citor placed across the microphone.
tuned in at the 1000 -kHz point on the dial. The newer ( "touchtone ") phones, which
Some oscillator harmonics are so related include series 1500, 1600 and 1700, require
to amateur frequencies that more than one the same modification as the series 500 units,
point of interference will occur on the re- except that the replacement network is a
ceiver dial. Thus, a 3500 -kHz signal may be type 4010E.
tuned in at six points on the dial of a nearby In addition to the modification devices
broadcast superhet having a 175 -kHz inter- for the telephone instrument the phone com-
mediate frequency and no r -f stage. pany can also supply a type 40BA line filter
Insofar as remedies for image and harmon- capacitor which acts to bypass the drop wire
ic superhet interference are concerned, it is coming into the telephone and also a type
well to remember that if the amateur signal 1542A r -f inductor which is placed at the
did not in the first place reach the input connector block. All of these items are avail-
stage of the receiver, the annoyance would able, upon request, from your local telephone
not have been created. It is therefore good company, in most cases.
policy to try and reduce or eliminate it by the
means discussed in this chapter. However, in Power -Line Power -line interference may
some solid -state equipments, it is almost Interference reach a radio receiver by trans-
impossible to make the necessary circuit mission along the line or by
changes, or the situation does not allow the direct radiation. Typical sources of power-
amateur to work on the equipment. In either line interference are spark and electrostatic
case, if this form of interference exists, the discharge. Spark discharge from brush -type
only alternative is to try and select an oper- motors, heaters for fish aquariums, thermo-
ating frequency such than neither image nor stats on sleeping blankets, and heating pads
harmonic interference will be set up on are prolific sources of such interference. If
favorite stations in the susceptible receiver. the interfering unit can be located, bypass
capacitors on the power line directly at the
unit will usually suppress the noise. The
16 -6 Other Forms of noise may often be located by using a port-
Interference able radio as a direction finder, homing in
on the noise source. Direct power -line noise,
Telephone The carbon microphone of the caused by leaky insulators or defective hard-
Interference telephone, as well as varistors ware on high -voltage transmission lines is
in the compensation networks harder to pinpoint, as the noise may be car-
incorporated therein may serve as efficient ried for a considerable distance along the line.
rectifiers of nearby r -f energy, injecting the Standing waves of noise are also apparent
modulation of the signal on the telephone on power lines, leading to false noise peaks
circuit. The first step to take when this form that confuse the source. Many power com-
of interference develops is to contact the panies have a program of locating interfer-
repair department of your local telephone ence and it is recommended that the ama-
company, giving them the details. Depending teur contact the local company office and
upon the series nomenclature of the phone register a complaint of power -line interfer-
in use, the company is able to supply various ence rather than to try and find it himself,
types of filters to suppress or reduce the since the cure for such troubles must be
interference. The widely-used series 500 applied by the company, rather than the
phones require the replacment of the existing amateur.
compensation network with a type 425J Electrostatic discharge may be caused by
network (supplied by the phone company) . intermittent contact between metallic ob-
This device has the varistors replaced with jects in a strong electric field. Guy wires or
resistors in the network. In addition, a hardware on power poles are a source of this
.01 -µF ceramic capacitor should be placed form of interference. In addition, loose
across the carbon microphone and also across hardware on a nearby TV antenna, or the
the receiver terminals. The older series 300 tower of the amateur antenna may cause
RADIO INTERFERENCE (RFI) 16.15
this type of interference in the presence of the easiest way to get rid of this annoying
a nearby power line. This type of interfer- source of RFI is to replace the offending
ence is hard to pinpoint, but may often be unit with a model incorporating the suppres-
found with the aid of a portable radio. In sion circuit.
any event, suspected power-line interference
originating on the power -line system should 16 -7 Help in Solving TVI
be left to the power -company interference
investigator. Some TV set manufacturers will supply
high -pass TV filters at cost for their re-
Interference from The sweep oscillator of a ceivers or provide information on TVI re-
TV Receivers modern TV receiver is a duction upon request. When writing to the
prolific generator of har- manufacturer about TVI problems, supply
monics of the 15.75 -kHz sweep signals. complete details, including model and serial
Harmonics of high amplitude are observed number of the TV set involved; the name
as high as SO MHz from inadequately and address of the TV set owner; the name,
shielded receivers. Sweep oscillator radiation address, and call letters of the amateur in-
may take place via the power line of the TV volved; and particulars of the interference
set, from the antenna or directly from the problem (channels affected, frequency of
picture tube and associated sweep circuit amateur transmitter, sound or picture af-
wiring. Most cases of nearby interference use fected, etc.) The following manufacturers
a combination of all three paths. can supply information and assistance:
Oscillator radiation along the power line
can be reduced by the use of a power -line fil- Motorola
ter or by wrapping the line around a ferrite Consumer Product Division
rod. Radiation from the TV antenna can be
9401 W. Grand Ave.
substantially reduced by the use of a high - Franklin Park, III. 60313
pass filter installed at the receiver and /or
the use of a shielded lead -in. Heath
Radiation from the sweep- circuit wiring Benton Harbor, Michigan 49022
itself is difficult to suppress and modifications
to the television receiver are not recom- Olympic International
mended. However, it should be pointed out 88 -89 Union Turnpike
that radiation of this type, if of sufficient Glendale, N.Y. 12270
intensity to cause serious interference to RCA Sales Corp.
another radio service, falls under Part 15 600 North Sherman Drive
of the FCC Rules and Regulations. When Indianapolis, Ind. 46201
such interference is caused and is reported,
the user of the receiver is obligated to take Magnavox
steps to eliminate it. The owner of the 7 regional service centers in:
receiver is well advised to contact the manu- East Rutherford, N.J.
facturer of the receiver for information Atlanta, Georgia
concerning the alleviation of the radiation. Westlake, Ohio
Skokie, Ill.
Light Dimmers Inexpensive wall -receptacle Dallas, Texas
light dimmers are a pro- Torrance, Calif.
lific source of r -f interference which resem- South San Francisco, Calif.
bles a high buzz which increases in strength
at the lower frequencies. These devices make TMA Company (Muntz, TMA, Howard
use of an inexpensive silicon controlled rec- Stereo)
tifier (SCR) which is a high speed unidirec- 1020 Noel Ave.
tional switch. When the SCR conducts, it Wheeling, III. 60090
creates a very steep wavefront, which is
rich in harmonic energy. More expensive Emerson
dimmer controls are available having r -f Emerson TV Sales Corp.
harmonic suppression built in the case, and Jersey City, N.J. 07302
16.16 RADIO HANDBOOK
Philco Customer Service contact with the person making the com-
Box 3635 plaint, as continuing interference causes tem-
Philadelphia, Penna. 19125 pers to rise until the problem is beyond
repair. The public relations aspect of RFI,
Zenith Service Dept. therefore, is a delicate and pressing problem
Zenith Sales Co. that the amateur must pay special attention
5 801 West Dickens to.
Chicago, III. 60639 When an RFI problem occurs, it is prudent
to conduct tests to determine the type and
Sylvania Customer Service degree of interference. It is suggested, more-
700 Endicott St. over, that the aid of another amateur be
Batavia, N.Y. 14020 enlisted, as the average person is not an
objective observer when it comes to the
Sears matter of interference. Successful handling
Dept. 698 731A of an RFI problem depends to a great degree
Staff Offices on the understanding and attitute of the
Sears, Roebuck & Co. radio amateur, as he must win the good will
925 So. Homan Ave. and confidence of the complainant.
Chicago, Ill. 60607 A bulletin written in simple language that
discusses RFI for the layman is available, at
no cost, from the FCC. Write for Field
Engineering Bulletin 25, dated March, 1972,
In any case of TVI, the social problem entitled, Audio Devices-Interception of
is as great, or greater than the RFI problem. Radio Signals. Address your request to:
Most find it hard to believe that their new Field Engineering Bureau, Federal Com-
TV or stereo equipment is at fault, and that munications Commission, Washington, DC
the amateur is not at fault when his voice 20554. Arm yourself with a copy of this
overrides the program material. If RFI does bulletin when you plan to investigate a
occur, the amateur should immediately make local case of RFI.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Equipment Design
more serious ones of receiver overload, TVI, -1- 5% units available. Most units have tin-
keyclicks, and parasitics. By paying at- plated axial leads.
17.1
17.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
The wirewound resistor consists of re- may be nickel chromium, tin oxide, or a
sistance wire wound around an insulating powdered precious metal mix (cermet).
form and fired with a ceramic jacket (fig- Resistance value of the metal film resis-
ure 1) . These units are used where temper- tor is set after the film has been fired on the
ature stability is a prerequisite. Units are mandrel. A spiral groove is ground or cut
available with resistance ratings of less than around the mandrel to set the desired value.
a fraction of an ohm to several hundred The metal film resistor is finished by fitting
thousand ohms. General tolerance is 2% end caps with leads over the ends. The unit
and the temperature coefficient of a typical is protected with a molten plastic dip.
resistor is about ± 100 ppm °C. Power
/ Metal film resistors commonly available
ratings of wirewound resistors run from 2 are in the 1/4- and 1/4-watt power capacity
watts to as much as 250 watts, or higher. with tolerances of ± 1 %. Resistance values
up to 200 megohms are available with a typ-
/
ical temperature coefficient of 100 ppm °C.
The variable resistor (often called a rheo-
stat, or potentiometer) is a unit whose re-
sistance value may be changed by the user.
The rheostat is primarily considered to be a
power handling device, with ratings often
in excess of 1000 watts. Rheostats are used
for control of generator fields, motor speed,
lamp dimming, and like services. The rheo-
stat is commonly disc shaped and controlled
by a rotating shaft. The resistance element
is wound on an open ceramic ring and is
welded at each end to a terminal band hav-
ing connection points. The wound core is
covered (except for an exposed track) with
a fired enamel coating. The control arm is
insulated from the moving contact assembly.
Figure 1 The contact brush, carried by the mov-
able arm, is generally a powdered -metal
WIREWOUND RESISTORS compound (copper- graphite) which is con-
Resistors are wound with nichrome wire on a nected by a flexible stranded shunt to a slip
ceramic form. Inductive reactance becomes a ring which rubs against a center lead sup-
problem when these resistors are used in high-
frequency applications. Special spirally wound, ported by the rheostat framework.
noninductive resistors are used to cancel out Wattage rating of a common rheostat is
the inductive effects at the higher frequencies.
based on a maximum attained temperature
of 340 °C measured at the hottest point on
The basic construction of a wirewound the enamel coating. The maximum hot -spot
resistor involves a winding of nichrome wire temperature varies with the percentage of
and is by nature an inductance. Inductive the rheostat winding in use.
reactance becomes a problem when these re- The general purpose wirewound potenti-
sistors are used in high- frequency applica- ometer is available in resistance ranges from
tions. Special spirally wound (noninductive) 0.5 ohm to about 150,000 ohms. The most
resistors are often used to cancel the induc- common ratings are 1.5, 2, 4, 5, and 10
tive effects at the higher frequencies. watts with a resistance tolerance of ± 10%.
Wirewound resistors are available with The great majority of potentiometers have a
either radial or axial leads and often have linear resistance winding, but special units
an uninsulated area so that contact may be are available wherein the resistance change
made to the body of the resistor at a random is not constant throughout the shaft rotation.
point. An important property of the wirewound
The film -type resistor is made of a thin potentiometer is resolution. With such a de-
conductive film deposited and fired on an vice, the resistance change, as the slider
aluminum oxide, or glass, mandrel. The film moves from one extreme of rotation to the
.P
EQUIPMENT DESIGN 17.3
J f Etto PL\NEM,
i .'\CL SPI SA
J ANGULAR
`°,o PIN
'-
lRESOLUT ON
Q
, Ne NORMAL CENTER
RESISTANCE VALUE
20 40 60 80 1
SHAFT ROTATION
Figure 3
Figure 2
TAPER CHARACTERISTICS OF
COMPOSITION POTENTIOMETERS
RESOLUTION OF WIREWOUND
The linear (A) taper provides 50 percent of the
POTENTIOMETER resistance value at 50 percent of the clockwise
rotation. The tapers C and F provide 10 per-
The resistance of a wirewound potentiometer cent of the resistance value at 50 percent of
varies in a step -like progression as the slider the rotation. Taper F is counterclockwise and
moves from one turn of wire to the next. Reso. taper C is clockwise.
lution is expressed either as angular or volt-
age resolution.
maximum voltage and power at the same
other, does not occur as a straight line but time. Above this value, the wattage of the
rather as a step -like progression, as the slider unit must be derated. Most potentiometers
moves from one turn of wire to the next. have a maximum terminal potential of 500
Resolution is expressed as either angular or volts.
voltage resolution (figure 2) . Precision po- The trimming potentiometer is a "set and
tiometers having high tolerance and good forget" device that is not intended for
resolution provide a resistance value that is dynamic control. These units are quite small
proportional to shaft rotation to better than in size and often have a very limited rota-
± 1 %. The precision devices may be either tional life of less than 1000 cycles. Once
single turn, rotary; multiturn, rotary; or set, they are not normally readjusted except
linear motion designs. as part of a regular maintenance or calibra-
The composition potentiometer is widely tion program.
used in all types of electronic equipment. Common trimmers are packaged as either
Power ratings range from 1 /10 watt to rectangular, multiturn units or single -turn,
4 watts, while resistances from 20 ohms round units (figure 4). Resistance values of
through 10 megohms are commonly avail- standard products range from 10 ohms to
able. Various taper characteristics are shown 50,000 ohms, with a usual tolerance of -
in figure 3. The most common taper is the 10 %J. Power rating of the common units
audio taper which provides 107 resistance is 1/4 to 3/4 watt at a maximum temperature
at 50(7( rotation. rating of 70 °C.
The resistance element may be carbon
film, carbon -ceramic or molded carbon.
Inductance of Every resistor because of its
More expensive potentiometers make use of
cermet material. The composition potenti-
Resistors physical size has in addition to
ometer is available in a number of tolerances its desired resistance, less de-
ranging from ± 40% for commercial car- sirable amounts of inductance and distrib-
bon -film devices to ± 5% for high quality uted capacitance. These quantities are illus-
17.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
THERMOPLASTIC Roc. L
MOLDED HOUSING
CERMET MATER IAL
MULTIWIRE FOR 100 PPM/0C
WIPER TEMPERATURE
CONTACT COEFFICIENT
CARRIAGE ADJUSTMENT
SCREW
ALUMINA
SUBSTRATE
Figure 5
ELEMENT
TERMINATION PAD ï
N .1
_"SMOCEI "R="X;MI--
--
TERMINATION
STOP
ALUMINA SUBSTRATE
RIM= MIM NNW_
SOLDERABLE PINS
RIZI=M-_-=- _--INEW_
Figure 4
trated in figure SA, the general equivalent large frequency range is shown in figure 6.
circuit of a resistor. This circuit represents By proper component design, noninductive
the actual impedance network of a resistor resistors having a minimum of residual re-
at any frequency. At a certain specified fre- actance characteristics may be constructed.
quency the impedance of the resistor may be Even these have reactive effects that cannot
thought of as a series reactance (Xe) as be ignored at high frequencies.
shown in figure SB. This reactance may be Wirewound resistors act as low -Q in-
either inductive or capacitive depending on ductors at radio frequencies. Figure 7 shows
whether the residual inductance or the dis- typical curves of the high- frequency char-
tributed capacitance of the resistor is the acteristics of cylindrical wirewound resistors.
dominating factor. As a rule, skin effect In addition to resistance variations wire -
tends to increase the reactance with fre- wound resistors exhibit both capacitive and
quency, while the capacitance between turns inductive reactance, depending on the type
EQUIPMENT DESIGN 17.5
so
R.5500011.
PAPER OR FILM
50 DIELECTRIC CATHODE
FOIL
WEIFAIE\
,o 20
ANODE
FREQUENCY MU: FOIL
Figure 7
perature limits. R2
SERIES RESISTANCE
Layer -built, ceramic monolithic capacitors (LEADS. ELECTRODES LEAKAGE RES (STANCE OF
are composed of alternate layers of thin AND ELECTROLYTE( DIELECTRIC FILM
portance to employ bypass capacitors having filter. The inexpensive disc type of ceramic
the lowest possible internal inductance. capacitor is recommended for general by-
Mica- dielectric capacitors have much less passing in r -f circuitry, as it is effective as
internal inductance than do most paper ca- a bypass unit to well over 100 MHz.
pacitors. Figure 13 lists self- resonant fre-
quencies of various mica capacitors having
various lead lengths. It can be seen from in-
spection of this table that most mica ca-
pacitors become self- resonant in the 12- to
50 -MHz region. The inductive reactance
they would offer to harmonic currents of
100 MHz, or so, would be of considerable
magnitude. In certain instances it is possible
to deliberately series -resonate a mica capaci-
tor to a certain frequency somewhat below
RESONANT
CAPACITOR LEAD LENGTHS FREQ.
.02 µF MICA NONE 44.5 MHz
.002 MF MICA NONE 23.5 MHz
uip
.01 MF MICA 10 MHz
.0009 pF MICA 55 MHz
.002 µF CERAMIC
irr 24 MHz Figure 14
ixiw
.001 µF CERAMIC 55 MHz
500 pF BUTTON NONE 220 MHz TYPES OF CERAMIC AND MICA
.0005 µF CERAMIC 90 MHz CAPACITORS SUITABLE FOR
1/2n
.01 MF CERAMIC 14.5 MHz
HIGH -FREQUENCY BYPASSING
Figure 13
The Centralab 858 S (1000 pF) is recommended
for screen and plate circuits of tetrode tubes.
SELF-RESONANT FREQUENCIES OF
VARIOUS CAPACITORS WITH The large TV doorknob capacitors are
RANDOM LEAD LENGTH useful as by -pass units for high voltage lines.
These capacitors have a value of ¶00 pF, and
its normal self -resonant frequency by trim- are available in voltage ratings up to 40,000
ming the leads to a critical length. This is volts. The dielectric of these capacitors is
sometimes done for maximum bypassing ef- usually titanium dioxide. This material ex-
fect in the region of 40 to 60 MHz. hibits piezoelectric effects, and capacitors
The button -mica capacitors shown in fig- employing it for a dielectric will tend to
ure 14 are especially designed to have ex- "talk- back" when a -c voltages are applied
tremely low internal inductance. Certain across them.
types of button -mica capacitors of small An important member of the varied line
physical size have a self -resonant frequency of capacitors is the coaxial, or Hypass, type
in the region of 600 MHz. of capacitor. These capacitors exhibit su-
Ceramic- dielectric capacitors in general perior bypassing qualities at frequencies up
have the lowest amount of series inductance to 200 MHz and the bulkhead type is es-
per unit of capacitance of these three univer- pecially effective when usd to filter leads
sally used types of bypass capacitors. Typi- passing through partition walls between two
cal resonant frequencies of various ceramic stages.
units are listed in figure 13. Ceramic ca-
pacitors are available in various voltage and Variable Air Even though air is the perfect
capacitance ratings and different physical Capacitors dielectric, air capacitors exhibit
configurations. Standoff types such as shown losses because of the inherent
in figure 14 are useful for bypassing socket resistance of the metallic parts that make up
and transformer terminals. Two of these the capacitor. In addition, the leakage loss
capacitors may be mounted in close proxi- across the insulating supports may become of
mity on a chassis and connected together by some consequence at high frequencies. Of
an r -f choke to form a highly effective r-f greater concern is the inductance of the ca-
EQUIPMENT DESIGN 17.9
pacitor at high frequencies. Since the capaci- with the plate -to- ground capacity of the
tor must be of finite size, it will have tie rods, vacuum tube can form a resonant circuit
metallic braces, and end plates; all of which which may lead to parasitic oscillations in
contribute to the inductance of the unit. the vhf regions. To keep the self -inductance
The actual amount of the inductance will at a minimum, all r-f carrying leads should
depend on the physical size of the capacitor be as short as possible and should be made
and the method used to make contact to the out of as heavy material as possible.
stator and rotor plates. This inductance may At the higher frequencies, solid enameled
be cut to a minimum value by using as small copper wire is most efficient for r -f leads.
a capacitor as is practical, by using insulated
Tinned or stranded wire will show greater
tie rods to prevent the formation of closed losses at these frequencies. Tank -coil and
inductive loops in the frame of the unit, and tank- capacitor leads should be of heavier
by making connections to the centers of the wire than other r -f leads.
plate assemblies rather than to the ends as is The best type of flexible lead from the en-
commonly done. A large transmitting ca- velope of a tube to a terminal is thin copper
pacitor may have an inherent inductance as strip, cut from thin sheet copper. Heavy,
large as 0.1 microhenry, making the capaci- rigid leads to these terminals may crack the
tor susceptible to parasitic resonances in the envelope glass when a tube heats or cools.
50- to 150 -MHz range of frequencies. Wires carrying only audio frequencies or
The question of optimum C/L ratio and direct current should be chosen with the volt-
capacitor plate spacing is covered in Chapter age and current in mind. Some of the low -fila-
Eleven. For all -band operation of a high - ment -voltage transmitting tubes draw heavy
power stage, it is recommended that a capaci- current, and heavy wire must be used to
tor just large enough for 40 -meter oper- avoid voltage drop. The voltage is low, and
ation be chosen. (This will have sufficient hence not much insulation is required. Fila-
capacitance for operation on all higher- ment and heater leads are usually twisted
frequency bands.) Then use fixed padding together. An initial check should be made on
capacitors for operation on 80 meters. Such the filament voltage of all tubes of 25 watts
padding capacitors are available in air, or more plate dissipation rating. This voltage
ceramic, and vacuum types. should be measured right at the tube sockets.
Specially designed variable capacitors are If it is low, the filament- transformer volt-
recommended for uhf work; ordinary ca- age should be raised. If this is impossible,
pacitors often have "loops" in the metal heavier or parallel wires should be used for
frame which may resonate near the operating filament leads, cutting down their length if
frequency. possible.
Coaxial cable may be used for high -volt-
age leads when it is desirable to shield them
17 -3 Wire and Inductors from r -f fields. RG -8 /U cable may be used
at dc potentials up to 8000 volts, and the
lighter RG -58 /U may be used to potentials
Wire Leads Any length of wire, no matter of 3000 volts. Spark plug -type high- tension
how short, has a certain value wire may be used for unshielded leads, and
of inductance. This property is of great help will withstand 10,000 volts.
in making coils and inductors, but may be If this cable is used, the high -voltage leads
of great hindrance when it is not taken into may be cabled with filament and other low -
account in circuit design and construction. vo'.tage leads. For high -voltage leads in low -
Connecting circuit elements (themselves power exciters, where the plate voltage is not
having residual inductance) together with over 4S0 volts, ordinary radio hookup wire
a conductor possessing additional inductance of good quality will serve the purpose.
can often lead to puzzling difficulties. A No r -f leads should be cabled; in fact it is
piece of No. 10 copper wire ten inches long better to use enameled or bare copper wire
(a not uncommon length for a plate lead for r -f leads and rely on spacing for insula-
in an amplifier) can have a self- inductance tion. All r-f joints should be soldered, and
of 0.15 microhenry. This inductance and the joint should be a good mechanical junc-
that of the plate tuning capacitor together tion before solder is applied.
17.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
2
4
10
16
-
3002
3003
4057
4101
4167
0.72
1.12
2.60
I
10
I6 ---
1006
1010
1016
11.2
17.5
42.6
327
32
4
3004
-
3006 5041
12.0
0.29
4
-- 1204
1204
3.9
.S
S 3006
-
3061
30.7
0.62
1.1
12 4
10
I
-- 1205
1210
15.11
24.3
e t0
16
32
3007
3006
5107
5147
5327
1.7
4.4
I.0
-- 1211
1404
1401
63.0
5.2
11.6
4
-
3009 6041 0.39 If
6
-- 1406 21.0
3
-
3010
6067
6067
0.7
1.57
10
t6 -- 1410
1415
.
32.0
45.0
4 10
16
32
Son
3012
6107
161
9327
2.43
6.40
25.0 2
4
3900
- 1604
1.011
1.O8
13.0
28.5
2.0
4
-
3013 5041
5067
1.0
2.3
.2
10
14 --
3907 -1 1610
1616 108.0
10.1
1
6
10
1
-
3014 11104T
6107 6. 2
/ 4 3905 -1
2004
2006 23.0
3015 61sT 16.5 2 5
-
3906 -1 2009 41.0
NOTE:
32 3014 6321 68.0 10
-- 2010
2.04
108.0
14.0
CO /L/ NOUCTANCE APPROAIMATELY
PROPORTIONAL TO LENE TN. I.E., POP I/2
INDUCTANCE VALUE, TRIM CO /L TO I/2 LENCTN.
3
10 - - 2406
2406
2410
31.5
56.0
59.0
EQUIPMENT DESIGN 17.11
winding from damage and encapsulation of widest application is in the audio range. The
the inductor in a plastic case resembling a coils are extensively used in electric wave
composition resistor is common. The less filters and phase shifting devices. A grow-
expensive small inductors are machine ing field for toroids is in hf and vhf cir-
wound on a plastic form, with an exposed cuitry, especially with regards to low im-
winding. Open windings have the least en- pedance circuits involving solid state devices.
vironmental protection and more expensive Toroids may be classified according to
units are either encapsulated or hermetically core material and permeability. In general,
sealed and metal- encased. Temperature co- the higher the core permeability, the fewer
efficients for air inductors generally vary, will be the number of coil turns for a given
from 150 to 300 ppm,''OC. Inductance tol- value of inductance, and the lower will be
erances are commonly ± 20% for values the maximum frequency of use (figure 15) .
up to 1 µH and ± 10 %c above this value. Permeability ratings of 3 to 1500 are avail-
The more expensive moulded inductors have able in toroidal forms. For example, a core
a tolerance as close as 1%. having a permeability of 125 may be rated
for operation over the range of 200 kHz
Application By Low frequency (below 100 to 10 MHz, a permeability of 40 may be
Frequency kHz) inductors are com- rated from 15 to 50 MHz and a permea-
monly wound with solid bility of 15 may be rated over the range
wire, often on a laminated iron core. How- of SO to 250 MHz. At the lower frequencies
ever above 10 kHz fine, stranded (Litz) (below 200 kHz) permeability values of
wire is often used to improve coil Q by 300 to 1500 are common.
reducing the series dc resistance. In the Among the various core materials used
medium frequency region (100 kHz to 3 in toroidal inductors are magnetic steel
MHz) solid wire is used for the majority (hypersil) and powder and ceramic mater-
of small inductors and ferrite cores are ials. Steel tape cores are used for low fre-
employed to achieve high Q in a small vol- quency applications in power supplies and
ume. Above 3 MHz, inductors are generally inverters. Powder cores include ferrite (nick-
el- zinc), carbonyl iron and molybedenum-
space wound with solid wire to achieve a high
order of Q. Ferrite core material is often hermalloy materials. Ferrite cores are popu-
used, as discussed later. Above 30 MHz, it is lar in hf and vhf transmitting circuitry and
common practice to use nonferrous core ma- have been used for r -f transformer applica-
terial, such as brass or copper, with a silver tion up to the 50 kilowatt power level.
plating to reduce r -f losses. This type of core The ferrite power rating depends upon
permits adjustment of the inductance but the effectiveness of the core cooling as the
introduces losses similar to those caused by a thermal conductivity of ferrite material is
shorted turn.
quite low. The ferrite retains its magnetic
properties up to the point at which the
permeability drops sharply (the Curie
Toroidal Inductors A toroidal (doughnut - Point), but the working temperature is
shaped) coil represents a limited to a much lower value. At some
near -perfect inductor as the magnetic field operating temperature, the amount of heat
is almost wholly confined in the space en- extracted from the ferrite does not equal
closed by the winding. The majority of flux the heat created by power loss and the fer-
lines are therefore contained within the rite temperature increases rapidly. This point
toroid. Stray magnetic fields from external is known as the runaway temperature. In
sources have a minimal effect on a toroidal general, the maximum safe operating tem-
inductor and they may be stacked or mount- perature of a ferrite core is limited to 60 °C.
ed adjacent to other components. In most
cases, shielding is not required, as the self - Radio-Frequency R -f chokes may be con -
shielding feature permits a high value of Q Chokes sidered to be special in-
to be maintained regardless of the environ- ductances designed to have
ment. a high value of impedance over a large
Toroids can be used over the full spec- range of frequencies. A practical r -f choke
trum from dc to the uhf region, but the has inductance, distributed capacitance, and
17.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
264
240
220
200
Y\\,
180
á
160
m 140
5
á 120
6
100
80
60
40
20
Figure 15
resistance. At low frequencies, the distri- itself as the operating frequency is raised
buted capacitance has little effect and the above the series -resonant point, the imped-
electrical equivalent circuit of the r -f choke ance of the choke rapidly becoming lower on
is as shown in figure 16A. As the operating each successive cycle. A chart of this action
frequency of the choke is raised the effect is shown in figure 17. It can be seen that as
of the distributed capacitance becomes more the r -f choke approaches and leaves a condi-
evident until at some particular frequency tion of series resonance, the performance of
the distributed capacitance resonates with the choke is seriously impaired. The condition
the inductance of the choke and a parallel - of series resonance may easily be found by
resonant circuit is formed. This point is shorting the terminals of the r-f choke in
shown in figure 16B. As the frequency of question with a piece of wire and exploring
operating is further increased the overall the windings of the choke with a grid -dip
reactance of the choke becomes capacitive, oscillator. Most commercial transmitting -
and finally a point of series resonance is type chokes have series resonances in the
reached (figure 16C). This cycle repeats
Rc L Rc
C DISTRIBUTED
L
vicinity of 11 or 24 MHz.
`^r-¡L.
R.c,C '
Figure 16
High Power By observing the series -reso- Ferrite "Beads" hollow sections of
Small,
R -F Chokes nant frequency of the choke, a ferrite material can serve as
homemade, high power r -f an effective r -f choke when slipped over a
choke may be made very inexpensively. conductor (figure 18) Unwanted, har- .
Representative designs are listed in Table 2. monic currents create a magnetic field
The first choke covers the 7.0- to 30 -MHz about the conductor and, as the field cuts
frequency region with the first series reso- the ferrite material, the local impedance
nance at 43 MHz. The choke is rated for an rises rapidly, creating the effect of an r -f
operating potential off kV and a maximum choke in that immediate area (figure 19).
dc current of 2 amperes. The second choke At the lower frequencies, where the per-
covers the 3.5- to 30 -MHz region, with the meability of the bead is low, there is almost
exception of the series -resonance frequency no impedance to the flow of current. By
near 25 MHz. The choke is rated for 3 kV stringing one or more ferrite beads on a
at 1 ampere. The third choke is designed for conductor, good high frequency isolation
the 21- to 54 -MHz region with a series between stages is easily achieved.
resonance near 130 MHz. It has the same Electrically equivalent to an r -f choke,
voltage and current ratings as the second these tiny devices offer a convenient, sim-
choke. ple and inexpensive method of obtaining
effective r -f decoupling at the higher fre-
i_
!ao
2
quencies.
o
o A.:
1 FERR ITE BEAD
= J
ZL
W
u
Z i.e IffiniER-11 1 ", 522 WIRE
(1-06-v5/5.0%.5.A.-
111111FAIRE FREQ.
IMHzI
50
R
IQ)
53
Z1
IQ)
+$5
+150
100 95
200 230 +j80
250 350 +j120
s io iD 20 25
FREQUENCY MHz
Figure 18
35
I MIMI 11ll1111llll
FERROXCUBE TYPE FXC 3B BEAD IM'llIll
30
LINE CURRENT. IA
25
IIIMNIti
111E1E11
-.-- -+RES ISTANCE
20
««4- REACTANCE MIN
_
I
15 1I
,,.
INSULATION
SPACERS
10
-
5
o
r
nnm i(I_--
100 kHz
WIMP' ' 1MHz
--rI~
.._
i lll,
10 MHz
RETURN
SPRING
FREQUENCY -
Figure 19
CORE
IMPEDANCE OF FERRITE BEAD AS
CORE SEPARATION GAP
A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY
SHADING RING
Ferrite bead functions as effective r -f choke in
low-impedance circuits in the hf and vhf re- COIL
gions. One or more beads can be strung on a
conductor to achieve isolation of harmonic
currents.
17 -4 Relays
Figure 20
A relay is an electrically operated switch
THE BASIC RELAY
which permits current flow as a result of
contact closure, or prohibits the flow dur- A -The relay consists of a pivoted armature
held in position by a spring. When the magnetic
ing the open -contact state. Relays are also coil is energized, the armature moves toward
used as protection devices and for time- the magnet, transferring the electrical circuit
delay or multiple circuit operation. from the upper contact (A) to the lower con-
tact (B). B -Relay designed for alternating cur-
A basic relay is shown in figure 20. A rent is equipped with a copper shading ring
pivoted armature is held in position by a mounted above the coil to eliminate hum and
spring, holding the armature contact in the chatter caused by current variations through
the coil.
normally open position. When the magnetic
coil is energized, the moving contact is and break relay sequence. When the induc-
pressed against the lower contact and the tive load is switched off, for example, the
circuit is closed. Standard relays range from sudden collapse of the magnetic field around
single pole, single throw to eight pole, dou- the inductive load produces a very high tran-
ble throw. The usual relay breaks the upper sient voltage which can cause excessive
contact before it makes the lower contact, sparking at the relay contact. A capacitive
however, certain designs provide make -be- load can produce high current surges which
fore -break sequence. may cause pitting and burning of the relay
The size and material of the relay con- contacts. Tungsten carbide, mercury- wetted,
tacts are determined by the circuit require- or silver contacts are often used to allow
ments, usually the amount of current that good contact life.
will pass through the contacts. The possi- The relay coil uses a relatively small cur-
bility of contacts sticking is greater when rent and coils are generally designed for 6,
making than when breaking. An inductive 12, 24, 48, or 115 volts dc and ac. Ac re-
load presents problems, as there may be high lay coils come equipped with copper shad-
values of current flowing during the make ing ring to eliminate hum, a problem en-
EQUIPMENT DESIGN 17.15
perature range of
common.
-
ted contacts. Relay operation over a tem-
65 °C to + 85 `C is
chassis have their ground currents flow of not less than two inches between bolts.
through holes to the cathode circuit which Mating surfaces of the box and the screening
is usually located on thé bottom of the chas- should be clean.
sis, since such currents travel on the surface A screened ventilation opening should be
of the chassis. The usual "top to bottom" roughly three times the size of an equivalent
ground path is through the hole cut in the unscreened opening, since the screening rep-
chassis for the tube socket. When the gain resents about a 70 percent coverage of the
per stage is relatively low, or there are only area. Careful attention must be paid to
a small number of stages on a chassis this equipment heating when an electrically tight
universal grounding system is ideal. It is box is used.
only in high gain stages (i -f strips) where Commercially available panels having
the "gain per inch" is very high that circula- half -inch ventilating holes may be used as
ting ground currents will cause operational part of the box. These holes have much less
instability. attenuation than does screening, but will
perform in a satisfactory manner in all but
Intercoupling of It is important to prevent the areas of weakest TV reception. If it is
Ground Currents intercoupling of various dif- desired to reduce leakage from these panels
ferent ground currents when to a minimum, the back of the grill must
the chassis is used as a common ground re- be covered with screening tightly bonded to
turn. To keep this intercoupling at a mini- the panel.
mum, the stage should be completely shield- Doors may be placed in electrically tight
ed. This will prevent external fields from boxes provided there is no r -f leakage around
generating spurious ground currents, and pre- the seams of the door. Electronic weather-
vent the ground currents of the stage from stripping or metal "finger stock" may be
upsetting the action of nearby stages. Since used to seal these doors. A long, narrow slot
the ground currents travel on the surface of in a closed box has the tendency to act as a
the metal, the stage should be enclosed in an slot antenna and harmonic energy may pass
electrically tight box. When this is done, all more readily through such an opening than
ground currents generated inside the box will it would through a much larger circular hole.
remain in the box. The only possible means Variable -capacitor or switch shafts may
of escape for fundamental and harmonic act as antennas, picking up currents inside
currents are imperfections in this electrically the box and re- radiating them outside of the
tight box. Whenever we bring a wire lead box. It is necessary either to ground the
into the box, make a ventilation hole, or shaft securely as it leaves the box, or else to
bring a control shaft through the box we make the shaft of some insulating material.
create an imperfection. It is important that A two- or three -inch panel meter causes
the effect of these imperfections be reduced a large leakage hole if it is mounted in the
to a minimum. wall of an electrically tight box. To mini-
mize leakage, the meter leads should be by-
17 -6 Holes, Leads, and passed and shielded. The meter should be en-
cased in a metal shield that makes contact to
Shafts
TIN CAN BOTTOM WITH
Large size holes for ventilation may be put FLUTED EDGE PRESSED
AGAINST PANEL
in an electrically tight box provided they are RUBBER GROMMET HOLES FOR
METER STUDS
METER NUT
properly screened. Perforated metal stock
AOI CERAMIC
having many small, closely spaced holes is the
best screening material. Copper wire screen RFC
the box entirely around the meter. The con- When the diameter or width of the opening
necting studs of the meter may project is known, select the maximum frequency at
through the back of the metal shield. Such a which r -f suppression is desired. Select the
shield may be made out of the end of a tin appropri'te curve from either chart and read
or aluminum can of correct diameter, cut to attenuation in decibels per inch of length.
fit the depth of the meter. This complete Making the length of the waveguide three
shield assembly is shown in figure 22. times the diameter for 100 dB of attenuation,
Openings for shafts, meters, and ventila- and 80 dB with rectangular guides is a use-
tion are sources of r -f leakage, and this spu- ful design shortcut.
rious radiation may be reduced by designing As an example a 1" diameter hole is re-
the aperture through which leakage occurs quired in an inclosure and 100 -dB transmis-
as a waveguide -type attenuator. sion attenuation through the hole is desired
A cutoff frequency for any waveguide at 100 MHz. From figure 23A attenuation
is the lowest frequency at which propaga- is 32 -dB per inch at 100 MHz for radius
tion occurs without attenuation. Below cut- %2 ". The required length is 100/32
off, attenuation is a function of guide length 3.13 inches.
and frequency. When an aperture is de-
signed as a waveguide below cutoff, shield- Pass- Through Careful attention should be
ing efficiencies of a high order are achieved. Leads paid to leads entering and
Figure 23A shows a set of design curves leaving the electrically tight
for circular waveguides ranging from 0.125" box. Harmonic currents generated inside the
to 2" in radius and figure 23B shows curves box can easily flow out of the box on power
for rectangular guides up to 4" in width. or control leads, or even on the outer shields
OPENING IN
INCLOSURE
LENS CIRCULAR
WAVCGUIDE
SECTION
120 120
NIP o.js-
loo 100
80 e0
ro.as-
60 s0 -wo.S-
o 40
ro.s _w1-
20 -r
o
-r 20
w.
_W.
Z.
o
IOO ZOO Soo 000 2000 3000 10000 100 200 300 1000 2000 3000 10000
F (wMZ) F (4MZ)
Figure 23
WAVEGUIDE- BEYOND-CUTOFF INCLOSURE OPENINGS
Waveguide section at inclosure opening can provide improved shielding efficiency. Air passes through
the waveguide but rf attenuated to a greater degree than a simple opening can provide. Chart (A)
provides attenuation in decibels /inch for circular waveguide. Chart (B) provides attenuation for rec-
tangular waveguide for TE,o mode. All curves continue horizontally down to 10 MHZ.
17.18 RADIO HANDBOOK
12000
r- C---- -__ -'
tor SMALL
SHIELDED OSCILLATOR
HOLE IN SHIELD TO
shielded cables into a box where it is desired B 05C
CI
to preserve the continuity of the shielding. 2 loam _ I
Ca
low -inductance bypass capacitors should be
used in power leads. If the current in the
70
140
_sty
N
L
miCI R1
C.C4
-
\
shield these leads their entire length. All
SHIELDED SHIELDED
COMPARTME COMPARTMENT
(S)
RADIATION
FIELD \ HOLE
RE- RADIATED
FIELD
HOLE / WRONG
ICKUP RADIAT
LOOP LOOP
INTERNAL GROUND
CURRENTS
B Y PASS BYPASS
ON EXTERIOR OF BOX
WRONG
ILLUSTRATION OF HOW A
SUPPOSEDLY GROUNDED POWER
Figure 24 LEAD CAN COUPLE ENERGY FROM
Use of coaxial connectors on electrically tight ONE COMPARTMENT TO ANOTHER
box prevents escape of ground currents from
ELECTRICALLY TIGHT ELECTRICALLY TIGHT
interior of box. At the same time external COMPARTMENT
II
COMPARTMENT
fields are not conducted into the interior of
the box. ADIATION
Rr1
ELD BULKHEAD TYPE
-BYPASS CAPACI TOP
RIGHT
RFC, RFC
GRiO PLATE
TANK 'TANK'
CURE
Figure 27
lower frequency than the operating fre- tube, negative resistance can exist in the
quency and will cause additional carriers to screen circuit of such tubes. Try larger and
appear, spaced from perhaps twenty to a smaller screen bypass capacitors to determine
few hundred kHz on either side of the main whether or not they have any effect. If the
wave. Such a circuit is illustrated in figure condition is coming from the screen circuit
27. In this case, RFC, and RFC2 form the an audio choke with a resistor across it in
grid and plate inductances of the parasitic series with the screen -feed lead will often
oscillator. The neutralizing capacitor, no eliminate the trouble.
longer providing out -of -phase feedback to Low -frequency parasitic oscillations can
the grid circuit, actually enhances the low - often take place in the audio system of a
frequency oscillation. Because of the low Q transmitter, and their presence will not be
of the r -f chokes, they will usually run known until the transmitter is checked on
warm when this type of parasitic oscillation a receiver. It is easy to determine whether
is present and may actually char and burn or not the oscillations are coming from the
up. A neon bulb held near the oscillatory modulator simply by switching off the mod-
circuit will glow a bright yellow, the color ulator supply voltage. If the oscillations are
appearing near the glass of the neon bulb coming from the modulator, the stage in
ind not between the electrodes. which they are being generated can be de-
One cure for this type of oscillation is to termined by removing voltage successively,
change the type of choke in either the plate starting with the first speech amplification
or the grid circuit. This is a marginal cure, stage, until the oscillation stops. When the
because the amplifier may again break into stage has been found, remedial steps can be
the same type of oscillation when the plate taken on that stage.
voltage is raised slightly. The best cure is to If the stage causing the oscillation is a
remove the grid r -f choke entirely and re- low -level speech stage it is possible that the
place it with a wirewound resistor of suffi- trouble is coming from r-f or power- supply
cient wattage to carry the amplifier grid cur- feedback, or it may be coming about as a
rent. If the inclusion of such a resistor upsets result of inductive coupling between two
the operating bias of the stage, an r -f choke transformers. If the oscillation is taking
may be used, with a 100 -ohm 2 -watt carbon
place in a high -level audio stage, it is pos-
resistor in series with the choke to lower the
sible that inductive or capacitive coupling is
operating Q of the choke. If this expedient
does not eliminate the condition, and the taking place back to one of the low -level
stage under investigation uses a beam -tetrode speech stages.
EQUIPMENT DESIGN 17.21
EXC
Figure 28
PARASITIC SUPPRESSION CIRCUITS
A-Plate parasitic suppressor is used in grounded -grid circuit. Filament suppressor may be added if
secondary parasitic is present. B -Plate parasitic suppressor is used for grid -driven circuit, with
second suppressor added in neutralizing circuit, if necessary.
17.22 RADIO HANDBOOK
rode amplifier stages. These considerations the parasitic will result. It is also possible
involve the facts that a beam -tetrode ampli- to suppress the oscillation by loading the
fier stage has greater power sensitivity than circuit so that the circuit is "lossy" at the
an equivalent triode amplifier, such a stage parasitic frequency. This may be done by
has a certain amount of screen -lead induct- the use of a parasitic choke in the plate
ance which may give rise to trouble, and and /or grid lead of the stage in question. A
such stages have a small amount of feedback parallel coil and resistor combination oper-
capacitance. ates on the principle that the resistor loads
Beam -tetrode stages often will require the the vhf circuit but is shunted by the coil
inclusion of a neutralizing circuit to'elimi- for the lower fundamental frequency. The
nate oscillation on the operating frequency. parasitic choke (figure 29) is usually made
However, oscillation on the operating fre- uo of a noninductive resistor of about 25 to
quency is not normally called a parasitic 100 ohms, shunted by three or four turns of
oscillation, and different measures are re- wire, approximately one -half inch in diam-
quired to eliminate the condition. eter and frequently wound over the body
When a parasitic oscillation is found on of the resistor.
a very high frequency, the interconnecting In the process of adjusting the resistor -
leads of the tube, the tuning capacitors and coil combination, it may be found that the
the bypass capacitors are involved. This resistor runs too hot. The heat is usually
type of oscillation generally does not occur caused by the dissipation of fundamental
when the amplifier is designed for vhf oper- power in the resistor, which is an indica-
ation where the r -f circuits external to the tion of too many turns in the suppressor
tube have small tuning capacitors and induc- coil. Just enough turns should be used to
tors. Without tuning capacitors, the highest suppress the parasitic oscillation, and no
frequency of oscillation is then the funda- more. Once the circuit is properly loaded
mental frequency and no higher frequen- and the parasitic suppressed, no parasitic
cies of resonance exist for the parasitic power will be present and no power other
oscillation. than primary power will be lost in the resis-
The vhf oscillation commonly occurs in tor of the suppressor.
hf amplifiers, using the capacitors and asso- For medium power levels, a plate sup-
ciated grid and plate leads for the induct- pressor may be made of a 22 -ohm, 2 -watt
ances of the tuned circuit. The frequency Ohmite or Allen- Bradley composition resis-
of unwanted oscillation is generally well tor wound with 4 turns of No. 18 enameled
above the self -neutralizing frequency of wire. For kilowatt stages operating up to
the tube. If the frequency of the parasitic 30 MHz, a satisfactory plate suppressor may
can be lowered to or below the self- neutral- be made of three 220 -ohm, 2 -watt composi-
izing frequency, complete suppression of tion resistors in parallel, shunted by 3 or
PC
Figure 29
parasitic chokes are placed in `rid (A) or plate (B) lead of tetrode and pentode tubes
R -C -type
as shown above. Too few turns on the parasitic choke will not completely suppress the par-
asitic, whereas too many turns will permit the shunt resistor to absorb too much fundamental
power. Five turns for the shunt coil will work well to 14 MHz. For 21 and 28 MHz, the shunt
coil should be reduced to three turns.
EQUIPMENT DESIGN 17.23
4 turns of No. 14 enameled wire, %z -inch denly removed when the screen supply is on.
diameter and %z -inch long. The correct procedure for parasitic testing
The parasitic suppressor for the plate cir- is as follows (figure 30):
cuit of a small rube such as the 5763, 2E26, nll
AMPLIFIER
6146, 6LQ6, or similar type normally may EXCITER TO BE TESTED
STAGE
FOR PARASITICS
consist of a 47 -ohm composition resistor of DUMMY
LOAD
2 -watt size with 4 turns of No. 18 enameled
wire wound around the resistor. However, EXCITER CONTROL
SWITCH
for operation above 30 MHz, special tailor-
ing of the value of the resistor and the size
of the coil wound around it will be required BIAS SUPPLY
HIGH VOLTAGE
POWER SUPPLY
VARIAC OR
LIGHT BULBS 1
in order to attain satisfactory parasitic sup- A-C
SUPPLY
pression without excessive power loss in
the parasitic suppressor. Figure 30
SUGGESTED TEST SETUP FOR
Tetrode Screening Isolation between the grid PARASITIC TEST
and plate circuits of a
tetrode tube is not perfect. For maximum
stability, it is recommended that the tetrode 1. The stage should be coupled to a
stage be neutralized. Neutralization is abso- dummy load, and tuned up in correct oper-
lutely necessary unless the grid and plate cir- ating shape. Sufficient protective bias should
cuits of the tetrode stage are each completely be applied to the tube at all times. For pro-
isolated from each other in electrically tight tection of the stage under test, a lamp
boxes. Even when this is done, the stage will bulb should be added in series with one leg
show signs of regeneration when the plate of the primary circuit of the high -voltage
and grid tank circuits are tuned to the same power supply. As the plate -supply load in-
frequency. Neutralization will eliminate this creases during a period of parasitic oscilla-
regeneration. Any of the neutralization cir- tion, the voltage drop across the lamp
cuits described in the chapter Generation of increases, and the effective plate voltage
R -I: Fnerg) may be used. drops. Bulbs of various sizes may be tried to
adjust the voltage under testing conditions
17 -10 Checking for
Parasitic Oscillations SIGNAL GENERATOR
10011HZ - 200 MHz
It is an unusual transmitter which har-
bors no parasitic oscillations when first con-
structed and tested. Therefore it is always
wise to follow a definite procedure in check-
ing a new transmitter for parasitic oscilla-
tions.
Parasitic oscillations of all types are most
easily found when the stage in question is Figure 31
running by itself, with full plate (and
screen) voltage, sufficient protective bias to PARASITIC GAIN MEASUREMENT
limit the plate current to a safe value, and Grid -dip oscillator and vacuum tube voltmeter
no excitation. One stage should be tested at may be used to measure parasitic stage gain
a time, and the complete transmitter should over 100 kHz -200 MHz region.
never be put on the air until all stages have
been thoroughly checked for parasitics. to the correct amount. If a Varias or Pou'er-
To protect tetrode tubes during tests for %tal is at hand, it may be used in place of
parasitics, the screen voltage should be ap- the bulbs for smoother voltage control.
plied through a series resistor which will Don't test for parasitics unless some type of
limit the screen current to a safe value in voltage control is used on the high -voltage
case the plate voltage of the tetrode is sud- supply! When a stage breaks into parasitic
17.24 RADIO HANDBOOK
oscillations, the plate current increases vio- Test for Parasitic In most high -frequency
lently and some protection to the tube Tendency in Tetrode transmitters there are a
under test must be used. Amplifiers great many resonances
2. The r -f excitation to the tube should in the tank circuit at
now be removed. When this is done, the grid. frequencies other than the desired operat-
screen, and plate currents of the tube should ing frequency. Most of these parasitic reso-
drop to zero. Grid and plate tuning capaci- nant circuits are not coupled to the tube
tors should be tuned to minimum capacity. and have no significant tendency to oscillate.
No change in resting grid, screen, or plate A few, however, are coupled to the tube in
current should be observed. If a parasitic is some form of oscillatory circuit. If the re-
present, grid current will flow, and there will generation is great enough, oscillation at the
be an abrupt increase in plate current. The parasitic frequency results. Those spurious
size of the lamp bulb in series with the high - circuits existing just below oscillation must
voltage supply may be varied until the stage be found and suppressed to a safe level.
can oscillate continuously, without exceed- One test method is to feed a signal from a
ing the rated plate or screen dissipation of grid -dip oscillator into the grid of a stage
the tube. and measure the resulting signal level in the
3. The frequency of the parasitic may plate circuit of the stage, as shown in figure
now be determined by means of an absorp- 31. The test is made with all operating volt-
tion wavemeter, or a neon bulb. Low -fre- ages applied to the tubes. Class -C stages
quency oscillations will cause a neon bulb should have bias reduced so a reasonable
to glow yellow. High -frequency oscillations amount of static plate current flows. The
will cause the bulb to have a soft, violet grid -dip oscillator is tuned over the range of
glow. 100 kHz to 200 MHz, the relative level of
4. When the stage can pass the above test the r -f voltmeter is watched, and the fre-
with no signs of parasitics, the bias supply of quencies at which voltage peaks occur are
the tube in question should be decreased noted. Each significant peak in voltage gain
until the tube is dissipating its full plate in the stage must be investigated. Circuit
rating when full plate voltage is applied, changes or suppression must then be added
,vith no r -f excitation. Excitation may now to reduce all peaks by 10 dB or more in am-
be applied and the stage loaded to full input plitude.
into a dummy load. The signal should now
be monitored in a nearby receiver which has
the antenna terminals grounded or otherwise
17-11 Forced Air Cooling
shorted out. A series of rapid dots should be
A large percentage of the primary power
sent, and the frequency spectrum for several
drain of a transmitter is converted to heat
MHz each side of the carrier frequency care-
emitted by tubes and components. The re-
fully searched. If any vestige of parasitic is sulting temperature rise must be held within
left, it will show up as an occasional "pop" reasonable limits to ensure satisfactory life
on a keyed dot. This"pop" may be enhanced for the equipment.
by a slight detuning of the input or output
Forced- air-cooled systems may be used to
circuit. remove excess heat. A typical system con-
S. If such a parasitic shows up, it means
sists of an air blower, a conduit to guide the
that the stage is still not stable, and further air to the tube or component, a heat radia-
measures must be applied to the circuit. Par- tor on the component, and an air exhaust
asitic suppressors may be needed in both exit. The resistance to the air passage
screen and grid leads of a tetrode, or per- through such a system is termed system
haps in both grid and neutralizing leads of back pressure, pressure drop, or static pres-
a triode stage. As a last resort, a 10,000 -ohm sure. Air requirements are normally expressed
25 -watt wirewound resistor may be shunted as a pressure drop defined in inches of water
across the input circuit of a high powered (as measured by a manometer) with a cor-
stage. This strategy removed a keying "pop" responding volumetric air flow defined in
that showed up in a commercial transmitter, cubic feet per minute (c.f.m.) . A typical
operating at a plate voltage of 5000. air -cooling system is shown in figure 32.
EQUIPMENT DESIGN 17.25
Cooling requirements for most transmitting As the frequency of operation of the tube
tubes are provided on the data sheet and is extended into the vhf region, additional
air requirements and blower data for some cooling is usually required because of the
popular tubes are given in figure 33. larger r -f losses inherent in the tube struc-
ture.
r ATMOSPHERIC Temperature- sensitive paint or crayons
TUBE PRESSURE
may be used to monitor the temperature of
TUBE 1 a tube under operating conditions. If the
MANO-
i METER
paint is applied to the tube envelope in a
vet-) thin coat, it will melt and virtually
disappear at its critical temperature. After
subsequent cooling, it will have a crystalline
PRESSURE
DI rr ERENCE appearance indicating that the surface with
PRESSURIZED
which it is in contact has exceeded the
CHASSIS critical temperature. Temperature- sensitive
BLOWER
tapes and decals are also available to measure
envelope temperature of transmitting tubes.
Figure 32
17 -12 Conduction Cooling
FORCED -AIR COOLING SYSTEM
Centrifugal blower pressurizes plenum chamber I'he anode power dissipation density in a
(air -tight chassis) and air is exhausted through modern transmitting tube is extremely high
the tube socket and anode cooler of vacuum
tube. Pressure difference between plenum
chamber and atmosphere is measured with
manometer tube.
3 -1000Z 25 0.64
3 3w 3000 SA510
21/2 6000 SK 516
Figure 33
and conduction cooling is often used to in the matching network design. Above 150
remove the heat from the tube structure. MHz, care in network design still permits
A conduction cooling system comprises successful operation up to the frequency
the heat source (the power tube), a thermal limit of the tube, but attention must be
link to transfer the heat, and a heat sink, given to bandwidth and efficiency require-
where the heat is removed from the system. ments and the physical length and configu-
The thermal link has the dual properties of ration of the required resonating inductance
a thermal conductor and an electrical in- as the added capacitance of the thermal link
sulator. Beryllium oxide (BeO) combines will limit the value of resonating inductance.
these properties and is generally used for the Normal use of electron tubes having
thermal link. The BeO link may be brazed Beryllium oxide is safe. However, BeO dust
to the tube or be a detachable accessory or fumes are highly toxic and breathing
(figure 34). them can be injurious to health. Never per-
Most conduction -cooled tubes have an out- form work on any ceramic part of a power
put capacitance which is higher than con- tube utilizing this material which could
ventional air -cooled tubes due to the added possibly generate dust or fumes. At the
capacitance between the tube anode and the end of the useful life of the tube or heat
heat sink, typically 6 to 10 pF. The capaci- sink, the BeO material should be returned
tance is caused by the BeO dielectric. Below prepaid to the manufacturer with written
about 150 MHz, this added capacitance authorization for its disposal.
causes little difficulty since it can be included
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
Information is imparted to a radio wave the leading and trailing edge of the
by the process of modulation, which implies waveform.
that the radio signal is changed in amplitude, Both of these specifications must be satis-
frequency or phase. On -o$ (c -w) keying is fied before the transmitter is capable of meet-
a simple type of amplitude modulation and ing the FCC regulations concerning spurious
is a basic form of communication among emissions. Merely turning a transmitter car-
radio amateurs. rier on and off by the haphazard insertion of
Keying is usually accomplished in a low a telegraph key, or keyer, in some power lead
power stage of a transmitter so that the con- is an invitation to trouble.
trolled power is small. The amplifiers follow- Shown in this chapter are keying circuits
ing the keyed stage must be designed so that and keyers capable of keying a transmitter
their power consumption remains within a to provide clean, clickless keying at high
safe limit when the drive signal is cut off speed and which keep the keying circuit at
during keying. ground potential so that no danger of shock
In certain styles of operation, it is con- exists to the operator.
venient for the operator to listen through
his transmission so that the station at he
other end of the circuit can break -in while
the first operator is transmitting. This re-
18 -1 Keying Requirements
quires that the sending station avoid gen- The transmitter keying circuit must pro-
erating an interfering signal, or back u at e, vide fast, clickless keying with no frequency
in the local receiver when the transmitter is variation or chirp in the keyed wave. Key
keyed off. click elimination is accomplished by prevent-
In simple on -off keying, the carrier is ing a too rapid make and break of power in
broken into dots and dashes of the Morse the keyed circuit, thus rounding off the key-
Code fcr transmission. The carrier signal is ing characters so as to limit the sidebands to
of constant amplitude when the key is closed,
and is entirely removed when the key is
open. If the change from key -up to key -
down condition occurs too rapidly, the rec-
tangular pulse which forms the keying char-
acter contains high- frequency components
which take up a wide frequency band as side -
bands and are heard as key clicks on the
signal.
To be capable of transmitting code char-
acters and at the same time not be causing
unnecessary adjacent channel interference,
the c -w transmitter must meet two import-
ant specifications:
Figure 1
I. The transmitter must have no para- C -W KEYING CHARACTERISTICS
sitic oscillations either in the stage be- A-Abrupt rise and decay time of dot character
ing keyed, or in any preceding or fol- leads to severe key clicks on make and break.
lowing stage. B- Simple keying filter rounds dot character re-
ducing transition time between key -open and
2. The transmitter must have filters in key -closed condition. C -Poor power -supply reg-
ulation can distort keying waveform and add
the keying circuit capable of shaping "yoop" to the signal.
18.1
18.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
a value which does not cause interference in click filter is used in the keying circuit,
adjacent channels. The optimum keying the transmitter will have bad key clicks. If
characteristic is a highly subjective thing a key -click filter is used, the slow rise and
and "on the air" checks are questionable, decay of oscillator voltage induced by the
since many amateurs hesitate to be truly filter action will cause a keying chirp. This
critical of another amateur's signal unless it action is true of all oscillators, whether elec-
is causing objectionable interference. tron coupled or crystal controlled.
Various keying characteristics are shown The more amplifier or doubler stages that
in figure 1. Illustration A shows a keyed follow the keyed stage, the more difficult it
wave with the envelope rising from zero to is to hold ccntrol of the shape of the keyed
full value in 10 microseconds (µs). The lead- waveform. A heavily driven stage acts as
ing edge of the signal has the same shape as one a peak clipper, tending to square up a
modulation cycle of an r -f signal modulated rounded keying impulse, and the cumula-
with a frequency of 100 kHz. Sidebands 100 tive effect of several such stages cascaded
kHz on each side of the carrier are therefore is sufficient to square up the keyed waveform
generated by this waveform. Up to a keying to the point where bad clicks are reimposed
speed of 100 words per minute, a rise time on a clean signal.
as slow as 5 milliseconds can be used (illus- A good rule of thumb is to never key back
tration B), reducing the sidebands to 200 farther than one stage removed from the
Hz. Suitable filter circuits in the keying final amplifier stage, and never key closer
system reduce the rise and decay times of than one stage removed from the frequency -
the keyed characteristic to conservative controlling oscillator of the transmitter.
values, thus decreasing the keyed bandwidth Thus there will always be one isolating stage
of the signal. between the keyed stage and the oscillator,
Poor power supply regulation can alter and one isolating stage between the keyed
an otherwise perfect keyed waveform (il- stage and the antenna. At this point the
lustration C). Insufficient filter capacitance waveform of the keyed signal may be most
permits the power in the keyed wave to sag easily controlled.
during the long dash, adding an unusual
sounding characteristic to the signal. Differential Oscillator keying is tempting
With high power equipment, transmitter Keying since it permits break -in opera-
keying can affect power line regulation and tion, permitting the operator to
possibly make the lights blink in the vicinity listen to the other station between keyed
of the transmitter. The variation in line characteristics. The use of differential key-
voltage may affect the regulation of certain ing permits break -in, as the oscillator is
power supplies in the equipment, or make a turned on quickly by the keying sequence,
slow variation in filament voltage, that will a moment before the rest of the transmitter
change the keying characteristic of the trans- stages are energized, and remains on a mo-
mitted signal. ment longer than the other stages (figure
2). The chirp, or frequency shift, associated
Location of Considerable thought should be with abrupt switching of the oscillator is
Keyed Stage given as to which stage in a thus removed from the emitted signal. In
transmitter is the proper one to addition, the differential keyer can apply
key. If the transmitter is keyed in a stage waveshaping to the amplifier section of the
close to the oscillator, the change in r -f transmitter, eliminating the click caused by
loading of the oscillator may cause the os- rapid keying of the latter stages.
cillator to shift frequency with keying. This The ideal differential keying sequence is
will cause the signal to have a distinct chirp. shown in the illustration. When the key is
The chirp will be multiplied as many times closed, the oscillator reaches maximum out-
as the frequency of the oscillator is multi- put almost instantaneously. The following
plied. A chirpy oscillator that would be pass- stages reach maximum output in a fashion
able on 80 meters would be unusable on determined by the waveshaping circuits of
28 -MHz c -w. the keyer. When the key is opened, the out-
Keying the oscillator itself is an excellent put of the amplifier stages starts to decay
way to run into keying difficulties. If no key- in a predetermined manner, followed shortly
TRANSMITTER KEYING AND CONTROL 18.3
18 -2 Vacuum -Tube
Z
Keying
O
The problems of keying a vacuum tube
are somewhat different from keying a solid -
O
state circuit. The vacuum tube may be keyed
t AMPLIFIER
CUTOFF VALUE
in the grid, cathode or screen circuit and the
\ II
tube element may be either blocked with a
o negative voltage or opened with respect to
CUTOFF
ground or the positive potential of the
VALUE
OSC.
supply.
Cathode Keying Cathode keying is shown in
KEY IS DEPRESSED
figure 4. This circuit keys
DURING THIS TIME both the plate and grid dc return circuits
I
I
-TRANSMITTER
AIR
IS `ON THE
DURING THIS TIME.
-y to the cathode, thus blocking the grid at the
I
II
6Y6
TO
O Self-blocking keying may be achieved
KCTAED/00TEA
SOMA. SiLION-
REC1'IFIER
M BREAK) IM(MAKE ) with cetain high -µ triodes, such as the 811A
.7,IW 475.2 and the 3 -500Z which automatically cut
themselves off when the grid return circuit
is opened (figure 7).
SIGH -MU TRIODE
811A, 3-500Z. ETC
STANCOR FA8421
Figure 5
VACUUM -TUBE KEYER FOR
CENTER -TAP KEYING
Single 6Y6 triode -connected can key 80 mA. Two
in parallel may be used for cathode currents
under 160 mA. If softer keying is desired, in-
crease grid capacitor to .01 F.
001
L C "02
AMPLIFIER
RI soon 50 n RI6, ETC.
25W
ADJUST
5145
-105V
1 00 K
2w
R3
I00K
-
R2 soo
MAKES
K
DELAY CONTROL
-- AMP
zw
SC REEN
YOL TACE
Figure 10
DIFFERENTIAL KEYING SYSTEM FOR SCREEN CIRCUIT
This keyer contains a 6BL7 series screen- voltage keyer tube and utilizes one -half of a 12AU7 as a
control triode for the keyer tube. The second section of the 12AU7 is diode -connected to apply
blocking bias to the 6BL7. With open key, pin 7 of the 12AU7 is adjusted to about -85 volts by
means of potentiometer RI, using vtvm. The 12AU7 and 6BL7 are now plugged in their sockets and,
with the key still open, -105 to -110 volts should be observed at cathode pin 3 of the 12AU7.
The screen voltage to the keyed amplifier stage (6146, etc.) should be about -50 volts. With the key
closed, screen control potentiometer R, should be set to the proper screen voltage. Sharpness of
keying on wave front is adjusted by the setting of potentiometer R,. "Softness" of keying may be
increased by raising value of capacitor C. The 6BL7 tube should be run from separate 6.3 -volt fiI-
ament supply with the filament transformer center tap connected to amplifier screen voltage lead
to keep heater- cathode voltage of 6BL7 within its rating.
18.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
isturned on and the tetrode stage is blocked A second differential keying system is
an instant before the exciter is turned off. shown in figure 12. A switching diode turns
Thus any keying chirp of the oscillator is the oscillator on before the buffer stages and
removed from the keyed signal. holds it on until the keying sequence is com-
plete. Time constant of the keying cycle is
Differential Various differential keying determined by values of C and R. When the
Keying Circuits circuits have been found to
be practical and easy to get
key is open, a cutoff bias of about 110 V
is applied to the screen circuit of the keyed
-
working. Shown in figure 11 is a simple stages. When the key is closed, the screen
keyer. Grid -block keying is used on tubes voltage rises to its normal value at a rate
V2 and V3. A waveshaping filter consisting determined by RC. The output control po-
of R2, R3, and C, is used in the keying con- tentiometer permits the operating screen
trol circuit of V2 and V3. To avoid chirp voltage to be adjusted to control the power
when the oscillator (V1) is keyed, the keyer output level of the last keyed stage. Block-
tube (V4) allows the oscillator to start ing bias may be removed from the oscillator
quickly-before V_ and V3 start conducting for "zeroing" purposes by switch S,.
-and then continue operating until after V_
and V3 have stopped conducting. Potenti-
ometer R, adjusts the hold time for vfo op-
eration after the key is opened. This may be 18 -3 Break -in Keying
adjusted to cut off the vfo between marks of
keyed characters, thus allowing rapid break -in Break -in c -w operation permits informa-
operation. tion to be transmitted back and forth be-
V1 V2 V3
OSCILLATOR BUFFER DRIVER
VFO^NOLO CI0 s
-50v
Figure 11
DIFFERENTIAL KEYER USING A 12AU7 DOUBLE TRIODE
OSCILLATOR BUFFER f I BUFFER s2
33
R3
)N4005
ZERO
BEAT +300 V.
51
K 50 K
2W
OUTPUT
CONTROL
R,
100 K
00i 2W
Figure 12
DIFFERENTIAL KEYING SYSTEM WITH OSCILLATOR- SWITCHING DIODE
TRANSMITTER KEYING AND CONTROL 18.7
tween two stations at will. For true break -in, the key -up, or receive, position, the auxiliary
each station must be able to listen to the receiving antenna is connected to the re-
other during the key -up period, while the ceiver through a simple T -R switch and the
receiver remains mute (or operates at re- receiver agc circuit functions normally. In
duced gain) during the key -down period. the key-down position, transistor Q, con-
Thus, one operator can "break" the other at ducts and the collector assumes a negative
any time between the dots and dashes of a potential. A negative voltage is thus applied
single letter. to diode D_ which conducts, effectively
In order to achieve break -in capability, the shorting the receiver antenna circuit to
receiver must be protected against overload ground. An adjustable negative voltage is
from the nearby transmitter during the key - taken from potentiometer R, and applied to
down period and must be able to recover full the receiver agc line, silencing the receiver.
sensitivity in the key -up periods. Diode D, prevents shorting the agc line to
Simple break -in technique calls for the use ground during key -up condition. The key-
of a separate receiving antenna, as the ordi- ing characteristic may be achieved by a sim-
nary antenna relay cannot respond fast ple R -C network placed across the key
enough to follow high speed keying. The terminals.
separate antenna, in most instances, may. be IZ
220
KEY
I 4
BASE BIAS
'400n
Figure 14
TRANSMITTER BREAK -IN CIRCUIT
Figure 13
BREAK -IN CIRCUIT FOR TRANSMITTER Transistors Q,Q, control transmitter bias on two
stages of solid -state circuitry. When the key is
AND RECEIVER CONTROL closed, the circuits go to the positive voltages
In key -up position, or receive, the auxiliary re- indicated. The 1.4 -volt line is used to bias -on
ceiving antenna is connected to the receiver the base circuits of the r -f driver stages of the
through a simple T -R switch and the receiver transmitter. Agc /alc control voltage is derived
agc system functions normally. In the key -down from transistors Q,Q,.
position, or transmit, the receiving antenna is
shorted to ground and a negative voltage is ap- A more complex break -in circuit is shown
plied to the receiver age line. The keying con-
stants are adjusted by an RC network placed in figure 14. Transistors Q, -Q, form a com-
across the key. plementary switch that controls transmitter
Shown in figure 13 is a representative bias. The three control circuits are near zero
break -in circuit that provides gain reduction potential during key -up periods. When the
and receiver input circuit protection during key is closed, the cicuits go to the positive
the key -down period of the transmitter. In voltages indicated in the diagram. The po-
18.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
tential of the + 1.4 -volt line is determined off by the two diodes in the emitter circuit
by the two diodes D, and D2. This voltage when the key is up.
is used to bias -on the base circuits of the A companion sidetone generator is shown
r -f section of the transmitter. The AGC/ in figure 16 which provides an audio tone
ALC control voltage is derived from tran- for the receiver when the transmitter is
sistors Q2 -Q3. keyed.
01 2%4030
ical key, or bug. Moving the keying paddle (IC_,t, IC_) is used as a character gener-
to the right produces a uniform string of ator. Grounding the dot contact of the two -
dots and moving the paddle to the left pro- contact key triggers the set (S) input of the
duces a uniform string of dashes. A more dot flip -flop (IC_ -t) which then sends pre-
sophisticated keyer makes use of a dual cise square -wave dots as long as the dot con-
squeeze paddle having double paddles, levers, tact is closed. If the dot contact is opened
and contacts, one set for dots and one for before the completion of a dot, the element
dashes. In one version of this squeeze keyer will be completed (dot memory).
(the iambic keyer), closing both paddles at Grounding the dash contact of the key
once produces a string of sequential dots and triggers the set input of the dash flip -flop
dashes. This simplifies the sending of the (IC_) and also grounds the set input of the
letters having this sequence, such as C, Q, dot flip -flop through diode D1. The dot flip -
A, L, X, R, and K. Other versions of the flop starts a dot, the dash flip-flop is trig-
squeeze keyer produce a string of dots or gered, and a second dot is initiated complet-
dashes when both paddles are closed. The ing the dash element at the end of the second
keyer may be modified to send dots over dot. The outputs of the flip -flops are added
dashes or dashes over dots when one paddle in a summing gate (IC3). Once a character
is closed after another. This action is termed has started, it is impossible to alter it with
override. Automatic dot completion is the paddle and characters are self -completing.
achieved by incorporating a memory circuit The transmitter is actuated by a keying
in the keyer. transistor (Q,) employing a fast -operating
relay in the collector circuit. In many in-
stances, a reed relay is used. This type of re-
A Basic The logic functions of a typical relay has operate and release times of less
Keyes, keyer are performed by silicon in- than one millisecond and can allow good
tegrated circuits (figure 17). The keying up to 100 words per minute. Some
pulse (dot) generator, or clock, is a free keyers eliminate the relay in favor of a key-
running multivibrator made up of two in- ing transistor having a high collector-to-
verters (IC,A, IC,R) with the pulse speed emitter voltage rating and a large collector
controlled by potentiometer R,. The free current rating, thus permitting the transistor
running, astable multivibrator allows pre - to be used to directly key cathode or grid
cise spacing between the code elements as circuits carrying up to several hundred mil-
the space will always be one dot long, re- liamperes with an open -key voltage up to
IL
gardless of the sending speed. A dual flip -flop 300.
I I TO KEYED CIRCUIT
I
nr
DOT
FLIP -FLOP
DASH
FLIP -FLOP
SUMMING
GATE
QI
KETER
fir
Q
ICIA IC SA
DO2 TS
TWO CONTACT KEY
DASHES,
Figure 17
TIME -0 LOGIC FUNCTIONS OF ELECTRONIC KEYER
Astable multivibrator (ICI) generates string of pulses (dots) with speed controlled by potentiometer
RI. Dot flip-flop sends precise square -wave dots when key contact is closed. Dash flip -flop adds long
pulse to dot, forming 3 -baud dash at output of summing gate. Amplifier and keying transistor drive
a reed relay which controls the transmitter circuit. Dot memory, sidetone monitor, and iambic char-
acteristic may be added to the basic keyer, if desired.
18.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
A sidetone oscillator or keying monitor Another version will produce a dot or dash
can be driven by the keyer to provide the override sequence whereby closing both con-
operator with an audible indication of the tacts simultaneously, only dots (or dashes)
keying process. are generated.
Variation in the control logic and the use
of a double paddle key permits conversion
of the basic keyer to iambic keying whereby 18 -5 The COSMOS Keyer
grounding either the dot or the dash con-
tact and then immediately grounding the This compact and reliable keyer is an up-
other produces alternating dots and dashes. to -date version of the popular W9TO keyer
Figure 18
THE COSMOS INTEGRATED -CIRCUIT
KEYER
The COSMOS keyer uses CMOS logic with a single IC, the Curtis 8043. This device provides dot memory,
variable weight, and iambic (squeeze keying) mode. The device works either from an internal 9 -volt
battery or from 120 volts 60 Hz. The unit is built in a Moduline cabinet measuring 5" wide, 31 í" high
and 5' deep, exclusive of controls. The small speaker is mounted in the removable lid of the box.
Pitch and weight controls are in line across the top, with volume and speed controls across the bottom.
Rubber feet are placed on the bottom of the box to prevent scratching the operating table. Box color
is gray, with an off -white panel.
TRANSMITTER KEYING AND CONTROL 18.11
that has appeared in various versions, revi- in the "key -up" condition and 200 mA in
sions, and modifications over the past decade. the "key- down" position.
The design has passed through vacuum The transmitter may be turned on for
tubes; discrete transistor circuits; RTL, tuning, by closing the tune switch on the
DTL, and TTL circuits; to the present one. keyer. Also, the keyer may be used for code
The latest design uses the newest and the practice, without keying the transmitter by
best adapted IC logic form: CMOS (figure closing the self -test switch.
18) . A recently developed IC does it all, the The ac power supply uses a four terminal
Curtis 8043. Rather than building up a regulator, the Fairchild 78 MG. This regu-
keyer using several small scale integration- lator is very much like the 3- terminal types
type IC's, the builder can use only one 8043 having fixed voltages, but has a fourth ter-
and have dot memory, variable weight, and minal by which the output voltage may be
even iambic (squeeze keying) mode. adjusted. The power supply circuit is shown
Because CMOS is inherently capable of in figure 20. Since the regulator is fully ad-
operating from a wide range of supply volt- justable, it can be set to +9 volts, the same
ages, the 8043 can operate on +S to +12 as the nominal battery voltage.
volts dc. Since 9 -volt transistor radio bat- Note that all leads passing in and out of
teries are cheap and common, that voltage the keyer cabinet (Moduline P-355) are r -f
was chosen for this keyer. Either battery or dccoupled. The two keyer paddle leads and
ac operation is selectable by the front panel the transmitter keying line are choked, using
power switch. Since the keyer consumes only a ferrite bead and a 1000 -pF feedthrough
about 50 p.A "key -up" and 50 mA "key - capacitor in each lead, forming a simple L-
down," leaving the power switch on in the network. These rfi precautions may not al-
battery mode causes little drain. ways be required because the Curtis 8043 IC
is relatively insensitive to r -f, being CMOS.
Keyer Circuitry The circuit of the COSMOS It is safest to put it in as the keyer is built,
keyer is shown in figure 19, rather than having to add it on later if trou-
as arranged for cathode keying of a tube -
ble does develop. The keyer is assembled on
type transmitter. Note that transistor Q is a peg board, as shown in the interior view of
a type capable of withstanding +300 volts
figure 21.
REV 10 OATS
22 11EI4111
IS
7R'0 5001,
I
Ñ3 5
.Ì.
Ti
D2 0 27"P.
-1 k-11-
001
DI
25760
CURT 15 01
RI C
--I(--
8617
1`- - - -
TOP
DI
VIEW 12
05
C D7
255656 --.1 Q 7
}-T
DA 5 61,'0 5 PIIC5
SW IOR
17:
R
10
05
A
-5
150
F 145
SPIER
TAPER 05
02
SPEED 257617
Vol R 500 R
55MMETRU 5
TRIM - POI
Figure 19
SCHEMATIC OF THE COSMOS KEYER
Diodes are germanium (1N270). Diode D, is a 1N4006. All capacitors may be ceramic except the
D1 -D6
0.33 -0Funit between pins 9 and 10 of the IC, which is a mylar unit. Ceramic beads (B1 -B7) are placed
on key lines to reduce r-f feedback into the keyer. A set of the major components and a glass -epoxy
circuit board for the keyer may be ordered from: Curtis Electro Devices, Box 4090, Mountain View,
CA 94040.
18.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
List
FAIRCHILD
78-MG
BATTERY
120V
60Hz
9V
05
9V
Figure 20
SCHEMATIC OF KEYER POWER SUPPLY
F, -Line receptacle and filter. CORCOM 6EF -1. Newark Electronics catalog stock number 15F2458.
T -10 -0 -10 volts at 60 mA. Signal PC-20-60.
Figure 21
INTERIOR VIEW OF KEYER
The keyer is built upon a prepunched terminal board. P pattern with 0.042' diameter holes and type
T45-4 is mounted to the side of the cabinet with a
terminals (Vector). The 9 -volt transistor battery
clip. At the rear of the board is the IC voltage regulator, with the power transformer and filter
capacitor to the side. The Curtis IC is near the center of the board, mounted in a 16 -pin socket.
Connections between the terminals is made on the under side of the terminal board. The test and
tune switches, along with the rfi -proof power receptacle and terminal board for keying connections
are mounted on the rear wall of the cabinet.
TRANSMITTER KEYING AND CONTROL 18.13
Adjusting There is -- one calibration pro - dot memory also aids in "squeeze" keying
the Keyer cedure involved, other than ad- where a tap on the dot paddle will insert a
justing the regulator for +9 dot into a series of dashes. When the dot
volts output; the symmetry trim -pot must paddle is pressed, a continuous string of dots
be set. With the control at midrange, and is produced. When the dash paddle is pressed,
the ueight control at minimum, push the continuous dashes are produced. When both
keycr paddle to "dot." Then the symmetry paddles are closed, an alternating series of
trim -pot is adjusted until the keyer output dots and dashes (iambic) is produced. The
is such that the dot -to -space ratio (as seen series can be started with either a dot or a
on a 'scope) is one -to -one. dash depending upon which paddle is closed
The Curtis 8043 comes with an IC socket first. Iambic operation allows "squeeze" key-
and instruction manual. The manual shows ing if desired by using a twin -lever paddle.
how the IC may be used to key a transmitter A single -lever paddle allows the "non -
having a negative "key -up" potential. This squeeze" mode.
method uses a high- voltage PNP transistor The keyer provides a speed range of 8 to
as a saturated switch, in much the same man- 50 w.p.m. Resistor R,_ sets the upper end
ner as the NPN (Q,) device was used to of the speed range and may be decreased in
key a positive voltage ( "key -up ") transmit- value for higher speed keying.
ter. The circuit shown in the Curtis man-
ual, however, places the keyer paddle com-
mon at -9
volts relative to the transmitter
chassis. If complete isolation is desired, an
inexpensive reed relay, offering millisecond 18 -6 The Keyboard
response and minimum bounce may be used Keyer
in the circuit of figure 22.
14 V NNREGUUTEDI
Use of a keyboard -style keyer is growing,
39
especially among radio amateurs interested
05 in very high speed c -w, from 50 to 90
w.p.m., at which speed accurate manual
transmission is very difficult. Keyboards are
also used by lower speed operators interested
in accurate c -w independent of physical
KEY TO dexterity.
%NTR
TO PIN A keyboard keyer consists of a keyboard,
14 OF
CURTIS usually arranged similar to a typewriter, an
8073
encoding system for the keys, a converter for
obtaining the Morse code characters with
proper element spacing, a sidetone monitor
and an output section for keying the trans-
Figure 22 mitter. The Curtis KB -4200 Morse Key-
REED RELAY KEYING CIRCUIT FOR
board is shown in figure 23, and a block di-
COSMOS KEYER
B,, B,- Ferrite bead. RY, -Reed relay, 12-volt
agram of the device is given in figure 24.
coil. Potter & Brumfield JRM1009.
The keyer provides self -completing dots, Keyboard Although there are several ways
dashes, and spaces. Once a character (or Operation of implementing a keyboard
space) is commenced, there is no way to pre- keyer, the machines fall into two
vent it from being completed. The self -com- general classes; those with a buffer memory
pleting function of an electronic keyer can and those without. This difference has a
cause dots to get lost because the operator large effect upon the sequence of operation
tends to "lead" the keyer. Since dashes are of the device. On keyboards without buffers,
held longer, they seldom get lost. To prevent character and word spacing is provided by
lost dots, the 8043 CMOS device employs a the operator and is variable as a result. On
memory to remember when a dot is called units having buffers, the operator types a
for and to insert it at the proper time. The few code characters ahead of the actual
18.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
KEY -DOWN
KEYBOARD STROBE
INDICATOR
PROM
CONVERTER
MORSE DATA
CODE
GENERATOR
END OF
SPEED CHARACTER
CONTROL PULSE
SERIAL CODE
TRANSMISSION
FOR SIDETONE
AND BEVER
Figure 24
THE CURTIS KB -4200 KEYBOARD
KEYER
Keyboard provides standard ASCII code of six
parallel lines to a 64- character FIFO (first-in,
first -out) buffer memory. A fullness meter indi-
Figure 23 cates the amount of storage in use. As each
THE CURTIS KEYBOARD character is withdrawn from the memory, the
stack falls by one character. The ASCII data is
Standard typewriter format is used in the routed to a PROM code converter where Morse
keyboard. At upper left is the buffer status equivalents are generated. A sidetone monitor
meter, with the speed control, calibrated in and keyer are run by the code generator.
words per minute at the center. Volume,
pitch, and weight controls are at upper right.
transmission. The buffering circuitry sup- A Buffered The diagram of figure 24 illus-
plies character spacing, and by depressing Keyboord trates a buffered keyboard. This
a space bar on the keyboard, the operator in- device makes use of a standard
serts standard word spaces into the message. computer terminal keyset and associated
Buffer memory sizes range from one char- electronics to prevent key de- bouncing and
acter to as many as 128. A buffer storage two -key roll often caused by overlapping
of 64 characters is more than adequate for key depressions by the operator. The output
normal operation. Buffered keyboards are of this section is the standard ASCII code
normally designed to produce only one char- (American Standard Code for Information
acter per key depression similar to a type - Interchange) for alphanumeric characters
writer, whereas certain of the unbuffered consisting of six parallel lines. A strobe out-
designs send a continuous stream of charac- put indicates when a key has been depressed
ters on key depression. While helpful in send- and the key data is valid.
ing words with rapid, repetitive letters, such The ASCII information is routed to a 64
as "keep," the key must be released very character FIFO (first -in. first -out) buffer
quickly to avoid sending unwanted dupli- memory (using two FSC 3341 ICs), where
cates of short letters at high keying speeds. it is stacked up, ready for transmission. As
Also, on an unbuffered device, the rhythm each character is withdrawn for transmission
of key depression is tied to the rhythm of the stack falls one character. Operation of
the Morse transmission, that is, some letters the FIFO memory is similar to an old -time
are short and some very long. On buffered trolley car conductor's coin changer where
units, the operator is free to type indepen- the rate of coins deposited and extracted is
dent of transmission speed once he has a few completely independent. In the KB -4200
characters stored in the buffer. keyboard, buffer fullness is indicated by a
TRANSMITTER KEYING AND CONTROL 18.15
FROM SPEECH
AMPLIFIER 2N2925 seo 2N2925 1N34A
+9v
-Qo V
CONox TROL
CIRCUITS
Rr
IM
VOX 2N404 2N2925
GAIN
Figure 26
TRANSISTORIZED VOX
Self- contained VOX circuit may be added to existing equipment. Relay has pull -in current of
about 7 mA. (Sigma 11F- 1000G-SIL). Unenergized relay current is 3 mA, and actual pull -in current
is 12 mA.
FIL. 18 -8 An R -F Operated
CHOKE
Keying Monitor
VOX
RELAY
lolc 2 2
12
TO
TRANSMITTER
(HIGH -ZI
Ere2
2N2 160 eoTTUM VIEW FROM
RECEIVER
Figure 28 1441
Schematic of R -F Actuated
Keying Monitor TO TELEPHONE
VOICE COUPLER
the final amplifier stage, and the trigger
voltage level adjusted by moving the coil
away from, or closer to, the tank inductor.
Figure 29
REPRESENTATIVE PHONE PATCH
18 -9 The Phone Patch T, -1000 ohms to 4 ohms (reversed)
T2-1000 ohms to 5000 ohms
Adjust balancing network for minimum signal
The phone-patch is an electrical intercon- feedthrough between receiver and transmitter.
nection between the amateur station and the
telephone line. Effective in 1959, the Bell 2750 Hz, which if present, must not exceed
System responded to an FCC order covering a proscribed level. This band is used for
interconnection of the System with privately signaling.
owned facilities, which legalized phone- Modern SSB equipment uses VOX and
patching. Accordingly, most telephone com- antivox circuitry, and provisions for voice
panies will provide a unit called a voice cou- control are helpful for full phone -patch serv-
pler which is a connecting device to be ice. In order for this to be accomplished
attached to a telephone set, along with a correctly, a hybrid circuit is included in the
switch to connect and disconnect the cou- phone patch. This is a network which re-
pler. The coupler isolates the station equip- sembles a bridge and prevents the receiver
ment from the telephone line and provides audio signal from reaching the audio cir-
an impedance match and level control be- cuitry of the transmitter (figure 29) The .
tween the line and the station equipment. signal -level loss of this circuit is approxi-
The coupler is connected in parallel with the mately 10 dB. In some patches, a 2600 -Hz
telephone set when a phone patch is in filter is added in the line from the receiver
progress. to prevent unwanted disconnections result-
To effect a phone patch, the average voice ing from heterodynes or interference on the
level to be applied to the phone line is re- received signal falling in that audio -fre-
stricted by the telephone company and the quency range. Such a filter is helpful on long
audio power in various a -f bands is specified, distance phone calls but is usually not re-
in particular, the band from 2450 Hz to quired for local calls.
i
CHAPTER NINETEEN
Mobile operation is permitted on all ama- equipment for this mode of operation is
teur bands. Tremendous impetus to this available, using battery power as a primary
phase of the hobby was given by the suit- source. To conserve battery drain, solid -
able design of compact mobile equipment. state devices are commonly used and power
Complete mobile installations may be pur- input is limited for the same reason. Some
chased as packaged units, or the whole mo- amateurs employ gasoline driven power gen-
bile station may be home built, according to erators for portable and emergency service.
the whim of the operator. In all cases, however, the power source is
The problems involved in achieving a sat- critical since even mobile power sources are
isfactory two -way installation vary some- limited in their ultimate capacity.
what with the band, but many of the prob- The handicap of low power in mobile and
lems are common to all bands. For instance, portable operation can be overcome by the
ignition noise is more troublesome on 10 ability of the operator to select his operating
meters than on 80 meters, but on the other site in many instances. A high, clear, noise -
hand an efficient antenna system is much free location will permit successful operation
more easily accomplished on 10 meters than on the vhf bands to the line -of -sight dis-
on 80 meters. Also, obtaining a worthwhile tance and will permit contacts over thou-
amount of transmitter output without ex- sands of miles on the hf bands while run-
cessive battery drain is a problem on all ning only a few watts of transmitter power.
bands. A good location combined with a good sta-
Compact mobile equipment is available for tion antenna will permit a successful operator
f-m operation on the vhf bands and this to compete in today's interference -full ama-
popular mode has flourished, at the expense teur bands even under the most difficult
of mobile operation on the hf bands. The use operating conditions.
of fixed f -m repeaters placed on elevated lo-
cations has done much to enhance vhf mo- 19 -1 Mobile and Portable
bile communication.
The majority of high- frequency mobile Power Sources
operation takes place on single sideband. The
low duty -cycle of SSB equipment, as con- A small transistor converter for casual
trasted to the heavy power drain of con- listening may be run from a 9 -volt battery,
ventional a -m gear has encouraged the use but larger mobile receivers, transmitters, and
of relatively high - power sideband equipment transceivers require power from the electrical
in many mobile installations. system of the automobile. SSB equipment,
The SSB transceiver, thus, has become with its relatively light duty cycle, is ideally
the universal high- frequency mobile device suited for mobile use and demands the least
with the majority of use on SSB and a small primary power drain for a given radiated sig-
but growing minority of amateurs using nal of all the common types of amateur
the transceiver for mobile c -w operation. transmission. As a result of the combination
Portable operation is extremely popular of low power requirement and enhanced
on all hf and vhf bands and specialized communication effectiveness, SSB has sup-
1 9. 1
19.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
planted amplitude modulation for mobile pairs of poles, and the output of one stator
service on the hf amateur bands. F -m, on winding represents six electrical cycles for
the other hand, is universally used for vhf each revolution of the field. The output fre-
mobile service. In any case, a total equip- quency in cycles per second is one -tenth
ment power drain of about 250 watts for the shaft speed expressed in revolutions per
SSB or f -m is about the maximum power second.
that may be taken from the electrical system The high output current of the alterna-
of an automobile without serious regard to tor is supplied directly from the fixed stator
discharging the battery when the car is windings in the form of three -phase current.
stopped for short periods of mobile opera- The stator is usually connected in a wye
tion. (Y) configuration to an internal rectifier
With many SSB mobile -radio installa- assembly made up of six silicon diodes which
tions now requiring 500 to 1000 watts peak provide full -wave rectification. The ripple
power from the automotive electrical sys- frequency is six times the frequency de-
tem, it is usually necessary to run the car veloped in one winding. Thus, at a shaft
engine when the equipment is operated for speed of 4000 r.p.m., the nominal voltage
more than a few minutes at a time to avoid is 14, output frequency will be 400 Hz, and
discharging the battery. Fortunately, a the ripple frequency is 2400 Hz.
majority of automobiles have a 12 -volt al- The diode assembly (D,, D) may be
ternator system as standard equipment and mounted on or behind the rear end -bell of
as a result, most SSB transceivers may he the alternator, in conjunction with an iso-
run directly from the automotive electrical lation diode (Dr) which protects the recti-
system without undue strain on the battery fier assembly from voltage surges and helps
during the course of normal driving. to suppress radio noise.
The output voltage of the alternator
The Alternator A typical alternator circuit system is a function of the shaft speed to
is shown in figure 1. The about 5000 r.p.m. or so. Above this speed,
alternator differs from the classic generator output voltage tends to stabilize because of
in that it uses a rotating field to which hysteresis losses. In any case, the alterna-
dc is supplied through slip rings and car- tor output is regulated through adjusting
bon brushes. Field current is quite low, of the current in the field by a mechanical
the order of 3 amperes or so for many alter- voltage regulator or by a solid -state regula-
nators. The rotating field usually has six tor. Because the reverse current through the
rectifier diodes is small, the alternator is
usually connected directly to the battery
without the use of a cutout relay.
The automobile alternator may be used to
TO
supply 3- phase, 400 Hz for auxiliary equip-
ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM ment. Many alternators are capable of sup-
.OII (RTTERVI
plying 350 watts of primary power which,
NEGATIVE
ROTAT ING GROUND
when the battery is charged and the auto ac-
FIELD
cessories are not being used, may be employed
to run the mobile equipment. The power is
FIELD
tapped off points A, B, and C in figure 1.
GROUND The schematic of an 1800 -volt, 3 -phase in-
termittent duty SSB power power supply
capable of I kW PEP service is shown in
Figure 1 figure 2. This supply is designed for use with
a linear amplifier using four 811A or two
THREE -PHASE AUTOMOBILE
572B. T -160L type tubes.
ALTERNATOR
A solid -state regulator is recommended
Three-phase output voltage is converted to dc for use with this supply, since mechanical
by full wave rectifier DI, - D. Rectifier D, pro-
tects rectifier assembly from transients and volt- relay regulators interrupt the alternator field
age surges in electrical system of auto. current when the battery is fully charged,
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT 19.3
thus removing the power to the equipment. continuous service than does the carbon -zinc
If a relay regulator is used, it should be cell.
shorted out, or otherwise disabled during The mercury cell (1.34 volts) is more
mobile operation. expensive than the previously mentioned
cells, but it has an extremely long working
Batteries The voltage available at the ter- life. In addition, the mercury cell maintains
minals of a battery is determined full rated voltage until just before expira-
by the chemical composition of the cell. tion; then the voltage drops sharply. Shelf
Many types and sizes of batteries are avail- life of the mercury cell is excellent and it
able for portable radio and comunication may be stored for long periods of time.
equipment. The inexpensive carbon -zinc cell These three types of batteries may be
provides a nominal 1.5 volts and, unused, recharged to some extent by reversing the
will hold a charge for about a year. The cur- chemical action by application of a reverse
rent capacity of the cell depends on the current to the cell. For best results, the cur-
physical size of the electrodes and the com- rent should be low and should have a small
position of the electrolyte. A battery may ac component to provide a more even re-
be made up of a number of cells connected deposit of material on the negative electrode.
in series, providing good life under inter- Recharged cells have an uncertain operating
mittent service. life, and the recharging cycle may vary
Next to the carbon -zinc cell, the most from cell to cell.
commonly used unit is the alkaline cell The nickel-cadmium (Nicad) cell (1.25
(1.2 volts) which has about twice the total volts) is the most expensive cell in terms of
energy capacity per unit size as compared initial costs, but it may be recharged at a
to the carbon -zinc cell. This cell is capable slow rate a number of times in reliable
of a high discharge rate over an extended cycles of operation.
period of time and provides longer life in The wet cell, (lead -acid) storage battery
ALTERNATOR 3 0
12.5 V. PER LEG
3 0
t AUTOMOTIVE
12 V.D.C. ELECTRICAL
RECTIFIER OP SYSTEM
3 0, 115 V.
PER LEG TO
HIGH VOLTAGE
POWER
SUPPLY
30 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER
Figure 2
The energy capability of a nickel -cad- able value in situations where the battery is
mium cell is usually rated in milliampere - only used occasionally.
hours. for small cells and ampere -hours for The following precautions are recom-
large ones. The rating is based on cell capa- mened to users of Nicad cells or batteries:
bility to a specific end point (usually 1.1
1. Do not dispose of batteries in a fire.
volts per cell) over a 10 -hour period. This
2. Do not attempt to solder directly to a
figure is used as the capacity of the cell and
sealed cell because the seal can be dam-
depends upon the rate of discharge. Gener-
aged by too much heat.
ally speaking, the charging current is held
3. Do not place a charged cell in your
to 10 percent of the milliampere-hour rating
of a small cell and the time of charge is set pocket. If you have keys, coins, or
at 5 0 percent of the time required to re-
1
other metal objects in your pocket, the
cell may be shorted and produce ex-
establish the maximum milliampere -hour
treme heat.
rating of the cell. Thus a 250 milliampere -
hour cell is charged at 25 milliamperes for
15 hours. This ensures that the lost energy 19 -2 Transistor Supplies
is restored and various other losses and in-
efficiencies are accounted for. With a simple The vibrator -type of mobile supply
charger the standard battery can be left on achieves an overall efficiency in the neigh-
extended trickle charge (at less than 10 per- borhood of 70!'e. The vibrator may be
cent of the milliampere -hour rating) for thought of as a mechanical switch reversing
years. This constant current extended charge the polarity of the primary source at a
feature has value in standby applications repetition rate of 120 transfers per second.
where the battery must be instantly ready The switch is actuated by a magnetic coil
to operate. and breaker circuit requiring appreciable
Nonvented, or sealed, cells can be mounted power which must be supplied by the pri-
in any position because their construction may source.
prevents the electrolyte from spilling out. One of the principal applications of the
Since they are maintenance free, these sealed transistor is in switching circuits. The tran-
cells are frequently totally encased in a sistor may be switched from an "off" con-
molded plastic or metal housing. dition to an "on" condition with but the
The nickel- cadmium cell can also be application of a minute exciting signal.
stored for years with no significant degrada- \\'hen the transistor is nonconductive it
tion in performance and then, after just a may be considered to be an open circuit.
few charge -discharge cycles, can be brought When it is in a conductive state, the in-
back to the point where it will be good as ternal resistance is very low. Two transistors
new. This long storage feature has consider- properly connected, therefore, can replace
O
Figure 3
the single -pole. double -throw mechanical low and little heat is generated by current
switch representing the vibrator. The tran- flow. Conversely, when the transistor is in
sistor switching action is many times faster a cut -off condition the internal resistance is
than that of the mechanical vibrator and very high and the current flow is extremely
the transistor can switch an appreciable small. Thus, in both the "on" and "off"
amount of power. Efficiencies in the neigh- conditions the transistor dissipates a min-
borhood of 95 percent can be obtained with imum of power. The important portion of
28 -volt primary -type transistor power sup- the operating cycle is that portion when
plies, permitting great savings in primary the actual switching from one transistor to
power over conventional vibrators and dyna- the other occurs, as this is the time during
motors. which the transistor may be passing through
the region of high dissipation. The greater
Transistor the rate of switching, in general, the faster
The transistor operation resem-
Operation bles a magnetically coupled mul-
will be the rise time of the square wave
tivibrator, or an audio -frequency (figure 4) and the lower will be the inter-
push -pull square -wave oscillator (figure
nal losses of the transistor. The average tran-
sistor can switch about eight times the
3C). A special feedback winding on the
power rating of class -A operation of the
power transformer provides 180 -degree
phase -shift voltage necessary to maintain os-
unit. Two switching transistors having 5-
cillation. In this application the transsistors watt class -A power output rating can there-
are operated as on -off switches; i.e., they are
fore switch 80 watts of power when work-
ing at optimum switching frequency.
either completing the circuit or opening it.
The oscillator output voltage is a square
wave having a frequency that is dependent Self -Starting The transistor supply shown in
on the driving voltage, the primary in- Oscillators figure 3C is impractical be-
ductance of the power transformer, and cause oscillations will not start
the peak collector current drawn by the under load. Base bias of the proper po-
conducting transistor. Changes in trans- larity has to be momentarily introduced into
former turns, core area, core material, and the base -emitter circuit before oscillation
feedback turns ratio have an effect on the will start and sustain itself. The addition of
frequency of oscillation. Frequencies in com- a bias resistor (figure 3D) to the circuit
mon use are in the range of 120 Hz to results in an oscillator that is capable of
3500 Hz. starting under full load. R, is usually of the
The power consumed by the transistors order of 10 to 50 ohms while R_ is adjusted
is relatively independent of load. Loading so that approximately 100 milliamperes flow
the oscillator causes an increase in input through the circuit.
current that is sufficient to supply the re- The current drawn from the battery by
quired power to the load and the additional this network flows through R2 and then di-
losses in the transformer windings. Thus, vides between R, and the input resistances
the overall efficiency actually increases with of the two transistors. The current flowing
load and is greatest at the heaviest load the in the emitter -base circuit depends on the
oscillator will supply. A result of this is value of input resistance. The induced volt-
that an increase in load produces very little age across the feedback winding of the trans-
extra heating of the transistors. This feature former is a square wave of such polarity
means that it is impossible to burn out the that it forward -biases the emitter -base diode
transistors in the event of a shorted load of the transistor that is starting to conduct
since the switching action merely stops. collector current, and reverse -biases the other
transistor. The forward -biased transistor will
Transistor The power capability of the have a very low input impedance, while
Power Rating transistor is limited by the the input impedance of the reverse-biased
amount of heat created by the transistor will be quite high. Thus, most of
current flow through the internal resistance the starting current drained from the pri-
of the transistor. When the transistor is con- mary power source will flow in R, and the
ducting, the internal resistance is extremely base -emitter circuit of the forward -biased
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT 19.7
transistor and very little in the other tran- typical transistor supply is shown in figure
sistor. It can be seen that R, must not be 4. The rise time of the wave is about S
too low in comparison to the input resistance microseconds, and the saturation time is
of the conducting transistor, or it will 500 microseconds. The small "spike" at the
shunt too much current from the tran- leading edge of the pulse has an amplitude
sistor. When switching takes place, the trans- of about 2.5 volts and is a product of
former polarities reverse and the additional switching transients caused by the primary
current now flows in the base -emitter cir- leakage reactance of the transformer. Prop-
cuit of the other transistor. er transformer design can reduce this "spike"
to a minimum value. An excessively large
The Power The power transformer in a "spike" can puncture the transistor junc-
Transformer transistor -type supply is de- tion and ruin the unit.
signed to reach a state of maxi-
mum flux density (saturation) at the point A 35 -Watt The 35 -watt power unit uses
of maximum transistor conductance. When Supply two inexpensive 2N2870 power
this state is reached the flux density drops transistors for the switching
to zero and reduces the feedback voltage elements and four silicon diodes for the high -
developed in the base winding to zero. The voltage rectifiers. The complete schematic is
flux then reverses because there is no con- shown in figure 5. Because of the relatively
ducting transistor to sustain the magnetiz- high switching frequency only a single 20-
ing current. This change of flux induces a µF filter capacitor is required to provide pure
voltage of the opposite polarity in the trans- direct current.
former. This voltage turns the first transis- Regulation of the supply is remarkably
tor off and holds the second transistor on. good. No -load voltage is 310 volts, drop-
The transistor instantly reaches a state of ping to 275 volts at maximum current
maximum conduction, producing a state of drain of 125 milliamperes.
saturation in the transformer. This action The complete power package is built on
repeats itself at a very fast rate. Switching an aluminum chassis -box measuring 5 1/4"
time is of the order of S to 10 microseconds, X 3" X 2 ". Paint is removed from the
and saturation time is perhaps 200 to 2000 center portion of the box to form a simple
microseconds. The collector waveform of a heat sink for the transistors. The box there-
fore conducts heat away from the collector
elements of the transistors. The collector of
the transistor is the metal case terminal
and in this circuit is returned to the nega-
tive terminal of the primary supply. If
the negative of the automobile battery is
grounded to the frame of the car the case of
the transistor may be directly grounded to
the unpainted area of the chassis. If the posi-
tive terminal of the car battery is grounded
it is necessary to electrically insulate the
transistor from the aluminum chassis, yet
at the same time permit a low thermal
barrier to exist between the transistor case
and the power- supply chassis. A simple
Figure 4 method of accomplishing this is to insert
a thin mica sheet between the transistor
EMITTER- COLLECTOR WAVEFORM and the chassis. Two -mil (0.002") mica
OF SWITCHING CIRCUIT washers for transistors are available at many
Square waveshape produces almost ideal switch- large radio supply houses. The mica is
ing action. Small 2 -volt, "spike" on leading edge placed between the transistor and the chassis
of pulses may be reduced by proper transformer deck, and fiber washers are placed under
design. Pulse length is about 1000 microseconds
and rise time is 10 microseconds. the retaining nuts holding the transistors in
19.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
2N2870 / HEP232
Ti Figure 5
SCHEMATIC, TRANSISTOR
Di Da
POWER SUPPLY FOR
12 -VOLT AUTOMOTIVE
SYSTEM
T,-Transistor power transformer.
12-voltprimary, to provide 275
volts at 125 mA. Stancor DCT -1
0,- D4- 1N4005 with .01 µF and 100K
across each diode
Use 6 amp. fuse in +12 -volt lead.
- 12 V. BATTERY +
place. When the transistors are mounted in The supply is built on an aluminum box
place, measure the collector -to- ground resist- chassis measuring 7" X 5" X 3', the layout
ance with an ohmmeter. It should be 100 closely following that of the 35 -watt supply.
megohms or higher in dry air. After the HEP -231 or SK3012 transistors are used as
mounting is completed, spray the transistor the switching elements and eight silicon
and the bare chassis section with plastic diodes form the high -voltage bridge recti-
Krylon to retard oxidation. Several manu- fier.
facturers produce anodized aluminum wash- The transistors are affixed to the chassis
ers that serve as mounting insulators. These in conjunction with a homemade alu-
may be used in place of the mica washers, minum heat sink formed from two pieces
if desired. of aluminum sheet bent into channels, as
shown in figure 7. Silicone grease is spread
An 85-Watt Figure 6 shows the schematic thinly between the transistors, heat sinks,
Supply of a dual -voltage transistor and the chassis to permit better heat trans-
mobile power supply. A bridge fer between the various components of the
rectifier permits the choice of either 250 assembly.
volts or 500 volts, or a combination of
both at a total current drain that limits the A 270 -Watt SSB transceivers suitable
secondary power to 85 watts. Thus, 500 Transceiver Supplyfor mobile service are ca-
volts at 170 milliamperes may be drawn, pable of PEP power in-
with correspondingly less current as addi- puts up to 250 watts or more. Shown in
tional power is drawn from the 250 -volt figure 8 is a compact triple -voltage supply
tap. capable of running many transceivers from
NEP231/Sk3012 Figure 6
SCHEMATIC,
+250 V. 85 -WATT
2010 TRANSISTOR
0 V.
POWER SUPPLY
HEP 231 /
FOR 12 -VOLT
SK 3012 AUTOMOTIVE
+500V SYSTEM
T,-Transistor power
transformer. 12 -volt
primary to provide 275
volts at 125 mA. Stan -
OoLF cor OCT-2.
SO V. D1- D ¡1N4005 with .01
µF and 100K across
- 12 V. BATTERY + each diode.
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT 19.9
DRILL
(TYP.)
FOR
4
TRANSISTORS
- 3
TRANSISTORS
by the switching circuit based on trans-
former T1.
The supply is built on an aluminum
chassis measuring 12" X 6" X 3 ". The
main components are mounted atop the
HEAT SINE ASSEMBLY chassis with the heat sinks mounted on one
side, with the fins in a vertical position. To
Figure 1
improve thermal conductivity, the heat
HOMEMADE HEAT SINK FOR sinks are bolted to a 1/4-inch thick copper
POWER TRANSISTOR plate (measuring 12" X 6 ") affixed to the
side of the chassis. The transistors are in-
a 12 volt dc supply. The unit provides 900 sulated from the chassis by thin insulators
volts at 300 milliamperes, 275 volts at 180 coated with silicone grease.
milliamperes, and an adjustable bias voltage All primary leads to the power transistors,
of - 15 to -
150. Additionally, 150 volts - transformer T1, and the input terminals are
wired with #6 conductors, with the nega-
at 40 milliamperes is available for VOX
standby circuitry in auxiliary equipment. tive primary circuit grounded at one point
Two heavy -duty switching transistors are in the supply. Heavy 1/4-inch battery leads
used, driven by base feedback from a wind- run from the supply to the automobile bat-
ing of oscillator transformer T1. The tran- tery. The supply should be mounted close
sistors are forward -biased by a voltage to the battery to reduce primary voltage
divider circuit and are protected from volt- drop to a minimum.
ALL
I2O LIF
450V.
- 2 V. BAT,? CONTROL
Figure
1
A D -C to A-C Radio and electrical equip - square -wave output, additional line filtering
Inverter For ment of all kinds up to may be necessary in the power line to the
the Cor or Boat about 200 watts intermit- equipment, and a suitable line filter is tab-
tent power consumption ulated in the parts list of figure 9.
may be run from this compact d -c to
a -c power inverter. Designed for use with
19 -3 Antennas for
12 -volt automotive systems, the inverter
provides a nominal 115-volt, 60 -Hz square -
Mobile Operation
wave output, suitable for transformer- The mobile antenna is the key to success-
powered equipment, lights, or motors. ful operation on any amateur band. Because
The inverter construction is straight- of space limitations on the vehicle and the
forward, and assembly is on an aluminum sweep of the vehicle body panels, the verti-
chassis measuring 8" X 6" X 2 ". A stan- cal whip antenna is the most popular mobile
dard heat sink for the transistors is speci- antenna, regardless of the band of operation.
fied, however, the sink shown in figure 7 For hf service, the whip takes the form of
may be used. A grounded -collector circuit is a flexible, tapered steel rod with a threaded
HEP 231/ base fitting.
SK3012
Unless the whip is a resonant length
(common only on the vhf, 6- and 10 -meter
bands) it is brought into resonance by the
I600
addition of a loading coil which makes up
for the missing antenna length. The coil may
be placed either at the base of the whip, or
near the center. Overall antenna efficiency
NEP 231 /
SK3012 is generally a function of the Q or circuit
25
25 efficiency of the loading coil, and every
effort should be made to design and use a
Figure 9 high -Q coil, well removed from the body of
the vehicle.
DC TO AC INVERTER FOR THE CAR
T,- Inverter transformer. 12 -volt de, tapped pri- Antenna Mounts High- frequency whip an-
mary, 115 -volt ac, tapped secondary (Triad TY-
75A) tennas, because of their
Line Filter-J. W. Miller 5521 choke, 4µH at 20 height, are usually mounted low on the
amperes, bypassed with 0.1 -µF capacitors on
each side (12 -volt circuit). J. W. Miller 7818 vehicle, often on the rear bumper or fender
(115 -volt circuit) as shown in figure 10. Chain or strap -type
Heat Sink-Wakefield NC 823A for each transistor
mounts are available; they clamp directly
over the edges of the bumper without the
used (negative ground) so the transistors need of drilling mounting holes in the ve-
need not be insulated from the heat sink hicle. The antenna is held in position by an
or chassis. Silicon grease should be placed insulated adapter bolted to the top bracket
between the transistor, sink sections, and of the mount. Sometimes a heavy spring is
chassis to ensure good thermal conductivity included in the mount to absorb the road
between the units. The low- voltage primary shock.
circuit should be wired with heavy -duty The whip antenna must remain free and
flexible line cord, or stranded #12 hookup clear of the body of the vehicle. Use of a
wire. bumper mount on station wagons, trucks
This supply is designed to start under and vans is not recommended because the
full load, and should be turned on loaded, whip passes too close to the upper metal
since unloaded operation (especially start- body panels of the vehicle and severe de-
ing and stopping) may give rise to tran- tuning of the antenna may result. In this
sients which may endanger the transistors. situation, a shorter antenna mounted higher
The supply is capable of 100 watts con- on the body or roof is recommended.
tinuous power and about twice this amount A ball mount and spring (figure 11) can
in intermittent service. Because of the be used to mount the whip antenna at an
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT 19.11
angle on the vehicle so that the antenna it- exists around the edge of most trunk lids to
self is in a vertical plane, regardless of the permit the user to bring a small coaxial
plane of the mount. Usual placement in- cable (RG -58 /U) through the gap and up
cludes the rear deck, the side or top of the to the antenna mount as shown in the il-
fender or (for short antennas) the top, flat
portion of the roof. In the latter case, care
must be taken to make sure the antenna
does not strike overhead electrical wires and
tree limbs.
The ball mount requires that a mounting
hole be drilled in the skin of the vehicle on
a relatively flat surface. Once the mount is
in place, the whip is inserted in the socket
and the rotary ball joint adjusted to align
the whip in a vertical position.
Many amateurs hesitate to drill holes in
their vehicle and are interested in an an-
tenna mount that will not scar the body of
the automobile. The trunk lip mount is a
device that meets this need. The adjustable
antenna mount is slipped beneath the edge
of the trunk lid and bolted firmly to the
groove of the car body. Enough clearance
Figure 11
,- CENTER OF TRUNK
LID AT REAR
WINDSHIELD
Figure 12
imperfect ground system in a mobile installa- antenna, but a few remarks are in order on
tion is a very lossy device, whose efficiency the subject of feed and coupling systems.
drops as the operating frequency is lowered. The feed -point resistance of a resonant
Depending on the length of the antenna and quarter -wave rear- mounted whip is approx-
other factors, the radiation resistance of a
whip antenna may be as low as one ohm at
80 meters, with a capacitive reactance com-
ponent as high as 3500 ohms.
In addition to the radiation resistance, the
loss resistance of the matching network must 10/ FT
be recognized as well as the ground loss re-
sistance, the sum of which comprise the to-
tal resistive component of the impedance ap-
pearing at the base of the antenna. The loss
resistance, taken in total, is usually much
greater than the radiation resistance, espe-
cially at the lower operating frequencies ~75II COAX TO XM1R COAX. Al. FITTING
(figure 14). In this example of an 80 -meter
whip, the radiation resistance is 1 ohm, the Figure 15
loading coil resistance is 10 ohms and the 5/16 -WAVE WHIP RADIATOR FOR 10
ground loss is 9 ohms. The overall radiating METERS
efficiency is S percent, representing a trans-
If a whip antenna is made slightly longer than
mitter power loss of about 12 dB. In spite of one. quarter wave it acts as a slightly better
such inefficiency, mobile whip antennas are radiator than the usual quarter -wave whip, and
used tó good advantage on the 80- and 160 - it can provide a better match to the antenna
transmission line if the reactance is tuned out
meter bands for short range, ground -wave by a series capacitor close to the base of the
communication. antenna. Capacitor C, may be a 100pF midget
variable.
RADIATION
imately 20 to 25 ohms. While the standing -
RESISTANCE wave ratio when using S0 -ohm coaxial line
will not be much greater than 2 to 1, it is
LOADING
RESISTANCE j
COIL)
100
nevertheless desirable to make the line to
the transmitter exactly odd multiples of
one -quarter wavelength long electrically at
GROUND}
LOSS
90 the center of the band. This procedure will
minimize variations in loading over the
band.
GENERATOR A more effective radiator and a better
line match may be obtained by making the
whip approximately 101/4 feet long and
Figure 14 feeding it with 75 -ohm coax (such as RG-
11 U) via a series capacitor, as shown in
80 -METER MOBILE WHIP HAS figure 15. The relay and series capacitor are
LOW EFFICIENCY
mounted inside the trunk, as close to the
A representative 80-meter mobile whip center antenna feedthrough or base -mount insula-
loaded, has an overall radiation loss of 19 ohms tor as possible. The 101/4-foot length ap-
compared to a radiation resistance of about 1
ohm. Efficiency is about 5 percent, representing plies to the overall length from the tip of
a transmitter power loss of 12 decibels. the whip to the point where the lead -in
passes through the car body. The leads inside
the car (connecting the coaxial cable, relay,
10-Meter Mobile The most popular mobile series capacitor and antenna lead) should be
Antennas antenna for 10 -meter op- as short as possible. The outer conductor of
eration is a rear -mounted both coaxial cables should be grounded to
whip approximately 8 feet long, fed with the car body at the relay end with short,
coaxial line. This is a highly satisfactory heavy conductors.
19.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
A 100 -pF midget variable capacitor is over a range of perhaps 20 kHz on the 75-
suitable for C,. The optimum setting for meter band, covering a somewhat wider
lowest SWR at the transmitter should be range on the 40 -meter band, and covering
determined experimentally at the center of the whole 20 -meter phone band. The pro-
cedure for tuning the antenna is as follows:
CAR BODY The antenna is installed, fully assembled,
with a coaxial lead of RG -58 /U from the
UNSHIELDED
LOADING COIL base of the antenna to the place where the
transmitter is installed. The rear deck of
The car should be closed, and the car should
be parked in a location as clear as possible
of trees, buildings, and overhead power lines.
RG-58/U LINE
TO TRANSMITTER
Objects within 15 or 20 feet of the antenna
COAXIAL LINE
can exert a considerable detuning effect on
GROUNDED TO
FRAME OF CAR the antenna system due to its relatively high
ADJACENT TO BASE
OF ANTENNA operating Q. The end of the coaxial cable
which will plug into the transmitter is
Figure 16
terminated in a link of 3 or 4 turns of wire.
THE CENTER -LOADED WHIP ANTENNA This link is then coupled to a grid -dip meter
The center -loaded whip antenna when provided and the resonant frequency of the antenna
with a tapped loading coil or a series of coils,
may be used over a wide frequency range. The determined by noting the frequency at
loading coil may be shorted for use of the which the grid current fluctuates. The coils
antenna on the 10 -meter band. furnished with the antennas normally are
the band. This setting then will be satis- too large for the usual operating frequency,
factory over the whole band. since it is much easier to remove turns than
If an all -band center -loaded mobile an- to add them. Turns then are removed, one
tenna is used, the loading coil at the center at a time, until the antenna resonates at the
of the antenna may be shorted out for oper- desired frequency. If too many turns have
ation of the antenna on the 10 -meter band. been removed, a length of wire may be
The usual type of center -loaded mobile an- spliced on and soldered. Then, with a length
tenna will be between 9 and 11 feet long, of insulating tubing slipped over the soldered
including the center -loading inductance joint, turns may be added to lower the reso-
which is shorted out. Thus such an an- nant frequency. Or, if the tapped type of
tenna may be shortened to an electrical quar- coil is used, taps are changed until the proper
ter wave for the 10 -meter band by using a number of turns for the desired operating
series capacitor as just discussed. If a pi net- frequency is found. This procedure is re-
work is used in the plate circuit of the out- peated for the different bands of operation.
put stage of the mobile transmitter, any Ground loss resistance in the automobile
reactance presented at the antenna terminals and capacitance of the car body to ground
of the transmitter by the antenna may be have been measured to be about 20 ohms at
tuned out with the pi network. 3.9 MHz. These radiation and loss resist-
ances, plus the loss resistance of a typical
loading coil may bring the input impedance
The All -Bond The great majority of mo-
of a typical 80 -meter center -loaded whip
Center- Loaded bile operation on the 14-
Mobile Antenna
to about 25 to 30 ohms at the resonant fre-
MHz band and below is quency. Overall radiation efficiency is about
with center -loaded whip two to five percent and operational band-
antennas. These antennas use an insulated width (for a 3 1 SWR on the transmission
bumper or body mount, with provision for line) is about 25 kHz when the antenna is
coaxial feed from the base of the antenna properly matched.
to the transmitter, as shown in figure 16.
The relatively low efficiency of the loaded
The center -loaded whip antenna must be whip antenna at the lower frequencies indi-
tuned to obtain optimum operation on the
cates that attention must be paid to all de-
desired frequency of operation. These an-
tails of the antenna installation. The load-
tennas will operate at maximum efficiency
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT 19.15
2
CENTER
LOADED
111
j PHENOLIC DISC
WHIP COIL WINDING CONNECTED
TO WHIP SECTION
50 lL
FEE DPOINT Figure 18
OUT
IN
Figure 21
Control Circuits The send -receive control cir- The high -impedance r1 uarnie microphone
cuits of a mobile installa- is probably the most popular with the ce-
tion arc dictated by the design of the equip- ramic- crystal type next in popularity. The
ment, and therefore will he left to the conventional crystal type is not suitable for
ingenuity of the reader. However, a few mobile use since the crystal unit will be
generalizations and suggestions are in order. destroyed by the high temperatures which
Do not attempt to control too many re- can be reached in a closed car parked in the
lays, particularly heavy -duty relays with sun in the summer time.
large coils, by means of an ordinary push -
RING
to -talk switch on a microphone. These con- TIP OFMIKE
tacts are not designed for heavy work, and 11 SHELL
PLUG
(5) Static from scraping connections be- the low- tension wiring to provide as much
tween various parts of the car. separation as practical.
Bypass to ground the 12 -volt wire from
It is best to thoroughly suppress ignition the ignition switch at each end with a 0.1-
noise in your car, even though ignition µF molded -case paper capacitor in parallel
noise from passing vehicles make the use with a .001- µF mica or ceramic, using the
of a noise limiter mandatory. However, the shortest possible leads.
limiter should not be given too much work Check to see that the hood makes good
to do, because at high engine speeds a noisy ground contact to the car body at several
ignition system will tend to mask weak sig- points. Special grounding contactors are
nals, even though with the limiter working, available for attachment to the hood lacings
ignition "pops" may appear to be completely on cars that otherwise would present a
eliminated. grounding problem.
Another reason for good ignition suppres- If the high -tension coil is mounted on
sion at the source is that strong ignition the dash, it may be necessary to shield the
pulses contain enough energy, when inte- high- tension wire as far as the bulkhead,
grated, to block the agc circuit of the re- unless it already is shielded with armored
ceiver, causing the gain to drop whenever conduit.
the engine is speeded up. Since the agc cir-
cuits of the receiver obtain no benefit from
a noise clipper, it is important that ignition Wheel Static Wheel static is either static
noise be suppressed enough at the source that electricity generated by rota-
the agc circuits will not be affected even tion of the tires and brake drums, or is noise
when the engine is running at high speed. generated by poor contact between the front
wheels and the axles (due to the grease in
Ignition Noise the bearings). The latter type of noise sel-
The following procedures dom is caused by the rear wheels, but tire
should be found adequate static may of course be generated by all four
for reducing the ignition noise of practically tires.
any passenger car to a level which the
Wheel static can be eliminated by inser-
clipper can handle satisfactorily at any en-
tion of grounding springs under the front
gine speed at any frequency from 500 kHz
hub caps, and by inserting "tire powder" in
to 450 MHz. Some of the measures may al-
all inner tubes. Both items are available at
ready have been taken when the auto re-
radio parts stores and from most auto radio
ceiver was installed.
First either install a spark -plug suppressor dealers.
on each plug, or else substitute resistor plugs.
The latter are more effective than suppres- Voltage-Regulator Certain voltage regulators
sors and on some cars ignition noise is re- "Hash" generate an objectionable
duced to a satisfactory level simply by in- amount of "hash' at the
stalling them. However, they may not do higher frequencies, particularly in the vhf
an adequate job alone after they have been range. A large bypass capacitor will affect
in use for a while, and it is a good idea to the operation of the regulator and possibly
take the following additional measures. damage the points. A small bypass can be
Check all high- tension connections for used, however, without causing trouble. A
gaps, particularly the "pinch -fit" terminal 0.001 -µF mica capacitor placed from the
connectors widely used. Replace old high - field terminal of the regulator to ground
tension wiring that may have become leaky. with the shortest possible leads often will
Complete substitution of the ignition wiring produce sufficient improvement. If not, a
with a commercial shielded ignition system choke consisting of about 60 turns of No.
is recommended, in case of severe interfer- 18 d.c.c. wound on a 3/4 -inch form can
ence. be added. This should be placed at the
Check to see if any of the high- tension regulator terminal, and the 0.001 -µF bypass
wiring is cabled with low- tension wiring, placed from the generator side of the choke
or run in the same conduit. If so, reroute to ground.
19.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
Generator "Whine" Generator "whine" often give trouble and therefore require attention
can be satisfactorily sup- only in some cases.
pressed from 550 kHz to 148 MHz simply The heat, oil pressure, and gas gauges can
by bypassing the armature terminal to cause a rasping or scraping noise. The gas
ground with a special "auto.radio" capacitor gauge is the most likely offender. It will
of 0.25 or 0.5 µF in parallel with a 0.001 - cause trouble only when the car is rocked
;iF mica or ceramic capacitor. The former or is in motion. The gauge units and panel
usually is placed on the generator when an indicators should both be bypassed with the
auto radio is installed, but must be aug- 0.1 -,'F paper and 0.001 -fF mica or ce-
mented by a mica or ceramic capacitor with ramic capacitor combination previously de-
short leads in order to be effective at the scribed.
higher frequencies as well as the broadcast At high car speeds under certain atmo-
band. spheric conditions, corona static may be en-
When more drastic measures are required, countered unless means are taken to prevent
special filters can be obtained which are de- it. The receiving -type auto whips which em-
signed for the purpose. These are recom- ploy a plastic ball tip are so provided in order
mended for stubborn cases when a wide to minimize this type of noise, which is sim-
frequency range is involved. For reception ply a discharge of the frictional static built
over only a comparatively narrow band of up on the car. A whip which ends in a rela-
frequencies, such as the 10 -meter amateur tively sharp metal point makes an ideal dis-
band, a highly effective filter can be im- charge point for the static charge, and will
provised by connecting a resonant choke be- cause corona trouble at a much lower volt-
tween the previously described parallel by- age than if the tip were hooded with in-
pass capacitors and the generator armature sulation. A piece of Vinylite sleeving slipped
terminal. This may consist of 11 turns of over the top portion of the whip and
No. 10 enameled wire wound on a one - wrapped tightly with heavy thread will pre-
inch form and shunted with an adjustable vent this type of static discharge under prac-
30- pF trimmer capacitor to permit resonat- tically all conditions. An alternative arrange-
ing the combination to the center of the ment is to wrap the top portion of the whip
ten -meter band. with Scotch brand electrical type.
When generator "whine" shows up after Generally speaking it is undesirable from
once being satisfactorily suppressed, the con- the standpoint of engine performance to use
dition of the brushes and commutator should both spark -plug suppressors and a distribu-
be checked. Unless a bypass capacitor has tor suppressor. Unless the distributor rotor
opened up, excessive "whine" usually in- clearance is excessive, noise caused by spark-
dicates that the brushes or commutator are ing of the distributor rotor will not be
in need of attention in order to prevent so bad but that it can be handled satis-
damage to the generator. factorily by a noise limiter. If not, it is
Body Static
preferable to shield the "hot" lead between
Loose linkages in body or frame
ignition coil and distributor rather than
joints anywhere in the car are use a distributor suppressor.
potential static producers when the car is
in motion, particularly over a rough road. In many cases the control rods, speed-
Locating the source of such noise is difficult, ometer cable, etc., will pick up high- tension
and the simplest procedure is to give the noise under the hood and conduct it up
car a thorough tightening up in the hope under the dash where it causes trouble. If
that the offending poor contacts will be so, all control rods and cables should be
caught up by the procedure. The use of bonded to the fire wall (bulkhead) where
braided bonding straps between the various they pass through, using a short piece of
sections of the body of the car also may heavy flexible braid of the type used for
prove helpful. shielding.
In some cases it may be necessary to bond
Miscellaneous There are several other poten- the engine to the frame at each rubber en-
tial noise sources on a pas- gine mount in a similar manner. If a rear
senger vehicle, but they do not necessarily mounted whip is employed, the exhaust tail
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT 19.21
pipe also should be bonded to the frame if ignition switch turned oft, with the car
supported by rubber mounts. coasting.
Body noise will be noticeably worse on
a bumpy road than on a smooth road, par-
Locating Determining the source of
Noise Sources certain types of noise is made ticularly at low speeds.
difficult when several things
are contributing to the noise, because elimi-
nation of one source often will make little
19 -6 A Portable Amateur
or no apparent difference in the total noise. Band Receiver
The following procedure will help to isolate
and identify various types of noise. The availability of low priced solid -state
Ignition noise will be present only when devices and integrated circuits makes fea-
the ignition is on, even though the engine sible the design of a compact, completely
is turning over. solid -state amateur band receiver for c -w
Generator noise will be present when the and SSB reception that performs as well as
motor is turning over, regardless of whether or better than an equivalent receiver using
the ignition switch is on. Slipping the drive conventional vacuum tubes. The advanced
belt off will kill it. receiver described in this section (figure 25)
Gauge noise usually will be present only is completely solid state, making use of im-
when the ignition switch is on or in the proved MOSFET and IC devices, and covers
"left"position provided on some cars. the amateur bands between 80 and 10 meters
Wheel static, when present, will persist in SOO -kHz segments. The design goal was
when the car clutch is disengaged and the to produce a compact receiver of top -notch
Figure 25
performance, but one not so small as to be circuitry does not require neutralization,
difficult to assemble and wire, or to operate. while permitting agc (automatic- gain -con-
For easy duplication, all components used in trol), voltage to be applied to the front end,
construction of the receiver are "off-the- a feature very necessary in solid -state re-
shelf" items readily obtainable from the ceivers. The dual -gate feature of the MFE-
larger radio parts distributors. The receiver 3006 allows a separation of these functions,
may be run from a battery power supply or the incoming signal being applied to gate 1
from an a -c supply so it is well suited for of the MOSFET and the age control voltage
either portable or fixed service. This receiver to gate 2 of the device.
was designed and built by VE3GFN. Laboratory measurements taken on the
receiver provide the following data on per-
The Receiver A block diagram of the corn - formance. Sensitivity: Less than 1 microvolt
Circuit piece solid -state receiver is for a 10- decibel signal- plus -noise to noise
shown in figure 26. The cir- ratio on all bands. l77rage ratio: Better than
cuit is basically a four -band crystal -con- 60 decibels on all bands, and as high as 80
trolled front -end converter, followed by a decibels. Drift: Less than 100 Hz per hour
tunable i -f receiver which covers the fifth at receiver temperature of 70 "F. Spurious
band (80 meters). The bandswitching front - Responses: Oscillator harmonics noted at
end, or converter, is shown in detail in 7.0 MHz and 21.250 MHz.
figure 27. This separate assembly covers the The R -F Section -The tuned circuits in
amateur bands between 7 MHz and 29 MHz, the high -frequency portion of the receiver
with allowance in design for out -of -band are basically 20 -meter circuits, which are
coverage, as well as coverage as high as 30 made resonant in the other high- frequency
MHz. or more. Using a Motorola 2Nf4f9 bands by means of appropriate shunt im-
high -frequency MOSFET device in the tun- pedances brought into the circuit by the
able r -f amplifier stages results in high gain bandswitch. For 40 -meter operation, the
and good circuit stability. The r -f amplifier basic tuned circuit is padded to a lower
SIDEDAND SELECT
REO
DANOSWITCHING CONVERTER 258 I
r 2X 2N4124 cseT 1
I R.F AMP. MIXER I R -F AMP. R -F AMP. MIXER I -F AMP TT"z
I MFE -3006 2 N 5459 MFE -3006 MFE -3006 2 N5459 FILTER MC-15530
25-4.0 PINS 4.56.5 KN2
1.5-2e
PINS PROD DETECTOR IF FILTER
DUFFER
MPF- 105 A -I2V
5 -METER ARC AMP
211 2N4124
O5C.
Lief - 105 FFI
ARC CONTROL
TUNE 71.- f
1-12V. SPAR.
Figure 26
J1
3.5-26.0 MH2
41NPUT
CI 60 AGC-1
J2
80 3.5 -4.0 MHZ
ASIA 1 OUTPUT
70
2 3
so
sic
T ° c1 Osc.
2N4124
3 Y4 03
+12v
FRO , RECEIVER
33K
Figure 27
Figure 28
SIMPLIFIED R -F SWITCHING CIRCUIT
The external antenna is coupled to a resonant LC circuit for
20 -meter reception. When the bandswitch is changed to 40 meters,
the 20 -meter circuit is padded to the lower frequency by the
addition of piston capacitor C, placed in the circuit by switch
section S,,,. On 15 meters, the inductance of 20 -meter coil L. is
decreased by the added shunting action of coil L. On 10 meters,
coil L, is switched in the circuit. Alignment of the tuned circuit
must first be done on 20 meters before the 15- and 20 -meter
bands are adjusted.
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT 19.25
distortion products in the audio signal are Asignal- strength meter is incorporated
evident to the ear. as part of of the age system. The meter is
The audio system is a second integrated - connected so as to measure the current
circuit package (TAA -300) delivering al- drawn by the control PET. The METER -
most a watt of audio power with a 10- milli- ADJUST control (Ri) is set so the meter
volt driving signal. Speakers of 3 to 30 ohms indicates full -scale current when the antenna
impedance may be used, and the receiver input terminals are grounded. In operation.
will drive an efficient 10 -inch diameter the R -F GAIN control (R_) is set so that
speaker with impressive results. A jack is a small deflection of the meter (toward zero
provided on the panel for use with low - current) takes place with antenna connected
impedance earphones. but without signal input. At this point, the
The AGC System -The agc network is age system will control receiver front -end
novel in that the agc lines swing from posi- gain in the proper manner, between near
tive to negative potential with increasing in- cutoff and maximum usable gain.
put signal level (figure 24). The three con- Power and Switching Circuits -The re-
trol lines are terminated at the arm of the ceiver is operated from a + 12 -volt 200 -ma
R -F GAIN control potentiometer (Re). One supply. In addition, -
12 volts is required
end of the potentiometer (max) is connected for age action. The drain of the - 12 volt
section is only 20 milliamperes and series
to the + 12 -volt supply line, and the other
end (min) to about -3 volts when the connected "penlite" cells may be incorpor-
agc switch (Sa) is off. When age is on, ated in the receiver. if desired, for this
the control is switched to the drain circuit function.
of an agc control FET (Q,,,). With no input The converter portion of the receiver is
signal, the gate of the control FET is near switched in and out by means of a small
zero potential and the FET conducts, plac- crystal -can relay (K1, figure 27) operated
ing the negative end of the r -f gain control by the bandswitch. The relay is normally
potentiometer close to ground potential. The unenergized in all band positions except 80
agc lines, therefore, are at some positive meters. On this band, the relay removes the
potential between ground and + 12 volts, converter from the circuit and bypasses
depending on the setting of the potentiom- the antenna connections around the con-
eter, allowing maximum receiver gain to verter portion of the receiver.
be established, if desired. When .t higher
input signal level requires reduced front -end Receiver A multiband receiver such as
receiver gain, rectified audio of a positive Construction this complex device and its
is a
polarity from the age amplifiers (Q, Q.) construction should only be
is applied to the gate of the control FET, undertaken by a person familiar with solid -
reducing its conduction. Acordingly, the state devices in general and MOSFETs in
drain element of the FET drops toward particular, and who has built and aligned
- 12 volts, taking the age lines along with
it, thus reducing front -end gain of the
equipment approaching this complexity.
The solid -state receiver is built on a
receiver. chassis within a wrap -around metal cabinet
The gate element of the control FET measuring 10" X 7" X 4 ". The cabinet
is connected to an RC circuit having a long assembly specified comes complete with
time constant, which prevents gate voltage panel, chassis, and rubber mounting feet.
from changing too rapidly between c -w Other cabinets of the same general configur-
characteristics or between spoken syllables ation, of course, may be used.
of an SSB signal. This circuit is designed to General receiver assembly may be seen in
charge quickly when the receiver power is the photographs and drawings. The high -
first applied, so that front -end gain is min- frequency converter covering 40 through
imum. A diode across a portion of the time - 10 meters is the most complex assembly and
constant circuit leaks off this charge in less the most compact (figure 31). This unit is
than a minute, and the action can be ob- built in an aluminum box measuring 4" X
served on the S -meter when the receiver is 2" X 23,/4" and is mounted to the left rear
first turned on. of the main chassis. The converter band-
19.26 RADIO HANDBOOK
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MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT 19.27
Figure 31
of the remaining components is not par- latter can be reached for voltage measure-
ticularly critical, and may be done from a ments.
study of the photographs. Use of a paper It is suggested that the r -f stages of the
template for drilling the chassis is recom- main receiver section be wired first, followed
mended. by the oscillator assembly, and then the
product detector and the audio stage. The
Receiver The receiver should be wired in an agc system, S- meter, and power wiring may
Wiring orderly manner, a stage at a time. he donc last. A very small pencil soldering
To reduce r -f ground currents, iron, miniature solder, and small diameter
all grounds for a single stage should be re- (No.22) hookup wire are recommended for
turned to that stage, preferably to a com- ease in assembly. The various tuned circuits
mon ground point at or near the transistor are wired and grid -dipped to frequency and
socket. The gate, source, and drain bypass the intcrstage shields are made up and cut
capacitors, for example, can all be returned to fit (a "nibbling" tool is handy here)
ro a common ground point near the tran- as the work progresses. A closeup of the
sistor socket, components being grouped under -chassis r -f stages is shown in figure 33.
about the socket wherever possible, and not A two- section variable mica compression -
"stacked" above the socket, so that the tuning capacitor is used for C, (PEAK
Figure 32
associated sideband -selection crystals. At the right is the audio IC stage (with heat sink) and the
"meter- adjust" potentiometer. The agc stages are in the right front corner of the receiver, with the
80-meter r -f section located at the front left corner of the chassis.
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT 19.29
PRFSFLFCTOR) and has an extension shaft the converter unit visible at the lower edge
press -tit onto the short tuning stub. The of the assembly. To the right is the second
capacitor is supported from a small bracket r-f stage MOSFET socket (Q_), with
mounted directly behind the panel. the FET mixer socket above and to the
Small shields are mounted across each right. The injection line from the vfo passes
MOSFET socket. The shields are cut of through a Teflon feedthrough insulator
scrap aluminum or brass and have a mount- mounted in the chassis immediately behind
ing foot on them which is held in place by the tuning dial and runs to the gate terminal
a nearby 4 -40 bolt. The first r-f stage of the FET socket.
MOSFET socket (Q,) is at the left of the The remainder of the construction and as-
photograph with the small coaxial line from sembly on the main chassis is straightfor-
ra
Figure 33
the various slug -tuned coils mounted at the pass power leads between the stages within
rear of the assembly. Figure 35 shows the the box. An oblique view of the r -f com-
rear of the box with the cover removed. partment is shown in figure 36. The two -
The r -f amplifier (Q,) coils are at the right section ceramic bandswitch is in the fore-
of the shield partition, with the mixer coils ground, with the 40 -meter piston tuning
(Q2) at the left. Directly below the mixer capacitor (C,) mounted to the wall of the
coils is the crystal -can relay 4K,) with the box in the foreground. Directly in front of
coaxial leads attached to it. The various the bandswitch is the feedthrough insulator
outer shields of the coaxial lines are grounded for the lead to the coil of the crystal -can
at the relay mounting bracket. Note that relay. The bandswitch is positioned to pro-
several Teflon fecdthrough insulators are vide the shortest possible leads to the slug -
mounted in the L- shaped shield partition to tuned coils mounted adjacent to it.
1111111111111/3/tt
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Figure 34
TUNING DIAL
TEMPLATE FOR
THE SOLID -STATE
RECEIVER
ma
1VIA =
0
(JT (7t (7t (7t
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT 1 9.3 1
An end view of the converter assembly is done with the agc switched off. Before be-
shown in figure 37. The relay is held in ginning the alignment and before power is
position with a small aluminum U -clamp applied to the receiver, the tuning meter
over the body, and the opposite side of the should be disconnected to prevent its pos-
L- shaped intrastage shield is visible. sible damage due to accidental overcurrent.
The Variable Oscillator-The vfo is the The builder should also note the information
only other separate subassembly. Layout of in the transistor chapter of this Handbook
parts (aside from placement of the main regarding the handling procedures to be used
tuning capacitor, mentioned earlier) is not with the MOSFET transistors, which are in-
critical. The components are self -supported serted toward the end of the alignment
around the capacitor using short, direct leads operation.
to prevent vibration. It is possible to build The audio portion of the receiver is tested
the unit in a much smaller box, but the good first. A heat sink is placed over the audio
IC (TAA -300) before tests are begun. A
Figure 36
fore, adjust the meter current for minimum sitic oscillations. Place the peaking control
deflection (minimum reading). Removing (C,) at half capacitance and apply a 10
the audio signal should cause the meter microvolt, 3750 -kHz signal at the input
current to increase to a full -scale value. terminal (J,) of the main receiver. Tune
Although the agc is off, the system still the receiver to the signal and adjust the
controls the meter and it can now be used three tuning slugs in coils L,, L_, and L:,
as an indicator of input signal level to the for maximum signal output. The receiver
receiver. Advance the R -F GAIN control may now be used for 80 -meter reception.
(R,) fully clockwise to Max position. Apply Cone erter Alignment-The high- frequen-
a 456.5 -kHz modulated signal of 1- millivolt cy converter should now be attached to the
level to the input (pin 1) of the IC i -f main chassis and the various leads connected.
amplifier (MC- 1553G). If the amplifier, the Before the MOSFETs are placed in the
bfo, and the product -detector stages are sockets, the converter tuned circuits should
working, an audio signal should be heard in have been grid-dipped to the approximate
the speaker. Adjust the detector filter cir- working frequencies. Now, the converter
cuit (T:,) for minimum hiss in the speaker bandswitch is set to the 20 -meter position
when the audio modulation is turned off. and the main tuning dial of the receiver set
Now, adjust the AUDIO -GAIN control to 14.250 MHz. A 10- microvolt signal at
(R,) back and forth to make sure it func- this frequency is applied to the converter
tions properly. Apply the sanie r -f signal to input circuit, making sure that the relay
the input of the mechanical filter and adjust K, is properly activated. Adjust the slug
i -f transformer T, for maximum signal in of the mixer coil (L,) for maximum output
the speaker. Varying the input signal fre- signal, followed by adjustment of r -f coil
quency above and below 456.5 kHz will L,. These adjustments will not be critical
provide an indication of the intermediate - due to the large bandwidth of these circuits.
frequency passband response of the receiver. The converter must be first aligned on 20
Switch the bfo SELECT-SIDEBAND switch meters since the tuned circuits are basically
(S,) to both positions to ensure that both tuned to that band. Once they are aligned,
oscillator circuits are working. Crystal align- do not touch them further.
ment on the filter passband is accomplished The bandswitch is now placed in the 40-
by adjustment of the series capacitors. meter position and a 7.2 -MHz signal applied
The next step is to test the variable to the receiver. Capacitors C, and Co are
tuning oscillator. The transistors are in- adjusted for maximum signal level. In the
serted in their sockets and the oscillator same fashion, a midband signal is applied to
tuned circuit should be adjusted to tune the converter for the 15- and 10 -meter
over the range of 3043.5 kHz to 3543.5 bands, aligning them by the slugs in the
kHz between the extreme positions of the shunt coils, as before, mixer circuit first.
dial. The bandset capacitor (CO may be Finally, adjust the 10 -meter oscillator cir-
used for this adjustment, along with the cuit (L,) for best received signal on that
slug adjustment of coil L,. After the slug band, then adjust the 15 -meter oscillator
position has been determined, it should be circuit (L:,) for minimum received signal
fastened in place with a drop of cement to when a 20 -meter signal is injected into the
prevent vibration. receiver. This completes alignment of the
The tuned circuits in the r -f stages and receiver.
the mixer should be adjusted to track
across the 80 -meter band when the PEAK -
PRF.SELECTOR control is adjusted. Pre- 19 -7 A Solid -State
liminary alignment should be done with a 10 -Watt Linear Amplifier
grid -dip oscillator with transistors Q,, Q2,
and Q:, 'Tutored f rom their sockets. When for 420 MHz
MOSFETs Q, and Q., are inserted in their This inexpensive 10 watt linear stripline
respective sockets, a ferrite bead is slipped amplifier is designed and built by WB6QXF
over the gate and drain leads of each device for mobile use, or fixed station service using
to suppress any tendency toward vhf para- either SSB or f -m modes (figure 38). With a
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT
Figure 38
nominal 12.6 -volt supply, the amplifier pro- Amplifier The amplifier schematic is shown
vides 10 watts PEP output with 10 dB, or Circuitry in figure 39. A base -driven cir-
better, power gain. With a simple modifica- cuit is used, with a simple L-
tion, the amplifier is converted to class -C network in the base circuit. A pi -L network
mode for f -m service, providing the sanie is used in the collector output circuit to
power output. provide a good match to a nominal S0 -ohm
Many amateurs find solid -state stripline load impedance. A CTC CAll0-12 power
amplifiers difficult and expensive to build. transistor is used. This device was developed
'l'he special teflon -glass board is hard to find .for land mobile service and is inexpensive
and costly, and the printed stripline circuits and rugged.
become quite critical to make, especially in For linear service, the power transistor is
the 450 -MHz region. This amplifier over- forward biased by the use of h)'istor (Q_.).
comes these problems. It is designed around This device consists of a diode and a silicon
low cost G -10 glass filled epo.) board and resistor in one package. It is physically cou-
employs stripline circuitry made of short pled to the heat sink of the amplifier and
lengths of flashing copper. No intricate tracks the power amplifier thermally, assur-
circuit board work is required. ing that thermal runaway problems are
19.34 RADIO HANDBOOK
minimized by automatically adjusting the from the top to the bottom of the board
forward bias of the transistor to compensate (figure 40). Similarly, short, narrow pieces
for changing heat sink temperature. of foil are cut and soldered at the four
Special low impedance, high current, vhf - edges of the transistor mounting hole, as
type U rider woud capacitors are placed di- shown in the illustration.
rectly at the base and collector terminals of Once the board has been prepared around
the transistor to achieve a proper impedance the edges, it is placed on the heatsink and
match to the input and output networks. secured in position with four 4 -40 bolts
Low frequency oscillations are suppressed in whose matching holes are then drilled and
the power circuits by means of r -f chokes tapped in the aluminum sink. The byistor
and bypass capacitors. mounting hole is also drilled at this time.
The circuit board is removed from the
Amplifier The amplifier is built on a sink and a large diameter drill is used to cut
Construction piece of epoxy circuit board, a space through the fins of the heat sink so
copper plated on both sides. that the bolt may be placed on the bvistor
To make a good ground plane, the entire stud, which projects through the heat sink.
outside edge of the board is lined with thin Be careful not to drill the clearance hole
copper foil making an electrical connection through the base of the heat sink.
L2 C5
Cl
J2
2-20 LI
OUTPUT
1 C2
4-40
RFC
15 RFC3
O. 5
01 1 01
Q2
I` I U UNDERWOOD CAPACITOR
R1
'12.5V
37
t 10
10
25
- 10
25
Figure 39
SCHEMATIC OF 450 -MHz AMPLIFIER
C, -Mica trimmer 2.20 pF (ARCO 151113.1 or L,- Copper shim strap, 0.175" (0.45 cm) x 1.2"
equivalent) (3.0 cm) including bend at end of line. Tap
Cr -CS Mica trimmer, 4 -40 pF (ARCO 151213 -1 or at midpoint for capacitor C,
equivalent) RFC, -1.5" (3.8 cm) straight piece of #20 wire
Cs 22 pF Underwood (UNELCO) uncased mica RFC,-Two turns #20, 0.3" (0.8 cm) diameter
capacitor. Do not substitute (wound around pencil eraser)
C Ce-33 pF Underwood (UNELCO) uncased RFC, -5 turns #20 around 0.5" (1.3 cm) diam.
mica capacitor. Do not substitute toroid ( #6 material) in parallel with 15 -ohm,
C -500 pF Underwood (UNELCO) uncased 0.5 -watt resistor
mica capacitor. Do not substitute Q, -CTC type CM10.12
L,- Copper shim strap, 0.175" (0.45 cm) X 1.1" Q= CTC type BYI-1
(2.8 cm), including bend at input end of line. Heatsink -6" X 4" (15.3 X 10.0 cm). Wakefield or
equivalent.
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT 19.35
TOP VIEW Of
BOARD LAYOUT
i SOLDER SOLDER
COPPER FOIL
14PLACESI
IIIIIIIIIIIIII
SOLDER
Figure 40
LAYOUT AND CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUIT BOARD
The next step is to solder the four special position, to the heat sink before the leads
Underwood vhf capacitors to the board as are soldered in place to prevent the transistor
close as possible to the transistor mounting case from being strained.
hole. The cases are soldered to the board in After the transistor is mounted, the is-
such a way as to allow the leads to overlap lands are cut in the copper foil of the circuit
each other, as shown in figure 41. The over- board for the ends of the strip lines. An
lap provides base and collector connections Exacto knife or razor blade is used for this
to the transistor. The leads of the transistor operation. The input island is one inch
are now trimmed to size and silicone grease (2.54 cm) away from the overlapped leads
(GE Insnlgrease or equivalent) is placed on of the input capacitors, as measured from
the mounting flanges and bottom of the the edge of the cutout. The island area is
transistor. The transistor must be bolted in %6" (0.8 cm) square in the center of a
cutout % inch (1.3 cm) square. The col-
TRANSISTOR CUTOUT
MOUNTING AREA
lector island is the same size and is located
11/16" (1.74 cm) away from the overlapped
DRILL. AND TAP
HEATSINK 14 -40)
leads of the capacitors. Smaller islands are
UNDERWOOD
cut for the byistor supplier and injector
CAPACITORS 141 leads.
LEAD OVERLAP
The remaining components are placed as
shown in the photograph. Placement of parts
is not critical, except for placement of the
base circuit bypass capacitors at the termina-
tion of RFC,. Since the choke is only a short
length of wire, the capacitors are positioned
I -us° - at the terminal point of the wire.
Figure 41 Testing the Amplifier-Temporarily dis-
connect the collector dc choke (RFC_) from
The four Underwood capacitors are soldered to
the circuit board with their leads overlapping, the stripline. Insert a 0 -500 dc milliammeter
as shown. The transistor is placed in the mount- in series with the byistor at point X in the
ing hole and attached to the heat sink with 4 -40 schematic. Gradually apply low voltage to
bolts run into holes tapped in the heat sink.
The four transistor leads are soldered to the the byistor circuit, gradually increasing it
cases of the capacitors. The striplines are toward 12.6 volts while observing the in-
soldered to the overlapping inner terminals. See jector current. At 12.6 volts, the current
photograph for details. Whole assembly is 11'8"
(2.86 cm) square. should be in the range of 300 mA to 350
19.36 RADIO HANDBOOK
mA. If not, the value of series resistor R, and C;, for maximum output. Tune capaci-
should be adjusted until this level is achieved. tors C, and C, for minimum input SWR.
The resistor may be composed of two units Increase the drive level to about 600 mW
in series to aid in adjustment. and repeat the adjustments. 'the power
Once the injector current of the byistor meter should now show a reading of about
is set at the proper level, the collector choke 10 watts. If a two -tone drive signal is used,
RFC.: is reconnected to the stripline. Short and the power meter is an average- reading
base resistor R_ with a 1 -ohm resistor and device (ie: Bird #43) , the reading will be
apply 12.6 volts to the amplifier, with the approximately one -half of the actual PEP
milliammeter connected to read total current output.
drain. The meter now indicates byistor cur- Amplifier Performance -Awell regulated
rent plus the quiescent current of the power 12.6 -volt power supply is necessary for linear
amplifier. Increase the value of R, in one - operation. Since current drain is less than 2
half ohm steps until an idling current of 50 amperes, a simple series regulator will be
mA to 60 mA is achieved. It may be neces- satisfactory. An oscilloscope should be used
sary to parallel two resistors to reach the to check for flattopping of the waveform
correct value of idling current. The meter under voice modulation. The collector cur-
will now read approximately 350 mA, of rent should rise to about 500 mA to 600
which about 300 mA is byistor current and mA under proper drive with a voice signal.
50 mA is amplifier current. The amplifier is Care must be taken to operate the ampli-
now ready for tuneup. fier into a load having a low value of SWR.
Although the transistor will survive an in-
Adjusting the Preliminary tuneup can most finite SWR, sustained operation into a load
Amplifier easily be accomplished with a having a high value of SWR is not recom-
SWR bridge, power meter, and mended. Performance data for the amplifier
dummy load (figure 42). An accurate power is listed in Table 1.
meter is necessary for proper adjustment. For f -m service, the byistor circuit can be
removed and the bottom end of base choke
AMP
POWER
METER
y DUMMY
LOAD
RFC, returned to ground. This removes the
forward bias from the transistor and allows
class -C operation. Tuneup adjustments for
this class of service are as described pre-
i viously.
SWR
TABLE 1
DRIVER
METER Performance Data for
450 -MHz Amplifier
SINGLE TONE TWO TONE
Figure 42
Supply Volts = +12.6 Supply Volts = +12.6
TEST SETUP FOR 450 MHz AMPLIFIER Input Power = 600 MW Input
Output Power = 10 W Power = 600 MW PEP
A Bird *43 power meter may be used for the Output
SWR meter as well as the output measuring de- Power = 10 W PEP
vice. A 20 -watt dummy load having a low value I, = 750 mA
of SWR at 150 MHz should be employed. When IMD = -29 dB, 3rd
a two -tone test signal is used, the wattmeter
will read approximately one -half the actual PEP Order Products
output. At 10W PEP
Note: Meter will read 300 mA High Because of
Voltage is applied to the amplifier and the Byistor Current.
power meter checked for zero power. Any
indication of power at this point indicates
amplifier oscillation. (No such oscillations 19 -8 Two Solid -State
were detected in four amplifiers built to Linear Amplifiers for
these specifications. For additional informa- Mobile SSB
tion on amplifier instability, refer to Chap-
ter l ). Next, apply about 200 mW of drive Described in this section are two solid -
CC
1
power and tune output capacitors state, broadband class -B linear amplifiers coy-
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT 19.37
Figure 43
25 -WATT PEP OUTPUT SOLID -STATE H -F LINEAR AMPLIFIER
Two TRW type PT 5740 transistors in a broadband circuit provide high performance over the 1.5- to 30-
MHz range. The amplifier is built on an etched -circuit board with ferrite -loaded input and output trans-
formers. The input transformer is at the left with the two NPN power transistors at center. The multiple
output transformer and feed transformer are at the right of the assembly. Transistors are heat -sinked to
an aluminum radiator beneath the circuit board. Ground points atop the board are jumpered to the
copper foil on the underside of the printed -circuit board.
ering the 1.5 -MHz to 30 -MHz spectrum. amplifiers are assembled on circuit boards
They are suitable for mobile operation with which are mounted on aluminum heat sinks
a nominal 12.6 volt dc power supply. The to achieve proper temperature control. The
amplifiers are untuned and provide outputs units may be placed in a cabinet or case at
of 25 watts PEP and 100 watts PEP, re- the builder's choice.
spectively. They exhibit intermodulation
distortion product levels of better than 30 - The 25 -Watt The 25 -watt PEP output am-
dB below one tone of a two -tone test signal
at full output level. Amplifier plifier is shown in figures 43
The amplifiers combine small size, good through 47. It requires only
efficiency, and wide instantaneous band- 0.4 watt PEP drive at 30 MHz for full out-
width with high stability and excellent tol- put, having a power gain of about 18 deci-
erance to various operating conditions. In bels. Amplifier efficiency is about 55 percent
particular, these units are designed to with- under c -w (carrier) conditions. Even -order
stand a wide range of operating tempera- hamonics are better than -
35 decibels below
tures (such as encountered in portable or peak power output. The level of the odd -
mobile work) , bias variation, extremes of order harmonics is such that a harmonic filter
load SWR, and overdrive condition. The should be incorporated after the amplifier to
19.38 RADIO HANDBOOK
suppress the 3rd, 5th, and 7th order harmon- source resistance, therefore, must be held
ics which are attenuated less than - 30 to a low value, typically 0.5 to 1 ohm. (2)
decibels below peak power output in the Intermodulation distortion is usually mini-
amplifier. mum over a relatively narrow range of rest-
Amplifier Circuitry-The schematic of ing collector current. The devices used in
the 25 -watt amplifier is shown in figure 44. this amplifier have a large safe operating
Two TRW type PT5740 epitaxial silicon current range and the resting collector cur-
NPN power transistors, specially designed rent may be set high enough to achieve the
for hf SSB service are used (Q,, Q2). The lowest value of intermodulation. (3) Under
transistors incorporate temperature- compen- small -signal conditions transistor dissipation
sating emitter resistors on the chip and are is low and junction temperature is low.
designed to work into an infinite SWR load However, under conditions of peak power
without damage at a maximum collector disspation the junction temperature rises.
potential of 16 volts. Using a constant -voltage bias source with a
The PT5740 devices are connected in a device having a negative temperature co-
push -pull configuration with broadband, efficient for emitter -base voltage change can
ferrite - loaded transformers used in the in- lead to thermal destruction of the chip un-
put and output circuits to match unbalanced less thermal equilibrium is established by
terminations. A simple RLC compensation proper transistor design and use of the
network is placed across the input winding proper heat sink.
of transformer T1 to equalize amplifier gain In both of these amplifiers, the design of
across the operating range. the PT 5740 power transistor and the ac-
The input impedance of a PT 5740 power companying circuitry solves the important
transistor is below 5.5 ohms and is capacitive bias, temperature and collector current prob-
over the operating range of the amplifier. lems.
The output impedance is of the order of Impedance Matching- Broadband, ferrite -
4 ohms. As a result, special r -f transformers loaded input and output transformers are
must be built to match these very low im- used in this amplifier to achieve the required
pedance levels to 50 ohms. frequency response. The ferrite material used
The push -pull collectors of the transistors has an initial permeability of 800 which re-
are connected to a balanced feed trans- mains above 200 at 30 MHz. Losses in the
former (T2) and to a matching output ferrite material are quite low and ferrite
transformer (T3) to provide single -ended temperature rise is less than 20 °C in any
output at a nominal impedance value of transformer at full power output at any
50 ohms. The push -pull configuration is frequency in the operating range.
used since the amplifier covers five octaves Input transformer T, is shown in figures
of bandwidth, and suppression of even har- 45 and 46. The unit consists of a very low
monics is of major importance since the impedance, split secondary made of two
harmonics are a function of the ratio of the short brass tubes mounted between end plates
cutoff frequency to the operating frequency made of printed- circuit board (foil on one
and the selectivity of the output matching side) . One end board serves as the terminal
network. end connections for the tubes and the other
Bias Stability -One of the most demand- acts as a connecting strap and center -tap
ing aspects of solid -state linear amplifier de- point between the tubes. Two stacks of three
sign is the bias network and the associated ferrite cores are slid over the tubes which
temperature stability of the transistors. Fac- are then soldered in position between the
tors influencing the bias value and network boards and the assembly is epoxied for rigid-
include: (1) Large signal r-f amplifiers ity. The high impedance wire winding (50
generally rectify a portion of the input ohms) is threaded in continuous fashion
signal and if the base -emitter resistance is through the tubes.
high the amplifier will be biased class AB The dc feed transformer (T2) and the
for small signals, but will self -bias to class - output matching transformer (T3) are
C operation under large signal conditions. mounted side by side between two printed -
This shift in operating point seriously in- circuit board end plates, in the manner de-
creases intermodulation distortion. The bias scribed for the input transformer. Each
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT 19.39
sse
INPUT
ase
OUTPUT
Figure 44
SCHEMATIC, 25 -WATT AMPLIFIER
T , -See text and figures 45-47
T , T,
Q ,-TRW type PT 5740 r -f power transistors
Q,
Circuit -board material -Glass- filled epoxy board, G -10, 0.060" thick
Heat sink -Wakefield 620 or equivalent
NPO chip capacitors -UNELCO (Underwood Electronics)
111111 ®1111®®®
1111® ®1111 ®1111
FRONT BOARD PEAR BOARD
(DRILL 4 ROLES 0./9' D/AN. IN EACH ROARO)
CENTER TO CENTER 0.38' Tz, Tn, Te, TT
FOIL AREA
00" OC'
Figure 46
Figure 48
Figure 47
100 -WATT PEP OUTPUT
OUTPUT AND FEED TRANSFORMER
SOLID -STATE HF LINEAR
ASSEMBLY T,, T, and T5, T/
AMPLIFIER
The feed transformer is shown atop the output
transformer in a four -stack assembly. Twenty - Four TRW type PT5741 transistors are used in
four ferrite cores are used, stacked between two a combined, push -pull configuration to cover
p.c. end plates. The feed transformer has two, the 1.5- to 30 -MHz range. The four transistors
one -turn windings made of H18 enamel wire, are in line across the middle of the printed -
twisted at 5 twists per inch. Hybrid transformers circuit board. At the right are the two input
T, and T, are identical but are not mounted on transformers T, and T, with the hybrid trans-
p.c. end boards (see figure 48). Transformers former T, between them. At the left are the two
T, and T, are composed of copper -tube windings, output -feed transformer assemblies with the hy-
similar to T, and T, except that six stack cores brid transformer T, between them. Ground
are used and the tubes are 1.375" long. The out- points atop the board are jumpered to the
put winding consists of 4 turns .18 enamel copper -foil ground plane on the underside of
copper wire. the p.c. board.
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT 19.41
Figure 49
SCHEMATIC, 100 -WATT AMPLIFER
T,-T.-See text and figures 45 -47
Q,-Q4-TRW type PT 5741 r -f power transistors
Circuit -board material -Glass -filled epoxy board, type G -10, 0.060" thick
Heat sink -Wakefield, or equivalent
NPO chip capacitors-UNELCO (Underwood Electronics)
19.42 RADIO HANDBOOK
With full carrier insertion, the collector cur- capacitors specified in various units in
rent will rise to nearly 16 amperes, and will this chapter may be obtained from:
approximate 7- ampere peaks under voice Underwood Electric Co.
modulation. As in the case of the smaller 148 - 8th Ave.
amplifier, a suitable harmonic filter should Maywood, IL 60153
be used between the amplifier and the an- or,
tenna to suppress odd -order harmonics. VHF Engineering Co.
(Note additional information on the am- 320 Water St.
plifiers, a circuit -board template, and data Binghamton, NY 13902
on the TRW transistors may be obtained The CTC transistors may be obtained
by requesting Application Notes CT- 122 -71 from:
and CT- 113 -71 from the Semiconductor Communication Transistor Corp.
Division, TRW Inc., 14520 Aviation Blvd., 301 Industrial Way
Lawndale, CA, 90260.) San Carlos, CA 94070
NOTE: The Underwood (UNELCO) (550 minimum order)
CHAPTER TWENTY
Equipment construction has just about It is hoped that the equipment described
become a lost art. Aside from the many in this, and the succeeding chapters, will
excellent kits, the average amateur has a awaken the experimenter's instinct in the
difficult time building his own gear. Reliable reader, even in those fortunate individuals
communication equipment is available, ready owning expensive commercial equipment.
to go, at moderate prices and the home -built These lucky amateurs have the advantage of
equipment is further handicapped because it comparing their home -built product against
has no resale value. Finally, the job of find- the best the commercial market has to offer.
ing the desired components is a difficult one, Sometimes such a comparison is surprising.
and many frustrating hours can be spent
searching for one or two inexpensive com-
ponents that have held up a home building
project. Check Your When the builder has finished
On the other hand, the purchaser of ready - Equipment the wiring of his equipment it
made equipment pays a penalty for con- is suggested that he check his
venience. The c -w operator must often pay wiring and connections carefully for possi-
for the SSB operator's wide passband and S- ble errors before any voltages are applied
meter that he never uses, and the SSB opera- to the circuits. If possible, the wiring should
tor must pay for the c -w operator's narrow be checked by a second party as a safety
filter. For one amateur, the receiver or trans- measure. Some transistors can be perma-
ceiver has too little bandspread or power, for nently damaged by having the wrong volt-
the next, too much. The design of the equip- ages applied to their electrodes. Electrolytic
ment is often compromised for economy's capacitors can be ruined by hooking them up
sake and for ease of alignment, low -Q cir- with the wrong voltage polarity across the
cuits are often found where high -Q circuits capacitor terminals. Transformer, choke, and
are called for, making the receiver a victim coil windings may be damaged by incorrect
of overloading from nearby signals. Inexpen- wiring of the high -voltage leads.
sive transistors are used in the interest of The problem of meeting and overcoming
economy, leaving the receiver wide open to such obstacles is just part of the game. A
crossmodulation and desensitization. Rarely true radio amateur should have adequate
does the purchaser of commercial equipment knowledge of the art of communication. He
realize the manufacturing trade -offs en- should know quite a bit about his equipment
countered considering the results he might (even if purchased) and, if circumstances
achieve if he built his own equipment to his permit, he should build a portion of his own
desired specifications. equipment. Those amateurs who do such
The ardent experimenter, however, needs construction work are convinced that half
no such arguments. He builds his equipment of the enjoyment of the hobby may be ob-
for the enjoyment of construction and cre- tained from the satisfaction of building and
ation, and the thrill of using a product of operating their own receiving and trans-
his own manufacture. mitting equipment.
20.1
20.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 1
COMPONENT NOMENCLATURE
RESISTORS
CAPACITORS: I- RESISTANCE VALUES ARE STATED IN OHMS, THOUSANDS
OF OHMS (K), AND MEGOHMS (M ).
1- VALUES BELOW 999 PF ARE INDICATED IN UNITS. EXAMPLE, 270 OHMS' 270
EXAMPLE: ISO PF DESIGNATED AS 150. 700 OHMS ° 4.7 R
OHMS' 33 K
2- VALUES ABOVE 999 PF ARE INDICATED IN DECIMALS. 100,000 OHMS R OR 0.1 M
[XAMPL E:.00S LIFO DESIGNATED AS .005. ]],000.. 000 OHMS' ]3 M
3- OTHER CAPACITOR VALUES ARE AS STATED. 2- ALL RESISTORS ARE 1 -WATT COMPOSITION TYPE UNLESS
EXAMPLE: IOLFD, 0.SPF, ETC. OTHERWISE NOTED. WATTAGE NOTATION IS THEN INDICATED
BELOW RESISTANCE VALUE.
4- TYPE OF CAPACITOR IS INDICATED BENEATH THE VALUE 47 N
DESIGNATION. EXAMPLE
3M= SILVER MICA
C2 CERAMIC
M' MICA
P' PAPER INDUCTORS:
L,51
Al .001 MICROHENRIES 2 JIN
EXAMPLE, P M MILLIHENRIE3' MH
HENRIES' H
S- VOLTAGE RATING Or ELECTROLYTIC OR ^FILTER
CAPACITOR IS INDICATED BELOW CAPACITY DESIGNATION.
SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS,
EXAMPLE,
44,..2.0, zs
10 OR
}II
CONDUCTORS JOINED
6- THE CURVED LINE IN CAPACITOR SYMBOL REPRESENTS
THE OUTSIDE FOIL "GROUND. OF PAPER CAPACITORS,
THE NEGATIVE ELECTRODE OF ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS,
OR THE ROTOR Of VARIABLE CAPACITORS. I1
1
11
Circuitry and It is the practice of the edi- able oscillators, integrated double -balanced
Components tors of this Handbook to modulator mixers, diode switching of filters
place as much usable informa- and tuned circuits, and a solid -state digital
tion in the schematic illustration as possible. readout counter, are included in the design.
In order to simplify the drawing, the compo- Modular construction is used as much as
nent nomenclature of figure 1 is used in all possible. Most of the circuits are built as
the following construction chapters. separate, shielded modules, and are tested
The electrical value of many small circuit and aligned as such, completely independent
components such as resistors and capacitors of the receiver system (figure 3) . This
is often indicated by a series of colored bands technique makes system modification easy,
or spots placed on the body of the compo- simplifies testing and alignment, and con-
nent. Several color codes have been used tributes greatly to freedom from spurious
in the past, and are being used in modified mixing products and circuit radiation. In-
form at present to indicate component put /output specifications are provided for
values. The most important of these color each module, allowing the receiver to be
codes for resistors, capacitors, power trans- duplicated module by module; by meeting
formers, chokes, i -f transformers, etc. can the various module requirements, the builder
be found in Chapter 35 of this Handbook. is assured that his system will function
properly when assembled.
The detailed description of this receiver
20 -1 An Advanced Solid - is along modular lines as well, with the
State Deluxe Amateur description of each module including nec-
Band Receiver essary circuit theory, construction details,
and electrical specifications.
This receiver, designed and built by
VE3GFN, takes advantage of the many re- The Receiver The receiver is single con-
cent advances in communications circuit Circuit version on all amateur bands,
techniques, and illustrates their application 80 through 10 meters; cov-
to amateur equipment (figure 2) . Features erage of the entire 10 -meter band is in-
such as IC power- supply regulation, varactor cluded (figure 4). For good stability and
diode tuning of front -end circuits and vari- to avoid tracking problems, the local- oscil-
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.3
Figure 2
selectivity for SSB and c -w modes. A separate speaker sits atop the receiver. Construction is
simplified by building the receiver in modules. each of which may be tested independently before
the receiver is assembled.
lator injection voltage is derived from the from the operator's standpoint, the system
mixing product of a 5.0- to 5.5 -MHz vari- used is simpler, and enables the digital
able- oscillator module (A) with a crystal - counter to be built and tested as separate a
oscillator module (B), the frequency of module as any other, completely independent
which is changed for each band. On 20 of the bandswitch.
meters only, the variable oscillator is not Band changing is accomplished by a
mixed with a crystal oscillator, but drives rugged rotary switch built into the front -
the signal -path mixer directly. The fre- end mixer module (C). Extra wafers on
quency of the variable oscillator is counted this switch control the heterodyne crystal
by the digital counter and display module oscillators, the switching of the heterodyne
(D), to 100Hz resolution, and displayed as mixer output circuits, and the variable os-
"kHz above the band edge." While a display cillator output, through or around the
of exact frequency may be more convenient heterodyne mixer system.
20.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
'IUIilÍifii
Figure 3
Signal input from the antenna is amplified (Q,) is a JFET circuit, varactor- tuned, of
by a dual -gate MOSFET r-f amplifier (Q,) high stability. Injection to the signal -path
which is tuned from the front panel (RF mixer from the heterodyne mixer or the
Tune) by controlling the bias of varactor variable oscillator is controlled by diode
diodes D, and D_ in the input and output gates through the bandswitch.
tuned circuits (figure 5) . The amplified The output of the signal -path mixer (U1)
antenna signal then passes through the sig- is the 9.0 -MHz i -f signal, which passes
nal -path mixer (U,) , a double -balanced IC through one of two crystal filters; either a
modulator. Local- oscillator injection for 2.4 -kHz filter for SSB, (FL,), or a 500 -
this mixer comes from the heterodyne mixer Hz filter for c -w (FL,) . The choice of fil-
module (E), and is the sum of the variable - ter is made by the i -f Selectivity Broad
oscillator frequency, and the frequency of Sharp panel switch, which controls diode
one of the heterodyne crystal oscillators. gates that direct the i -f signal to the filters.
The heterodyne mixer (U,) has diode -gated The sharp filter has a dual -gate MOSFET
tuned circuits in the output to control the amplifier (QI) after its output, which is
mixing frequency. The variable oscillator adjusted for equal system gain when using
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.5
03.S-2D 1 MHZ
^^`J
MIXER MODULE SNARP FILTER FILTER AMP
r l Q2
IR-F AMP MIXER FLI IF AMP DETECTOR A -F AMP. AP OUTPUT
Q
I
QI UI I Q3 Us U3
I
_ SPEAKER
BROAD FILTER
Fla
I
L __J
I
H
r r--
IBUFFER QII
BUFFER 4s
IHETERODYNE
'MIXER BFO
O
I
IMODULE MODULEOI
!HETERODYNE OSC
MIXER UI'
r T0T
-
I
I HETERODYNE
s 0-5 .s MHZ CRYSTAL L -J
I
Q6 OSC
ONE Of SEVEN
9
4 Q 3 OIE
ItGAINa
CONTROLI
Q6 VOL TAGE f5V?12V.-12V.
BUFFERS - L
AGC BOARD cO
V- F-0
6
I
I-
I
( 339.6 1
nHi I
lJ í20v 'N.
DIGITAL COUNTER AND DISPLAY
Figure 4
either filter; the sharp filter has more in- The detector output drives a high gain
sertion attenuation, making this necessary. bipolar audio preamplifier (Q,), which has
The i -f signal is amplified by a dual -gate the AF Gain control in its output circuit,
MOSFET amplifier (Q3) common to both a measure designed to increase signal -to -noise
filters, providing up to 20 dB i -f gain. ratio.
The second detector is a double -balanced The audio output stage (U0) is a two -
modulator (U2) used in a product -detector watt integrated -circuit amplifier, with its
configuration, obtaining its beat -frequency own power -supply regulator.
injection from the beat -frequency oscillator Frequency readout is obtained from LED
module (F), employing a crystal oscillator devices (light emitting diodes) in the digital
(Qj11) whose frequency is selected by the counter display module (D) which are
USB -'LSB panel switch, or the i -f Selectitity driven by a highly stable time base and
switch, depending on the choice of c -w or decade counters. A 100 -kHz crystal is used
SSB. The oscillator is followed by a buffer as a standard for the count. The frequency
stage (Qii). of the variable oscillator is read to 100 Hz.
20.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
TnO HETERODYNE
MIXER O
MIXER i
820 I.3X J2
R -F AMPLIFIER SHIELD
ANT. PC Q I I
-
120K 120K
IN954Dz
®
XX .01
(ONE Ar +12V
TO R-F GAIN EACH CO/(
CONTROL
AGC COT. GD
rVNE -12 V.
0.
G2 CI
D S 10
QI BASE U I, U BASE
Figure 5
JI,
L
Ji
L; BNC connector, UG -185/U
See Table 1
RFC
S1
-1- millihenry, 35 -mA, J. W. Miller 10F -103A1
-3
deck heavy duty rotary switch, 6 pole, B
PC -5
turns #22 on 100 ohm, 1/2 -watt resistor position. Centralab 1V -9037, or equivalent
01, -RCA 40673 or Fairchild FT 0601 U,- Motorola MC 1596G or Fairchild VA 796
Note: All resistors V4 watt
General Most of the circuits in this re- the extra time needed for artwork and board
Construction ceiver are hand wired on G- fabrication. When the final design has been
Technique 10 glass epoxy printed -circuit completed, it can be easily adapted to the
board subchassis, using teflon usual printed circuits if desired.
press -fit terminals at the interconnection Construction of Front -End Bandsuitch-
points. Ground connections are soldered di- ing Module (C) -The front -end module
rectly to the copper foil. Solid -state devices contains the r -f amplifier (Q,), the signal -
are soldered directly into the circuits, with path mixer (U,), associated tuned circuits,
no device sockets used except in the digital and the receiver bandswitch. The schematic
counter, the only module where printed - is shown in figure S.
circuit technique was necessary to simplify The r -f amplifier is a dual -gate MOSFET,
duplication. In a few cases (the i -f strip, for providing up to 20 dB of r -f gain. Gain
example) the main aluminum chassis was level is set by means of the R -F Gain panel
used as the construction base. control, which adjusts the bias on the second
This assembly technique is ideal for high - gate of the MOSFET device. This is done
frequency circuit work; it is quickly and in conjunction with the automatic gain con-
easily modified, and short -lead construction trol system, and the i -f amplifier is con-
is easy. Employing the copper -board sub - trolled in a similar manner at the same time.
chassis utilizes most of the advantages of The r -f input and output circuits are
printed -circuit construction, but eliminates tuned by means of varactor diodes D, and
RECEIVERS. TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.7
D_, the bias (capacitance) of which is con- Additional wafers of bandswitch S, con-
trolled by the R -F Tune panel control. The trol the heterodyne crystal oscillators, the
amplifier is stable on all bands without neu- gating of the output tuned circuits in the
tralization. While ferrite beads on the MOS- heterodyne mixer module, and the diode
FET input and output leads might contrib- gating of the variable- frequency oscillator
ute to inherent stability, they were found to module output.
adversely affect r -f gain at the higher fre- The output of the front -end module
quencies. (with the first i -f transformer connected)
The signal -path mixer (U1) uses an IC should be a sinusoidal waveform at 9.0
as a double -balanced modulator, which pro- MHz, of a level about 40 dB greater than
vides great attenuation to undesired mixing the antenna signal level, with the r -f ampli-
products. This IC device is used throughout fier adjusted for maximum gain. Due to
the receiver for all signal -translation appli- losses in link couplings, transformer coup-
cations. lings, etc., this gain figure is only a nominal
The local -oscillator injection for the sig- one. Views of the front -end module are
nal -path mixer is obtained from the hetero- shown in figures 6, 7, and 8.
dyne mixer module (E) on all bands ex-
cept 20 meters, where the variable- frequency
oscillator module drives it directly. Input
to U, at J, from the mixer module should
be 50 -300 mV p -p of sinusoidal waveform.
Figure 7
the following step -by -step procedure (used Step 3. Mount and secure the band -
in the construction of the prototype) is switch in its chassis. Refer to the bot-
followed. See Table 1 for coil data. tom -view photograph of the switch chas-
The bandswitching mixer module (C) is sis (figure 7) for the feedthrough term-
built in two aluminum chassis, each 6" X inal layout. Note where the common
4" X 2" mounted back -to -back, as seen in switch arm of each wafer is on each deck,
figure 6. The bandswitch is installed in the as its location requires more than a
top chassis, and the solid -state circuits and casual glance. Mark centers for the feed -
coils in the bottom chassis. The contacts through terminals close to each wafer of
of the switch are wired to press -fit feed - the switch, being very careful of clear-
through terminals mounted in the bottom ances when marking the terminals for
of the switch chassis; these terminals pro- the inner wafers. Now, remove the
trude through clearance holes drilled in the switch from its chassis, center punch the
circuit chassis, and the coils and proper marked hole centers, bolt the two chassis
circuits are wired to them. Thus the switch together, and drill a centering hole
is shielded from the r -f circuitry, yet leads through both chassis. Separate the chassis.
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.9
The feedthrough terminals require a terminals on the side of the chassis for
9; 64" hole, and the clearance holes input, output, gain control, tune volt-
should be enlarged to I/.t ". age, and supply lines. This completes the
assembly of the Bandswitching Mixer
Step 4. Install the switch in the Module.
switch chassis. Now examine the location
of the feedthrough terminals, and the
switch contacts to which they must be
wired. The terminals for the inner wafers
are almost covered by the switch, and are
virtually inaccessible. These feedthrough
terminals should be pre -wired (before the
switch is installed) using 4" lengths of
bare wire. As the switch is installed, these
wires can be drawn up to the proper
contacts, and wired to them, after sliding
a length of insulating tubing over each
lead. The switch contacts that are ac-
cessible (front and rear) should be pre - Figure 9
wired in a similar manner, and these TYPICAL HETERODYNE CRYSTAL
wires run to the proper feedthrough OSCILLATOR ASSEMBLY
teminals after the switch is installed. This
The heterodyne crystal oscillator board (B)
completes the wiring of the switch chas- shown contains one of the seven crystal oscil-
sis. lator stages. The other three boards each have
two oscillator stages on them and are visible
in the main under -chassis view of the receiver.
Step 5. Make up two coil -shield par- The oscillator slug-tuned inductor is adjustable
tition assemblies as shown in the under - from beneath the receiver.
chassis photograph (figure 8) , using the
following procedure: Mount a pre -cut
printed -circuit board on the front and IO In
ere
Figure 11
preamplifier (Q1) and audio output IC (U,) are mounted on boards along the left -hand side of the
chassis. Decoupling capacitors are installed at the power connector in the upper -left corner of
the chassis. The crystal filter diode gates and filter shields are just below the Heterodyne Oscillator
Boards. The large Front -end Module is at lower right, recessed in a hole cut in the chassis.
,-TYPICAL
L4A CONTROL SIE
LINE 80
ION .00.1
LAD
10a
ON .00(11
LEAE,
108
HETERODYNE MIXER ó` i0X .001
_F
T
L
0.1
De oc
TO SIP R
.
coo 0R .001
820 LAG
311 7 /00
TO VFO
0.1
TO DIODE
271S 27X IN914 GATE AND
De MIXER,I,JI
OSC. BALANCE
RI l0K
D
S
.12 V. G
Qs-De BASE
Figure 13
same positive level, while the anodes are caused by the diode junction voltage drop of
close to ground potential; and so are re- the switching diodes. The series circuit of
verse- biased. The Amperex (Philips) BA- an r -f choke and 1K resistor across the mixer
182 diodes (D1 -D
-) were selected for their output (pin 6) drains additional current
low forward impedance and their small re- though the switching diodes.
verse capacitance. The heterodyne mixer module is built
A silicon diode (D,) in series with the dc into the 11U" shaped portion of a minibox
current path to the rest of the mixer 2 %" X 21/4" X 5". Because of the large
corrects the output dc level imbalance number of components that must be in-
Figure 14
HETERODYNE MIXER
COMPONENT BOARD
Integrated circuit U, is at cen
ter with the oscillator null po-
tentiometer (R ) at the extreme
left of the board. The assembly
is built as compact and flat
as possible to allow clearance
for the board below the coils,
once the module is assembled.
The buffer FET (Q,) is at the
right of the board.
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.13
stalled in this module, it is assembled using checked, that the correct crystal -oscillator
"layered" construction. frequency is being injected. Check each
The heterodyne mixer consists of three band for uniform output over the 5.0-
separate sections; a chassis board, containing S.S -MHz vfo range. On the 10 -meter band,
the components of the mixer itself (figure the output tuned circuits may interact to
14), the U- shaped section of the minibox, a certain extent, and the tuning process may
the sides of which have been drilled to ac- have to be repeated several times. For each
cept the seven coils, and another chassis band, the idea is to obtain maximum out-
board, drilled to match the side of the put, and uniform output amplitude, at the
minibox, on which components connected correct frequency.
directly to the coils are mounted. Figure 12 When testing the mixer, use the mixer
showing the completed mixer module illus- module (pin 6) to drive the oscilloscope;
trates how the side of the minibox must be do not try to probe the output circuits of
drilled for the coils; board containing the the mixer itself with the oscilloscope, as even
coil components is simply cut to match the the small input capacitance of a high -fre-
dimensions and holes of the minibox side. quency oscilloscope will load the tuned
The mixer component board is wired, circuits.
keeping all leads short, and using sufficient Construction of Variable -Frequency Os-
heat on the ground connections. When it is cillator Module (A) -The vfo module con-
completed, mount it on the bottom of the sists of a voltage- controlled oscillator (Q,),
U- section of the minibox. The board con- two buffer stages (Q6 and Q,) for the two
taining the coil components is then cut to necessary oscillator outputs, and a regulated
site and installed on the side of the mini - supply for the frequency -control potenti-
box. The centers of the holes for the coils ometer that is derived from the positive and
and the feedthrough terminals are then negative 12 -volt rails (figures 15, 16, and
marked, and the holes drilled through both 17).
the minibox side and the coil component
board.
The component board is now removed
from the side of the minibox, and the coil
bypass capacitors and the gating -diode bias-
ing resistors are installed on the board. The
board is then reinstalled on the side of the
minibox and the coils are now installed in
the module and wired in to both of the
component boards. If the coils mounted
nearest the bottom of the minibox are in-
stalled first, wiring will be easy. It is im-
portant to keep the diode leads as short as
possible. For this reason, the 10 -meter coils
are mounted nearest the output pin of the
mixer component board. Figure 15
TO ARM OF FREQUENCY
005 CONTROL POTENTIOMETER
Figure 18
Hn OSCILLATOR
RFC
001 5e as II SCHEMATIC, VFO
1700 Sbl SM IN914 BUFFER MODULE
+ 40
100
r
S- 33R
220
5e0
TO DIGITAL
COUNTER
(e00 NV P -P) C
QS Q,- 2N5459
¡Piston
5061,
capacitor, 60 pF. MC
euFiER
n
zoo Q7 HI. L, -7 -u H. Cambion 2419-2
.005
100
.05 RFC -1 millihenry, 35 mA. J. W.
RFC RFC
TO GATING
Miller 10F -103A1
. 2 H
.0005(,SO Nv.P -P)
DIODES Note: All resistors 1/4 watt
75
TO-10V
ance has been established. Elimination of stages should be checked for a sinusoidal
the large plate -type variable capacitor often output, of amplitudes approximating those
used in such circuits allows the vfo to be indicated in figure 16.
built in a much smaller enclosure than The frequency range of the oscillator can
usual, and the JFET oscillator is inherently be adjusted with the aid of an accurate fre-
quite thermally stable. quency meter or digital frequency counter
on the high -level output; the inductance ad-
justment will affect the width of the fre-
quency variation, and the piston trimmer is
used to set the lower- frequency limit of the
tuning range. Adjusting each of these in
turn, and checking the frequency range
with each adjustment, should resuli in
proper calibration being attained in short
order.
The oscillator circuitry is built into a
minibox measuring 21/4" X 21/4" X 4 ".
The Oscillator Module is thermally coupled
to the main chassis by cleaning the paint
from the bottom of the module and cover-
Figure 17 ing it with a layer of silicone grease before
mounting it. By heat -sinking the module to
INTERIOR VIEW OF VFO MODULE the main chassis, excellent thermal stability
Components of vfo Module (A) are securely is attained, even though the oscillator en-
mounted to p.c. board bolted to one half of closure is quite small. No electrical tempera-
minibox. Tuned circuit (L1 -C1) is at right, with
buffer FETS just behind the BNC coaxial con- ture compensation is required.
nector. Oscillator leads are short and heavy. The potentiometer used to control the
frequency of the receiver is a matter of
The vfo covers a wide frequency range choice for the builder. Since a National
with the circuit constants provided, so the PW -O gear reduction drive is used to drive
voltage range of the varactor diode is lim- the control potentiometer, the tuning of the
ited by the regulator circuits of the fre- receiver is very smooth, and reasonably slow
quency- control potentiometer as shown in even with a single -turn carbon unit of linear
figure 18. The regulators also serve the pur- taper (figure 18) Using a single -turn po-
.
SI 52 53
TO VFO CONTROL POINT
(D I, FIG. 167 I
I I
1.
I I
1-7 1-7
MAIN
TUNING
100K 100N I OO K
0R2 RI
10
yT,y
S
w
20 = Figure 18
filter. Using a 10 -turn helipot, (the Am- only change conduction states when the
phenol 2151B-104 is recommended for in- bandswitch is in the 20 -meter position
stallation in the same space) a tuning rate (figure 19). In this position, none of the
of 3 to 5 kHz per knob revolution is easily crystal oscillators are supplied with dc
attained. While it is tedious to tune the en- power; the oscillator outputs are not con-
tire band at this rate, even with a "spinner" nected to the heterodyne mixer through the
knob, it is perfect for use with the sharp bandswitch, and the +12 volt line which
filter. normally powers the crystal oscillators now
By varying the total coverage adjustment changes the status of the vfo output gates
of the oscillator, and by varying the volt- and the heterodyne mixer gates.
age limits between which the tuning poten-
T020M rFR POINT.
tiometer wiper moves (a maximum of --
TOPINE,UI
Diode gate status change is accomplished band changing, of course. Once set, it is
by changing the level at point S from -12 impossible to knock them out of adjust-
volts through a high impedance to +12 ment accidentally. This feature will be
volts through a low impedance (the dc re- found useful for net operation, for DX -ing,
sistance of the isolating choke) by means of and for cross -frequency operation.
the bandswitch. This forces the diode gates Remote Operation -This receiver is easily
between the vfo and signal -path mixer to adapted for remote operation: For mobile
conduct, while at the same time reverse -bias- work, the receiver can be located in the
ing the diode gates at the heterodyne mixer rear of the vehicle. A small control box near
input and output circuits. the driver would require only a speaker and
VFO Module Frequency- Control System a multiturn potentiometer to replace the
-The use of a varactor -diode tuned circuit main tuning potentiometer (it should be
in the variable oscillator allows several modes wired into the vfo module in exactly the
of frequency control not seen in the usual same way). In addition, a second control to
amateur receiver. adjust the R -F Tune voltage is necessary, as
The usual mode, employing a front -panel the tuning of these circuits is quite sharp.
knob ganged to a tuning element in the os- It is also possible to adapt this receiver to
cillator, is here approximated by the ten - automatic tuning; a dc sawtooth voltage of
turn potentiometer which controls the var- approximately one cycle /30 seconds, and
actor bias and which is driven through a ranging from -10 to +l.5 volts applied to
gear- reduction drive from the front panel the varactor control point in place of volt-
Main Tuning Control. age from a tuning potentiometer will cause
Because the frequency of the oscillator is the receiver to scan its complete range,
controlled by a varying dc voltage, this re- quickly return to the starting point, and
ceiver is also equipped for channel opera- scan again. Because of the very sharp tuning
tion; by switching one of three switches of the r -f circuits scanning over a small
provided, one of three preset frequencies range is probably most practical.
may be selected (figure 18) . These preset 1 -F, Detector and Audio Circuitry-The
channels are adjustable from the front i -f strip consists of two crystal filters
panel, by means of three panel -mounting with associated transformers and signal -gat-
trim pots. In case more than one channel ing circuits, an i -f amplifier common to
switch is activated at the same time, the both filters (Q3) , and a gain- compensation
circuit is arranged so only one channel is stage (Q2) that offsets the higher insertion
actually enabled, even though all three attenuation of the sharp i -f filter (figures
switches may be in the channel position. 20 thru 22) .
Only when all three switches are in the The output of the signal -path mixer (U1,
Main Tuning position is frequency control pin 6) is connected to the primary of a 9.0-
by means of the panel tuning control pos- MHz i -f transformer. The transformer sec-
sible. The trim pot channel adjusts may be ondary drives the gating diodes through
easily set by a small screwdriver, while which the i -f signal is switched to the crystal
watching the digital counter; they will ad- filter inputs. Because of the high insertion
just the vfo frequency independently of loss of this transformer, extra coupling is
Figure 20
I -F AMPLIFIER,
A DETECTOR,
AUDIO PREAMPLIFIER
BOARD
From left -to-right are the i -f
amplifier (Q,), the detector (U2)
and the audio amplifier (Q4)
with associated components.
Solid -state devices are mount-
ed upside down to press-fit
terminal insulators.
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.17
1 -112V 12V
Figure 21
FL,-Crystal filter, KVG type XL -10M (Spectrum nternational, Box 1084, Concord, Mass. 01742)
I
volts p -p injection from the beat -frequency plugged into the front panel jack, disabling
oscillator, applied to pin 8. the speaker.
The detector drives a high -gain, bipolar The audio output stage contains its own
transistor a -f preamplifier stage (Q,) , the IC power -supply regulator, mounted ad-
output of which drives the A -F Gain panel jacent to the amplifier circuit board. This
control. has been done so that the wide variations in
To test this system, connect an oscillo- amplifier supply current (at an audio rate)
scope to the a -f preamplifier transistor col- will not affect the frequency of any of the
lector. Inject 8999.0 kHz at 300 millivolts receiver oscillators by modulating their
p -p from an oscillator into pin 8 of the de- supply lines.
tector. Inject 9.0 MHz at 100 millivolts Construction of Beat Frequency Oscillator
p -p from a second oscillator into the primary Module (F). -The bfo module contains
of the input i -f transformer. Adjust the three beat -frequency oscillators and three
transformer slugs for maximum a -f output, source followers which transform both the
check the filter gating, and adjust the gain - oscillator output amplitude and impedance to
compensation amplifier gain control for the level required by the detector (figure
equal audio output when either of the i -f 23).
filters is used. The bfo module frequencies are crystal
The audio output stage is a HEP 593 IC controlled, with three-frequency capability
amplifier (U3), which delivers up to two necessary for operating c -w and SSB (both
watts into an 8 -ohm speaker. The output upper and lower sideband). One of the three
connectors are so arranged that a pair of oscillator- follower combinations is selected
low- impedance (stereo) headphones can be by applying a positive 12 -volt level to the
TO DETECTOR
PIN 5,U2
appropriate power supply line by means of
RFC1 front panel switches I -F Selectivity and
USB /LSB (S_B). When the 1 -F Selectivity
8.5 KH2 RFC 2) 0047 2N3819
switch is set to the Sharp position, the bfo
1350
Arit frequency is automatically set to 8999.0 kHz
22 K MPF103 use 3 5 OK
for use with the sharp filter. When the
[58 switch is in the Broad position, bfo fre-
RFC3 quency is selected by the USB 'LSB switch.
05 RFCI The frequency of each oscillator can be
adjusted over quite a range by means of the
oy900/.5 KHZ 047 2N3819 trimmer capacitor across each crystal. No in-
8 = 350 G
teraction of adjustments will be noticed. The
Mir module is designed so that the trimmers may
22K MPF 103 12V. T5 7
be adjusted while the receiver is operating,
I
S 21 I
RFC a
without it being necessary to disassemble the
.05 RFC, module to gain access to the trimmers.
The bfo output should be a reasonably
A
I-
8999 o KHI
=aso
0047 2N3819 sinusoidal waveform of about 300 millivolts
9
22 MPF 103 $
Oft()
I
lÌ p-p amplitude when driving a 50 -ohm load.
Once the module is built, the frequencies
may be adjusted by connecting the module
output to a digital counter.
D S G
UPFIO3
S O D
2N3519
Construction of Automatic Gain Control
Board (G) -The agc circuit is installed
Figure 23 and tested after the complete receiver system
is in operation and aligned. Input audio to
SCHEMATIC, BFO MODULE
the agc is taken from the output of the de-
RFC , -1 millihenry, 35 mA. J. W. Miller
RFC tector, at the point where the audio pre-
10F103A1 or equivalent
Crystals -KVG. 8999.0 kHz, type XF -903. 8998.5 amplifier stage is driven (figure 24). The
kHz, type XF -901. 9001.5 kHz, type XF -902 audio is amplified in two bipolar transistor
(Spectrum International, Box 1084. Concord, stages (Q12, Q,3), rectified positively, and
MA 01742), or equivalent
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.19
roo PHONES
25
Figure 24
PF
TOO
SCHEMATIC, AUDIO SPEAKER
Q Q ,-
2N2222 40
I
TO GAIN
R -F AMP.
LINE
(QI)
Q 2N5462
U, -HEP 593
Note: All resistors r 4 watt
-12 V.
10
QI2.QI3 BASE U3 BASE QIABASE
applied to the gate of a P- channel JFET to be quite good for SSB, but a bit slow in
(Q14), across which there is a long -time- recovery for c -w, and it may be desirable
constant circuit. The FET is operating in to adjust it to one's taste after a bit of ex-
depletion mode; the more positive gate volt- perimental listening. An alternative solution
age it receives, the more negative the output may be to add a front -panel AGC Threshold
voltage becomes. The FET output, tied to control, which allows front -panel adjust-
the bottom of the R -F Gain control, estab- ment to set the input audio level to the agc
lishes the most negative bias level on the r -f circuit under various operating conditions.
and i -f amplifier stages in the receiver. Construction of Digital Counter Module
Advancing the R -F Gain control maxi- (D) -The digital counter is the single mod-
mum clockwise has two effects: it allows the ule built on a printed -circuit board; the only
agc circuit to heavily saturate, causing the practical way of doing it. By following a
FET output level to maintain an almost con- board layout and figures 25, 26, and 27 (use
stant -12 volts. It also isolates the gain - the schematic as a reference, while following
control lines of the r -f and i -f amplifiers the board layout) it should be possible to
from this negative level. Only in a pro- duplicate the counter easily. Since the board
longed absence of input signal, under these layout drawings and photo are made directly
conditions, will any change in the agc out- from the board itself, and the schematic does
put level be noticed; and this will be a not show all the many decoupling capacitors
positive increase, which will tend to increase in detail, the layout and photo should guide
receiver gain in any case. Therefore, ad- the builder through any points of con-
vancing the R -F Gain to maximum allows fusion. It is important that small compo-
maximum receiver gain and disables agc nents be used where indicated. A print of
action. To allow the agc circuit to control the board layout may be obtained by send-
gain back off the R -F Gain to about mid- ing twenty -five cents to cover the cost of
point; this allows the agc output to properly mailing to the Editor of this Handbook.
swing from -12 volts (minimum receiver The frequency counter may be divided
gain) to ground level (maximum receiver into two parts, a time-base and a divider -
gain) . dis play.
The agc input stages are sensitive to over- The Time Base -The time -base consists
load; this is the reason they are driven from of a -MHz clock oscillator, the output of
1
the detector output alone. Strong noise which is shaped and divided down to give
pulses will "hang up" the receiver gain, as the needed timing pulses. The oscillator is
will a strong signal on top of a desired weak a FET tuned -drain oscillator, crystal -con-
one. The agc time -constant will be found trolled. The output is buffered by a FET
20.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 25
DIGITAL COUNTER AND DISPLAY BOARD (D)
Frequency count -out of receiver is displayed on panel- viewing LEDs (light- emitting diodes) seen
at the front ( right) of this assembly. Time base is established by 1000.00 -kHz crystal at opposite
end of board. ICs and other components are mounted to printed -circuit board. A full -size template
of the p.c. board may be obtained by writing the publishers of this Handbook, enclosing 25 cents
to cover cost of mailing.
source follower, and shaped by two NAND decade counters in a manner similar to the
gates into a squarewave suitable for the reference clock. The decade counters count
inputs of the chain of decade dividers. The the input signal for a time determined by
time -base output is a series of 5 -Hz pulses, the time -base control, then the counter out-
which drive the enable/disable count line, puts are read into the memories (in binary-
resulting in f frequency sample/updates per coded- decimal) of the readout chips. The
second of the display. The display does not BCD is decoded into decimal inside the
blink during the count, nor can it be seen readouts, and the appropriate digit is indi-
to "run up." cated on the display.
During the disable cycle, read -in and The counter module has three connection
clear signals are generated using additional points at the rear of the board:
NAND gates, to control the operation of (1) 5V-to power supply.
the memory circuits of the display, located (2) GD- chassis ground.
inside the readout chips. (3) SIGNAL IN-input signal from the
The Divider /Display -If this section Vfo buffer , Q6.
seems to be a bit sparse, it is because the Construction of the The power supply is built
LED Readout integrated- circuits contain Power Supply on a chassis separate
their own decoder drivers and memory cir- from the main receiver
cuits, making .the divide/display circuitry chassis, and is housed in the speaker cabinet.
relatively simple to build. An on/off switch is provided on the supply
The input signal to the counter is buffered chassis for testing purposes; this is connected
by an emitter follower, squared by a in parallel (through the power cable) with
Schmitt Trigger, and then counted down by a power control switch on the receiver panel.
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.21
0 5
1-I
zooT S 110-17011N
'®
I IMHZ 500 KHi
2N3819 2N38 9
2
7400'A"
IMHi 5.61, 14 13 5 14 11 S
510
20 XI 20K Jr& 5.6K
1 7473 12 7490 12
510 2 3 6 7 10
=2.1'
1410
100KHZo 1/4 7400'C" CON
50KHZ
n In
DIAABEE
DISABLE
14 I
5 HZ
12
2 3
5 14
7490
6
II
7 10
1 -- 12
2 3
5 1
7490
6
4
7
11
1-12
10 2
S
7490
3
1
6
4
7
I I
10
1-12 7490
2
5 14
3 6 7
I I
10
COUNT
(FIG 27) SHZ SOH
-
SooHZ1
-
SKH_
-
7400-8" IX.
I
10
5 74121
3
H
7
14
1 -- 5
10 II
74121 6-o CLEAR COUNTERS
FIG. 27)
READ IN
(FIG.271
Figure 26
The supply provides three dc rails; plus The supply is built on a 6" X 4" X 1"
and minus twelve volts, and plus five volts chassis and is housed in a 8" X 8" X 6"
(all with respect to chassis ground) and all speaker cabinet. Separating the power supply
rails are extremely well regulated, using IC from the main chassis eliminates possible
regulators (figures 28 and 29). hum problems, prevents component crowd-
The negative supply is regulated by means ing, and facilitates portable operation of the
of a positive regulator, by isolating the regu- receiver. If battery operation is contem-
lator from ground; for this reason, the neg- plated and the digital readout is to be pow-
ative supply regulator is not mounted heat - ered as well, it will be necessary to provide a
sinked to the chassis; however, little current means of shutting off the readout, except
is drawn from this supply, making this pro- during actual frequency measurement; the
cedure quite safe. high current drain of the readout will other-
The unregulated input to the five -volt wise run down the supply battery quite
supply would be as high as eighteen volts, rapidly.
were it not for the series five -ohm resistors, It is all- important that the dc supply
which gradually decrease the input to the lines be as free as possible from ac ripple.
regulator with increasing load, thus mini- Not only will audio hum rise with increas-
mizing the dissipation of the regulator. The ing ripple, but residual f -m hum in the
load on the five -volt supply is close to one output of the vfo will create intolerable
ampere and will not vary; the input voltage audio distortion on received signals. Keep
to the regulator under these conditions is in mind that if a 10 -volt change in potential
about eight volts. across the vfo varactor tuning diode causes
20.22 RADIO HANDBOOK
+5V READ IN
e
I
Tovro
J2
=
t20K
tlen
2N3646
10
--k 7400 "A"
100 K
CLEAR COUNTERS
o
7400 "B"
1
2
n
12
i
L.
I
S
7490
e
LIJ
S
7
n
10
Figure 27
UI
SOI PI (RECEIVER)
12v
-12V
70 AUDIO
+ISV. STAGE
REGULATOR
750
+S V. LINE PF
rC GND
< +12V
+12V
COM.
ON-OFF
< AC
Figure 29
SCHEMATIC, RECEIVER POWER SUPPLY
7, -12.6 volts, 0.3 ampere
12-12.6 volts, 2 amperes
1:7- Silicon bridge rectifier, 200 volts, p.i.v., 0.5 ampere
02-Silicon bridge rectifier, 200 volts p.i.v., 2 amperes
P, -Neon pilot lamp
Integrated Circuits -Fairchild 7812; National LM 309K
System Alignment Once the individual mod - crystal oscillator, measured at the
and Test ules and circuit boards common terminal of the oscillator
have been built, tested, output switch deck, as the band -
and aligned, and the complete receiver sys- switch is rotated through its range.
tem has been wired, the following procedure
may be used to test the receiver as a system. (3) With a frequency meter or 10 -MHz
digital counter and oscilloscope,
(1) Before connecting the receiver to check for output from the vfo mod-
the power supply, turn on the sup- ule of the proper waveform, ampli-
ply and check the + and -12, tude, and frequency at the input to
+5, and +18 volt lines for the the digital counter in the receiver.
proper voltage. Using a low -fre- With the bandswitch in the 80 -, 40 -,
quency oscilloscope, verify that rip- 15 -, and 15 -meter positions, confirm
ple and noise on all lines (except the that there is vfo injection to the het-
unregulated 18 -volt line) is 2 milli- erodyne mixer module. With the
volts, p -p or less. Now, connect the bandswitch in the 20 -meter position,
supply to the receiver, and repeat check for vfo injection directly at
the supply tests. Note that ripple the signal -path mixer input, and no
on the lines will likely increase some- vfo injection to the heterodyne mixer
what with the increase in load cur- module.
rent. (4) With the bandswitch in the 80 -, 40 -,
15 -, and 10 -meter positions, check
(2) Confirm that there is +12 volts on for oscillator injection to the signal -
the common terminal of the switch path mixer from the heterodyne
deck controlling the dc supply to mixer module. Check the waveform
the heterodyne crystal oscillators. with a high- frequency oscilloscope
With a 150 -MHz oscilloscope, con- and digital counter, and tune the vfo
firm that there is output from each through its range while making this
20.24 RADIO HANDBOOK
check. Output from the heterodyne tuning may be used in the event the receiver
mixer module should be sinusoidal, vfo is used for transceiver operation. A sum-
and of reasonably constant amplitude mary of receiver performance is given in
across the range on each band. Table 4.
Receiver performance is quite in line with
(5) With oscilloscope and counter, check the best modern practices. The signal /noise
for proper injection to the detector
ratio with a 0.17-j (V input signal is better
from the bfo module, while switch- than 20 dB up to 14.4 MHz, dropping to 15
ing from one i -f filter to the other,
dB at 21 MHz and 10 dB at 29 MHz. Fre
and from USB to LSB.
quency stability is better than 250 Hz after
(6) With a one -microvolt unmodulated 30 minutes operation and spurious responses
signal at the antenna input, check are under 0.1 µV except for one spur at 7196
for a comfortable audio level in head- kHz which is approximately 1µV. The dy-
phones or speaker (A -F Gain at max- namic range is such that no overload is
imum) while tuning across the sig- detected at agc threshold on a 2 -i,V signal
nal. Confirm that the digital counter
in the receiver indicates the proper Table 4.
frequency; and keep in mind that
any errors in calculation are the re- Receiver Performance Data
sult of inaccuracies in the frequency 1. 1 -f Rejection signal into antenna termi-
(9 MHz
being generated by the heterodyne nals. Level adjusted until 1 µV -f 1
Figure 30
THE WBKFL HIGH PERFORMANCE COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVER
This solid state ht communications receiver combines both weak- and strong -signal reception with
protection from overload and cross modulation. The coverage includes all amateur bands 80 through
10 meters, plus WWV, in 500 -kHz band segments. The dial is directly calibrated and readable to 1
kHz. Three crystal filters are employed for SSB, c -w and a -m reception. The OFFSET (Receiver Incre-
mental Tuning) control is at the upper left of the panel, with the PRESELECT alignment capacitor
beneath it. Directly below is the R -F GAIN control potentiometer.
To the right of the gain control is the AGC ON -OFF switch and the bandswitch. At the upper right
of the panel is the S- METER, calibrated in microvolts and S -units and below it is the OFF- STANDBY-
ON- CALIBRATE switch. Directly below this switch is the A -F GAIN control potentiometer.
The receiver is built in a homemade wraparound cabinet and is completely self- contained.
when a nearby signal has an amplitude of 80- and 20 -meter coverage, one of the bands
3 volts. With the agc off, the i -f system would then have tuned backward on the dial,
begins to overload at 20 A `' with the r -f and image rejection would have suffered on
gain control wide o ',en. These figures equal, both bands.
or exceed, the specifications of the best To minimize crossmodulation effects in
communications receivers on the amateur the mixer, the r -f amplifier stage operates
market. at a low gain level and is triple -tuned to
provide a good measure of adjacent channel
preselectivity (Table 4) . Toroid inductors
The Receiver In order to minimize spurious are used in the front end tuned circuits to
Design responses (birdies) and to hold reduce interstage coupling and to maintain
image rejection high, only one high circuit Q. A sophisticated audio -derived
frequency conversion is used in the main hang agc circuit is used to control the gain
signal path of the receiver. A 9 -MHz inter- of both the r -f and i -f stages; the agc loop
mediate frequency is used, while the vfo is very "tight," resulting in a dynamic range
tunes 6.0 to 6.5 MHz and is premixed to well in excess of 120 dB and making the
provide an injection signal which is 9 MHz receiver virtually immune to overload prob-
higher than the signal frequency (figure lems. A low distortion 5 -watt audio ouput
31) . Although the cost of two crystals could stage is used which results in very crisp
have been saved by operating the vfo over sounding c -w and smooth sideband copy,
the 5.0- to 5.5 -MHz range and by injecting particularly when using high quality stereo
the vfo signal directly into the mixer for earphones.
20.26 RADIO HANDBOOK
_ AGC LINE
ANT.
_BANDSWITCN
SPEAKER
)
-b,
7kIA IO IC F5+9 MHZ
PRESELECT TUNE
A TAL
CALIB. I-
MODE SWITCH 1 J
FU +15MH2 I
B.0-B.sMH2
FS =SIGNAL FREQUENCY J +12 REG.
POWER -12
FU =UPPER FREQUENCY 120 V.U` 1:;1-. SUPPLY
REG.
OF BAND SEGMENT
Figure 31
good overload characteristics. The dial is direct reading to kHz and each amateur band is covered
1
270
r12
T) loir
RF ACC
LINE .001
FT
wwvá oAroe TO MI A ER
°s10c BOARD
JA e S
FI_2'fC2
1
20
L]TC]
Figure
1
20
32
2t0
0l
100
C4
r
J
S- Bandswitch assembly consisting of eight, 2 -12 pole ceramic switch sections (Centralab PA -1)
mounted on index assembly (Centralab PA -302). Eight switch positions are used
Notes: All resistors, unless otherwise specified, are metal film, 14 -watt, 2 °o tolerance. Corning C-4,
or equivalent. Feedthrough capacitors are Centralab FT -1000. R -f chokes are Miller 70F103A1. Tuning
dial for C is Bourns H -510 -2 turns- counting dial. Main tuning dial is Eddystone 898 assembly
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.27
FLI S215
FROM
RF -AM.'
1
0.51cH2
ï r'
BOARD Di -D4
= c" .O F
0011
BOARD
FROM
PRE -MIXER
N I
BOARD
l
Figure 33
101
re-
= _
I`
.=
L5 Lo LrLB
FD
5
ç 4
2
ROD.
BOARD
OCT
FROM
MIXER
BOARD
560
220
C
.01
GI
r
RFC
70
12 O
Figure 34
SCHEMATIC, RECEIVER I -F AMPLIFIER
B Bs-Ferrite beads. Amidon U,, U,- MC -1590G integrated circuit. Motorola
Ce, C, -34 pF. Johnson 189-506-5, or equivalent in Notes: R -f chokes are Miller 70F474A1. All resis-
parallel with 18 -pF silver mica capacitor tors, unless otherwise specified, are metal film,
L,, L,-42 turns #28 e. on Amidon T -50 -2 core 'i4 -watt, 2% tolerance. Corning C -4, or equivalent
L L6-11 turns #28 teflon insulated wire wound
over "cold" ends of L,, L,
The Receiver A block diagram of the com- This device has reverse agc voltage applied
Circuit plete receiver is shown in fig- to its second gate, and on strong signals
ure 31. The circuit of the r -f provides more than 30 dB of signal attenu-
amplifier is shown in figure 32. The incoming ation. After passing through a third tuned
signal is inductively coupled by two tuned circuit in the drain connection, the signal
circuits to the r -f amplifier MMOSFET (Q,) is applied to source -follower Q. (figure 33),
20.28 RADIO HANDBOOK
0
Figure 35
TOP VIEW OF RECEIVER CHASSIS
Placement of the major parts atop the chassis may be seen in this view. The vfo module is at center,
driven by the main panel dial. At the right is the r -f preselector alignment capacitor, with the 10 -turn
potentiometer for incremental tuning directly above it. To the left of the vfo is the audio -agc board
with the S -meter controls on a small bracket above it. The controls are: Zero set and sensitivity.
In front of the vfo compartment are the KVG -f filters, with the power supply components at the
i
corner of the chassis. The individual antenna coaxial receptacles for each band are along the rear
apron of the chassis with the slugs of the hf oscillator coils projecting through the chassis near the
center of the assembly. The line cord receptacle, primary fuse, speaker connections, and muting
terminals are at the left corner of the chassis apron.
Chassis and panel are joined with two angle support strips on the sides and an angle plate is
fastened above the dial assembly to provide a connection to the slip -on cabinet.
which provides an impedance match to the i -f output from T., is coupled through one
doubly- balanced diode ring mixer, consisting of the crystal filters (FL, -FL:,) to the i -f
of transformers T,, T2, and hot -carrier diodes amplifier consisting of devices U, and U2
D1 -D,. This mixer has a conversion loss of (figure 34). To assure stability, the tuned
about 8 dB, but is superior to a dual -gate circuits in the i -f strip (L,-, -C,;) and (L; -C,)
MOSFET with respect to intermodulation are intentionally "de -Q'ed" by resistors R,
and overloading. The primary of T_ is tuned and R_ which also serve to limit the overall
to the 9 -MHz intermediate frequency. The i -f strip gain to about 60 dB. Forward agc
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.29
+12
MOTOROLA MC -1496L
,-ONNECTIONS IDIPI
+3IG.IN S - +BFO IN
2 -GAIN ADJ.
3 - GAIN ADJ. 10- -BFO IN
4-- SIG.IN 11 -N.C.
12- -OUTPUT
c ,,y5, S - BIAS
.
O - +OUTPUT 13- N C.
7 - N.C. 14- GND.
.014 ._.00 2 .0 02
Co.
VSB--. S2
58-dar-.
FROM t TO
<MP
AUDIO
F 0
002 11J 90ARC
O K
I`
Figure 36A
SCHEMATIC OF PRODUCT AND A -M DETECTORS
U3- MC -1496L integrated circuit. Motorola
Notes: All resistors, unless otherwise specified, are metal film, 2 °. tolerance. Corning C -4, or equiva-
lent, Potentiometer is Trimpot.
Figure 36B
ARRANGEMENT OF OSCILLATOR AND PRODUCT DETECTOR BOARD
This board is located in the upper right corner of the underchassis, as observed in figure 43. At the
left are the two sideband crystals and padding capacitors plus an extra crystal for a -m reception when
the receiver is used as an i -f strip for a vhf converter. Selector switch S. is adjacent to the crystals,
with devices Q3 and Q, immediately to the right. Near the right-hand edge of the board is the U
product detector. This board comprises the circuitry shown in figures 36 and 37. The 10K sensitivity
control is mounted to the aluminum flange that supports switch S .
20.30 RADIO HANDBOOK
voltage is applied to both U, and U, result- a "hang" period to maintain the receiver
ing in a control range for the i -f amplifier gain during speech or c -w pauses, but which
of about 100 dB. will smoothly follow a fading signal and at
The output from the i -f amplifier is the same time suppress impulse noise. "Hang"
coupled via a low impedance line to the periods of 1 second or 0.25 second selected
product detector (U:,, figure 36A -B). The by switch S:,, are used for SSB and c -w
bfo is crystal controlled and consists of an reception, respectively. Devices U: and US
oscillator (Q;,) and a buffer (Q,) (figure are used to convert the output of U,; to the
37). A conventional diode detector is used voltage levels required by the r-f and i -f
for a -m reception. amplifiers.
The vfo uses a variation of the Vackar
circuit (figure 39) and is extremely stable.
Stability is important in the local oscillator
which the narrow bandwidth (500 -Hz) fil-
ter is used for c -w reception. Polystyrene
padding capacitors are used for the fixed
elements in the oscillator, as opposed to
silver -mica capacitors, because the former
are sealed against moisture and have a super-
2N4116 3N120
D S
ior temperature coefficient. The silver-mica
units, particularly those of the larger values
sp /c Dp aG
tend to have erratic drift characteristics,
CASE SUS
especially with regard to temperature and
this effect shows up markedly when the nar-
Figure 37
rowband filter is in use.
SCHEMATIC, BEAT-FREQUENCY The oscillator is followed by a buffer -
OSCILLATOR amplifier stage (Q ) which boosts the out-
compression trimmer, or
put of the oscillator and at the same time
C,,C9-40 pF. Arco 403
equivalent isolates it from the mixer stage. The mixing
Y,- 8998.5 kHz. KVG XF -901 signal is pure and oscillator noise is very low,
V,-9001.5 kHz. KVG XF -902. Crystals by Spec- compared to the peak oscillator voltage.
trum International, Box 1084, Concord, MA
01742 Electrical dial correction is provided by
Note: All resistors, unless otherwise specified, varicap diode VC, which is panel -controlled
are metal film, +/4 -watt, 2% tolerance. Corning
C-4, or equivalent
by a small knob placed next to the main
tuning dial. This adjustment brings the dial
The potentiometer at the output of U, into calibration on each band, and provides
(placed at the arm of switch S_,G) controls precise calibration at any point on the dial.
the audio level to the audio board. This is Incremental tuning (for use with an external
not used as an audio gain control, but rather transceiver or exciter) is provided by vari-
to set the agc threshold value, as it adjusts cap VC,. This control is a 10 -turn potenti-
the input level to transistor Q: in the agc ometer which is cut in or out of the circuit
system. The control is placed beneath the either by switch S, (RIT on/off) or from
chassis and can be seen in the upper corner the external exciter by means of relay RY
of figure 36B. Audio gain is controlled by which removes the RIT bias voltage when
the a -f gain potentiometer placed at the it energized.
is
input of device U,., the audio preamplifier This control is helpful in chasing DX
stage. as the receiver may be set to the transmitting
The audio system is shown in figure frequency with the RIT control and, when
38A -B. It consists of preamplifiers U, and this is defeated by RY,, the receiver is in-
U. and a 5 -watt output stage (Q,, -Q,;). It stantly returned to the frequency of the
is desirable, though not essential, that Q, and DX station, which is set on the main tuning
Q,; have matched beta characteristics. The dial.
agc voltage is derived from the audio signal The vfo output is mixed by U., with
by U,, a sophisticated device which provides crystal oscillator Q,,, -Q (figure 40 A -B)
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.31
FROM
Ì
PROD.
OCT.
K ion +
S -METER
SENS.
TO RF + 2
ACC BOARD
Figure 38A
SCHEMATIC, AUDIO AND AGC CIRCUITRY
Us. 17, -NPN and -watt power transistors. General Electric
PNP 5
U,- Plessey SL -621 AGC generator
U U U., U,- ..A741 operational amplifiers. Fairchild U6A774193 pin connections for DIP configuration
M -0 -1 dc mA. Simpson "Century ", Model 8122 panel meter
Z -Zener diode. 1N753A
Notes: All resistors, unless otherwise specified, are metal film, Is -watt, 2 °0 tolerance. Coining C -4,
or equivalent. Circled letters refer to connections to the muting circuit. Speaker is 8 ohms.
Figure 38B A
s
AUDIO AND AGC «- off?-':;
AMPLIFIER ASSEMBLY
This board includes the audio stages and agc
system. At lower right is the small bracket
holding the S -meter controls. The four ICs
are mounted in sockets affixed to the board.
The board is held in place above the chassis
by means of "a" spacers and 4.40 hardware.
and injected via a tuned circuit and low- might ordinarily be used at this point instead
impedance link (L11, L1,, C16) into the main of a simple tuned circuit, it was not required
receiver mixer. Although a bandpass coupler because of the inherent suppression of funda-
20.32 RADIO HANDBOOK
150
vW or 12
3N128
Qe
33 Q Z
16eV
33
I
1.0015
FT
C 12Mr
I, 312
N
Q8
9 1
N914
Ja
Lo OUTPUT
1
(/V P-P)
TO PINI, U9'
1N914
0015
TTT
0015 5.6 K
RI T ON-OFF
0015
I N914 FT
CW
RI T TUNE
12
5 +12
3.3 6 10K
IO TURN WW
AM
-12
Figure 39
SCHEMATIC, VARIABLE FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR
C1050 pF. Millen 23050MK, or equivalent
C11 -50 pF, 750 NPO
C12, C1,, C1 ¡Mylar capacitors
t,, -Wound on Millen 69046 coil form, 1/2" diameter, orange core. Wind with 17 turns #20 enamel or
formvar wire
RY= Spdt reed relay. Magnecraft W103-MX2, or equivalent
VC,, VCS HEP R2504 variable capacitor diodes. Motorola
Notes: RIT tune control is 10 turn Helipot (surplus). All resistors, unless otherwise specified, are metal
film, 1/e -watt, 2% tolerance. Corning C-4, or equivalent. RF chokes are Miller 70F104A1. Feedthrough
capacitors are Centralab FT -1500
mental and even -order mixer products pro- feature is particularly valuable if the opera-
vided by the double balanced design of tor ever short- circuits the power supply
mixer U.,. accidentally during troubleshooting or align-
Receiver muting is accomplished by solid - ment periods.
state switches Q, -Q, (figure 41) , and
,
operates smoothly without pops or thumps. General The circuitry of the receiver
A reed relay (RY,) shorts the antenna Construction is constructed on thirteen dou-
terminals of the receiver to ground during Technique ble- sided, glass epoxy etched
standby periods but can be omitted if this circuit boards. The vfo, audio
task is already accomplished elsewhere, for circuitry, filters, power transformer, pre -
example in a transceiver or linear amplifier. selector tuning capacitor, and S -meter cir-
The power supply (figure 42A -B) pro- cuitry are mounted atop the chassis, as shown
vides regulated +12 and -12 volts at 1 in figure 3 S. The r -f and i -f stages, mixers,
ampere. Although a less complicated design crystal oscillators, and product detector are
could be used without impairing the per- mounted below the chassis, as seen in figure
formance of the receiver, this particular 43.
circuit has exceptionally good regulation as The most vexing mechanical consideration
well as adjustable current limiting. This last in a multiband receiver is the problem of
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.33
Figure 40A
SCHEMATIC, HF CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR AND PREMIXER
C,,, C, ¡See Table 6
L,,, L,,, L -See Table 6. Toroid cores by Amidon, or equivalent
U,- MC1496L integrated circuit. Motorola, or equivalent
Y, -Y,- Sentry SGP -6 crystals. See Table 6
Trimmer capacitors- Johnson 189 -506 -5
Note: All resistors, unless otherwise specified, are metal film, n , -watt, 2 °o tolerance. Corning C -4, or
equivalent
Figure 40B
HF OSCILLATOR AND
PREMIXER ASSEMBLY
This view covers the assembly shown in fig-
ure 40. At the front are the eight crystals
which cover the 80 through 15 meter bands,
plus three segments on 10 meters and WWV.
The circuit board behind the crystals con-
tains the components for crystal oscillator
Q., and buffer stage Q At the left of the
.
locating all of the tuned circuits close to the The components are mounted directly to the
bandswitch while at the same time avoiding glass -epoxy boards, including the switch sec-
unwanted interstage coupling. In this design tion and the boards are mounted on edge
all of the bandswitched circuits were con- underneath the chassis. The bandswitch shaft
structed on 21/j" X 53/4" circuit boards. A is then inserted from the front panel through
representative board is shown in figure 44. all of the boards, and finally the decent as-
20.34 RADIO HANDBOOK
OFF
Fi /2A
1 f STOIY Ti
tUNREG
120 V. S TO REGULATOR
FiG. 4
UNREG.
Q ,< ANTENNA
PTA
Cr. TO RF AMP.
PECE PTACLE
IN91J INPUT J
(1)12Y
1 I 1
yl2
TO ATAL
CALIBRATOR
.NOT SHOWN)
2N2219
J TO FIG. 39
Figure 41
0.1e
MJ I000 R
UNREG. IN
-JNREG N
019
Figure 42A
SCHEMATIC, REGULATOR CIRCUIT
Z, -Zener
U -
Q,0- Motorola power Darlington transistors.
uA 741
diode, 6.2 volt
operational amplifiers. Fairchild Semiconductor
Notes: All resistors, unless otherwise specified, are metal film, 1/4-watt, 2% tolerance. Corning C -4, or
equivalent. Resistors marked R are proportional to the limiting value of current, as indicated.
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.35
sembly attached to the shaft with a shaft addressed envelope to W8KFL at his Call -
coupling. Aluminum shield plates, the same book address.
size as the circuit boards, are used to isolate The receiver chassis measures approxi-
the various stages of the bandswitch assem- mately 13" deep by 15" wide by 21/2" high.
bly from each other. It is made up of a top plate (which includes
The inclosure is homemade, with the side the back lip) , two side plates that act as
pieces milled out of thick aluminum stock panel support brackets (see figure 35) and
to provide guides for the various boards. a panel. After all main holes are drilled, the
It would be difficult to duplicate this with- chassis is sandblasted to give it a matte fin-
out machine shop facilities, but there are a ish; etching the chassis in a caustic lye solu-
variety of commercial circuit board guides tion would have a similar effect. A double
available, such as the Vector SR -1 or SR -2 panel measuring 16" X 71/4" is used to avoid
"Frame -Loc Rail" series. unsightly screw holes. The inner panel is
Referring to figure 43 the boards (from countersunk to accept mounting screws and
the front to the back of the receiver) are: is then concealed by an outer panel covered
Board 1: holds reed relay RY, and band - with black vinyl (obtained from an uphol-
switch segment S,A. Board 2: Input circuit stery shop) .
L1, L, and bandswitch segment S;B. Board 3: Epoxy cement is used to attach the vinyl
Input circuit L3, C3 and switch segment S,C. to the aluminum; other cements should not
A shield plate separates board 3 from the be used as they will not make a good bond.
next board. Board 4: R -f amplifiers Q, and Press -on labels are used to label the panel
Q. Board 5: Output circuits L. C, and which is finally sprayed with a thin coat of
switch segment SID. Board 6: Doubly -bal- matte -finish plastic spray. The same letters
anced mixer and transformers T, and T. are used to label the dial and the panel meter.
Board 7: Coupler L11-L12 and switch seg- The cabinet is also homemade; the curved
ments S,F and S,G. sections made by bending the sheet alumi-
Immediately adjacent to board 7 is the num around a piece of pipe. Important di-
area holding the crystal oscillator and pre - mensions for the chassis assembly are given
mixer assembly and switch segments S,E in figure 45.
and S,H. Finally, at the rear of the inclosure The vfo assembly is shown in figure 46.
are the high- frequency crystals. Extra shield To ensure good mechanical stability, the vfo
partitions are placed between boards 5 and is constructed on 1/8 -inch thick glass -epoxy
6, boards 6 and 7, and boards 7 and 8. The circuit board and is mounted inside of a
whole assembly measures 11" deep by 6" homemade aluminum housing whose side
wide by 2 1/4" high. It is assembled and tested, panels are ! ¡ inch thick. Recessed edges are
a board at a time, before inclusion within milled in the panels to accept %8 -inch thick
the receiver chassis. Circuit -board layouts mating panels resulting in an r -f tight in-
can be obtained by sending a large self- closure with battleship rigidity. A die -cast
Figure 42B
POWER SUPPLY AND
REGULATOR ASSEMBLY
This view covers the assembly shown in fig-
ure 42. At the left are the filter capacitors
for the power supply, with the dual regulator
for the +12 volt and -12 volt power supply
on the circuit board at the center.
20.36 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 43
aluminum box (Bud CU -347) would make The crystal i -f filters are mounted atop the
an acceptable substitute, although an unre- receiver, with their terminals projecting into
inforced "minibox" -type inclosure would an aluminum box visible from the underside
not have the required rigidity. It was found of the receiver. The interior of the box,
necessary to add a temperature compensating showing the switching mechanism is shown
capacitor (C11) to the vfo to reduce a in figure 47. A grounded shield plate isolates
slow, gradual drift resulting from the heat the input and output sections of the filters.
generated by the power transformer. Until The mode switch shaft runs into this box
this was done, the vfo drifted about 2 kHz and has extra sections on each side of the
before stabilizing; with the temperature shield plate for shorting the terminals of
compensation the warmup drift is less than the unused filters to ground. If this precau-
300 Hz in the first hour and 10 to 20 Hz tion is not taken, the ultimate stopband
per hour afterwards. attenuation of the receiver is likely to be
Figure 44
REPRESENTATIVE CIRCUIT BOARD OF RF ASSEMBLY
This board contains the input tuned circuits shown in figure 32. Padding capacitors C, for each band
are across the top of the board, with the ferrite core inductors (series L,, L,) directly below them.
At
the right is bandswitch segment S,A -B. The board for the second coupled circuit (1,-C,) is similar to
this one. The 2 -pF coupling capacitor is connected between the boards, which are mounted vertically
in the upper left -hand corner of the bottom view (figure 43).
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.37
Oui
CRYSTAL
FILTER
13 COMPARTMENT DIODE MIXER ÌI T2
Quz SHIELD
PARTI-
TIONS OUTPUTCIRCUIT L4,C4
GROUND
BFO /PRODUCT DETECTOR STRAP
OYI
(SOLDERED RF AMP 01 Q2
TO FOIL ON
0U3 p
0
03 Ova
EACH BOARD)
15
Figure 45
UNDERCHASSIS LAYOUT OF MAJOR COMPONENTS
Refer to photograph of figure 43 for comparison
amplifier with the two Motorola ICs adjacent to plifier stages operating in their linear range
toroid inductors L and L.. A shield plate is up to an input signal of several volts.
mounted across U with the air trimmer capaci-
tors immediately adjacent to the toroid in-
The final part of the alignment procedure
ductors. These compartments correspond with is the linearization of the vfo. The uncor-
figures 33 and 34. rected vfo is not more than about 15 kHz
away from linearity at any point in its range.
rms. Do not try to get the calibration exact However, it is not a difficult procedure to
at this time since the job must be repeated reduce this error, if a frequency counter is
when the vfo is linearized. Next, adjust the at hand, and it does permit the vernier
tuned circuits in the crystal oscillator stage window on the dial to be used for direct
until all the crystals start reliably; the proper 1 -kHz readout.
point is just after the oscillator output begins Begin by adjusting vfo coil L.. and trim-
to drop off on the high side of resonance. mer capacitor C,,, so that the vfo tunes from
Now comes an important part of the 6.5 MHz to approximately 6.0 MHz. Don't
alignment procedure; setting the gain of the worry about setting the low frequency limit
premixer (U ,) . The gain of this stage is precisely at this time. Next, make a graph
adjusted with potentiometer R. and should of the exact deviation from linearity of the
Table 5. R -F Tuned Circuits oscillator, keeping in mind that the vfo
should be at 6.5 MHz when the dial reads
Band L,, L,, L L. Amidon Ci, Cr, zero. The horizontal scale of the graph is
Core C. (pF) labelled in dial divisions (0 to 500) and the
80 73t. #28e. 4t. #26 T-68-2 4-60
vertical scale in kHz (0 to -40). Now, if
at a dial reading of 100, the vfo frequency
40 37t. #24e. 3t. #24 T-68-2 4-60 is actually 6390 kHz, a point is placed at
20! WWV 23t. #22e. 3t. #22 1-50.6 4-40 -10 on the graph, indicating that the vfo
is actually 10 kHz too low at the correct
15 17t. #20e. 3t. #20 T-50-6 4.40
dial setting.
10 A,B,C 13t. #22e. 2t. #22 T-37-6 1.5-20 After the initial calibration curve is ob-
tained, return the vfo to its high frequency
Notes: L wound over "cold" end of L
7t. #24
80 22 171/2t. #26 19.000 4 -25 27t. #24 1-50.6 core
(Amidon)
6t. #24
40 22 14t. #26 22.500 a 25 21t :20 T-50-6 core
(Amidon)
3t. #20
20 22 10t. #24 29.500 4 -25 161.:20 1.50 -10 core
(Amidon)
2t/zt. #20
15 18 9t. #24 36.500 4 -25 1 lt. #20 T -50 -10 core
(Amidon)
Notes: 1. L o Miller 4500 -2 form (0.26 X 0.86) 1.0.20 MHz, red core
uses J. W.
2. wound over "cold" end of L
L 7
CLIPPING LEVEL
uINO
sROSwrTCM oRly[
.
4111
0 .r.a--.p. `-
o
1`
.
. wc.
w
wo cnuoR
ammo, .'INNr
% O
Figure 48
SOLID -STATE SIX -BAND SSB EXCITER
This compact, solid -state SSB exciter delivers over 5 watts PEP output over the range of 3.5 to 29.7
MHz and provides over 1 -watt PEP output on the sixmeter band. Audio and r -f clipping circuits
provide good audio "punch." A phase -locked -loop synthesizer is used for the conversion oscillator and
r -f circuits are broadbanded over the full operating range. The main tuning dial is at the right, with
the phase -lock light above it. Across the bottom of the panel are (left to right): Audi' level, Audio
c' mpression (gain and recovery time), carrier insertion, VOX (gain. delay, and antivox gain), and
the VOX override switch. The general purpose multimeter and switch are at the upper left of the
parel and to the right are the bandswitch and drive -level cont'ols, with the sideband se'ector switch
centered between them. The multimeter has two ranges: 0 to 70 volts and 0 to 900 milli °mpe -es. The
+28, +12, and -12 volt supplies are monitored, as well as amplifier current.
provide .t very potent SSB exciter for the the six -meter range, although this combi-
advanced amateur who has had experience nation may be changed, if desired. Opera-
with the sophisticated components and cir- tion on nonamateur frequencies is also pos-
cuitry used in this unit. sible (with some exceptions) by the proper
choice of crystal and tuned -circuit com-
Circuit The exciter and power supply ponents. The 3.21- to 3.71 -MHz oscillator
Description are completely solid state and tuning range was chosen by careful consid-
wideband circuitry is employed eration of all mixing products up to the
to simplify tuning and adjustment. Special, tenth order with the aid of a digital com-
switchable filters are used in the low -level puter. During several months of on- the -air
stages to eliminate unwanted mixing signals, operation no spurious problems have been
and dual crystal filters are used in the r -f observed.
prccessing circuitry. A phase -locked loop For best spurious rejection, the mixing
synthesizer is used to generate the conversion frequency is 9 MHz above the desired oper-
signal. This results in an exceptionally clean ating band, which places the mixing fre-
signal, free of the spurious problems often quency quite high for 6 -meter operation.
associated with a premixer and also provides However, the use of the frequency synthe-
the same tuning rate and degree of fre- sizer provides stable frequency control from
quency stability on all bands. The master a low -frequency oscillator of good stability.
reference oscillator tunes over the range of If the exciter is used to drive the antenna
3.21 to 3.71 MHz, providing excellent sta- directly, a half -wave low -pass filter such as
bility on all bands. Provision is made for described in Chapter 16, Section 3 should
coverage of four 500 -kHz bands in the be used between the exciter and the antenna
10 -meter range and four 500 -kHz- bands in to attenuate the harmonics of the funda-
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.41
mental signal. If a linear amplifier with The COMPRESS /ON LEVEL ADJUST is
high -Q tuned circuits is used after the ex- an internal control which is set to give 3
citer, however, the low -pass filter may not volts rms at pin 6 of device U, with a large
be required since the tuned circuits of the input signal. The AUDIO CLIPPING AD-
linear amplifier will attenuate the harmon- /UST control then allows the clipping to be
ics. If desired, an extra switch section could varied from zero to 20 decibels. Transistors
be added on the exciter bandswitch to re- QI and Q are used as reverse -connected di-
-,
motely select the appropriate low -pass filter cdes to provide clipping and they function
automatically. much better than ordinary diodes in this
Exciter
Circuitry
Audio and VOX Circuits
Shown in fleure 49 is a block
- circuit. Integrated circuit U. and associated
components form an active three -pole low -
pass filter with a 3 -kHz cutoff frequency
diagram of the audio and VOX which removes the higher- frequency com-
circuits. The schematic for these circuits ponents generated by the clipping circuit.
is shown in figures 50 and 51. An FET de- Referring to figure 51, integrated circuit
vice (Q,) provides a high input impedance U, amplifies the signal from the microphone
for the microphone and drives the first IC by 40 dB and the VOX GAIN control
audio amplifier (U1, figure 50) and the varies the signal level applied to U2. The
VOX amplifier (U1, figure 51) . The AUDIO output signal of U2 is rectified and the
GAIN control in the source circuit of Q, positive voltage coupled to the base of
allows the drive level of U, and U, to be transistor Q,, turning it on when an audio
set for optimum operation of the compressor signal is generated by the microphone. This
circuit consisting of U,, U2, Q,, and causes Q, and Q, to turn on and the VOX
The COMPRESSOR GAIN ADJUST con- relay (RY,) to close. Integrated circuit U;
trol varies the amount of compression and amplifies the signal from the receiver output
the RECOVERY TIME CONSTANT ad- circuit, which is rectified, and the resulting
justment varies the time required for the negative voltage also is applied to the base
circuit to return to maximum gain after a of Q. Adjusting the ANTIVOX control
-
large signal is removed from the input. prevents the speaker output picked up by
LOW-PASS FILTER
MIC.
INPUT
JI
SPEECH AMP.
QI
2N4416
FIRST
AUDIO AMP.
UI
--"-° MC1590 o SECOND
AUDIO AMP.
02
UA74
AUDIO
CLIPPER
Q4, Qs
a2X 2N930
CLIPPING LEVEL
AND AMP.
Qe,Us
2N4416
UA741
AUDIO OUT TO
WRALANCCD MIXER
UI
ADJUST
AUDIO GAIN TIME
ADJUST CONSTANT PEAR
AMP. DETECTOR
o Q2.Q3 a
ax 2N930
.
DI
IN914
COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR
GAIN ADJUST THRESHOLD ADJUST
Figure 49
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AUDIO AND VOX CIRCUITS
Audio clipping and compression are included in the speech amplifier of this versatile exciter. Com-
pression gain and recovery time are adjustable. An audio filter follows the chimer to remove higher
order harmonics. Vox gain and delay are adjustable permitting the operating time and hold -in time
to be varied at the operator's preference.
20.42 RADIO HANDBOOK
I
7 15K ISK ISK
220
]
F IM 2..34
AUDIO
214930 27 ea010 FIG 53
=GAIN 27q. 10047 TPF
ADJUST
Q4
AUDIO CLIPPER
QS
Ì .012
BOTTOM VIEW
ó
RECOVERY TIME
Q2
IK
Q]
TIME CONSTANT
CONST ADJUST. AMPLIFIER 10 K
Figure 50
SCHEMATIC, AUDIO CIRCUITRY OF SSB EXCITER
U -Motorola MC 1590G
U., U3- Fairchild A 741
Note: All resistors 1,4 watt. All potentiometers audio taper
the microphone from closing the VOX re- The RF Circuitry-The block diagram
lay. The DELAY adjustment allows the of the rest of the exciter is shown in figure
hold -in time of the relay to be varied at the 52, including the phase -locked synthesizer.
operator's preference. Schematic diagrams of the r -f circuits are
2v
+
I10
IM
FROM AUDIO I 8K
CIRCUIT
PEAK DETECTOR
0 47 lOK IN914
M 500
VOX GAIN
ADJUST
ccw
SK
1°
loo K7 100 K
-E- 4-o
-e +2e V.
r^
FROM RECEIVER
Cw IN914$
4
R.
+2e V. TO
ANO ANTENNA RELAY
LINEAR
S00
CCW ANTI-VOX
."^ RELAY
10K
DELAY
Da
-TO -TALK
ADJUST
ST AMP. ADJUS110 2N2222. oGNO FOR PUSH
Q2 OFF
VOX
OVERRIDE
f04 10
RELAY
AMP.
0 12V.
Figure 51
r i
VOLTAGE
2:13,Q4 PHASE- LOCKED CONTROLLED 42,43, QS
o
TUNE
41, Os
2N4416
40673
MASTER REF
Us
MC-1496G
PHASE
US
LM-318
LOOP
ß
QI
LED
OSCILLATOR DETECTOR AMPLIFIER 2N2907
FM. 5.21 -3.71 MHZ PHASE LOCH
L INDICATOR J
FROM CONVERSIONfO_.
MIXER, U2
QI
40673
QI
1-o 2N4427 2N564
Q2
I
-e. 2x2N5641
QS.Q 1fo (5.5- 54MH2)
Figure 52
shown in figures 53, 54, and 55. The bal- ometer in the #2 gate of Q, allows the drive
anced mixer (U, in figure 5 3 ) generates a level to the following circuits to be ad-
DSB signal from the processed audio (Q,,, justed as required. Drive is not adjusted by
Q,) . Diode switches are used to remotely the audio circuits as is done in conventional
select crystals for upper- or lower- sideband exciters due to the various clipping circuits
operation. The first 9 -MHz crystal filter in this design.
(FL,) selects one sideband which is ampli- The Conversinu Mixer -The conversion
fied by FET device Q, and applied to the mixer (U_ in figure 54) has three inputs:
r -f clipping circuit. Diodes D, and D, are conversion -oscillator injection from the
inexpensive ultrafast switching diodes and phase -locked synthesizer; a 9 -MHz signal
;erform almost perfect clipping of the from Q,,; or the carrier -insertion signal from
signal. The amount of clipping is adjustable the circuit consisting of diodes D,,, D1, and
by varying the gain of Q, over the range associated components. The diodes are long -
of zero to 20 dB of r -f clipping. The clipped storage -time PIN devices which act as vari-
signal is then passed through a second crys- able resistors (instead of diodes) at this fre-
tal filter (FL_, figure 54) to remove high - quency. This allows a variable amount of
order products outside the passband of the carrier signal to be inserted by a front -panel
filter. The clipped signal, now restored to control when the PUSH TO SPOT switch
its original bandwidth, is amplified by driver is depressed. In normal operation of the ex-
Q. and applied to the conversion balanced citer these diodes are biased open to prevent
mixer (U2). The DRIVE ADJUST potenti- the carrier from appearing at the output
20.44 RADIO HANDBOOK
0
100 +12V.
22K rN918
CARRIER OSC. Q3 DUFFER
-- 12N918
'
= G2
YI_ Y2° e Q e4
e
22K e
100 Kt NOOK
33 %o
470 D5 a S SS
I K 100LK Cs Ce = UI Q1 Q2
BOTTOM VIEWS
K 100 ON LI L2 1 DI
1 T
$IN914'S
1
OI 50 2. 2 K
Ce
FILTER C2 TO
33 9
-
15 2.2K
10 S UM
IN746A 2.2K
O
1G. 54
IOK e.eK 31 DI 270
50K
CARRIER IN756A
DALNCE 390
of U,. Depressing the switch allows the The Linear Amplifier -The linear ampli-
bias to be adjusted by the CARRIER IN- fier (figures 56 and 57) consists of two
SERTION potentiometer, causing the diodes class -A driver stages (Q,, Q2) followed by a
to act as a variable attenuator, controlling push -pull class -AB power output stage (Q,,
carrier level as desired. QI). Ail stages are broadbanded across the
Transformer T2 at the output of mixer 3.5- to 55 -MHz range and the power gain
U2 is a broadband device (balun) which is essentially flat to 30 MHz, decreasing to
matches the mixer output impedance to the about 6 dB at 50 MHz. The resistive at-
low- impedance coaxial cable interconnection tenuator at the input to Q, is necessary to
to Q, in figure 55. The output of this de- ensure stable operation on all bands. Devices
vice contains a double -tuned filter circuit Q Q3, and Q, are vhf power transistors
which passes only the desired mixer product with balanced emitter construction; the
to the high -gain, three -stage linear ampli- Motorola type 2N5641 was found to com-
fier. Switch S, selects the proper filter for bine excellent linearity and ruggedness.
the band in use and may be eliminated if a Other manufacturer's 2N5641s were not
single -band exciter is desired. In that case, tested and unless linearity testing equip-
the proper filter is wired directly into the ment is available, the Motorola devices
circuit. should be used. A 1N645 diode provides
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.45
CONVERSION
OSCILLATOR
INJECTION
DRIVE
ADusr +12v
SR
I R
PROM I
fIG.53
> JW 9
3.3K MHZ
CRYSTAL
680 SO FILTER
Ce
1
+ 28 V
FROM RYI
PIG. 5,
-12V
CARRIER
+12 V. INSERF/ON
LEVEL
Figure 54
+12 V.
0.5 Ja
SIA Sie _ OTOQI
AMPLIFIER
PLIF/ER Q
TO T0 FIG.56
33
/0 A
/0D
G2
Do sS
0673
BOTTOM VIEW
L SNIELD
Figure 55
1.5U9
N5841 R.,
2.7 1)N DR/VER DR/ VER 0.1 T2 0.1 T] 73 AMPL / F/ER T4 OUTPUT
470 J4
NSHI
0.1 Ti 412 Q2 0.1 0.1
q RI 0.4
70 _
FROM
FIG. 55 39 .01 Q1
29442
%, 3 'I
0.4
270 270 SK
K
I
_
w=.1
- -
=.1=001
RFC I
37
IOUN
4 2N5841
Iz
19.1
92114 1N645 2W
o A
Figure 56
-
16
-
--
26.5-29.0 106 6T.N22 62 0.62 34.290
-
30 16
N22 - 34.790
-
29.0 - 29.5 IOC ST. 30 16 62 0.62
-
29.5- 30.0
50.0- 50.5
IOD
6A
-
-
ST. N22
2.3 T.N16 -- 30
17
16
12
62
62 -
-
0.62
0.33
35.290
55.790
59.290
- -
50.5- SI.0 66 2.5T.N16 17 12 62 0.33
-
51.0- 31.5
51.6 - 52.0
Sc
SD -
2.57. N16
2.5T.N16 - 17
17
12
12
62
62 -
0.33
0.33
Figure 57
EACH STACK CONSISTS OF
COPPER FOIL
2 TOROIDS, FERROXCUBE
CORE STACK FOR WIDEBAND 02667125 -3E2A
R -F TRANSFORMERS
Transformers T3 and T, in the linear ampli-
fier are wideband devices made up of stacks
of ferrite cores. The stacks are held together OUTPUT TRANSFORMER TO
by a cylinder of copper foil with adhesive SOLDER TOGETHER ON ONE END,
on one side (available Newark Electronics INSULATE FROM EACH OTHER ON
part 38F1301 or 38F1222). Roll the foil THE OTHER END
POWER O
T
A
+12V
30
120 v
ti
6R
-12 V.
REGULATOR 10
U2
K
Figure 58
Table 7. Referring to figure 60, integrated compares the phase of the signal (and con-
circuit U, is a balanced mixer with two sequently the frequency) to the phase of the
inputs: one from the crystal oscillator (fig- master reference oscillator, shown in figure
ure 62) and the other from the voltage - 59, and generates an output signal propor-
controlled oscillator (VCO) and buffer tional to the phase difference between the
amplifier shown in figure 61. The crystal two input signals. This reference signal is
frequency is chosen to be below the voltage- dc coupled to the input of the loop ampli-
controlled oscillator (VCO) frequency so fier (U,, figure 60) after passing through
that the difference frequency between the the loop filter (R1, C1) . This filter shapes
two oscillators falls in the range of 3.21 to the gain- frequency response of the loop and
3.71 MHz, determined by the exact fre- is very important for proper operation of
quency the VCO is tuned to. The output of the synthesizer. The values are chosen so
mixer U, is filtered by a three-pole bandpass that the loop has a 100 -kHz pull -in range;
filter (figure 60) which removes unwanted that is, if the frequency difference between
mixer products before they reach the input the master oscillator and the output of U,
of the phase detector U2. The phase detector is less than 100 kHz, the loop will lock -up
Figure 59
SCHEMATIC, MASTER
REFERENCE
MASTER REFERENCE OSC. 100LH OSCILLATOR
(3.21 -3.71 MHZ )
+12V. AND BUFFER
J OSC. OUTPUT
E 100LH TO PHASE DET. C, -82 -pF silver mica with 54-
t0
2N4416
(FIG.G. ) pF, N220 capacitor in paral-
f
G QI T0 lel
-
I
r 82 111.1 1
A
= e21JM1
M
.51
-
01 2 e
UI
J FROM
R. MC-1496G
I 1 MIXER (1.2R
T 10 s LMTOTe2,
1E16.62
01
1:10e
e2 UR 7
U m
M
--0 2V
ISO
m :PHASE
I
1
10.1 =.3 ee K
PMASE LOCN INDICATOR
TO
FIG. 61
Figure 60
SCHEMATIC, MIXER, BANDPASS FILTER, PHASE DETECTOR,
LOOP FILTER, AND LOCK INDICATOR
CI -C3-5 to 50 pF. Johanson 9035
Note: All inductance values in microhenries. All inductors J. W. Miller 9200 series. All resistors 1/4 watt
and remain locked. Thus, the VCO will have The Voltage -Controlled Oscillator (fig-
the same stability as the master reference ure 60-Another Seiler circuit similar to
oscillator. the one used for the master reference oscil-
The output of U.1 is connected to the lator is used as a voltage -controlled oscillator.
varicap diode (Du) in the VCO circuit (fig- Two varicap diodes are used to tune the
ure 61) and also to the lock indicator circuit frequency; the first (D,) is driven from a
(Q,, figure 60). When the loop is locked, potentiometer (coarse tune) which is me-
only a dc voltage is present at the output chanically coupled to the dial shaft of the
of U. and Q1 is turned off, preventing cur- master reference oscillator. This coupling
rent from flowing through the light -emit- causes the frequency of the VCO to be ap-
ting diode (LED) placed on the exciter proximately tuned to the desired frequency
panel above the main tuning dial. Should the selected by the reference oscillator. The
loop become unlocked, however, a large ac second diode (D2) driven by the loop am-
voltage is developed at the output of U .. plifier, readjusts the frequency slightly so
which is rectified by the diodes, thus turning that the loop will lock -up.
on Q,. This causes the I.F.D to light, signal- Component values for the frequency de-
ing the loop is unlocked. On- the -air opera- termining circuit of the VCO (Table 7)
tion of the exciter should never be attempted are selected to allow the circuit to tune the
if the loop is unlocked because in this con- proper frequency range for the bands shown.
dition the VCO output consists of many Other bands may be covered after con-
frequencies instead of one. sidering the mixer products. Devices Q;,
20.50 RADIO HANDBOOK
0.1 s.eLM
q +12 V.
r T --r 1+12V
080 I
04O 1
6.6
¡UM
0/e
;SIA 10.1,
100 21(
I R4 - l'Ca. Q
100 VOLTAGE CONTROLLED OSC.
FROM 2N4416_
080
40673
410.60 40
040 ISO
G
1
22M
10 100
y+12V
y 100
16.
1UM
/5
¡$IC
C7 I0.1
(--400 a -12V. 100
GI
ly 40673
5.55
3,55
1.1411$ 4oe7a
IIN5248A t1OTTOM VIEWS .0
Li.R4,C5 -Ce
SEE TABLE -
L
ION
+12
COARSE TUNE
Figure 61
Q1, and Q:, (figure 61) are broadband am- The Crystal Oscillator (figure 62) -The
plifiers which isolate the VCO from the crystal oscillator consists of a grounded -base
loads and the loads from each other. The Colpitts circuit with the crystal in the
output of Q, is used to drive the phase - feedback path. These crystals have a series -
locked loop and the output of Q:, drives the resonant frequency as listed in Table 7.
conversion mixer (U in figure 54). Coil L_ is a subminiature choke about the
r o SO
SID 040
2N4252 Figure 62
Qe SIT
080
080 I so TO
SCHEMATIC CRYSTAL
LS 040 COA %
040 C9 OSCILLATOR
OE=r1 e/S G..
SIE o/ CI0TCII
Note: For coil and crystal data,
100 see Table 7. All resistors 14
6.6UM 160 1 watt
ol =
_J
0UM
C9.Cio,CII,CIS
L2,L3, YI SEE TABLE 7
-I2V.
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.51
Figure 63
size of a '/_t-watt resistor. Link L consists maining fins projecting beyond the chassis
of 11/2 turns of #28 insulated wire wound into the gap between chassis and cabinet.
on the ground end of L. The output of Type BNC connectors and miniature co-
this oscillator connects to U, in figure 60 axial cable are used to interconnect the
to complete the phase -lock synthesizer cir- various modules. Immediately in front of the
cuit. linear -amplifier module are the switched -
filter module (figure 55) and the synthe-
Exciter The exciter is built in several sizer module (figures 59 through 62) Ad- .
Construction modules which are mounted on jacent to the linear amplifier is the driver
an aluminum chassis measuring module (part of figure 54) which includes
9" X 14" X 2 ". The unit is housed within the P -A BIAS ADJUST potentiometer.
a Bud Shadow Cabinet (SB -2142) as shown,
These modules are tested individually then
in figure 48. Placement of the modules is bolted together and mounted as one unit
shown in the rear -view photograph (figure to the rear of the main chassis.
63) . The chassis is mounted to the panel The aluminum box containing the mas-
with two end brackets. A small gap is left ter reference oscillator is behind the National
at the rear of the chassis to aid cooling and dial drive assembly, with the power supply
the rear panel of the cabinet is replaced centered on the chassis.
with a sheet of perforated aluminum. The The enclosures for the switched filter and
linear -amplifier module is built on a finned the synthesizer are built from rectangles
heat sink with all but the end fins removed cut from double sided 0.06" fiberglas p.c.
on one side. It is mounted in a vertical posi- board material and are soldered together.
tion at the rear of the chassis with the re- The synthesizer box measures 7" X 4" X
20.52 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 66
Exciter Exciter tuneup is not compli- the COMPRESSOR GAIN adjustment used
Adjustment cated if all modules have been to determine how much, if any, compression
pretested before installation on is used.
the chassis. An electronic voltmeter with an To adjust the VOX controls, set the
r -f probe is required. as well as an audio ANTIVOX and VOX GAIN controls at
generator and an oscilloscope. A frequency minimum, turn down the receiver output
counter is desirable, but not mandatory. and turn up the VOX GAIN until the VOX
After checking the units and the power - relay closes when speaking into the micro-
supply voltage, connect a 5 -watt, 50 -ohm phone in a normal manner. Now, turn up the
load to the output terminal. Connect the speaker to normal output and adjust the
audio generator through a variable attenu- ANTI VOX control until the relay does not
ator to the microphone input receptacle and close on loud signals. The VOX DELAY
adjust the COMPRESSION LEVEL AD- ccntrol can now be adjusted for proper
JUST control to provide 3 volts rms at pin hold -in time, as desired.
6 of U_ (figure 50) when the AUDIO GAIN As a final check, connect the oscilloscope
and COMPRESSOR GAIN ADJUST con- to the source of Q6 (figure 50). No clipping
trols are at mid- setting. The output at pin of the waveform should be observed when
6 should remain constant over a signal input the AUDIO CLIP control is at minimum
range of 40 decibels from the threshold point and clean clipping of the waveform should
to the point where waveform distortion be- be visible at maximum clipping setting.
comes visible on the oscilloscope. The RF Alignment -To align the r -f circuits
AUDIO GAIN control can be used to ad- first adjust capacitors C and C,; (figure 53)
just the input level to the compressor to to midrange and peak capacitor C, in the
compensate for different microphones and emitter circuit of the buffer stage (Q,) for
20.54 RADIO HANDBOOK
a maximum reading on the electronic volt- band. If it is greater than this, adjust ca-
meter with the r-f probe connected to the pacitors C, and C2 slightly. In an extreme
top of coil L,. Indicated voltage should be case, it may be necessary to alter the num-
about 100 millivolts rms and may be ad- ber of secondary turns of transformer T1.
justed, if necessary, by changing the value Next, disconnect the +28 -volt line from
of the 1K resister connected to L_ and C.. the VOX relay to the linear amplifier and
Now, apply 300 millivolts rms of -kHz 1 turn on the VOX OVERRIDE switch to
audio signal to pin 4 of U, (figure 53) and remove the cutoff bias applied to Q;, in the
peak the r-f output at the source of O,, the standby mode. Connect the r -f probe to pin
buffer FET, by tuning capacitors C1, C_, C 4 of U2 (figure 54) and adjust capacitors
and C, in the first crystal filter stage, the C., C,,, and C1 (filter FL2 and the driver
clipper amplifier, and the buffer stage. Set transistor) for maximum response with the
the audio frequency to 2.7 kHz and adjust DRIVE ADJUST potentiometer at mid -
capacitors C-, (or C,, depending upon the setting. Again, check the passband ripple
sideband selected) in the oscillator stage for and realign capacitors C. or C,,, if necessary.
maximum response. Continue tuning the ca- Synthesizer Alignment -Apply +12 volts
pacitor until the output decreases 3 to 6 to the master reference oscillator (figure
decibels. Repeat this procedure with the 67) and adjust coil L, and capacitor C, so
other capacitor for the opposite sideband. the oscillator tunes the range of 3.185 to
Next, vary the frequency of the audio gen- 3.735 MHz. Adjust the potentiometer cou-
erator from 300 to 3000 Hz and note the pled to the shaft of capacitor C, so that it
ripple in the filter passband and the upper is at the clockwise end of its rotation when
frequency at which the output has fallen the oscillator is tuned to 3.735 MHz. Ro-
off by 6 decibels. The ripple should be less tate the shaft of the potentiometer back
than plus or minus one decibel across the about 10 degrees before locking in place to
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.55
eliminate the nonlinear portion of rotation Now set the master reference oscillator to
next to the stop. Adjust capacitor Ci to 3.735 MHz and adjust capacitor C,, or C,
provide 100 millivolts rms output when the for the appropriate band for a zero volt d c
oscillator is connected to a 50 -ohm load reading. Again, start with the 80 -meter
through the subminiature 50 -ohm coaxial band and work up in frequency. It probably
line and connectors. Apply -12 volts to the will be necessary to repeat the procedure
crystal oscillator (figure 62) and tune ca- twice to get all bands properly tuned. As a
pacitor C. for maximum output on each final check, tune completely across each
band. Adjust the coupling between coil L, band to make sure the loop does not become
and link L. by sliding L. up or down the unlocked at any frequency. If the loop un-
form until the oscillator output is about locks, the voltage at pin 6 will rise, possibly
100 millivolts on each hand, using a 50 -ohm as high as 10 volts. If this happens, readjust
load. the oscillator capacitor and inductor slight-
Disconnect pin 6 of U. (figure 60) from ly for a different L/C ratio. For conditions
the 10K resistor and varicap diodes (figure of lock, the voltage at any point in the
61) and ground the open end of the resistor. band should remain between zero and 6
(Do not ground pin 6 of U;,). Place all volts.
padding capacitors in the VCO (figure 61) If a frequency counter is available, the
to midrange and tune coil L, until the out- above procedure can be speeded up. Break
put frequency (as measured at the drain the line that connects one end of the coarse
terminal of FET Q,) is nearly correct for tune potentiometer to the 1N5248A diode
each band, starting with 80 meters and and insert a switch in the line. Tune the
working up in frequency. (Remember the master reference oscillator to 3.185 MHz
frequency you are measuring is 9 MHz with the switch closed and adjust coil L,.
higher than the desired band). Open the switch and the VCO will be tuned
With the electronic voltmeter connected to the high end of the band, even though
to pin 6 of U :, and power disconnected from the master oscillator is still tuned to the
the crystal oscillator, adjust the OFFSET low - frequency end. Now capacitors C, and
ADJUST potentiometer (figure 60, loop C,; may be aligned as indicated by the coun-
amplifier U:,) for a reading of zero volts, ter which is connected to pin 1 of the mixer
d c. Turn off the power and reconnect the (U figure 60). Remember that the counter
10K resistor to pin 6 of U,. reads a frequency that is 9 MHz above the
Next, tune the master reference oscillator desired band.
to 3.185 MHz and set the bandswitch to Switched Filter Alignment -A 50 -ohm
80 ureters. Connect the electronic voltmeter load is connected to the linear amplifier and
and oscilloscope to pin 6 of U :,, being care- power is applied to all stages. The DRIVE
ful not to short this point to ground. Turn ADJUST potentiometer is set for minimum
on power and adjust coil L, (80 meters) for drive and the VOX OVERRIDE switch is
zero volts dc at pin 6. The phase -lock indi- turned on. The idling current to the power
cator should be off and the oscilloscope output stage (as read on the panel meter)
should indicate no ac voltage present. Re- is set to 20 mA by adjusting the PA BIAS
peat the tuning of L, for each band in se- ADJUST control. Connect the audio gen-
quence, leaving the oscillator at 3.185 MHz. erator and inject a -kHz tone into the ex-
1
Figure 68
Figure 69
V, VZ Ti V3 Va Vs
9MHz
F IL
INC.
ACT -4
C, Cx
i TRANSMITTER
L _
GRID -T UN! SECTION
Ve T Ve TUN!
FREQUENCY CONTROL
SECTION
SEE COIL 04E4 FOR TUN /NG RANGE
RECEIVER SECTION
TO PI-NET.
V9 VIO Vff Tx VIZ V13 V,4
EXTERNAL
SPEAKER
Figure 70
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SINGLE -BAND SSB TRANSCEIVER
Fifteen tubes are used in a multipurpose circuit. Common r -f tank circuits and filter system if
simplify construction and reduce cost. A single vfo tunes both receiving and transmitting sections.
The Transceiver The transceiver circuit is 6BÁ6 is common to both receiver and trans-
Circuit a proven one that has been mitter circuits. A 12BE6 (V,11) serves as a
employed in many com- receiver mixer, the input signal being mixed
mercial units and is a version of the original with the local vfo signal to produce a 9-
W6QKI (Sinan) circuit. Fifteen tubes are MHz intermediate frequency. The vfo stage
used, including a voltage regulator and the is common to both transmit and receive cir-
unit is designed to be operated from either cuits and tunes approximately 200 kHz
a 120 -240 -volt ac primary supply or a in the region of 5 CO 8 MHz, the exact
12 -volt transistor power pack (external). tuning range depending on the band in use.
Operation of the single -band SSB trans- A 12ÁU6 (operated at slightly reduced fila-
ceiver and the dual function of some of the ment voltage serves as the oscillator tube
tubes and tuned circuits may be seen from
an inspection of the block diagram of fig-
(V )
The 9 -MHz i -f signal passes through the
ure 70. selective crystal lattice filter (ACF -4) and
Reception -In
the receiving mode, the is amplified in a common i -f stage (V2)
circuit takes the form of a single- conversion which is transformer coupled to a second
superheterodyne featuring product detection. (receiving) i -f stage (V11) and then fed
The received SSB signal is resonated in the to a product detector (V,_). At this point
antenna input circuit which, in this case, is in the circuit, carrier is injected in the
the pi- network of the transmitter portion detector from the 6U8A common crystal
of the unit. The network is capacitively oscillator (V,;) and the resulting audio
coupled to a 6BA6- remote cutoff r -f ampli- product is amplified in one -half of the
fier (V..) . The plate circuit (L, -C,) of the
20.58 RADIO HANDBOOK
00o9
o o a
06000
--Ir-
]
IaT
r4 f}
;Y
fg"
Figure 71
C C= 50 -pF
ganged
each; two Hammarlund HF -50 RFC,, 1, s
RFC; Use Miller
1 mH choke; Miller 4852
RFC -14 for 80-40-20 meters;
C3-20 -pF variable mica trimmer Use Miller RFC -3.5 for 180 meters
C4-15 -pF, type APC. RY -4PDT, 12 -volt coil; Potter -Brumfield KHP-
CS235 -pF. Gap .024"; Bud 1859 17-D11
Cs365 -pF per section; J. W. Miller 2113 S,- Centralab PA -2007
C,-50 -pF. Centralab 827 T 72-10.7-MHz i -f transformer; capacitor X is
C,-50-pF type APC internal part of unit; Miller 1457
C9 104-pF precision capacitor; Miller 2101 T, -5000 ohms to
ohms; Stancor A -3877
4
-1
CR, N34 Y,- International Crystal Co. types CY11-9L0
J,- Amphenol 80 -PC2F (9001.5 kHz) or CYS -9H1 (8998.5 kHz) as re-
Ji
J,-
Coaxial receptacle. SO-239
Chassis receptacle; Cinch-Jones P-308AB
quired
ACF- 4- International Crystal Co. 9 MHz SSB fil-
MA- Calred, 0.1 mA dc, 13/4" meter ter
PC-4 turns #18 around 100 -ohm, 2 -watt resis- 1- Chassis, 10" X 12" X 3", Bud AC-413
tor 1 -Box, 4" X 5" X 3", Bud AU -1028
R -Meter shunt for 300 mA. Use #30 enamelled, 1 -Box, 4" X 4" X 2"; Bud AU -1083
wire wound on 47 -ohm, V2 -watt resistor 2- Insulated shaft couplers; Johnson 104.284
RFC, thru RFC 2.5 mH subminiature choke; 1 -Dial drive; Eddystone 892
Miller 70E-253-Al
12AX7 dual triode (V12) and the 6AQSA tor (V;) and the audio signal from the
output tube (V14). A portion of the audio 12AX7 speech amplifier is applied to one
signal returns to the 6AL5 automatic gain deflection plate of the 7360. The resulting
control rectifier (V3 :,) to provide an audio - double -sideband signal passes into the crystal
derived agc voltage for the receiver section. filter which suppresses the undesired side -
A fixed positive voltage taken from the band and the carrier, which is already some-
cathode of the 6AQSA stage provides delay what attenuated by the balanced modulator
voltage for the agc circuit to allow maxi- stage. The desired sideband is amplified in
mum receiver sensitivity to be realized with the common 6BA6 i -f stage and passed to
weak signals. Receiver volume is controlled the 12BE6 transmitting mixer (V :1) where
in the grid of the 6AQ5A stage instead of it is mixed with the vfo signal to produce
the low -level audio circuit so that agc action an SSB signal on the same frequency as the
is independent of the audio volume level. signal being received. The SSB signal is
Transmission -In
the transmitting mode, further amplified in the 12BY7A driver
the circuit takes the form of a single -con- stage (V,) and the 6DQS linear amplifier
version, crystal -filter SSB exciter, featuring (V-,). When the pi- network plate circuit
a 7360 balanced modulator and a 6DQS of the 6DQS has been properly tuned for
linear amplifier. Switching the circuitry transmission, it is also tuned for optimum
from receive to transmit is accomplished by reception and requires no further adjustment
a single relay (RY) which applies blocking unless a large frequency excursion is made.
bias ( -100 volts) to inactivate tubes used The same is true of the 12BY7A tuned
only in the receiving mode. The relay also circuit (marked grid trine).
applies screen voltage to the 6DQ5 r -f am-
plifier (V:,) and grounds the cathode of Transceiver Layout The transceiver measures
the common 6BA6 i -f amplifier stage to and Assembly 121/8" wide by 658"
nullify the receiving r -f gain control dur- high by 101/8" deep. A
ing transmission. The receiver r -f amplifier 10" X 12" X 3" aluminum chassis is used
stage remains connected to the plate circuit for the assembly, with the vfo components
of the linear amplifier of the transmitter mounted in two 4" X 4" X 2" aluminum
section, but the 6BA6 amplifier is protected utility boxes, one atop and one beneath the
from strong -signal damage by virtue of the chassis. The final amplifier plate circuit com-
high negative bias applied to it in the trans - ponents are inclosed in a third utility box
mission mode. measuring 4" X S" X 3" in size. Layout of
When transmitting, the sideband carrier the major components may be seen in the
is generated by the common crystal oscillator drawings and photographs (figures 72, 73,
and buffer stage (V,). The carrier is coupled 74, and 75). The cabinet is a homemade
into #1 grid of the 7360 balanced modula- wraparound type made of two pieces of
20.60 RADIO HANDBOOK
perforated aluminum sheet bent into a U- layout has been planned to allow short r -f
shaped inclosure and riveted together at the leads where necessary, and to permit proper
sides. circuit isolation. In most cases, resistors and
Data is given in the tables for coils, crys- bypass capacitors are mounted directly at
tals and frequencies to be used to build a the tube -socket pins with liberal use of tie -
transceiver for 160 -, 80 -, 40 -, or 20 -meter point terminals to achieve solid construction.
operation using standard components. The The resistor network for balancing the volt-
Figure 72
At the right, next to the vfo are (going back from the panel): the 9 -MHz crystal, the 6U8A
oscillator, the 7360, and the 6AQ5A audio amplifier. At the extreme right of the chassis. are the
6AL5 agc tube, the 12AX7 speech amplifier stage, and the 6BA6 receiver -f stage.
i
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.61
age on the deflection plates of the 7360 The vfo (figure 76) is placed at the
modulator tube is mounted on a separate front -center of the chassis and is constructed
terminal board fastened to the side of the on a %8 -inch thick plate of aluminum meas-
chassis, and a second terminal board is used uring 4" X 41/4" in size. The vfo tuning
for mounting the r -f choke in the vfo, capacitor is fastened to this sturdy base by
cathode circuit and the associated capaci- mounting bolts from the underside of the
tors (figure 75). The power plug, relay ter- plate. A precision, silver -plated tuning ca-
minal strip, final amplifier bias potenti- pacitor having ball bearings and closely
ometer, and speaker jack are placed on the controlled torque is used in conjunction with
rear apron of the chassis. a 10 -to -1 ratio epicyclic driving head to
Final amplifier components are placed in- achieve a smooth, backlash -free tuning sys-
side the utility box bolted to the top rear tem.
corner of the chassis. The chassis area be- One aluminum utility box is bolted to
neath the 6DQf tube is cut out and covered this mounting plate from the bottom side to
with a perforated aluminum sheet, as are serve as a shield compartment for the vfo
the top and rear of the box, to achieve prop- coil and circuit components. The vfo coil
er circulation of air around the tube. is made from airwound inductor stock
OGROMMET
._vfo °
GROMMET
XTAL L4 SHIELD
BOX
O O
o
o1 O
V
V13 Ls Ve V4
( /F USED) o
O O
O 0
=O
o
o o
V12
VI C
V7 Vio V9
o
GROMMET
H H
O O Ce
°GROMMET
O
o I
RY
3IK
25W
V14
I
9MHzFILTER Vis
I
B B
uU
J3 J4
Figure 73
UNDER -CHASSIS LAYOUT OF TRANSCEIVER
20.62 RADIO HANDBOOK
(miniductor) securely affixed to a 1/4-inch is passed through a 3/4 -inch hole in the front
thick block of plexiglas or other insulating of the utility box and is bolted to the box
material which, in turn, is bolted to the in line with the capacitor shaft and affixed
chassis with similar insulating blocks spac- to it with a flexible coupler. A 4 /2" diame-
ing it away from the metal. ter circular piece of sheet plastic is at-
Operating voltages are brought into the tached to the drive head to form the tuning
under -chassis shield box via feedthrough ca- dial. It is spray -painted white and calibra-
pacitors and the vfo output leads are con- tion marks are lettered on it with India
nected to feedthrough bushings on the sides ink after final calibration is completed. Suf-
of the box nearest the transmitting and re- ficient clearance is left between the dial and
ceiving mixer tubes. A second utility box the chassis so the plastic does not rub on
is bolted to the top of the vfo plate, spaced the metal.
about %4 inch back from the front apron The front panel is spaced away from the
of the chassis to permit clearance for the chassis by virtue of the large nuts holding
dial and drive mechanism. The drive head the various controls on the front apron of
Figure 74
the chassis and is affixed in place with a the filter assembly goes to the grid of the
second set of nuts on the control bushings. 6BA6 i -f amplifier tube (V2). The grounded
The '/8-inch space thus created provides side of the input transformer secondary
room for the dial to rotate freely. A cutout is lifted from ground, bypassed and con-
is made in the panel in front of the dial nected to the 1000 -ohm decoupling resistor
to match the appearance of the meter. The in the supply- voltage circuit. The other end
opening is covered with a section of Plexi- of this secondary winding is connected to
glas or incite inscribed with a hairline the plate of the 12BE6 receiver mixer tube.
indicator. A pilot light behind the dial pro- The primary winding is modified for bal-
vides proper illumination. The hole in the anced input by grounding the junction of
panel for the tuning shaft should be made the two 75 -pF capacitors and connecting
sufficiently large so the shaft does not touch the end of the winding to the plates of the
the panel, making the tuning mechanism 7360 balanced- modulator tube through the
independent of any panel movement. .001 -µF coupling capacitors.
Ra The driver (grid tune) capacitors (C,_
R4 CT 16o V.
160 V.
C,) are Harnrnarlund HF -50 units ganged
together and mounted on the chassis by
means of the supplied brackets. A flexible
coupling is used to extend the shaft through
the front panel. The 12BY7A neutralizing
capacitor (G,) is soldered directly to the
stator terminal of the plate- circuit capaci-
tor (C2) of the amplifier stage. The final
amplifier neutralizing capacitor (C,) is
placed on the side apron of the chassis in
SPIN 2
v-
PINE PiN front of the three -gang antenna loading
7360 capacitor (CO.
BALANCED MODULATOR NETWORK
112
sM
Ve
12AÚ6
PIN7 PINI
12AU6
VPO COMPONENT MOUNTING BOARD Figure 76
40 -METER VFO SCHEMATIC
Figure 75
The 40 -meter model of the single -band SSB
TERMINAL BOARD LAYOUT transceiver employs the second harmonic of the
oscillator frequency. A doubler coil, L,, is placed
in the plate circuit of the vfo in place of the
4.7K load resistor. Tuning capacitor C, is tapped
Transceiver Wiring It is suggested that the down the grid coil to cover the tuning range
desired. Tap point and padding capacitor data
receiver portion of the are given in Table 8.
transceiver be wired and tested first. The
sideband filter comes as a wired package Transceiver Coils and Circuits -Coil and
with matching transformers and requires tuned -circuit data for the various amateur
only a slight modification. The mounting bands are given in Table 8. For the 160 -,
plate is cut down to a width of 13/4" to 80 -, and 20 -meter bands, the fundamental
conserve space and new mounting holes are frequency of the vfo is employed. For 40-
drilled along the edges of the plate. The meter operation, the plate circuit of the
filter assembly is then attached to the trans- vfo doubles the oscillator frequency to the
ceiver chassis over a slot cut just behind 16 -MHz range. Lower sideband is used for
the vfo assembly. The output connection of the 160 -, 80 -, and 40 -meter bands, and
20.64 RADIO HANDBOOK
L3
Transceiver Alignment Before starting align-
160 METERS - SS TURNS 20 ENAMEL WIRE CLOSE WOUND.
ment of the trans- 1 1/4 DIA., 1 3/4' LONG.
required to begin with, and the screen power 20 METERS- 11 TURNS 16 'TINNED WIRE. AIR -DUX
*087. I DIA.. 1 1/2' LONG.
lead of the 6DQS should be temporarily dis-
connected at the socket pin and taped until L4 NOTE: C9 TAPPED ON L4
FOR VARIOUS RANGES.
preliminary alignment is completed. After BAND TUNING RANGE
160 7200 -7000 kHz 9 TURNS 920 TINNED WIRE 3/4
the slider on the 300 -ohm high- voltage drop- DIA.,3/4" LONG. TAP 4TH TURN
FROM GROUND END. AIR -OUX
ping resistor has been adjusted to provide a 0616. PAD CAPACITOR 51 -PF SM.
tap voltage of about 180, tube -socket volt- 80 5500 -5000 kHz 12 TURNS 20
TINNED WIRE, 3/4
DIA.3 /4LONG. AIR -OUX 619.
ages should be compared to the voltage PADDING CAPACITOR 100 -PF SM.
75 5200 -5000 SAME COIL AS ABOVE. TAPBTH
chart (Table 9) . The difference noted in PHONE
kHz
TURN FROM GROUND END. PAD-
DING CAPACITOR 160 -PF SM.
receive and transmit voltage in some cases 20
TINNED WIRE.3 /4'
40 8000 -6150 kHz 9 TURNS
is due to the cutoff bias being switched in DIA. 3/4 LONG. TAP 3RD TURN
FROM GROUND END. AIR -OUX
and out of the circuit by the changeover 616. NO PADDING CAPACITOR.
relay. The relay is dc operated, and for 40 6100 -8150 kHi SAME DATA AS ABOVE, EXCEPT
PHONE TAP 2ND TURN PROM GND END
fixed -station service a 12 -volt dc source 20 5000-5500 kHi SAME DATA AS FOR 80 METERS.
must be used. When operating mobile this 20 5200 -5350 kHz SAME DATA AS FOR 75 PHONE.
PHONE ADJUST TRIMMER C8 FOR DE-
relay terminal is jumpered to the 12 -volt dc SIRED RANGE.
filament supply.
LS
The receiver i -f system is aligned first
40 16000- 1630011Hz 3/6' DIA. SLUG -TUNED COIL.
by injecting a 9 -MHz modulated test signal
)
at the grid of the receiver i -f amplifier (V
and tuning the slugs in transformer T_ for
ONLY 3.3 LH. MILLER 214336401
R- -35
position, neutralization capacitor C3 is ad-
V4 12BY7 0 0 0 12 CT 250 IGO 0
T- 4 -5 0 0 12 CT 250 160 0 justed with a nonmetallic screwdriver for
Vs 6DQ5 "-
T- -
60 e o
0
0 -60
150 -60
0
0
6
5
O
ISO
minimum feedthrough of r -f voltage as
R- 75 -40 160 6 0 ISO O 0 -2 measured with the voltmeter probe placed at
Ve 6U8 T- 75 0 100 6 0 35 0 0 -2
the #1 grid terminal of the 6DQ5 socket.
7360 R- 0 ISO -40 6 o IGO 160 24 24
V7 T- 0 75 -, 0 140 140 24 24 The screen lead to the 12BY7A socket is
VS 12ÁU6 R-
T-
N
*
0
0
O
0
10
10
120 113
120 115
0
0
replaced when this operation is concluded.
R- O 0 e 210 SO 2
The same technique is employed with the
V6 6BA6 T- -7o 0 0 0 6 Zoo o o 6DQS stage as was used with the driver
Vlo 12BE6 R- -.5 0 0 12 160 O -.2 stage. With screen (and plate) voltage re-
T- -6 0 0 +2 175 0 -107
VII 6BA6 R- 0 O 0 6 175 60 5 moved from the 6DQS, but with drive ap-
T- -107 0 O 5 173 140 0
R- 0 0 12 100 0 .4 CT
plied, the probe is placed on the antenna
V12 12AX7 145 O
T- 175 -75 0 0 12 100 0 .4 CT terminal of the transceiver and neutralizing
Vta 6ÁL5 "-
T
ICI
0 -140
e
e
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
capacitor C, adjusted for minimum volt-
meter indication. The pi- network circuit,
VII 6ÁQ5 "-
7- -O
O
+O
O
O
O
5 225 ISO
250 ISO
0
-O of course, is in resonance for this operation.
ISO 0 0 0 ISO 0 0
VIS DA 2 "-
T- ISO 0 0 0 150 O 0 as determined by a grid -dip oscillator.
NOTE: MEASUREMENTS MADE WITH A 24000 OHM- PER -VOLT Up to this point, all tuning has been done
METER. NO SIGNAL INPUT, R -F GA /N ADVANCED TO MAXIMUM,
AUDIO GAIN OFF. FILAMENTS A.C. with carrier injection. For proper sideband
operation, the carrier must be removed and
POWER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS
the unit excited by an SSB signal. The tech-
LOW VOLTAGE - 250 VOLTS AT 110 MA.
IAS - 110 VOLTS NEGATIVE AT 10 MA. nique is to position the carrier crystal fre-
HIGH VOLTAGE - 500 TO 600 VOLTS AT 300 MA. quency properly on the filter "slope" and
FILAMENTS- 12.6 VOLTS A.C. OR D.C. AT 3.7 A.
then to balance out the carrier in the 7360
pacitor C, set near maximum capacitance. modulator stage. Capacitor C; varies the
The entire 80 -meter band can then be covered frequency of the crystal oscillator a suffi-
by peaking the pi- network and grid- circuit cient amount to find the proper point for
tuning controls. the carrier on the passband slope of the filter.
Alignment of the transmitting circuits is The adjustment of this point can best be
best done with the high -impedance volt- made by ear, when receiving a sideband
meter using an r -f probe for signal indica- signal. Adjust capacitor C7 until the re-
tion. The function switch is placed in the ceived audio of an SSB signal sounds natural
tune position and the carrier -level control and pleasing. The crystal should be about
(R,) advanced toward maximum. R -f volt- 1500 Hz away from the 9 -MHz filter center
age at the plate of the 6U8Á oscillator frequency. The frequency displacement, of
should measure about 3 or 4 volts, and about course, will remain the same while trans-
the same value should be observed at the mitting.
plate of the buffer section of this tube. Inas- Carrier nullis accomplished by adjustment
much as the filter transformers and trans- of the balance control (R1) on the panel.
former T, have been adjusted previously, no The r -f probe is placed at the grid of the
further adjustment of these circuits is re- 6DQS stage and the function switch turned
quired. The r -f probe can now be placed at to transmit. No audio signal is desired. The
the grid of the 6DQ5 amplifier tube socket balance potentiometer is adjusted for mini-
and the slug in coil L_ adjusted for maximum mum indicated reading on the voltmeter,
r -f voltage reading. This peaks grid tuning which should be volt or less. Operation of
1
so that coil L, will track with the previous the audio system and balanced modulator
alignment of coil LI. may now be checked by noting the voltage
20.66 RADIO HANDBOOK
swing while talking into the microphone. A tuneup is the same for all bands. The trans-
sustained audio tone will swing the meter to ceiver may be used for c -w by employing
30 or 40 volts peak reading. It is helpful to block -grid keying. Operation on c -w is
monitor the signal in a nearby receiver while with carrier control fully advanced and
these adjustments are being made. function switch in the tune position while
transmitting. The switch is manually re-
turned to receive for reception.
Transmit Operation The screen -voltage lead A discussion of suitable power supplies is
may now be reconnected given in a later chapter of this Handbook.
to the 6DQ5 tube socket and high voltage
provided for the plate circuit. Potentials be-
tween 400 and 800 volts may be used for 20 -5 A High Performance
the 6DQ5, with proportionately higher out- Conversion Module
put at the higher plate voltages. An antenna for the 23 -cm Band
or dummy load must be connected to the
transceiver to complete the final checkout Equipment design, objectives and operat-
and bias adjustment. The meter switch is ing philosophy gradually change as the ex-
set for plate current and the function switch perimenter moves higher and higher in the
for transmit. The bias potentiometer on the radio spectrum. Most amateurs are familiar
rear apron is adjusted for a 6DQ5 resting with equipment schematics and design tech-
plate current of 25 milliamperes. Antenna niques that are employed well into the vhf
loading is done with the function switch in spectrum, but fewer amateurs are versed
the tune position. As the carrier control is with equipment for the uhf bands and less
advanced, the final- amplifier plate current information is available on equipment that
will rise in a linear fashion. The amplifier may be built by the home experimenter.
plate circuit is brought into resonance and Shown in this section is an experimental con-
the grid circuit adjusted for peak plate cur- version module for the 23 -cm band (121 f
rent reading. Loading control C6 is adjusted MHz to 1300 MHz) which typifies some of
for further increase, reestablishing resonance the equipment now being used in this por-
with the tuning control until the indicated tion of the radio spectrum by uhf enthusi-
cathode current reaches a value of 275 to asts. This module is of particular interest to
300 milliamperes. Full load current should the vhf amateur as it permits him to as-
not be run for more than 20 seconds at a semble a high performance 1296 -MHz re-
time to achieve maximum amplifier tube ceiver, transmitter, or transceiver.
life. When the function switch is advanced The module consists of a local -oscillator
to transmit, amplifier plate current will chain, bilateral mixer, and an image filter.
drop back to the original idling value of 25 The design was developed by WA6UAM and
mA. As the audio level is raised, speech will may be successfully duplicated in the aver-
kick the indicated current up to values in age vhf home workshop with moderate ef-
the vicinity of 125 to 170 milliamperes fort.' As linear conversion is employed, this
depending on the individual voice. Too high module can be adapted for transmission or
values of peak current will result in dis- reception of any mode including c -w, SSB,
tortion and splatter. f -m and ATV.
The meter may be switched to read rela- The various modes of operation of the con-
tive power output which, in some cases, version module are illustrated in figure 77.
will simplify loading the amplifier, especially When the module is operated in conjunction
during mobile operation, as tuning may be with a 2 -meter SSB transceiver (illustration
done for maximum output reading under A), the unit functions as a basic transceiver-
a controlled level of excitation. converter from 2 meters to 1296 MHz. Re-
The 80 -meter version of the SSB trans- ceiver noise figure is of the order of 10 dB
ceiver is shown in the photographs. The ° Full information and specifications on this and other
only difference in a unit designed for a 1296 -MHz circuit modules may be obtained from
different band is modification of the r -f Microcomm, 14908 Sandy Lane, San Jose, CA 95124
coils and the vfo circuitry. Alignment and Send SASE for details.
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.67
TRANSMITTING MODULE
Circuit The schematic of the 1296 -
CONVERSION MODULE
Description MHz conversion module is
given in figure 81. The con-
version oscillator uses two JFETs (Q,, Q2)
in a modified Butler circuit, which is char-
acterized by true series -mode operation of
the crystal. It can provide multiplication
well into the uhf region with good stability.
A crystal frequency near 96 MHz is used,
and the output circuit of the oscillator (L2,
Figure 77
CO is tuned to 288 MHz. JFET devices are
BLOCK DIAGRAM SHOWING VARIOUS used to reduce the phase noise often associ-
MODES OF OPERATION OF ated with bipolar oscillator circuits.
CONVERSION MODULE Oscillator stability, of paramount impor-
tance in applications employing numerous
and output power in the transmit mode is stages of multiplication to reach the local -
0.3 milliwatt. This performance is satisfac- oscillator injection frequency, can be no bet-
tory for 1296 MHz communication over ter than the inherent stability of the crystal
line -of -sight paths of several miles. Note selected. The crystal used in this unit is a
that no transmit- receive switching is re- fifth -overtone, series -resonant crystal in an
quired, but that the intermediate- frequency HC /18 -U holder. Calibration tolerance of
injection from the 2 -meter transceiver (trans- ± 10 p.p.m. is desirable, as is a temperature
mitter) must be restricted to a few milli - coefficient of ± f p.p.m. over the range of
watts to maintain linearity and avoid dam- +15'C to +35°C. The unit used meets
aging the mixer diodes in the module. these specifications for this circuit. Less
For weak signal reception, the conversion costly crystals may be used, but at a corre-
module is combined with one or two stages sponding decrease in overall circuit stability.
of r -f preamplification and a 2 -meter i -f A 2N5179 bipolar uhf transistor (Q3)
preamplifier may be added in front of the operating in the class -A mode is used as a
transceiver, as shown in illustration B. The common-emitter buffer /amplifier following
module employs extensive filtering, thus the Butler oscillator. This stage furnishes 10
this configuration assures freedom from mW of drive power to the multiplier chain,
spurious responses or image interference that and provides additional attenuation of any
plague the simpler conversion schemes, while spurious oscillator products. Note that the
yielding a noise figure in the 2- to 3 -dB inductors associated with the oscillator and
region. buffer stages (L1, L_, and L3) are designed
20.68 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 78
PROTOTYPE OF
CONVERSION MODULE
The 23 -cm conversion module
was first built on seven separ-
ate circuit boards in order to
optimize the design of each
circuit. In this assembly, the
crystal -oscillator chain is at the
left with the image filters in
the foreground. The balanced
mixer is at the rear. The stages
are interconnected with 50 -ohm
coaxial lines. When the design
was optimized, it was trans-
ferred to a single circuit board.
This type of experimental as-
sembly has much to offer to
experimenters working in the
vhf /uhf regions.
MICROCOMM CM 23
c,iversion module
Figure 79
Figure 80
into the printed -circuit board trace pattern. base will tend to make the collector imped-
This simplifies construction and eliminates ance of a microwave transistor appear nega-
any possibility of coil winding errors. tive. Thus, by series -resonating the base to
The 288 -MHz output from the buffer the desired output frequency, gain at that
stage is applied to a microwave transistor multiple is maximized.
(Q,) which quadruples to 1152 MHz. The Additional spurious filtering is provided
common-emitter multiplier is biased for by a two -pole resonator (L9, L10, C14, C15)
class -C operation as a small collector conduc- at the output of the multiplier stage.
tion angle provides an output which is rich The driver stage uses a second microwave
in harmonic energy. Microstrip matching is transistor (Qs) in a common- emitter con-
used in this stage, and quarter -wavelength figuration as a buffer- amplifier at 1152 MHz
stubs at 288 MHz (L -, C31) and 576 MHz to boost the local -oscillator drive level to 20
)
(L shunting the collector tend to attenu- mW. The driver output is passed through
a second two -pole resonator (L17, 1.18, C20,
ate undesired multiples of the driving signal.
Operation of this multiplier stage depends C21) so that the ultimate spurious rejection
on the parametric, or negative -impedance, in the local -oscillator chain is of the order
effect. A series - resonant trap (L5,, C12) at the of 40 dB.
desired output frequency (1152 MHz) The Balanced Mixer-Bilateral (two -way)
shunts the base of the multiplier. At any conversion is accomplished in a balanced
given frequency, a short to ground at the mixer of the ring -hybrid, or "rat- race con-
20.70 RADIO HANDBOOK
D3 IN914
d
Cs Re
1 I
C14 CIs
.001
L1
471
To01 Ce (3
OI
_
Rio
IK
15rñ+
c2 e
Ia Le rLi2
= C4 v Ce Rn La I I I I LIo
LI QI L3 L4 V1ti
U-310 C3 100 le 10 R12 2230
iK
Q3 Q4
Ra
xi
220
R3 R4
220 47K
2N5179
Re
4.7R L
,
FMT-2060 C13
e
33
-rr 5
/Ila7
.001
C32
L13
D4
/V.
TEST
POINT
C
L7
1-71,
C2o C21
5- i LIt
5826E
RI4 220
C23 R9
C24 C25 001 0 LIS
1E1 ILN
Ga (aa
L241 I Las
Lle
Ji Cae
R-F i I -F PORT
PORT
Lee Li9
Figure 81
figuration. A 50 -ohm microstrip line couples line at a point one -half wavelength away
the local- oscillator injection voltage into the from the local -oscillator connection on the
hybrid ring (L1,), which is effectively a cir- hybrid ring. The two ports are effectively
cular 70 -ohm microstrip line, one and one - isolated from each other, as signals leaving
half wavelengths in circumference. The r-f one port, travelling clockwise around the
port is coupled in via a 50 -ohm microstrip ring, arrive at the other port 180 degrees
RECEIVERS, TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.71
out of phase with signals tavelling counter- quarter -wavelength at the image frequency
clockwise. Thus, up to 25 dB of balance, or (L26), up to 20 dB of image rejection may
inter -port isolation, may be achieved. be obtained. However, such a line would ap-
Two hot -carrier mixer diodes (D,, D_) pear as a shunt reactance at the signal fre-
are positioned around the ring so as to be quency, disrupting r -f port matching. A
driven out of phase by the local -oscillator stripline which is a quarter wavelength long
signal, and are in phase to signals injected at at 1006 MHz would be 0.322 wavelength at
the r -f port (in the receive, or down -con- 1296 MHz. At the signal frequency, then,
version mode). The signal at the junction of this electrical length may be interpreted as
the two diodes thus contains both the two representing a 0.072 wavelength line in series
original frequency components, their sum, with an open quarter -wavelength section.
and their difference. Filtering components Since the quarter -wavelength section trans-
(L_,I, L_,, L22, C..) assure that only the dif- forms the open termination at the end into
ference frequency reaches the i -f port (J_). a short at the opposite end, the circuit be-
The dc return for the diodes is brought haves like a short length of grounded micro -
through an r -f choke (L2:,), feedthrough strip line, exhibiting inductive properties.
capacitor C,:,, and a 10 -ohm resistor to The inductive reactance of the image trap
ground. By measuring the voltage drop across line at the signal frequency may be found
this resistor, the bias current through the by the formula:
diodes can be determined. This provides an
indication of local -oscillator injection, useful XL = Z. tan d
in aligning the local- oscillator chain. where,
Mixer operation is similar in the up -con- O = 0.072 wavelength X 360° =
version, or transmit, mode, except that it is 25.9°,
now the signal injected into the i -f port Z = 50 ohms.
(J_) which biases the mixer diodes in phase.
Sum and difference frequencies are developed Thus, XL is 24 ohms, which may be reso-
at the r-f port (J,), the difference frequency nated by a like value of capacitive reactance.
being attenuated by the image filter (C24, A 5 -pF trimmer (C26) performs this func-
C25, C26, L24, L25, L26) tion.
The Image Filter -The image filtering sys- A simple parallel -resonant circuit at 1296
tem is unusual, combining the functions of MHz now exists, consisting of a short, 50-
a series trap at the image frequency (1006 ohm, r -f grounded microstrip line shunted
MHz) with a parallel- resonant circuit at by an appropriate value of capacitance.
1296 MHz. By shunting the r -f port with a Figure 82 illustrates that the total resis-
$0 -ohm open microstrip line which is a tance shunting the resonant circuit is equal
L26 Cze
SOURCE
IMPEDANCE
5011
r
XL'2411.
r
, r
0.072 A
xc=2411 5011
LOAD
v
-5
-IO
0
Z -15
O -20
0.25A -25
D -30
W
-35
-
H -40
Q -45
Figure 82
f 1006 1296
MI-12 MI-12
DERIVATION OF Q FOR THE
IMAGE FILTER
Figure 83
Image filter combines the functions of a series -
resonant trap at the image frequency (1006 PASSBAND OF IMAGE FILTER
MHz) with a parallel- resonant circuit at 1296
MHz. Capacitor C resonates with inductive re- Swept -frequency response of image filter at r -f
actance of the image trap line, as discussed in port (LN 7,, C ).Image rejection is better
the text. than 35 dB.
20.72 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 84
to the source resistance in parallel with the Tuncup and The following steps are tak-
load resistance, or 25 ohms. Since Q = Adjustment of en in initial adjustment: 1.
R,, 'X1., the loaded Q of this circuit is unity, the Module Remove + 12 volts (Vc, )
and the image rejection from the parallel - from the multipler stages at
resonant circuit would be minimal. However, C1, and the local -oscillator driver stage at
as the circuit contains a series -resonant trap C17. Insert metering to monitor the supply
at the image frequency, total image rejection current (I) to the oscillator and buffer
from L_,;, C:,; is approximately 20 dB. Two stages. 2. Apply power and adjust capacitors
more poles of parallel- resonant filtering (L_ C1, C,, and C3 for maximum indicated cur-
L_:,, C_ C_:,) further attenuate the image rent, which should run about 40 mA, nom-
frequency. The overall bandpass at the r -f inal. 3. Connect -h 12 volts to the multiplier
port is shown in figure 83. at C11 through a milliammeter. Adjust C10,
C12, and C7 for maximum multiplier cur-
rent. Adjust C3, for a dip in multiplier
current. Final value of current should be
Constructing The entire conversion module 15 mA, nominal. 4. Remove operating volt-
the Module is fabricated on a single 5" X
age from oscillator, buffer and multiplier
7 ", double-sided printed -cir-
stages. Connect + 12 volts to the local -
cuit board. The microstrip lines are designed oscillator driver through a milliammeter.
around the r -f properties of 111; " -thick, Driver curent should be about 15 mA.
G -10 fiberglas -epoxy board, double clad with Reapply + 12 volts to oscillator, buffer, and
1 oz. copper. No substitution of board ma- multiplier stages. Driver current should not
terial is permissible without completely re- change. 5. Connect a sensitive high- imped-
designing the microstrip dimensions. The ance voltmeter across resistor R,,. With Vet,
specified material is both inexpensive and applied to all stages, adjust capacitors C14,
readily available worldwide. It does exhibit C15, C27, C20, and C21 for maximum meter
somewhat greater attenuation at microwave indication of diode current. The meter should
frequencies than do the more costly glass,
peak to 100 mV, nominal, which corresponds
ceramic or TFE ( teflon) dielectrics (on the to 10 mA of mixer diode current. 6. With a
order of 0.1 dB per inch of stripline length weak signal source connected to the r -f
at 1296 MHz) . This amount of circuit loss port (J,) and a 144 -MHz receiver connected
may be considered negligible in amateur ap-
to the i -f port (J2), adjust capacitors C,,,
plications. Only the microstrip line side of C05, C_6, and C22 for maximum received
the board is etched; the opposite side remains
signal.
fully clad with copper and serves as a ground Some of the above adjustments tend to be
plane. In order to maintain the required de- interacting, and may have to be repeated
gree of dimensional precision required in the until no further improvement in perform-
trace pattern, a photographic etching tech- ance can be observed.
nique should be employed. Any commercial
photographic laboratory or print shop equip-
ped with a copy camera should inexpensively 20 -6 A Variable Active
produce the required negative directly from Audio Filter
figure 84, which is a full -sized artwork of
the printed- circuit trace. Audio filters have proven their worth in
Layout of the components may be seen c -w and weak signal reception of all types.
from the photographs. All grounding is ac- Most popular filters have been fixed-fre-
complished directly through the board to quency devices having a narrow bandwidth
the groundplane beneath it. It is recom- determined by high -Q LC circuits. These
mended that all passive components be filters have the disadvantage of ringing; that
mounted first, followed by the transistors is, the tuned filter circuit can oscillate when
and diodes, using accepted techniques for excited by a signal, resulting in a ringing
dealing with solid -state devices. Due to its noise which sounds very much like the origi-
susceptibility to mechanical damage, the os- nal signal, making it difficult to copy a very
cillatcr crystal should be the last component weak signal. In addition, being fixed- tuned,
assembled to the board. the LC filter cannot be easily adjusted to
20.74 RADIO HANDBOOK
optimize either the passband or the center this circuit can be adjusted for flat, band -
frequency. pass, highpass, or lowpass response. Such a
The disadvantages of the LC filter have device is ideal for such uses as speech filters,
been overcome by the active filter which can notch filters, tone decoders, RTTY filters,
provide variable bandwidth and variable cen- and c -w filters.
ter frequency. In addition, the active filter The filter described in this section utilizes
uses no LC elements, eliminating the annoy- the newly developed Universal Active Filter
ing ringing effect of the high -Q filter circuit. produced by the Kinetic Technology division
oon of Baldwin Electronics, Inc. The filters are
packaged in a 14 -pin IC configuration and
utilize three optional amplifiers in a varia-
tion of the basic circuit. The filter tunes
from 300 Hz to 1800 Hz, with an adjust-
able bandwidth of SO Hz to 1200 Hz. In the
low pass mode, the filter is useful for SSB re-
ception, removing the annoying high -fre-
R4
"Q- ADJUST
quency sounds from the received signal. In
HIGH PASS BAND PASS the band pass mode, the filter is useful for
c -w reception, and various filters pattcrned
Figure 85
after the one shown herewith áre used for
ACTIVE AUDIO FILTER moonbounce communication on the 144 -
An active audio filter can be built using three
MHz and 432 -MHz amateur bands.
ICs in a stable, negative -feedback circuit which The schematic of the active filter is shown
may be adiusted for flat. bandoass, highpass, or in figure 86. The active filter is a KTI model
lowpass response. The three ICs are packaged FX -60 device and is followed by a National
as one unit in the KTI FX -60 device.
LM -380N audio amplifier, which provides
up to 2 watts of audio power. The filter is
The Active An active audio filter can be designed to be plugged into the low -impe-
Filter built using three operational am- dance headphone jack of a receiver and the
plifiers in a stable, negative -feed- filter output impedance matches either low -
back circuit (figure 85). The bandwidth of impedance earphones or a speaker.
12 -20 V
RI
JI
INPUT
Figure 86
SCHEMATIC OF ACTIVE AUDIO FILTER
DI, D,- 1N4001 11,-50K-50K dual potentiometer. Counter clock-
Q1-FX-60 universal active filter. Kinetic Tech- wise log taper. Allen -Bradly 70CIN048 -5038
nology. R, -10K potentiometer. Linear taper
Q,-LM -380N. National Semiconductor. T, -24 volt, 180 mA. Signal PC24 -190
A complete kit of parts, including a drilled circuit board is available from HCP Products, 2140
Jeanie Lane, Gilroy, CA 95020
RECEIVERS. TRANSCEIVERS, AND EXCITERS 20.75
Figure 88
THE ACTIVE AUDIO FILTER Using the Flter The filter is usually set to
This adjustable filter is built in a small alumi-
the lowpass mode for SSB
num channel box and has its own power sup- reception and to the bandpass mode for c -w
ply. The bandwidth and center frequency con- reception. It is peaked on the c -w signal, but
trols are at center of the panel, with the func-
tion switch immediately below. the center frequency setting and bandwidth
will vary from person to person. The ear -
A bias network sets the voltage at pin 4 brain combination is capable of acting like a
of Q, and the resistor between pin 6 and pin variable- bandwidth, variable- frequency filter
7 allows the three outputs to hold the same itself and the operator, with experience, can
level. The 5.6K resistor in series with pin 6 copy signals buried in noise or interference.
sets the widest bandwidth limit and resistor Signals that are as low as 10 dB below the
RZ sets the narrowest limit. noise level can be copied, as shown by listen-
The capacitors connected between pins 2 ing tests conducted under controlled condi-
and 12, and 7 and 10 on device Q, set the tions.
frequency range of the filter. Resistor R_ is A relatively low beat frequency is sug-
selected to set the narrowest bandwidth. To gested for weak signal c -w reception because
adjust this, potentiometer R, is set clockwise the signal is easier to copy in the presence of
for zero resistance and R_ is selected until interference. If, for example, the signal has
the circuit just goes into oscillation. The a pitch of 1000 Hz, and there is an inter-
correct value of R_ is one that prevents cir- fering signal 100 Hz away, the difference
cuit oscillation. between the desired and undesired signals is
The audio level to the LM -380 is set by 10 percent. If the pitch of the signal is
the two resistors at pin 2. The 220 -oF ca- changed to 500 Hz, and the interfering sig-
pacitor provides a high- frequency rolloff at nal is 100 Hz away, the difference is now
4 kHz. 20 percent.
"_
P. 1
-9' r"114.1 rirtOri: .1,17
ii.arriArg
4.
II
-4, 7
...!
,
I.
.1
.1
1
CHAPTER TWENTY -ONE
21.1
21.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
whose drive requirement falls in the same cathode -plate shielding of a high -p. tube is
power range as the exciter output. Triode or superior to that of a comparable low -p. tube,
tetrode tubes may be used in cathode- driven and because a high -it tube provides more gain
(grounded -grid) circuitry which will pass and requires less driving power than a low -µ
along an excess of exciter power in the form tube in this class of service. Low -p triodes,
of feedthrough power to the antenna circuit. on the other hand, are well suited for grid -
The tubes may also be grid- driven in com- driven class -AB, operation since it is pos-
bination with a power absorption network sible to reach a high value of plate current
that will dissipate excess exciter power not with this type of tube, as opposed to the
required by the amplifier. high -it equivalent, without driving the grid
On the other hand, if the power output into the power- consuming, positive region.
of the exciter is only a few watts PEP, either Even though a large value of driving voltage
low- drive, high -gain tetrodes must be used is required for the low -it tube, little drive
in grid- driven configuration, or an inter- power is required for class -AB, service, since
mediate amplifier must be used to boost the grid always remains negative and never
the drive to that level required by triode draws current.
tubes. Thus, the interface between the ex- As a rule -of- thumb, then, a triode tube
citer and the amplifier in terms of PEP level to be used for linear r-f service in a power
must be reconciled in the design of the amplifier should have a large plate- dissipa-
station transmitting equipment. tion capability, and the output power to be
expected from a single tube will run about
twice the plate- dissipation rating. High-p
21 -1 Triode Amplifier triodes, generally speaking, perform better
Design in cathode -driven, class -B circuitry; whereas
medium- and low -µ triodes are to be pre-
Triode tubes may be operated in either ferred in grid -driven, class AB, circuitry.
grid- or cathode- driven configuration, and Circuit neutralization may often be dis-
may be run in class -AB class -AB2, class -B posed with in the first case (at least in the
or class -C mode. Plate dissipation and am- hf region), and is usually necessary in the
plification factor (µ) are two triode char- second case, otherwise the circuits bear a
acteristics which provide the information striking similarity.
necessary to establish proper mode and cir-
cuitry and to evaluate the tube for linear -
amplifier or class -C service. Grid- Driven Representative grid- and oath-
Plate dissipation is important in that it Circuitry ode- driven triode circuits are
determines the ultimate average and peak shown in figure 1. The classic
power capabilities of the tube. Linear am- grid- driven, grid- neutralized circuit is shown
plifiers commonly run between 55- and 65- in illustration A. The drive signal is applied
percent plate efficiency, with the majority of to a balanced grid tank circuit (L,, C,) with
the remainder of the power being lost as an out -of -phase portion of the exciting volt-
plate dissipation. Class -C service often runs age fed through capacitor NC to the plate
at about 70- to 75- percent plate efficiency. circuit in a bridge neutralization scheme.
Knowing the plate dissipation rating of the A pi network is employed for the plate
tube, the approximate maximum power in- output coupling circuit. The plate induc-
put and output levels for various modes of tor (L2) may be tapped or otherwise var-
service may be determined by the methods iable and is normally adjustable from the
outlined in Chapter 7. amplifier panel, eliminating the necessity
Amplification Factor (p.) of a triode of plug -in coils and access openings into the
expresses the ratio of change of plate voltage shielded amplifier inclosure. The grid cir-
for a given change in grid voltage at some cuit may also be switched or varied in a
fixed value of plate current. Values of µ similar manner.
between 10 and 300 are common for triode A high ratio of capacitance to inductance
transmitting tubes. High -p tubes (µ greater (high -C) is required in the tuned grid cir-
than about 30) are most suitable in cathode - cuit in order to preserve the phase relation-
driven (grounded -grid) circuitry as the ship in the neutralizing circuit under
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER DESIGN 21.3
TRIODE CIRCUITRY
PC
PC J2
C L2 nr,
BH -BIAS B+MV
Figure 1
operating conditions. If a low -C grid circuit under load and is to be preferred, especially
is used, grid loading will unbalance the for operation at the higher frequencies. A
neutralizing network, the r -f voltage at the split plate -tank circuit is required in place
grid dropping and the voltage at the neu- of the split grid circuit, making the use of
tralizing end of the grid circuit rising. A a single ended pi- network output circuit
high -C circuit tends to alleviate this impractical. Theory and adjustment of grid
problem. and plate neutralizing circuits are covered
Plate circuit neutralization (figure 1B) in Chapter 11. In either configuration, care
does not exhibit such a degree of unbalance must be taken in construction to make sure
21.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
that a minimum of stray coupling exists the proper choice of the grid- to-ground
between grid and plate tank circuits. When- impedance.
ever possible, the grid and plate coils should From a practical standpoint, it is sug-
be mounted at right angles to each other, gested that the cathode tank circuit be
and should be separated sufficiently to reduce made fixed -tuned and peaked at the middle
coupling between them to a minimum. Un- of the amateur band in use. This form of
wanted coupling will tend to make neutral- construction is suggested because if the
ization frequency- sensitive, requiring that cathode circuit is inadvertently tuned too
the circuit be reneutralized when a major far off -frequency, it will turn the cathode -
frequency change is made. driven amplifier into a robust oscillator! The
user might suspect instability, or a possible
Cathode- Driven A representative cathode- parasitic oscillation, which is not the case.
Circuitry driven (grounded -grid) tri- It is merely that the circuit constants are
ode circuit is shown in fig- such that a phase shift may be unintention-
ure 1C. A pi- network plate circuit is used, ally created between cathode and plate
and excitation is applied to the filament which will sustain oscillation. The use of
(cathode) circuit, the grid being at r-f a fixed -tuned, or slug- tuned, cathode cir-
ground potential. If the amplification fac- cuit will prevent this, as it cannot be ad-
tor of the triode is sufficiently high so as justed sufficiently far off frequency to
to limit the static plate current to a rea- sustain oscillation.
sonable value, no auxiliary grid bias is re-
Push -Pull Circuitry A push -pull triode am-
quired. A parallel -tuned cathode input cir-
cuit is shown, although pi- network circuitry plifier configuration is
may be used in this position. Filament volt- shown in figure 1D. This circuit design is
age may either be fed via a shunt r-f choke now rarely used in the hf region because
as shown, or applied through a bifilar series - of the mechanical difficulties that ensue
fed cathode tank coil. when a large frequency change is desired.
While nominally at r -f ground, the grid In the vhf region, on the other hand, where
of the triode may be lifted above ground a operation of an amplifier is generally re-
sufficient amount so as to insert a monitor- stricted to one band of frequencies, linear
ing circuit to measure dc grid current. The push -pull tank circuits are often employed.
grid to ground r-f impedance should re- Lumped- inductance tank coils are usually
main very low, and proper attention must avoided in the vhf region since various
be paid to the r -f circuit. A considerable forms of parallel -line or strip-line circuitry
amount of r -f current flows through the provide better efficiency, higher Q, and bet-
grid bypass capacitor (C;) and this compo- ter thermal stability than the coil -and-
nent should be rated for r -f service. It should capacitor combination tank assemblies used
be shunted with a low value of resistance at the high frequencies. Push -pull operation
(of the order of 10 ohms or less) and the is of benefit in the vhf region as unavoidable
dc voltage drop across this resistor is tube capacitances are halved, and circuit
monitored by the grid voltmeter, which impedances are generally higher than in the
is calibrated in terms of grid current. Both case of single -ended circuitry. At the higher
resistor and capacitor aid in establishing a vhf regions, parallel- and strip-line circuitry
low- impedance path from grid to ground give way to coaxial tank circuits in which
and should be mounted directly at the the tube structure becomes a part of the
socket of the tube. If multiple grid pins are resonant circuit.
available, each pin should be individually The output coupling circuit may be de-
bypassed to ground. Control of the grid - signed for either balanced or unbalanced
to- ground impedance in the cathode- driven connection to coaxial or twin- conductor
circuit establishes the degree of intrastage transmission line. In many cases, a series
feedback, and an increase in grid impedance capacitor (Cs) is placed in one leg of the
may alter stage gain, leading to possible un- line at the feed point to compensate for the
controlled oscillation or perhaps making the inductance of the coupling coil.
stage difficult to drive. At the higher fre- Common hf construction technique em-
quencies, stage gain may be controlled by ploys plug -in plate and grid coils which
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER DESIGN 21.5
necessitate an opening in the amplifier in- necessary to prevent excessive voltage drop
closure for coil- changing purposes. Care in the connecting leads, and also to prevent
must be taken in the construction of the r -f pickup in the filament circuit. Long fila-
door of the opening to reduce harmonic ment leads can often induce instability in an
leakage to a minimum. While variations in otherwise stable amplifier circuit, especially
layout, construction, and voltage application if the leads are exposed to the radiated field
are found, the following general remarks of the plate circuit of the amplifier stage.
apply to hf amplifiers of all classes and The filament voltage should be the correct
types. value specified by the tube manufacturer
Circuit Layout The most important consid- when measured at the tube sockets. A fila-
eration in constructing a ment transformer having a tapped primary
push -pull amplifier is to maintain electrical often will be found useful in adjusting the
symmetry on both sides of the balanced cir- filament voltage. When there is a choice of
having the filament voltage slightly higher
cuit. Of utmost importance in maintaining
electrical balance is the control of stray or slightly lower than normal, the lower
capacitance between each side of the circuit voltage is preferable.
and ground. Filament bypass capacitors should be low
Large masses of metal placed near one side internal inductance units of approximately
.01µF. A separate capacitor should be used
of the grid or plate circuits can cause serious
for each socket terminal. Lower values of
unbalance, especially at the higher frequen-
capacitance should be avoided to prevent
cies, where the tank capacitance between
spurious resonances in the internal filament
one side of the tuned circuit and ground is structure of the tube. Use heavy, shielded
often quite small in itself. Capacitive un- filament leads for low voltage drop and
balance most often occurs when a plate or maximum circuit isolation.
grid coil is located with one of its ends
close to a metal panel. The solution to this
Plate Feed The series plate -voltage feed
difficulty is to mount the coil parallel to the
panel to make the capacitance to ground shown in figure 1D is the most
equal from each end of the coil, or to place satisfactory method for push -pull stages.
a grounded piece of metal opposite the This method of feed puts high voltage on
"free" end of the coil to accomplish a ca- the plate tank inductor, but since the r -f
pacity balance. voltage on the inductor is in itself sufficient
All r -f leads should be made as short and reason for protecting the inductor from ac-
direct as possible. The leads from the tube cidental bodily contact, no additional pro-
grids or plates should be connected directly tective arrangements are made necessary by
to their respective tank capacitors, and the the use of series feed.
The insulation in the plate supply circuit
leads between the tank capacitors and coils should be adequate for the voltages encoun-
should be as heavy as the wire that is used tered. In general, the insulation should be
in the coils themselves. Plate and grid leads rated to withstand at least four times the
to the tubes may be made of flexible tinned maximum dc plate voltage. For safety, the
braid or flat copper strip. Neutralizing leads plate meter should be placed in the cathode
should run directly to the tube grids and return lead, since there is danger of voltage
plates and should be separate from the grid breakdown between a metal panel and the
and plate leads to the tank circuits. Having meter movement at plate voltages much
a portion of the plate or grid connections to higher than one thousand.
their tank circuits serve as part of a neu- Parallel plate feed, such as shown in
tralizing lead can often result in amplifier figures lA and 1B, is commonly used for
instability at certain operating frequencies. single-ended pi- network amplifier configura-
tions. The plate r -f choke is a critical com-
Filament Supply The amplifier filament trans- ponent in this circuit, and a discussion of
former should be placed choke design is covered in Chapter 17. The
right on the amplifier chassis in close prox- plate -blocking capacitor (CO should be
imity to the tubes. Short filament leads are rated to withstand the peak r-f plate cur-
21.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
rent (usually about three to four times the In most cases, the push -pull amplifier may
dc plate current) and the peak r -f voltage be cross -neutralized in the normal manner.
(up to twice the dc plate voltage.) At the higher frequencies (above 150 MHz
In the case of the push -pull stage, the or so) it is common practice to operate the
amplifier grid and plate circuits should be triode tubes in cathode -driven configuration
symmetrically balanced to ground. In some which usually eliminates the need for neu-
instances, a small differential capacitor is tralization if proper shielding is used.
placed in the grid circuit to effect balance, Plate parasitic suppressors may or may
and the grid current of each tube is moni- not be necessary depending on the oper-
tored individually to ascertain correct bal- ating frequency of the amplifier and the
ance. The rotor of the split- stator plate - natural parasitic frequency of the input and
tuning capacitor is usually ungrounded, per- output circuits. Both grid- and plate- tuning
mitting the plate tank circuit to establish capacitors should be located close to the tube
its own r -f balance. elements and not tapped down the tuned
The various filament, grid, and plate by- lines, otherwise unwanted parasitic circuits
pass capacitors are often vhf coaxial types may be created. If oscillations are encoun-
which have inherently low inductance well tered, they may possibly be suppressed by
into the vhf region. These capacitors should placing noninductive carbon resistors across
be checked to make sure that their internal a portion of the plate (and grid) lines as
self -resonant frequency is well above the shown in figure 2.
operating frequency of the amplifier. The plate choke (RFC) should be
mounted at right angles to the plate line
and care should be taken that it is not
coupled to the line. In particular, the choke
should not be mounted within the line,
but rather outside the end of the line, as
shown. A resistor (R,) is used to take the
place of a grid choke, thus eliminating any
possibility of resonance between the two
chokes, with resulting circuit instability.
In order to prevent radiation loss from
the grid and plate lines, it is common prac-
tice to completely inclose the input and
output circuits in "r -f tight" inclosures,
suitably ventilated to allow proper cooling
-eus* e- Cf of the tubes.
The plate parasitic suppressor (PC,) is
Figure 2
a critical component. The suppressor is de-
TYPICAL PUSH-PULL VHF signed to present a load to the amplifier
TRIODE AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT tube at the parasitic frequency only, leaving
the fundamental frequency component un-
C C,-Low -capacitance, balanced split- stator disturbed. In theory, the inductor short -
capacitor. Typically, 10 pF per section for 144
MHz. circuits the loading resistor at the funda-
C Ca- Loading capacitor. Capacitance chosen mental frequency and acts as a high im-
to series resonate at operating frequency with
coupling loop pedance at the parasitic frequency which,
Cs, Cs-Low inductance mica or ceramic capaci- in most cases, is higher than the funda-
tor, series resonant near operating frequen-
cy. See Chapter 17 mental frequency. In the vhf region, the
C C.-Low-inductance feedthrough capacitor. shunt inductor of the suppressor must have
See Chapter 17 a very low value of inductance to prevent
C-Neutralizing capacitor. Approximately equal
to grid -plate capacitance of triode tube. too much fundamental power from being
M,- Grid -current meter dissipated in the parallel- connected resistor.
M.-Plate-current meter
R, -Wire resistor
(100 -500 ohms) to act as low -Q In the 2 -meter band, it is common practice
choke
r-f to connect the parasitic resistor across a
RFC -Vhf choke rated to carry plate current.
See text section of the plate lead which usually is a
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER DESIGN 21.7
copper strap. The amount of lead shunted broken at point X for tuneup purposes, or
by the resistor constitutes the inductor and for reduced -power operation. The value of
determines the degree of coupling between screen bleeder resistance will vary depending
the fundamental signal and the parasitic on tube characteristics, and a typical value
suppressor. is generally specified in the tube data sheet.
When large tubes are used in the vhf For tubes of the 4CX2 S OB family, the value
region, the parasitic frequency of the circuit of resistance is chosen to draw about 15 to
may fall near, or at, the fundamental operat- 20 mA from the screen power supply. The
ing frequency. If this is so, parasitic sup- 4CX1000A, on the other hand, requires a
pression is unnecessary as the conventional screen bleeder current of about 70 mA.
cross -neutralization circuit will also inhibit In any case, regardless of whether the
parasitic oscillation. screen circuit is broken or not, the use of
a screen bleeder resistor in the circuit at all
times is mandatory for those tetrodes which
21 -2 Tetrode Amplifier produce reverse screen current under certain
Design operating conditions. This is a normal charac-
teristic of most modern, high -gain tetrodes
As in the case of triode tubes, tetrodes and the screen power supply should be de-
may be operated in either grid- or cathode - signed with this characteristic in mind so
driven configuration and may (within cer- that correct operating voltages will be main-
tain limits) be run in class -AB -AB_, -B, tained on the screen at all times.
or class -C mode. Much of the information With the use of a screen bleeder resistor,
on circuit layout and operation previously full protection for the screen may be pro-
discussed for triode tubes applies in equal vided by an overcurrent relay and by inter-
context to tetrodes. Other differences and locking the screen supply so that the plate
additional operational data will be discussed voltage must be applied before screen volt-
in this section. age can be applied.
Tetrode tubes are widely used in hf and Power output from a tetrode is very sen-
vhf amplifiers because of their high power
sitive to screen voltage, and for linear serv-
gain and wide range of simple neutralization.
ice a well -regulated screen power supply is
Tetrode circuitry resembles triode circuitry
required. Voltage -regulator tubes or a series -
in that comparable modes and circuit con-
figurations may be used. Various popular regulated power supply are often used in
and proven tetrode circuits are shown in high -power tetrode linear -amplifier stages.
A tetrode neutralizing circuit suitable for
figure 3. Illustration A shows a typical
single -ended neutralized tetrode circuit em- the lower portion of the vhf region is shown
ploying a pi- network output circuit and a in figure 3B. When the operating frequency
bridge neutralization scheme. Tetrode neu- of the tetrode is higher than the self -neu-
tralization techniques are discussed in detail tralizing frequency, the r -f voltage developed
in Chapter 11. in the screen circuit is too great to provide
Tetrode plate current is a direct func- proper voltage division between the internal
tion of screen voltage and means must be capacitances of the tube (see Chapter 11) .
employed to control screen voltage under One method of reducing the voltage across
all conditions of operation of the tetrode. the screen lead inductance and thus achiev-
In particular, if the dc screen -to- ground ing neutralization is to adjust the inductive
path is broken, the screen voltage may rise reactance of the screen -to- ground path so
to equal the plate potential, thus damaging as to lower the total reactance. This react-
the tube and rupturing the screen bypass ance adjustment may take the form of a
capacitor. It is dangerous, therefore, to re- variable series capacitor as shown in illustra-
duce screen voltage for tuneup purposes by tion B. This circuit is frequency sensitive
simply breaking the screen power lead unless and must be readjusted for major changes
a protective screen bleeder resistor (Ra) is in the frequency of operation of the ampli-
placed directly at the tube socket, as shown fier.
in the illustrations of figure 3. If this resis- Balanced input and output tuned circuits
tor is used, the screen supply may be safely are used in the configuration of figure 3B.
21.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
TETRODE CIRCUITRY
Figure 3
REPRESENTATIVE TETRODE
AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS
Circuit B is intended for operation above the
self -neutralizing frequency of the tetrode. Above
30 MHz or so, the screen bypass capacitor of
circuits A and C is often chosen so as to be
self- resonant at the operating frequency of the
amplifier.
C,, L -Input tuned circuit. Typically, 3 pF per
meter of wavelength for circuits A and B. 20
pF per meter of wavelength for circuit C
C., C1, Li -Pi- network plate circuit. Refer to
plate- circuit design data in Chapter 11
O GRID DRIVEN
C,- Plate -blocking capacitor. Typically, 500 pF
to 1000 pF at 5 kV
R -Wirewound resistor (100 -500 ohms) to act
as low -Q r -f choke
R,- Screen resistor to carry negative screen
current and complete screen -to- ground cir-
cuit. See tube data sheet for details
PC -Plate parasitic suppressor. See Chapter 17
and figure of this chapter. For vhf opera-
1
Tetrode Amplifier The most widely used range. The capacitor must have a voltage
Circuitry tetrode circuitry for hf rating equal to at least twice the screen po-
use is the single -ended pi- tential (four times the screen potential for
network configuration, variations of which plate modulation). There are practically no
are shown in figure 4. capacitors available that will perform this
A common form of pi- network amplifier difficult task. One satisfactory solution is
is shown in figure 4A. The pi circuit forms to allow the amplifier chassis to form one
the matching system between the plate of plate of the screen capacitor. A "sandwich"
the amplifier tube and the low- impedance, is built on the chassis with a sheet of insu-
unbalanced, antenna circuit. The coil and lating material of high dielectric constant
input capacitor of the pi may be varied to and a matching metal sheet which forms the
tune the circuit over a 10 to 1 frequency screen side of the capacitance. A capacitor
range (usually 3.0 to 30 MHz). Operation of this type has very low internal induct-
over the 20- to 30 -MHz range takes place ance but is very bulky and takes up valuable
when the variable slider on coil L_ is ad- space beneath the chassis. One suitable ca-
justed to short this coil out of the circuit. pacitor for this position is the Centralah
Coil L, therefore comprises the tank in- type 858S -1000, rated at 1000 pF at 5000
volts. This compact ceramic capacitor has
ductance for the highest portion of the
relatively low internal inductance and may
operating range. This coil has no taps or
be mounted to the chassis by a 6 -32 bolt.
sliders and is constructed for the highest
Further screen isolation may be provided by
possible Q at the high- frequency end of the
a shielded power lead, isolated from the
range. The adjustable coil (because of the screen by a .001 -µF ceramic capacitor and
variable tap and physical construction) a 100 -ohm carbon resistor.
usually has a lower Q than that of the fixed
Various forms of the basic pi- network
coil.
amplifier are shown in figure 4. The A con-
The degree of loading is controlled by ca- figuration employs the so- called "all- band"
pacitors C, and C. The amount of circuit grid -tank circuit and a rotary pi- network
capacitance required at this point is in-
coil in the plate circuit. The B circuit uses
versely proportional to the operating fre-
coil switching in the grid circuit, bridge
quency and to the impedance of the antenna
circuit. A loading capacitor range of 100 neutralization, and a tapped pi- network
to 2500 pF is normally ample to cover the coil with a vacuum tuning capacitor. Fig-
3.5- to 30 -MHz range. ure 4C shows an interesting circuit that is
The pi circuit is usually shunt -fed to re- becoming more popular for class -AB,
move the dc plate voltage from the coils linear operation. A tetrode tube operating
and capacitors. The components are held at under class -AB, conditions draws no grid
ground potential by completing the circuit current and requires no grid -driving power.
to ground through the choke (RFC]). Great Only r -f voltage is required for proper
stress is placed on the plate- circuit choke operation. It is possible therefore to dispense
(RFC_). This component must be specially with the usual tuned grid circuit and neu-
designed for this mode of operation, having tralizing capacitor and in their place employ a
low interturn capacitance and no spurious noninductive load resistor in the grid circuit
internal resonances throughout the operat- across which the required excitation voltage
ing range of the amplifier. may be developed. This resistor can be of
Parasitic suppression is accomplished by the order of 50 to 300 ohms, depending on
means of chokes PC, and PC, in the screen, circuit requirements. Considerable power
grid, or plate leads of the tetrode. Suitable must be dissipated in the resistor to develop
values for these chokes are given in the parts sufficient grid swing, but driving power is
list of figure 4. Effective parasitic suppres- often cheaper to obtain than the cost of the
sion is dependent to a large degree on the usual grid -circuit components. In addition,
choice of screen bypass capacitor C,. This the low- impedance grid return removes the
component must have extremely low induct- tendency toward instability that is often
ance throughout the operating range of the
common to the circuits of figures 4A and 4B.
amplifier and well up into the vhf parasitic
21.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
VU
pß
EXCITATION
LOWZ
OUTPUT
EXCITATION
20 v ti
Figure 4
Neutralization is not required of the dr- control instead of the two required by the
cuit of figure 4C, and in many cases parasit- circuit of figure 4A. Careful design of the
ic suppression may be omitted. The price rotary inductor will permit the elimination
that must be paid is the additional excitation of the auxiliary high- frequency coil (14,
that is required to develop operating voltage thus reducing the cost and complexity of
across grid resistor R1. the circuit.
The pi- network circuit of figure 4C is in- The Grounded -Screen For maximum shielding,
teresting in that the rotary coil (L2) and Configuration it necessary to oper-
is
the plate tuning capacitor (CO are ganged ate the tetrode tube with
together by a gear train, enabling the cir- the screen at r -f ground potential. As the
cuit to be tuned to resonance with one panel screen has a dc potential applied to it (in
grid- driven circuits), it must be bypassed
to ground to provide the necessary r-f re-
turn. The bypass capacitor employed must
perform efficiently over a vast frequency
spectrum that includes the operating range
plus the region of possible vhf parasitic oscil-
lations. This is a large order, and the usual
bypass capacitors possess sufficient induct -
tance to introduce regeneration into the
screen circuit, degrading the grid -plate
shielding to a marked degree. Nonlinearity
and self -oscillation can be the result of this
loss of circuit isolation. A solution to this
problem is to eliminate the screen bypass ca-
pacitor, by grounding the screen terminals
B e BIAS SUPPLY of the tube by means of a low -inductance
S' SCREEN SUPPLY strap. Screen voltage is then applied to the
P' PLATE SUPPLY tube by grounding the positive terminal of
the screen supply, and "floating" the nega-
tive of the screen and bias supplies below
ground potential as shown in figure S. Me-
ters are placed in the separate- circuit cathode
OPERATE return leads, and each meter reads only the
TUNE current flowing in that particular circuit.
'COMMON
Operation of this grounded- screen circuit is
MINUS'
LEAD
normal in all respects, and it may be ap-
plied to any form of grid- driven tetrode
amplifier with good results.
Figure 5
C
INPUT
¡`
'ICLOADr
1 l
RFC
zero grid excitation. Any minute amount of
energy fed back from the plate circuit to the
grid circuit can cause instability or oscilla-
tion. Unless suitable precautions are in-
Figure 6 corporated in the electrical and mechanical
INDUCTIVE TUNING ELIMINATES
design of the amplifier, this energy feedback
INPUT TUNING CAPACITOR will inevitably occur.
Fortunately these precautions are simple.
The grid and filament circuits must be iso-
lated from the plate circuit. This is done by
placing these circuits in an "electrically
Push -Pull Tetrode Tetrode tubes may be
em- tight" box. All leads departing from this
Circuitry ployed in push -pull ampli- box are bypassed and filtered so that no r -f
fiers, although the modern energy can pass along the leads into the box.
trend is to parallel operation of these tubes. This restricts the energy leakage path be-
A typical circuit for push -pull operation is tween the plate and grid circuits to the
shown in figure 7. The remarks concerning residual plate -to -grid capacity of the tetrode
the filament supply, plate feed, and grid bias tubes. This capacity is of the order of 0.25
in Section 21 -1 apply equally to tetrode pF per tube, and under normal conditions
stages. Because of the high circuit gain of is sufficient to produce a highly regenerative
the tetrode amplifier, extreme care must be condition in the amplifier. Whether or not
taken to limit intrastage feedback to an the amplifier will actually break into oscil-
absolute minimum. It must be remembered lation is dependent upon circuit loading and
with high -gain tubes of this type that almost residual lead inductance of the stage. Suffice
full output can be obtained with practically to say that unless the tubes are actually neu-
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER DESIGN 21.13
watts, the intermittent nature of amateur ance is so high that it is impossible to secure
transmission and the high ratio of peak to sufficient grid drive at 28 MHz for efficient
average power in the human voice allow a operation in linear amplifier service.
good balance between peak power input, Because of electrical variations from tube -
tube life, and tube cost to be achieved. For to -tube, it is suggested that sweep tubes be
lower levels of intermodulation distortion, matched for identical values of resting plate
the user must shift to transmitting -type current when they are used in parallel con-
tubes rated for linear service, and which are nection. One tube may be tested at a time
designed to have low intermodulation dis- in the amplifier and two tubes chosen for use
tortion characteristics. whose resting plate currents are approxi-
The owner of sweep -tube equipped SSB mately equal at the same bias level. When
gear is cautioned that when the tubes are unbalanced tubes are used, one will tend to
replaced, they should be of the same brand draw more plate current than the other,
name as the original set, and the new tubes thus leading to shorter tube life and in-
should be matched for equal values of rest- creased intermodulation distortion on the
ing plate current. Different manufacturers signal.
often have slightly different assembly tech-
niques in matters such as lead length within
the tube envelope. These minor construc- 21 -3 Cathode- Driven
tion differences do not affect operation in Amplifier Design
sweep circuits but may vastly alter the neu-
tralization technique when the tube is used
in r -f service. Certain brands of sweep tubes, The cathode-driven, or grounded -grid
moreover, have the internal connection be- amplifier has achieved astounding popularity
tween cathode and base pin taken from the in recent years as a high -power linear stage
top of the tube structure. This results in an for sideband application. Various versions of
extremely long cathode lead whose induct- this circuit are illustrated in figure 10. In
R -F LINEAR AMPLIFIER SERVICE FOR SSB AND CW
GRID DRIVEN. CLASS ABI MODE
PLATE SCREEN GRID ZEROSIG.MAX.SIG MAX SIG. PL LDAD PLATE USEFUL AVERAGE
TUBE FIL Á
BASE VOLTAGE VOLTAGEVOLTAGE PLATE PLATE SCREEN IMPEDAN INPUT POWER PLATE 3d ORDER
Eb Ec2 Ec, CUR.I CUR. lb CUR.Ic2 Rr-A PWR. W. OUT. Po DISSIP Po IMD Db
600 200 -46 25 103 s 3570 61 41 16 -23
6146 6.3 750 200 -51 25 116 7 2825 8S 55 28 -22
7CN
61468 12 600 290 -69 30 123 10 3620 100 59 35 -24
600 290 -77 25 160 U 2300 145 91 43 -19
73
I.6 600 290 -33 45 127 13 3920 102 70 29 -30
500
250
140 -46
25
0
172
133
16
5
2750
1900
j
`
136
67
90
35
39
-
29
-- -19
-27
6HF5 2.25
1248
600 125 -45 30 197 7 2170 158 100 48 -21
I.
Figure 9
the basic circuit the control grid of the tube stage linearity. The feedthrough power pro-
is at r -f ground potential and the exciting vides the user with added output power he
signal is applied to the cathode by means of would not obtain from a more conventional
a tuned circuit. Since the grid of the tube circuit. The driver stage for the grounded -
is grounded, it serves as a shield between the grid amplifier must, of course, supply the
input and output circuits, making neutral- normal excitation power plus the feed -
ization unnecessary in many instances. The through power. Many commercial sideband
very small plate -to- cathode capacitance of exciters have power output capabilities of
most tubes permits a minimum of intrastage the order of 70 to 100 watts and are thus
coupling below 30 MHz. In addition, when well suited to drive high -power grounded -
zero -bias triodes or tetrodes are used, screen grid linear amplifier stages whose total ex-
or bias supplies are not usually required. citation requirements fall within this range.
C xC.
R -F OUT R -F OUT
ExC
Figure 10
-BIAS
R -F OUT.
Figure 11
amplifier at high signal levels even though Tuneup for sideband operation consists
the instability is not great enough to cause of applying full plate voltage and sufficient
parasitic oscillation. In addition, it is often excitation (carrier injection) so that a
desired to "unground" the grounded screen small rise in resting plate (cathode) current
or grid sufficiently to permit a metering cir- is noted. The plate loading capacitor is set
cuit to be inserted. near full capacitance and the plate tank
One practical solution to these problems capacitor is adjusted for resonance (mini-
is to shunt the tube element to ground by mum plate current). Drive is advanced until
means of a -ohm composition resistor, by-
1 grid current is noted and the plate circuit
passed with a .01 -µF ceramic disc capacitor. is loaded by decreasing the capacitance of
The voltage drop caused by the flow of grid the plate loading capacitor. The drive is
(or screen) current through the resistor can increased until about one -half normal grid
easily be measured by a millivoltmeter whose current flows, and loading is continued (re-
scale is calibrated in terms of element cur- resonating the plate tank capacitor as re-
rent (figure 11B). quired) until loading is near normal. Finally,
The plate circuit of the grounded -grid grid drive and loading are adjusted until
amplifier is conventional, and either pi -net- PEP - condition plate and grid currents are
work or inductive coupling to the load may
normal. The values of plate and grid current
be used.
should be logged for future reference. At
this point, the amplifier is loaded to the
Tuning the Since the input and output maximum PEP input condition. In most
Grounded -Grid circuits of the grounded - cases, the amplifier and power supply are
Amplifier grid amplifier are in series, a capable of operation at this power level for
certain proportion of driv- only a short period of time, and it is not
ing power appears in the output circuit. If recommended that this condition be per-
full excitation is applied to the stage and the mitted for more than a minute or two.
output circuit is opened, or the plate voltage The exciter is now switched to the SSB
removed from the tube, practically all of mode and, with speech excitation, the grid
the driving power will be dissipated by the and plate currents of the cathode -driven
grid of the tube. Overheating of this ele- stage should rise to approximately 40 to 50
ment will quickly occur under these circum- percent of the previously logged PEP read-
stances, followed by damage to the tube. ings. The exact amount of meter movement
Full excitation should therefore never be with speech is variable and depends on meter
applied to a grounded -grid stage unless plate damping and the peak to average ratio of
voltage is applied beforehand, and the stage the particular voice. Under no circum-
is loaded to the antenna. stances, however, should the voice meter
21.18 RADIO HANDBOOK
readings exceed 50 percent of the PEP ad- the PEP input in watts to a tube operating
justment readings unless some form of in grounded -grid configuration can safely
speech compression is in use. be about 2.5 to 3 times the rated plate
To properly load a linear amplifier for dissipation. Because of the relatively low
the so- called "two- kilowatt PEP" condition, average -to -peak power of the human voice
it is necessary for the amplifier to he tuned it is tempting to push this ratio to a higher
and loaded at the two -kilowatt !ere!, albeit figure in order to obtain more output from
briefly. It is necessary to use a dummy load a given tube. This action is unwise in that
to comply with the FCC regulations, or the odd -order distortion products rise rapid-
else a two -tone test signal should be used, ly when the tube is overloaded, and because
as discussed in Chapter 9. no safety margin is left (particularly in
For best linearity, the output circuit of terms of grid dissipation) for tuning errors
the grounded -grid stage should be over - or circuit adjustment.
coupled so that power output drops about
2- percent from maximum value. A simple
output r -f voltmeter is indispensable for 21 -4 Neutralization of the
proper circuit adjustment. Excessive grid Cathode- Driven Stage
current is a sign of antenna undercoupling, A basic cathode -driven amplifier is shown
and overcoupling is indicated by a rapid drop in figure 12. The grid of the tube is at r -f
in output power. Proper grounded -grid stage
ground potential and excitation is applied
operation can be determined by finding the to the cathode, or filament. Instantaneous
optimum ratio between grid and plate cur- plate voltage is developed in series and in
rent and by adjusting the drive level and phase with the exciting voltage and the
loading to maintain this ratio. Many manu- driver and amplifier may be thought of as
facturers now provide grounded -grid oper- operating in series to deliver power to the
ation data for their tubes, and the ratio of
grid to plate current can be determined from
the data for each particular tube.
load. A tuned circuit is used in the input of bility, the various feedback paths through
the cathode-driven amplifier to enhance the the distributed constants in the tube struc-
regulation of the driver stage and to pro- ure must be balanced out, or nulled, by
vide a proper termination for the driver neutralizing techniques. Proper neutraliza-
over the operating cycle of the amplifier. tion is defined as the state in which: with
As the driver and amplifier are in series, plate and cathode tank circuits resonant and
the output current of the amplifier passes with maximum cathode voltage, minimum
through the load resistance of the driver, plate current and maximum power output
causing a voltage drop across that resistance occur simultaneously. This implies that in-
which opposes the original driving voltage. put and output circuits are independent of
This indicates that inverse feedback is in- each other with respect to common reactive
herent in the cathode- driven amplifier to currents, and that the tuning of the circuits
some degree if the driver has appreciable reveals no interaction.
load resistance. This definition provides the user of a
Most high- frequency, cathode -driven am- cathode -driven ( "grounded- grid ") amplifier
plifiers are not neutralized, that is, no ex- a quick and easy means of checking ampli-
ternal neutralizing circuit is built in the fier stability. When the amplifier is properly
amplifier. As the frequency of operation is loaded and tuned with carrier insertion,
raised, however, it will be found that intra- maximum grid current and minimum plate
stage feedback exists and the amplifier may current should appear at the same setting of
exhibit signs of instability. The instability the plate circuit tuning capacitor. If this
is due to voltage feedback within the ampli- does not happen, the amplifier is not neu-
fier tube (figure 13). tralized in the strict sense of the word.
/ / i ---,
\ TUBE ENVELOPE
Neutralizing Circuits Stable operation, partic-
ularly at the higher fre-
/
CC-P
\\ quencies, often calls for the cathode- driven
/ amplifier to be neutralized. Complete circuit
\ stability requires neutralization of two feed-
back paths, for which separate techniques
are required. The first feedback path involves
the cathode-plate capacitance (Ce-P). Al-
though the capacitance involved is small,
the path is critical and may require neutrali-
zation. This is accomplished either by a
BLOCKING CAPACITOR
Figure 13
/
FEEDBACK PATHS WITHIN
CATHODE- DRIVEN AMPLIFIER
Cathode -plate, cathode -grid, and grid -plate ca-
pacitances, together with grid lead inductance
(L,) make up feedback paths that must be neu- OUTPI T
f (MHZI
Figure 17
the responsibility of the builder and user of tubes. It is suggested that the equipment be
the equipment to make sure that it is work - built in shielded enclosed cabinets, or venti-
ing properly before it is put on the air in lated metal boxes to reduce the problem of
order to make certain that interference is TVI, yet at the same time provide operator
not caused to other amateurs or other com- safety and adequate ventilation so that
munication services. tubes and components run at reasonable
temperatures.
PCI CI Cz RFCS
6MJ6 6MJ6
7.0 17.8_
ó1I
SM 1
qIT
RFCz
1T .001
1.dKv
0-IÁ
zo w
SWITCH S SIA B
_ OPP
T1 0
1
2° TUNE 11.s1 Kv
3. OPERATE
Pi P21 A A A
RELAY CONTROL B- 120v 'V 120V. ti Bt
Figure 1
The four sweep tubes are parallel -con- Amplifier tuneup is straightforward. An
nected, with the #1 grid tied to the cathode. SWR or power output meter in the antenna
This reduces the resting plate current and circuit is recommended for observation of
prevents excessive grid dissipation, which amplifier operation. A low drive level is
occurs at peak power level when all grids applied with switch S, in the tune position
are strapped together. The #2 and #3 grids and the tuning and loading controls adjusted
are at r -f ground potential but have a small for maximum output. Plate current should
amount of negative bias applied by virtue of be held to 250 mA, or less. The switch is
rectified filament voltage supplied by diode now turned to operate and the drive level
D,. increased for a plate current reading of about
The r -f plate impedance of this amplifier 500 mA. The amplifier controls are again
is of the order of 525 ohms and the plate adjusted for maximum output. Drive level
tank circuit constants for that value are is increased until maximum output is ob-
given in Table 1. The amplifier incorporates tained at a resonant plate current of approx-
a tune-up switch (S,) which permits ad- imately 800 mA. This will occur with about
justment with extra cathode bias in the 100 to 125 watts of drive power. Do not
circuit to reduce amplifier input during allow maximum continuous plate current to
tuning. flow for more than 30 seconds, or the am-
plifier tubes may be damaged. If longer tun-
TABLE
PI- NETWORK VALUES
1
ing time is required, switch to tune for a
FOR 50 -OHM LOAD minute and reduce drive power, and then
BAND switch back to operate for another 30 sec-
(meters) C,(pF) C2(pF) L,(pH) onds. With experience in tuning, it will be
160 1800 7800 21.0 found that 30 seconds is more than enough
80 900 3400 10.6 time.
40 440 1850 4.7 Under voice conditions, with no speech
20 220 925 2.7 clipping or compression, plate current will
15 150 700 1.8 peak between 350 mA and 400 mA for full
10 80 470 1.4 output. It is easy to produce higher meter
160- and 80 -Meter coils wound with #12 readings but flattopping and distortion will
wire. Other coils wound with 3(6' copper result. For operation under c -w conditions,
tubing.
the function switch may be placed in the
.o0,
sKV La Jz
Li
Ji
= 1 I
= B-
R = 20000 To 30000 OHMS. /30 WArrs
Figure 2
lune position, or amplifier loading and drive An 80 -Watt Base Station The home construc-
reduced for a current reading of approxi- Amplifier for 2 -Meter tor can build an in-
mately 500 mA. The amplifier is actuated F-M Service expensive tube -type
for VOX operation by shorting the relay amplifier for use with
control terminals. (Note: While somewhat the popular 2 -meter solid -state f -m trans-
less rugged, type 6TE6 or 6L06 may be ceiver which provides about 10 watts output.
directly substituted for the type 6MJ6). The amplifier uses two 6146Bs in a
lumped -inductance grid circuit and a par-
allel -line plate circuit. Cost of construction
A 300 -Watt PEP This is far less than an equivalent amplifier using
interesting amplifier has
Amplifier With solid -state devices. For home service, an in-
a European vogue and is
Clamp Tube widely known as the G2MA expensive power supply can power the unit.
amplifier, named after the J2
6146B L3 ANT
amateur who popularized it. The amplifier RFC 1
Figure 4
mounted at one end of the chassis, with the line so that minimum coupling exists be-
terminals projecting outwards. The interior tween the line and the choke.
of the chassis is taken up with the 6146Bs The box is covered with a bottom plate
and the plate circuit components. Placement of perforated metal and a 4 -inch square
of components on the sockets is shown in area adjacent to the 6146Bs on the flat sur-
figure 5. face of the box is cut away and the opening
The 6146Bs are screen neutralized at the covered with perforated metal to aid in air
operating frequency, the small ceramic vari- circulation.
able capacitors being mounted between pins Grid and plate circuits are tuned to the
1 and 3 of each socket. The plate line is bent operating frequency with the tubes in the
from a single length of copper tubing and sockets with the aid of a dip meter. The
short, flexible lengths of brass shim stock amplifier is neutralized with all dc power
connect the line to the plate clips of the removed by applying a small amount of ex-
tubes. The plate tuning capacitor is con- citation to the grid circuit and adjusting the
nected to the ends of the line with lengths neutralizing capacitors for minimum r -f in
of shim stock. The plate r -f choke is the plate circuit, as measured by an r -f
mounted inside the box in line with the plate voltmeter placed at the antenna terminals.
22.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
Ft.
ro ANT.
IZ6HOC
Figure 5
MECHANICAL MODIFICATION TO RELAY ARMATURE
6146B SOCKET ASSEMBLY
CONTACTS
Ceramic sockets are bolted to copper plates
fitted into cutout in aluminum chassis. Socket
grounds are made by soldering assembly rivets
to copper plate. Twin ceramic neutralizing ca- SOLDER SHORTING'
pacitors are at center, with screen chokes and STRAPS
isolating resistors at top of assembly.
4X81IA'S
PC
i
1
OI OI .001
sMV Le
--i( Ìi 1
o RFCI$ RFC2 RFC3
Ce /0
]00
TUNE
C4rNOOE 1
T.0 I
CIRCUIT'S SMV
47t
RT-I
PI
FIL
e
GND. F L PL. PL
Ìr
Figure 7
L,. L, -(0.3 uH) 6 turns »16 on National XR -50 RFC, -2 mH, 100 mA. National R -100 or equiv.
form, or equiv., slug removed from coil L.. PC -4 turns #18 wound over 47 -ohm 2 -watt com-
.,H) 13 turns, as L,. position resistor. Turns spaced the length of
L,, L,- Air -Dux pi- network assembly 195 -1. Mod- the resistor
ify as per text. Grid -dips as follows: 80 T, -6.3 volts at 16 amperes
The four 811As are cathode -driven with The amplifier is built on a chassis mea-
provisions for neutralization. Drive require- suring 10" X 17" X 3" and fits within an
ment is 80 watts PEP for full input. Each aluminum inclosure made of perforated ma-
grid of the 811A combination is at r -f terial bolted to the back of a standard relay
ground and dc grid return is completed rack -size panel. A bottom plate is made of
through a simple circuit that permits grid the perforated material. Layout of parts is
current measurement. Plate current is me- not critical provided reasonable care is taken
tered in the B -minus lead, with the negative to provide short, direct leads. The tubes are
lead of the power supply returned to the grouped at the corners of a square at one end
chassis ground of the amplifier. A built -in of the chassis and quarter -inch holes are
VOX relay provides antenna changeover for drilled around each socket to allow convec-
transceiver operation. tion air currents to flow from beneath the
22.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
chassis to help cool the tubes. The input capacitors to the given values and trimming
circuits filament transformer are
and the coil to establish resonance.
mounted below deck. The tube sockets are Injecting carrier, the amplifier is loaded to
recessed about an inch below the deck to a peak plate current of 650 mA with a maxi-
conserve vertical space. mum grid current of 100 to 120 mA. The
With the tubes in their sockets, the input amplifier is neutralized on the 10 -meter
circuits are dipped to the middle of each band. Starting with capacitor NC open (and
amateur band. The plate circuit inductor is with the top cover and bottom plate in-
dipped to frequency by setting the network stalled) the amplifier tuning capacitor should
Ja
RP Our
r
VI V2 .001
SÑV
2 L3 R
C I PC2 RFC I IMETERI
E
C1'`.7R18
Ioo o0
SIB
c _ C7 =RFC)
1500
RFC Io0
Ja
s+
100
eR RT2
iw
VJ
5R2
20n ADJ.
A w %Is
Vz
SH, LAW
2w
TUNE e- -225V
1I 5N 5e SCREEN
-+'I!$IICHI
io .
«POS v PLATE
01
r
-Fti Io
ce
= OVERLOAD
D
PLATE .01
I16RV w
Sa Fl L.
C.
1 -
2 3 s s -o
COM PLATE 4.105.315 1 S GND VOR 0-
Figure 8
ler RFC -14 CB- 500 -mA circuit breaker (Heinemann), 15-
amp service.
RFC. -2.5 mH. J. W. Miller 4537
M -0.50 dc milliamperes. Calibrate scale for
RY -Dpdt, ceramic insulation, 6.3 -volt coil 0 -50 and 0 -500 mA ranges
RY -Spst, 6.3 -volt Coil D D.- 1N4005, 600 -volt PIV, amp
, 1
be swung out of resonance while grid and vided to electrically balance the tubes to
plate current readings are observed. The neu- draw equal values of resting plate current. A
tralizing capacitance is gradually increased, built -in bias supply provides -225 volts
using an insulated tool, until maximum grid and the VOX relay permits plate current
current and minimum plate current are cutoff in the receive mode.
noted at the same setting of the tuning ca- An electron -ray peak indicator (figure 10)
pacitor. Adjustment is not critical. is incorporated in the amplifier which sam-
To limit plate dissipation, tuneup should ples the instantaneous r -f plate voltage, a
be limited to 15 second periods of time every portion of which is used for ALC voltage.
30 seconds. Under SSB modulation, grid and E
placed in the box, one end of which has a The amplifier is built on a chassis 16" X
hole cut in it to match the opening of the 12" X The under area is pressurized
blower. Cooling air is exhausted through the and the squirrel cage blower is mounted on
sockets and chimneys. The three sections of the rear wall, or top deck, depending on the
the plate tank coil are placed in the center layout. The pi- network components arc
area of the chassis behind the bandswitch. placed across the front of the chassis, with
The electron -ray tube is mounted horizon- the tubes to the rear. The input components
tally at the rear of the panel behind a thin and filament transformer arc mounted under
cutout. the chassis.
Filament voltage is checked at 6.0 volts. After assembly of the unit, tubes are
The amplifier inclosure is closed and high placed in the sockets and the various circuits
voltages are applied. One tube at a time is resonated to frequency with the aid of a
run with no drive signal and the bias ad- dip meter. Typical operating values for one
justed for a resting plate current of 100 mA. tube are listed in Table 3. Under voice mod-
Carrier is now inserted and the amplifier ulation, grid and plate currents will peak at
loaded and tuned for a maximum peak plate about one -half the listed value given for
current of 500 mA. Screen current will be single tone service.
20 to 30 mA, which includes the bleeder
current flowing through the 30K screen Table 3.
R -F Linear Amplifier Service, Class -B
resistor. Power output will run about 650 Typical Operating Dota, 3-500Z
watts on all bands. (one tube)
Once the amplifier is operating properly, DC Plate Voltage 1500 2000 2500
the electron -ray tube is adjusted to com- Zero signal Plate
pletely close at maximum PEP power input Current (mA) 65 95 130
Single Tone
by adjustment of capacitor C. Once set, DC Plate
voice peaks will just cause the eye to close. Current (mA) 400 400 400
The magnitude of the AI.0 voltage is set by Single Tone
adjustment of capacitor C, and potentiom- DC Grid
Current (mA) 130 130 120
eter R, (which controls the threshold volt- Two Tone
age) . For c -w operation, the amplifier is DC Plate
loaded to a current of 500 mA. Current (mA) 260 270 280
Two Tone
DC Grid
Current (mA) 80 80 70
3 -500Z Linear Amplifier PEP Useful Output
This amplifier uses Power (Watts) 330 500 600
for 2 -kW PEP Operation two 3 -500Zs in Resonant Load
cathode -driven op- Impedance
eration and requires 90 to 100 watts PEP (ohms) 1600 2750 3450
ntermodulation
drive power for full output (figure 11). The I
Distortion
amplifier is designed for operation with a Products (dB) -46 -38 -33
supply providing 2500 volts at a peak cur-
rent of 800 mA. Variable ALC is provided
for connection to the exciter. Plate current A Kilowatt Amplifier A single 3 -400Z will
is monitored in the B -minus lead and the for 6 Meters provide -kW input for
1
negative of the supply must be left "float- SSB and c -w service and
ing" above ground or the plate meter and about 700 watts input for f -m service at
the 15 -ohm protective resistor will be 50 MHz. Shown in figure 12 is the sche-
shorted out. matic for an amplifier expressly designed for
The two tubes are cooled by a small 6 -meter operation. A cathode -driven config-
blower. If a squirrel -cage unit is used, it uration is used with a pi -L network output
should provide 13 cubic feet /minute at a circuit. An alternative switching circuit for
back -pressure of 0.2 ". This calls for a 3" use with a transceiver is shown in figure 13.
diameter impeller and a speed of at least A power supply delivering 2500 volts at a
1600 r.p.m. The cooling air escapes through peak current of 400 mA is required for oper-
the special air -cooling sockets. ation at the maximum power level.
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.11
JI
4
INPUT .0I
4/0.
La
SIA
/0
L Ls
M
.01
I C2 Ca Cs B+
GRID PLAT
AUX AI /N.
SO K
RI
p/LC LEVEL
e+ AL
ALC OUT
00 rill
TZ
r01X-0 il. I
"CT
INTERLOCK
CABLE j
P2 Lt, J PI
ro BLOWER 2 a S / 7 B
115 115 ONO. - B. ALC VOX INT.
ALC OUT RELAY
Figure 11
The amplifier is built on a chassis mea - The input coil is made of copper tubing
suring 12" X 10" X 3" and an inclosurc with a length of #12 insulated wire passed
made of perforated aluminum sheet covers through the tubing before it is wound into
the unit. A sheet of unperforated material a coil. The plate circuit capacitors are
serves as a bottom plate. mounted directly to the chassis with the
22.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
RECEIVER
001 ANT.
5MV L2 3 RELAY ANTENNA
.3
RFC 112 50 100 RFC2 A
72 C3 Z-50
B
SA'1
C
5NV
.001
C1 3Ì1V J1 TOEXCIT. CALIBRAI
140
001
5 X TORY
.0,
0-1 MA
C
T1 PLATE
0 -500 MA 500
dñv
-1i-
50 RFC 3 RFC
2-50 Z-50
01 00
O.1
OO 000 1 --iF---
e
c -
500
eKV
ti iN
120V. GND.
J5
V
J3 J 1.
120 V.
Figure 12
PC -50 -ohm, 2 -watt composition resistor shorted across 2 inches of plate strap.
RFC -3 ..H choke. 48 turns No. 16 formvar wire closewound on 12" diameter standoff insulator.
RFC, Ohmite Z -50 choke
RY- Coaxial antenna relay.
Socket -Eimac SK -410 with SK -416 chimney
T,-5 volts at 15 A. Stancor P -6433
Note: 0.1 ..F, 600 -volt feedthrough capacitors are Sprague 80P -3.
inductors attached to the capacitor terminals. that the 3 -5007. takes an SK -406 air system
A simple r -f voltmeter monitors the output chimney.
of the amplifier.
The input and output circuits are reso-
TO EXCITER
nated to frequency with a dip -meter before OR TRANSCEIVER ANTENNA
the amplifier is energized. Under no -load J, J3
conditions, the amplifier will idle at a plate
current of about 80 mA, the current rising - +RY
to approximately 400 mA with carrier
(single -tone) insertion. Grid current runs
about 140 mA at a drive power of about 35 VT
watts, PEP. For f -m service, plate current is TO L, Figure 13 TO L3
limited to 300 mA, with a maximum grid
current rating of about 70 mA. SUGGESTED ANTENNA -RELAY
A type 3 -5007 will serve equally well in CIRCUIT FOR USING AMPLIFIER
this amplifier, the only change required is WITH TRANSCEIVER
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.13
Figure 14
001
0001 PC SKV Li L2
8875 11111
SG 50V
j00 j00 ri/NE 4 3_11 LOAD
220 RFC!
30.1.10 H CI
sei
"Erg' RFC3
SOLN
150
TC2
l
/ó
f
- eo
3KV 1100
1C3
CS VE
T
TI -T! I
1-1II
e0
6 Co
°/0 IW
3 =
SIB
IS 10 7.5 ..7 JI
rloore
R-F IN
!W
I 14W 14
J2 R -F OUT
20 120
14W 14W
RY
6 DB PAD
(2 VOX CONTROL
T6 IN4003'5 F
o
-4
100
a IOW
I
d
ADJUST
c SO eLAS
10 / o W MA
7 IN4003 i 500 A
S5 A-15
E/LAAIENT
ADJUST O %
BI
READY
S4A-B .01
TO SS-D 2 PLATE
C
I-
+
0 0 PI 0-500047
2 3 5 6
120V RV GOD B- METER
Figure 15
The Amplifier The schematic of the KW -1 the transmit relay, RY,. A series connected
Circuit amplifier is shown in figure diode in the control circuit serves to keep
15. The 8875 is operated in the relay transient voltage from upsetting
a cathode- driven mode using switchable the bias circuit. A separate filament trans-
cathode input transformers for each band former is used for the 8875 and a primary
(see Table 4) and a tapped pi- network out- potentiometer allows the voltage to be set
put circuit. A small degree of r -f feedback at 6.3 volts at the socket of the tube.
The control circuit is designed to prevent
Table 4. application of r -f drive without plate volt-
age and a 60- second time delay unit (TD)
Cathode Transformers, T, -Ts prevents plate voltage from being applied
Wound on 1/2" diameter forms, slug- tuned.
before the cathode of the tube reaches oper-
T1 -(80 Meters) 24 turns C6 C5= ating potential.
#16e. (omitted). 470pF. A single 50 -SA dc meter is used to moni-
T2-(40 Meters) 17 turns C6= C5= tor grid current, high voltage, and relative
#16e. 510pf. 310pF. power output. Grid current is read across a
S- percent resistor in the grid -bias return
T3 -(20 Meters) 91/2 turns C6= C5=
#18e. 360pf. 200pF. lead. Plate voltage is read indirectly across
the last resistor in the power- supply bleeder
T4 -(15 Meters) 41/2 turns C6 C5= string. The full -scale meter readings are 50
#18e. (omitted). 75pF.
mA and 5000 volts for grid current and
Ts -(10 Meters) 31/2 turns C6 C5= plate voltage respectively.
#18e. (omitted). 68pF.
The KW -1 Mark III amplifier plate cir-
is incorporated in the design by the choice of cuit is a conventional pi- network arrange-
the 200 -pF grid bypass capacitors on the ment with additional plate tuning capaci-
tube, placing the grid above r -f ground by tance (CO added to the circuit on the
the small voltage drop created across a di- 80 -meter band by means of switch S2. The
vider formed by the plate -grid and grid - plate coil is divided into two sections; the
ground capacitances. smaller, air -wound coil being used for 10 and
The power gain of the 8875 is quite high 15 meters and the larger coil for 20, 40, and
and -even with the r -f feedback-only 25 80 meters. The network is designed to match
watts PEP drive power is required. A re- a nominal 50 -ohm load having an SWR of 3
sistive T -pad is included in the input circuit or less. An additional loading capacitance
which raises the drive level to about 100 (C,) is automatically switched into the
watts PEP to accommodate some of the circuit for 80 -meter operation.
higher power SSB exciters. The pad may be
omitted if a lower driving level is desired.
Because the grid of the 8875 is not at Amplifier The amplifier is built on an
ground potential, a safety gap (surge ar- Construction aluminum chassis measuring
restor) is placed from grid to ground (SG1), 12" X 8" X 21/4". Inclo-
which will ionize and "fire" when the grid sure height is 7 ". Front and back panels of
potential exceeds the breakdown voltage of the box are cut from '/R" aluminum and the
the gap. This protects the grid and cathode U- shaped cover is made of thin aluminum
of the tube from transient voltages that sheet. A 6" X 3" perforated aluminum
may develop in the circuit. plate is riveted in a cutout in the top of the
Since the 8875 has a separate cathode, the cover to allow cooling air to escape from
filament may be isolated from the input cir- the inclosure. Angle stock is bolted around
cuit. It is not necessary in the hf region, the top and side edges of the front and rear
but a special trifilar filament choke is used panels as a mounting surface for the cover.
to permit the cathode to be returned to dc The two meters are inclosed in a cut
ground, as shown in the schematic. down minibox which serves as an r -f shield
Resting plate current of the 8875 is set and an I.- shaped bracket shields the filament
by the Adjust Bias potentiometer. A built -in transformer and antenna relay from the am-
bias supply also provides control voltage for plifier output circuitry.
22.16 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 16
Placement of the major components may 49022 under the identification number giv-
be seen in figure 16. The 8875 is positioned en in the parts list. Other similar compon-
carefully in front of the orifice of the blower ents will work as well as the particular parts
and about one inch away. Six quarter -inch used in this amplifier.
holes are drilled in the chassis around the
tube socket to allow under -chassis air to be Transmitter The schematic of the KW -1
drawn up by convection to cool the base Power Supply Mark III power supply is
of the tube. shown in figure 18. A multi -
The cathode tuned circuits (T1, T;) and conductor cable connects the supply to the
the time delay relay are mounted on an amplifier along with the high voltage lead,
under -chassis shield plate, as seen in figure which is run in RG -59 /U coax. The fila-
17. The resistors making up the input atten- ment switch on the panel of the amplifier
uator are mounted immediately to the rear controls the primary power circuit and the
of this plate on two phenolic terminal strips. time delay relay and plate switch activate
Many of the components used in this the transmit relay control circuitry. The
amplifier are replacement parts for the power supply is energized by grounding the
Heath SB -200 linear amplifier and were VOX control terminal on the rear of the
ordered directly from the Service Depart- amplifier chassis. The power supply provides
ment, Heath Co., Benton Harbor, Michigan approximately 2500 volts under no- signal
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.17
1 0. V
PI II!
Figure 11
conditions and 2100 volts at a peak plate slug cores of the cathode transformers are
current of 450 milliamperes. The dynamic adjusted to midband resonance for each
characteristics of the power supply allow position of the bandchange switch.
the amplifier to develop about 20'; greater The adjust bias potentiometer is set for
peak SSB envelope power for a given level maximum grid bias and filament voltage is
of c -w input. The power supply utilizes a applied to the 8875 and checked at the
voltage doubler circuit and incorporates socket. Caution: The cabinet cover should
high voltage metering. Supply voltage is now be bolted in place as high voltage points
checked with a meter of known accuracy are exposed in the amplifier.
and the meter calibrate potentiometer is ad- An exciter and dummy load are attached
justed to provide the same reading on the to the amplifier and high voltage applied.
panel meter of the amplifier. The VOX circuit should be energized by
grounding the VOX terminal. The ampli-
fier is now ready to be tuned up. After the
Amplifier Tuning Wiring should be com- time -delay relay has closed, the bias poten-
and Adjustment pletely checked before tiometer is adjusted for a resting plate cur-
power is applied. The rent of about 25 mA. A small amount of
approximate settings of the plate tank cir- carrier is applied to the amplifier as a tuning
cuit should be determined for each band signal until about 150 mA of plate current
with the aid of a grid -dip oscillator. The is indicated. The amplifier is tuned to res-
22.18 RADIO HANDBOOK
22 -4 A Modern 3 -1000Z
Linear Amplifier for
46.\'\\ Figure 18
80 -10 Meters
This compact and rugged linear amplifier
is designed for continuous duty operation at
CLOSEUP OF 8875 SOCKET WIRING the maximum legal input power on c -w, SSB
To the right of the socket is the small glass - or RTTY. Designed and built by Jerry Pit-
encapsulated spark gap connected between grid tenger, K8UNG, the unit uses a single 3-
terminals and the chassis. The trifilar filament
choke is in the foreground. 1000Z high -mu triode in a cathode driven
circuit. "Grounded grid" service is espe-
onance and peaked for maximum reading on cially attractive as maximum input may be
the output meter. Once resonance is estab- run with a plate potential as low as 2500
lished, the tuning and loading controls are volts, yet the power gain of the tube is high
adjusted for maximum output as the driving enough to allow sideband exciters of the
signal is gradually increased. The loading "100- watt" class to drive it to full output.
capacitor should be near full capacitance Neutralization is unnecessary up to 30 MHz
for 80 and 40 meters, about 60 percent as the excellent internal shielding of the
meshed for 20 meters and slightly less for 3 -1000Z reduces intrastage feedback to a
Ti D2
+2500V.
Figure 19
POWER SUPPLY,
KW -1 AMPLIFIER
METER
T,- 117 -volt primary. 820 -volt,
0.5- ampere secondary (54.151)
D D, -Each leg: Five 1N4005
5 e- diodes. Place .01 F,
1.6 -kV
disc capacitor and 100K, 1-
4 GND. watt resistor across each
diode
3 PLATE RY2-24 -volt dc coil, DPDT
RELAY
2 120 V.
I 120V.
120 V. ti
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22,19
minimum. Distortion products of this am- The Amplifier Circuit The 3-1000Z ampli-
plifier are better than 35 dB below one tone fier covers all amateur
of a two -tone test signal at maximum PEP bands between 3.5 and 29.7 MHz with gen-
level. A tuned cathode tank is used for erous overlaps. Bandswitching circuits are
greatest linearity and power output. Special used and the amplifier is designed to operate
attention has been given in the construction into a coaxial antenna system of 50 to 70
of the amplifier to protective shielding and ohms having an swr of less than 3. The
lead filtering to reduce TVI- producing har- schematic of the amplifier is given in figure
monics to a minimum (figure 20). A simple. 21.
solid -state power supply is also included in The r -f deck is shown in figure 22A -B.
the equipment. The driving impedance of the 3 -1000Z is
approximately 55 ohms, providing a close
match to either a 50- or 70 -ohm coaxial sys-
tem. The tuned cathode circuit prevents
input waveform distortion caused by the
half-cycle loading of the amplifier, which
operates in a near class -B mode. Filament
voltage is fed to the 3 -1000Z through a
conventional bifilar, ferrite -core r -f choke.
Plate current metering is accomplished in
the B -minus power lead to remove dangerous
anode potentials from the meter circuit. The
resting plate current of the tube is reduced
by means of a 7.5 -volt, 50 -watt zener diode
in the cathode circuit, and for standby
operation the cathode voltage is raised by
a bias resistor which is inserted in the circuit
by the iu /out relay, RY,C. The relay shorts
out the resistor to allow normal operation of
the stage when actuated by the VOX cir-
cuit. The grid terminals of the 3 -1000Z are
directly grounded and grid current is mea-
sured in the cathode return circuit.
A pi- network plate tank circuit is used,
with an additional loading capacitor switch-
ed in for 80 -meter operation into low values
of load impedances. In addition, a diode
voltmeter is included to monitor the relative
power level of the amplifier.
Figure 20 The amplifier plate coil is a modified com-
mercial unit retapped to provide a loaded
3 -1000Z LINEAR AMPLIFIER circuit Q of approximately 10 on all bands
FOR 80 -100 METERS with a plate potential of 3200 volts and a
This deluxe amplifier runs full legal input for
plate current of 600 milliamperes. A suit-
SSB, RTTY, or SSTV service on the high -fre- able value of Q is maintained on c -w by
quency bands. A single 3 -1000Z high -u triode is lowering the plate potential to 2500 volts
used in cathode -driven service. The amplifier
(with cover removed) sits atop the power sup- by means of a variable voltage transformer
ply pedestal. On the panel of the amplifier are in the primary circuit of the high -voltage
(left to right): Plate, grid, and r -f output meters;
the tune and load controls; and the bandswitch. power supply.
Below the bandswitch are the primary and The 3 -1000Z requires forced -air cooling
in /out control switches. to maintain the base seals at a temperature
The pedestal contains the variable voltage
transformer at center, the plate voltmeter and below 200 °C and the plate seal at a tempera-
the main pilot lamp assembly at right. Oversize ture below 225 °C. When using an Eintac
casters permit the operator to move the ampli-
fier about with ease. SK -510 socket and SK -506 air system chim-
22.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
RY IA RY i B
Figure 21
ney, a minimum air flow of 25 cubic feet Vdc supply which is used to energize relay
per minute is required at a back pressure of RY, through the auxiliary VOX contacts.
0.2 S inches of water. Cooling air must be The filament transformer for the 3 -1000Z
supplied to the tube as long as the filament and the air blower come on simultaneously
is lit. when S, is thrown. The cutoff bias resistor
Cooling is accomplished by a 31/2-inch in series with the cathode zener diode is
diameter impeller running at a speed of shorted out by the VOX circuit and relay
3200 rpm. The squirrel cage blower is contacts RY,C.
mounted on the bottom plate of the chassis The power supply for the amplifier is
and extends downward into the power -sup- shown in figure 24. A 240 -volt primary cir-
ply pedestal. The chassis is pressurized, and cuit is recommended, although the ampli-
the air is exhausted through the socket and fier could operate from a well -regulated
chimney and past the anode of the tube, 120 -volt circuit. Relay RY, is a step -start
which is equipped with an Eimac HR -8 heat device which allows the charging current of
dissipating anode connector.
Amplifier Power Supply and Controls
The control circuit of the 3 -1000Z amplifier
- the capacitor bank to be reduced by virtue
of the primary resistor (33 ohms, 60 watts),
which is shorted out of the circuit after a
is shown in figure 23. Primary power enters few milliseconds.
the control circuitry via terminals 7 and 8. A 10 -ohm, 10 -watt safety resistor is in-
Switch S, is the on off control switch and cluded in the B -plus circuit from the sup-
switch S2 (amp. in /out) activates the 25- ply to the amplifier. In case of a flashover in
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.21
the amplifier, the resistor will absorb the through capacitors. All cables entering or
surge and protect the rectifier bridge and leaving the r -f deck pass through pi- section
the amplifier components from the heavy r -f filters. The majority of wiring utilizes
short current. shielded cables.
Atop the chassis, the antenna switching
relay (RY,) is inclosed in a small aluminum
Amplifier Construction The r -f deck of the utility box at the rear corner of the chassis.
amplifier is built on The box is insulated on the interior with
an aluminum chassis measuring 12" X 17" 1/2-inch thick cork tile, and the relay is
X 3" and uses a dual front panel. The main mounted on small rubber grommets. The
panel is 19" wide and 14" high and is spaced cork tile, plus the rubber mounting are very
2 1/2" away from the amplifier inclosure. The effective in eliminating relay noise and buzz.
under -chassis area is divided into two com- This relay switches the amplifier in and out
partments by a vertical shield. One com- of the antenna circuit and also removes the
partment contains all wiring necessary for standby bias during operation.
the 3 -1000Z socket. The other compartment The variable vacuum tuning capacitor
contains the input circuitry, power line and counter dial are mounted on the center-
filters and small, auxiliary components. The line of the assembly, directly above the load-
dual front panels allow space for the meters, ing capacitor. Placement of the other com-
power control wiring and facilitate struc- ponents may be seen in figure 22A -B.
tural support. The tube, filament transform- The pi- network inductor incorporates its
er, antenna switching relay, and pi- network own switch and the input bandswitch is
components are mounted atop the chassis. ganged to the plate bandswitch by means of
All electrical wiring from one compartment a chain drive system mounted in the space
to another passes through 1000 -pF feed- between the front panels. The plate inductor
22.22 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 22B
LEFT- OBLIQUE VIEW OF POWER AMPLIFIER
is a Barker -Williamson 850A modified to strap passed through the socket slots near
obtain optimum efficiency. The 10 -meter each grid pin.
strap inductor is discarded and a new 10-
meter coil wound using 1/4-inch copper tub-
ing. The coil has an inner diameter of 13/,s" Power Supply The r -f deck is mounted on a
and consists of 5 turns equally spaced out to Construction pedestal which contains the
3 inches. The coil is silver plated. components of the high -volt-
As purchased, the 850A unit provides too age power supply. Pedestal height is 24 ".
much inductance on 40 and 80 meters. Ac- Because of the weight of the components,
cordingly, four turns are removed from the the pedestal is constructed of 1/4-inch angle
far end of the 80 -meter wire portion of the aluminum welded together in the form of a
inductor and the 40 -meter meter tap is rectangle with a sloping top which provides
moved three turns closer to the tubing por- a slight tilt for the r -f deck. A piece of
tion of the inductor. Connections to the 1/4-inch thick plywood is placed at the bot-
inductor are made with 1/4-inch wide silver tom of the frame to support the power -
plated copper strap. supply components (figure 26).
Beneath the chassis, the ferrite r -f fila- The sides and front of the pedestal are
ment choke is supported at one end by the covered with wrinkled aluminum sheet,
filament terminals of the air socket and at available at many large hardware stores. The
the other end by the mica bypass capacitors, aluminum is held to the frame with sheet -
which are held to the chassis deck by means metal screws and the front corners covered
of heavy angle straps (figure 25). The bot- with 1/4-inch angle aluminum. The rear panel
tom flange of the socket is cut off to allow of the pedestal is made of 1/16-inch alumi-
better air flow and the grid terminals are num sheet. A small jig was drilled in a piece
grounded using short lengths of copper of scrap steel and used CO drill the ventilat-
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.23
1
01
I SENS=
I --
-1.
T SIL
I---- so
-- - - --
N
Fil -r -
I
PRI -GOMMO
I I TI NOTE
ALL POWER LEAD
RYICy CAPACITORS ARE
OIUE /I
OP?.
ALL CHORES l9
TURNS N
I AWIR
7o1 1 /2" DIAMETER
T IOW
77V
ISO
1-*
I 1I I
-lI~
I
¡- I1 - J11 ¡
IO
IN /OUT 120 VAC
FIL FIL. e- CONTROL
GUND 120 vAC
FROM POWER TO RYE
TS1 POWER SUPPLY
SUPPLY
NOTE ALL PEEDTHRU CAPACITORS TRANSMIT
.001 CERAMIC, 600 VOLTS = CONTROL
Figure 23
ing holes in the rear panel, as shown in figure Amplifier Adjustment After wiring is com-
27. pleted and checked,
The amplifier is covered with a shield the cathode and plate circuits should be
made out of perforated aluminum bent into resonated to frequency using a dip- meter.
a U- shape. The outer, decorative shield is The cathode circuits may also be resonated
cut from l4c,, -inch aluminum and a large by temporarily wiring a 60 -ohm composi-
ventilating hole is cut in it over the top of tion resistor on the socket from a grid ter-
the tube. The hole is covered with per- minal to ground with the tube removed.
forated aluminum stock. With a small signal applied, the coil slugs
The front panel of the amplifier is cov- can be adjusted for minimum SWR on the
ered with common black leather (plastic) driving line on each band.
upholstery material. A thin film of white The next step is to place the tube in the
glue holds the material to the panel. After socket and activate the blower and light the
drying thoroughly, all holes are cut in the filament. The filament voltage should be
plastic with a razor blade. Dry transfer checked at the tube socket. If the filament
lettering is then applied directly to the transformer primary is tapped, the tap
panel. should be set for the correct voltage, allow-
22.24 RADIO HANDBOOK
240
VAC
ALL
-01
ALL
470K
CI RI RI-Rio= WI
0 W
I
3ÑV W
c2T R2
C3j1 R3
T
o
I
RIO
Figure 24
Figure 25
UNDERCHASSIS VIEW
OF 3 -1000Z LINEAR
AMPLIFIER
The tube socket and filament
r -f choke are at left, with the
zener diode mounted to a
small heat sink immediately
above the socket. At the right
is the small compartment hold-
ing the tuned input circuits.
The coil slugs are adjustable
through holes drilled in the
cover. Connections to the tun-
ed circuit are made via lengths
of coaxial line and a T- fitting.
The filter networks for the pri-
mary power leads are in the
foreground.
ing for the voltage drop in the filament the Electronic Test Equipment chapter, to
choke. satisfy the requirements of the FCC. With
Amplifier adjustment is initially done into filament and operating plate voltage applied,
a dummy load, such as the one described in grid- and plate- current meters should read
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.25
Figure 26
REAR VIEW OF
PEDESTAL AND
POWER SUPPLY
The power-supply components
are mounted on a sheet of ply-
wood at the bottom of the ped-
estal. The filter capacitors and
diode rectifier assembly are at
left, with the relay controls in
the foreground.
Figure 27
zero when the amplifier is switched out of conditions have been met, the loading is
the line. Shorting the in /out control ter- increased slightly to ensure nroocr linearity.
minals (figure 24) engages the antenna The amnlifier is now properly tuned for 2-
relay. In this mode, grid current with no kW PEP operating conditions. Under speech
drive should be zero. Plate current should conditions, peak plate current with no clip-
read appoximately 120 milliamperes (the ping will kick to about 300 mA and grid
exact value varying from tube to tube). If current will be approximately one -third this
grid current is observed, it is probably a value.
sign of parasitic oscillation, and the circuit
should be examined for parasitic resonances
and the plate parasitic choke checked before 22 -5 The TMN 2 -kW PEP
additional tests are run. Linear Amplifier
Drive power can now be slowly increased
to raise the plate current to about 250 mA. The linear amplifier described in this sec-
Tuning and loading controls are adjusted tion is a deluxe 2 -kW PEP, class AB_ grid -
for maximum power output as indicated on driven amplifier using the low distortion
the relative output power meter. Excitation 4CX 15 00B tube (figure 28) . This is a cer-
and loading are now increased until ap- amic- metal, forced -air cooled tetrode having
proximately 600 mA plate current and 200 a maximum plate dissipation of 1500 watts.
mA grid current are achieved, with maxi- It is designed for exceptionally low inter -
mum output indicated. When the above modulation in SSB service. Typically, at a
Figure 28
plate potential of 2750 volts and a plate 29. In order to achieve maximum stability,
current of 730 mA (2 -kW PEP input) the the screen element of the tube is run at r -f
third -order intermodulation distortion prod- ground potential. Screen voltage is applied
ucts are better than 40 decibels below one to the tube by grounding the positive ter-
tone of a two -tone test signal. Under these minal of the screen power supply and "float-
conditions, the useful power output is better ing" the screen and bias supplies below
than 1100 watts, allowing for normal tank ground. A special socket is used for the
circuit losses. 4CX1500B which provides a low- inductance
This amplifier is designed and built by screen to ground path.
John Ehler, W5TMN, as a companion unit The Input Circuit-The grid drive re-
to the low power, solid -state exciter de- quirement of the 4CX1500B is about 1.5
scribed in chapter 20 of this Handbook. The watts PEP for full output. The 5 -watt input
amplifier features very high power gain and signal is fed to the tube through a four -to-
very stable operation on all amateur bands one wideband ferrite transformer which
between 3.5 MHz and 29.7 MHz. Well steps up the impedance from 50 to 200
suited for use with a solid -state driver, the ohms. Five 1.2K, two -watt composition re-
amplifier will deliver full output with less sistors in parallel (R1) plus the 1.2K resistor
than 5 watts PEP drive signal. in the bias line provide a 200 -ohm terminat-
ing load. The relatively high input capaci-
tance of the 4CX1500B is resonated on each
The Amplifier CircuitThe 4CX1500B is used band by a small inductor switched by S.
in a passive -grid cir- The O of the tuned circuit is quite low and
cuit of the type shown in chapter 21. The complete coverage of each amateur band is
schematic of the amplifier is shown in figure possible without retuning.
Table 5.
Coil and Tuning Data
L5 -6 turns #10 spaced 0.25" plus 10 turns #10 spaced 0.18 ", 11/2" inside diameter.
Figure 29
] y22o
165
potentiometer) .
PF
] s PF
1_
1
1.11.1Y
A 1N914 1
MMY
IN914
With the screen element of the tube I
=
placed at dc ground, the cathode circuit r
and the negative side of the plate supply 1LF
are connected to the negative side of the
screen supply. Thus, the cathode is 225 volts 2Se 56 1(
TO -225 AC%ISOOB
the tube to draw only a few milliamperes of SCREEN SUPPLY
V. TO
FIL. XFMR
cathode current.
The Output Circuit pi -L network is-A Figure 30
used in the output circuit as it provides ELECTRON RAY TUBE PEAK
about 15 dB more harmonic attenuation INDICATOR AND ALC CIRCUITRY
than does the conventional pi- network. A
The 6FG6 /EM -84 indicator is used as an r -f
variable vacuum capacitor is used for the peak -level indicator in the TMN amplifier. R -f
plate tuning capacitor because the very voltage is sampled, rectified, and applied to the
small minimum capacitance (5 pF) permits gate (pin 1) of the indicator. The pattern is
formed between the deflection elements (pins
the circuit Q to be held to a reasonable value 6 and 7) and appears as a green line on the
on 10 meters. A design Q of 10 is used, screen. Amplitude of indication is adjustable
by means of mica compression capacitor C,.
rising to 12 at the high end of the 10 -meter ALC control voltage is taken from a separate
band. diode and level of control is set by the "Adjust
ALC" potentiometer. Electron -ray tube anode
Table 5 lists the design values and coil voltage is taken from screen power supply,
data for the output circuit. whose positive terminal is grounded.
Monitoring Circuit- Complete metering
of the amplifier operation is provided by (figure 30). The instantaneous r -f plate
two meters and an electron -ray tuning tube voltage of the amplifier is sampled by a
22.30 RADIO HANDBOOK
capacitive voltage divider. A portion of the ment of resister R_ in series with the fila-
voltage is rectified and may be used for auto- ment transformer primary. In no case should
matic load control voltage for the exciter. the voltsee be allowed to exceed 5 percent
A second sample of voltage is used to en- above or below the rated value for maximum
ergize the 6FG6 electron -ray tube mounted tube life. The cathode and one side of the
on the front panel of the amplifier. The tube filament are connected internally within the
is used to establish proper plate circuit load- tube.
ing. Under no- signal conditions, the pattern
of the tube is open, gradually closing with
increasing signal voltage until at maximum Power Supply Circuitry The schematic for
voltage the pattern is closed, showing a solid the power supply is
green bar in the viewing portion of the shown in figure 31. Fusing of the low- and
tube. This indication corresponds to maxi- high -voltage circuits is provided and an in-
mum amplifier PEP input. The sensitivity of rush current limiting circuit (RY:,) is used
both the ALC and electron -ray tube circuits in the primary circuit of the high- voltage
is adjustable by means of the capacitive supply. The circuit holds the charging cur-
divider. rent to a safe value when the supply is first
A 0 -1 dc ammeter is used to register plate turned on. An auxiliary plug and receptacle
current and a 0 -1 dc milliameter with the are provided for the connection of a variable
movement reworked to show zero at 30 per- voltage transformer to allow lower plate
cent of full scale is used for the multimeter. voltage for c -w operation. The high- voltage
Control Circuits-Overcurrent protection rectifier is a conventional full -wave, voltage
is provided by a 3 -pole, double -throw relay doubler with series -connected electrolytic
(RY,) whose 24 -volt dc coil is placed in capacitors used for the filter section. The
series with the negative plate supply return. screen power supply is a full -wave configur-
A 20 -ohm resistor in parallel with the coil ation with choke input filter. A low resist-
causes the circuit to latch -off at a plate cur- ance choke, such as the one listed, should
rent of 0.9 ampere. The plate supply pri- be used for best screen voltage regulation.
mary switch must be turned off and then The two filament windings on the screen
back on to return the amplifier to normal supply power transformer (Ti;) may be con-
operation. nected to either aid or oppose the primary
Amplifier screen voltage is removed for winding to adjust the screen potential to
tuneup by means of switch S, (tune -op- 225 volts.
erate). The positive lead of the screen supply
is broken, however the screen to cathode Amplifier Construction The TMN amplifier
path is maintained by the bleeder resistor. is built to fit within
Inclusion of this resistor is impera /ire, since a Bud Prestige cabinet. The r-f section is in
the screen voltage must be maintained posi- an inclosure having a perforated cover, and
tive for any value of screen current that the panel is a standard 83/4" high rack panel.
may be encountered. As with most high gain Views of the amplifier assembly are shown
tetrode tubes, the 4CX1S00B exhibits nega- in figures 32 and 33. The r -f circuitry is
tive screen current under certain operating assembled in a separate inclosure measuring
conditions (notably, when plate loading is 12" X 11 %2" X 8 %" which is spaced
insufficient). Dangerously high values of 21/4" behind the front panel to allow spacc
plate current may flow if the screen voltage for the panel meters and counter dials. The
rises under conditions of low or negative plate tuning capacitor is driven off- center
screen current. The bleeder resistor stabilizes from its counter dial by a miniature gear
the screen potential even when the screen and roller chain combination providing a
lead to the supply is broken and external 2 -to -1 reduction ratio. The loading capa-
screen voltage is zero. citor, whose shaft is lower than that of the
The rated heater voltage for the counter dial, is also driven by a chain and
4CX 1 S OOB is 6.0 volts and the voltage, as gear reduction system to provide correct
me -sured at the tube socket, should be main- alignment and to allow better resolution
tained between 5.8 and 6.0 volts by adjust- when presetting the loading after changing
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.31
2044C
2A
NV SWITCH
ID
10 A
300 3000 V ,,,
R Y3
IN DIE C5 RI
~Ì
..Ir-4
4007
2.700
Son Ce 2
10 A. LJ
40w VA RIAC
INPUT
QRYI
HV SWITC
NJ --o
14000. CH
20W T6 IN4007 A.
SCR -a
-SCR -o
GIND
1
TUNE /OPR SWITCH
-D 4
PI
Figure 31
bands. The frames of the counter mechan- from the switch shaft to the panel knob is
isms are mounted to the front of the r -f made by a flexible coupling.
inclosure on 13/4" threaded shafts and the The pi- section of the plate tank coil is
control shafts extend through holes in the supported by a strip of 3/g -inch thick teflon
front panel. sheet with notches cut in the edge to posi-
Within the r -f compartment, the tion the turns. The notches are made by
4CX1 S00B socket is mounted on a subchassis drilling holes in the material and then cut-
measuring 43/4" X 8 1/4" X 3 1/4" placed at ting through the center line of the holes.
the rear. The plate tuning capacitor is on The coil is wound from %6 -inch copper
top of, and the loading capacitor beneath, tubing and #8 copper wire. Copper strap
the extended top surface of the subchassis. 3g -inch wide is used for the tap connections
The main bandswitch is mounted to the on the coil and all joints are silver soldered
front wall of the subchassis, with its shaft before plating. The L- section of the plate
extending through the wall into the sub- inductor is similarly constructed and mount-
chassis to drive the smaller wafer switch for ed at right angles underneath the main coil.
the inout circuit. Flats are filed on this shaft An underview of the chassis and closeup
to align the switch sections. Connection of the grid circuit compartment are shown
22.32 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 32
TOP VIEW OF
AMPLIFIER
The 4CX1500B and auxiliary
plate circuit components are
mounted on a small chassis at
the left, rear of the enclosure.
The plate tuning capacitor is
mounted on a bracket fastened
to an extension of the top
plate of the chassis. At the
rear right of the amplifier is
the sampling capacitor for the
electron -ray tube and the shield
for the circuit components for
the r -f voltage divider.
The pi -L coils are in the open
area at the front of the tube
chassis, directly above the
bandswitch. The high -voltage
meter resistor is at the left of
the enclosure, along with a
short section of coaxial line
that joins the output circuit
to the coaxial connector at the
rear of the amplifier. At the
side of the amplifier are the
squirrel -cage blower, filament
transformer and control cir-
cuitry.
Top and bottom of the enclo-
sure are made of perforated
metal plate to provide ample
cooling of the tube and com-
ponents. The coaxial antenna
relay is mounted on the rear
of the box.
Figure 33
UNDERCHASSIS VIEW
OF AMPLIFIER
The bandswitch assembly, coil
support and pi- network capaci-
tor are shown, with the sub -
chassis for the 4CX1500B sock-
et at upper left. The panel
has been partially removed to
show the mounting of the two
counter dials.
in figures 33 and 34. All grid circuit com- with a .001 -µF mica capacitor placed in
ponents shown inside the dotted line at the parallel with a .01 -µF mica capacitor. Addi-
left side of the amplifier schematic diagram tional low frequency filtering of the cathode
are mounted inside the small subchassis. lead is provided by the -p.F, 400 -volt nyIar
1
Each of the three tabs for the heater and capacitor mounted outside the grid com-
heater /cathode socket terminals is bypassed partment.
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.33
Figure 34
:
between two thin copper plates. Note the multi-
ple bypass capacitors on each socket terminal. u
s, ß
Iq,.
c ar
All other grid circuit components are a cutout for the capacitor connection to
within the inclosure, and the various auxili- pass through covers these circuits and pro-
ary components are mounted on the outside, tects them from the strong r -f field of the
left wall of the inclosure. All leads passing plate circuit. The electron -ray tuning indi-
from the inside to the outside are bypassed cator and the rest of the components as-
by means of a 1500 -pF ceramic feedthrough sociated with it are mounted on a bracket
capacitor in parallel with a .01 -p.F, 1 -kV behind the front panel.
disc capacitor. The control toggle switches are mounted
The blower inlet is covered with a screen in a row across the lower left portion of the
made from a small piece of 1/4-inch thick panel with a 28 -volt indicator lamp above
aluminum "honeycomb" material. This, in each switch. Power for these indicators is
addition to the careful bypassing of all taken from the bias transformer (T_) and
power leads, result in a "clean" amplifier, an extra pole on each switch is used to turn
free of harmonics and interference problems on the indicator.
(figure 35).
The sampling components for the ALC Power Supply Power supply construction is
and electron -ray tube are located on the Construction straightforward. As shown in
rear wall of the r -f inclosure with feed - figures 36 and 37, the plate
through capacitors used for all interconnec- transformer, screen supply transformer, fil-
tions. The -pF sampling capacitor is made
1 ter choke and filter capacitor are mounted
of two 1 -inch square aluminum plates atop a steel chassis measuring 11" X 17"
spaced about 1/4 -inch apart. A shield having X 3 ". All other components are mounted
^- NMI ,ofi]
I ?
1
Figure 35
SIDE OF THE
AMPLIFIER SHOWING
BLOWER
The blower motor, impeller
housing, and 25 -volt transfor- a
mer are to the left, with the
filament transformer and as-
sociated power wiring at cen-
ter. The control relay is next
to the transformer.
at
22.34 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 36
TOP VIEW OF
POWER SUPPLY
The filter capacitor bank and
compensating resistors are at
center, with the screen supply
components to the side. Steel
handles on the ends of the
powersupply chassis assist the
operator to move the heavy
unit about. Front and back
panels are attached to the
chassis, which is covered with
a Ushaped aluminum plate.
under the chassis except the high -voltage for protection against voltage surges on the
capacitors which are mounted to a 0.123" power line.
thick fiberglas printed circuit board having Type HN coaxial connectors and RG-
the interconnection pattern on the bottom 11 A/U coaxial cable are used to intercon-
side and the equalizing resistors on the top nect the high voltage to the r -f unit and
side. A similar piece of phenolic board is 12 -pin connectors are used for the control
placed under the capacitor bank to insulate lines. An air conditioner extension cord with
it from the chassis. Placement of the com- the receptacle end removed provides con-
ponents beneath the chassis is not critical, nection to the primary power source.
provided the high -voltage circuits are suffi-
ciently insulated from the rest of the com- Amplifier Adjustment Before power is ap-
ponents and wiring. plied to the amplifier,
The solid -state rectifiers are mounted on zero the counter dials with the capacitors
a large, phenolic board near the center of set at maximum capacity value. Then, pre-
the chassis. Any rectifiers, or stack of recti- set the dials to the approximate values given
fiers, can be used as long as they have a in Table 5 for the band in use.
one -cycle surge rating of 30 amperes, or Remove the fuses from the plate trans-
better, and will handle 1 ampere forward former primary circuit and remove the
current at a peak inverse voltage rating of 4CX1S00B from its socket. After carefully
5000 volts. A high PIN' rating is desirable checking all wiring and interconnections,
Figure 37
UNDERCHASSIS VIEW
OF POWER SUPPLY
Rectifier bank is mounted on
a phenolic plate spaced away
from the chassis. Power relay,
step -start relay and various
primary circuit components are
mounted to the wall of the
chassis. Inner conductor of RG-
59/U cable is used for high -
voltage wiring.
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.35
Part II
(grounded -grid) configuration provides ex- At a plate potential of 3 kV, the third -
cellent efficiency and linearity with a peak order intermodulation products at maximum
drive power requirement of about SO watts. power output are 40 decibels below one tone
The amplifier and power supply are self -con- of a two -tone test signal.
tained in a single console and the design fea-
tures a built -in r -f wattmeter for monitoring
forward and reflected power, ALC control of The Amplifier Circuit The schematic of the
the exciter, sequenced relay switching and r -f deck of the ampli-
several protective features to safeguard the fier console is shown in figure 39. The 8877
8877 and power supply components against is operated with the grid at r -f ground
malfunction or improper use. potential with bias supplied in the cathode
return circuit. The drive signal is coupled
through relay RY,A and a pi- network cir-
cuit to the cathode of the 8877. The input
network (C1, L1 and C,) operates at a Q of
1, which is sufficient to preserve the wave-
form of the input signal during the variation
of the 8877 cathode impedance during each
r -f cycle. An r -f choke is used to isolate the
r -f drive from the grid- metering and bias
circuitry.
The filament of the 8877 is internally
insulated from the cathode and can be placed
at, or near, ground potential, thus elimi-
nating the expensive bifilar filament choke;
only a small cathode r -f choke is required.
During standby, the 8877 is biased to near
cutoff by a 10K resistor in the cathode re-
turn lead. During amplifier operation, the
resistor is shorted by a set of contacts on
relay RY,, while a zener diode (Z,) provides
7.5 volts of operating bias. A 1- ampere fuse
in the cathode return protects the tube from
excessive plate current, while a 500 -ohm
safety resistor prevents the voltage at the
cathode from soaring if either the fuse or
the zener diode fails.
Metering Circuilr) -Grid current flows
from the cathode of the 8877 to the grid
(ground) through a 3.3 -ohm resistor (R,)
and the voltage developed across this resistor
is used to obtain grid current metering and
Figure 38 also to provide a reference voltage for the
HF LINEAR AMPLIFIER WITH 8877
grid protection circuit. During normal am-
plifier operation the voltage across R, is in-
This high power linear amplifier covers 80-10 sufficient to permit transistor Q, to conduct.
meters at 2 kW PEP input. Using a siigle 8877
high -mu ceramic -metal triode in a grounded - If the grid current of the 8877 rises to about
grid circuit, the unit provides maximum out- 180 mA, however, then Q, conducts and
put with a peak drive requirement of 50 watts. returns to ground one side of the grid over-
Amplifier and power supply are self -contained
in a roll -about console. Controls and meters load relay (RY,), which then latches itself
are (top): Plate current meter, plate tuning closed, illuminating the front panel reset
control, and plate loading control. Below are:
Multimeter and selector switch, power and in/ button and interrupting the VOX line. Press-
out switches, bandswitch, and power reset but- ing the grid reset button unlatches the relay
ton. Console is made up of prefabricated chan- and permits normal operation of the ampli-
nel stock and aluminum panels. The rack is
painted black with dark gray panels. fier to resume. A 10 -µF capacitor across the
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.37
I J2
TO ALC ouT
RY1A
88;1
J1 2,3,4,6,7
RI RFC4
IN
C3 52
D
0 0
eJO RFC
71 S
300
ORV
,000
2v
5 is CIyDI RFC
IIM
f.7
01
_ .001
MULTIMETER
2
3
4
5
=
'
'
w GN NOL TA GE
GRID CURRENT
3000W FWD
300 w. RE v.
300 W FWD.
500
20w' t Z
IA
N2805A
I
QI
GRID RESET
IOIt 2r12219
i
200LA MI
A
0
C D
Figure 39
SCHEMATIC OF 8877 LINEAR AMPLIFIER
C C, -See Table 7 RY, -Input relay. Potter -Brumfield KHP- 17 -D11,
C1 -3002F, 10 -kV variable vacuum capacitor. or equivalent
Jennings UCS -300. An air capacitor may be RY,- Output relay. Jennings vacuum relay RF1-
substituted for this unit. d, or equivalent
C.-1000 , F, 2 -kV variable vacuum capacitor. RY, -Grid overload relay. Potter-Brumfield
Jennings UCSL -1000. An air capacitor may be KHP -17 -D 11
substituted for this unit. 5, -2
-pole, 6- position ceramic switch. Centra-
L,-See Table 7
lab PA series
MI -0 to 1.5 ampere dc meter. Simpson 1327 with
S -1 -pole, 6-position high voltage switch. Mil-
1253 bezel
len 51001
M2 -0 to 200 0A dc meter. Simpson 1327T with
1253 bezel
S, -1 -pole,
6- position switch. Centralab PA
PC -Three 150 -watt composition resist-
-ohm, 2
series
ors in parallel shunted across 1 turn of plate Counter dials -Bauman TC3 -S
strap Socket -Eimac SK -2210
RFC, -110 turns #24 e., on 1/2" diameter teflon Chimney -Eimac SK -2216
rod. 29 µH Note: All wires passing from r -f compartment
RFC7 170 turns #24 e., on 1" diameter teflon (except the high voltage lead) are bypassed
rod. 180 µH with 1500 -pF feedthru capacitors (not shown
RFC 12 turns #14 e., on 3e" rod. spacewound. on drawing)
1 g See Table a for plate circuit data
coil of the relay prevents tripping of tect the meter in the event of a flashover in
the circuit on instantaneous grid current the plate circuit, while a 250 -ohm safety
"spikes." resistor prevents the B -minus voltage from
The grid meter (M,) also functions as a soaring above ground to a dangerous level if
multimeter, monitoring the forward and the plate meter should open up.
reverse power levels indicated by the r -f The Plate and ALC Circuits -The ampli-
wattmeter. Plate current is monitored by a fier uses a conventional pi- network output
separate meter (M_) in the B -minus return circuit which is designed for a plate load
lead to the high voltage power supply; a pair impedance of 1800 ohms with a loaded Q of
of reverse-connected diodes are used to pro- 12; the values of the plate circuit compo-
22.38 RADIO HANDBOOK
FROM CATHODE
+24 V. 8577 TABLE 7. Input Network Details
R2
125 1N914 47 Band C C7 L(AH)
SON ALC
ADJUST C6I 4-j- T 80m 820 pF 2.15
40m 430 pF 1.20
20m 220 pF 0.60
Figure 40 15m 150 pF 0.40
ALC CONTROL CIRCUIT 10m 100 pF 0.30
Figure 41
scale meter readings of 3 kW and 300 W cfm of air is required at a pressure drop of
forward power and 300 W reverse power. 0.60 ". In all cases, sufficient cooling air must
Amplifier Coo ling -The
8877 requires be supplied to hold tube temperature below
20.3 cfm of air at a pressure drop of 0.23" 250 °C with 50 °C ambient temperature at
for 1000 watts anode dissipation at sea level. sea level. A Dayton model 1C -180 blower
A squirrel cage blower provides proper cool- will satisfy the 1000 -watt requirement of
ing. For full 1500 watts dissipation, 38.0 the 8877 under almost all operating condi-
tions at a low ambient noise level. For opera-
J2
JI
RF1N RF OUT tion at 10,000 feet, or above, or for extended
contest operation in a high temperature en-
vironment, a Dayton model 2C-782 may be
substituted with only moderate increase in
noise level.
Power Supply and Control Circuitry
Primary power to the amplifier is applied
-
through control switch S, to the filament
transformer, blower, and time delay relay
RY., (figure 43). After 90 seconds, the
To
MULTI- time delay relay closes and power may be
METER
applied via plate switch S_ to relay RY;, a
mercury plunger solenoid relay.
The initial charging current of the filter
Figure 42 capacitor bank in the high voltage plate sup-
ply is limited by two 15 -ohm resistors in the
THE R -F WATTMETER primary circuit of plate transformer T_. As
The pickup coil (L,) is wound with 20 turns the filter capacitors become charged, the
422, centertap on an Amidon T -50 -6 ferrite voltage at the primary of T:, rises because
torpid. A 68 -ohm 2 -watt resistor is shunted
across the winding at the terminals. The null of decreased voltage drop across the resistors,
capacitor is a small variable ceramic type. eventually termitting surge -limit relay RY,;
to close. The response time of the relay is
Figure 43 about 0.25 second and is determined by the
time constant of the filter in the 24 -volt dc
POWER SUPPLY low- voltage power supply. This supply also
CONTROL CIRCUIT provides power for the VOX and antenna
RY, -See figure 39
changeover relays and reference voltage for
parts list the ALC circuit.
RY, -See figure 39
parts list RYz Rye 240v. TO
RY, -90 second time - TO EIITERNAL
VOA CONTROL Hy SUPPLY
delay relay. Amper-
ite 115 -N0.90
RYs- Mercury plunger
relay, 2 -pole, nor-
mally open. Ebert
A -11
RYA Power relay, dou-
ble -pole, double
throw. Potter -Brum-
field PR -11 -DY
S S2- Lighted Switch
Assembly. Arrow -Hart
actuator AH -83504
with !ens AH -70 and 240v
AH -71, and contact i.
block AH -83500
T, -5 volts at 10 am-
Z Zr -
peres. Stancor P -6135
Thyractor,
General Electric
6RS20 -SP4B4
Blower -60 cfm. Day-
ton 1C180
22.40 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 44
SIDE VIEW OF AMPLIFIER CONSOLE
to show
Figure 45
The side panels have been removed
placement of parts. The 8877 tube is visible in
the r -f inclosure at the top, with the squirrel
FILTER CAPACITOR ASSEMBLY
cage blower mounted immediately below it in The computer grade filter capacitors are
the power supply compartment. The air intake sandwiched between insulating plates and
vent for the blower is in the rear panel. The mounted in a horizontal position. A third
main plate transformer is at the rear of the plate holds the diode assembly and RC net-
lower deck, with the mercury primary relay work capacitors. The inner conductor of
immediately beside it. The filter capacitor bank RG -8 /U cable is used for high voltage
is to the right, with the auxiliary relay controls wiring. All exposed terminals are taped
in the foreground. after assembly to prevent accidental contact.
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.41
08002. The framework requires only a hack- grid ring of the 8877 is electrically grounded
saw and a tape measure to assemble. The high to the chassis by means of four grounding
voltage supply is located in the lower com- clips on the socket assembly. The air chim-
partment of the console (figure 44), with ney is held in place atop the chassis.
the r -f deck at the top. The sides and back The filament transformer for the 8877,
of the console are cut from aluminum the antenna relay, the cathode input circuit
sheet, but the sides of the amplifier section and various auxiliary components are located
are made of perforated stock to allow ade- inside the chassis and all electrical connec-
quate ventilation of the r -f components. tions into this chassis are decoupled by
The blower is mounted on a removable plate 1500 -pF feedthrough capacitors. The cath-
which fastens to the underside of the r -f ode input circuit switch has an extension
chassis, while air flow to the blower intake shaft which extends out the front of the
port is through a 6 -inch diameter perforated chassis through a panel bearing to the con-
cutout in the rear of the power supply trol knob. The slug -tuned coils are adjustable
compartment. through the top of the chassis. The bottom
The photographs show the location of the plate is drilled to receive the blower.
major power supply components. The plate Location of the major plate circuit com-
transformer is bolted directly to the Vs -inch ponents may be seen from the photographs.
thick aluminum baseplate while the filter The two vacuum variable capacitors are
capacitors are mounted on an insulating mounted on a reinforced aluminum subpanel
frame made of two 8 -inch square plexiglass recessed 3" behind the main panel. The plate
sheets (figure 45). The high voltage recti- circuit bandswitch is also mounted on the
fiers are mounted on small ceramic terminals subpanel; the switch being ganged to the
on a small plexiglass sheet placed in front of cathode switch by means of two brass pulleys
the filter capacitors. located in the space between the panels.
Heavy gauge piano wire is used to join the
pulleys.
The R -F Deck
The layout of the top portion The plate r -f choke is fastened to the
of the r -f deck is shown in rear wall of the inclosure atop the bypass
figures 41 and 46. The top portion is a capacitor and the plate end of the choke is
cubical inclosure with the socket for the connected to the plate r -f blocking capac-
8877 mounted en a subchassis placed at the itors by an angle plate made of thin copper
left, rear portion of the inclosure. The chassis stock. The plate inductor consists of two
measures 111/4" X 5 Vi" X 3 2 ". The 1 coils; inductor L_ is made of 1/4-inch copper
7 -pin septar socket is submounted below the tubing and is used for 10, 15, and 20 meters.
chassis deck with 3/4-inch metal spacers. The It is suspended between a flange attached to
Figure 46
CLOSEUP OF R -F DECK
The side panel has been removed to show
the 1000 -pF vacuum variable loading capaci
tor and the plate coil inductors. The band -
switch is at left, mounted to the front
panel. Connections are made to the coils
with silver plated copper strap. The 8877
tube is hidden in the rear behind the load-
ing capacitor. Visible at the right is the
r -f wattmeter board, adjacent to the out-
put receptacle.
22.42 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 47
INTERIOR OF R -F CHASSIS
The underside of the 8877 chassis is Shown in this view. The tuned cathode circuits are adjacent to the
socket, with the filament transformer in a corner of the compartment. The input and overload relays
are mounted to the walls of the chassis. The tube socket is recessed below the deck to permit pass-
age of air about the tube.
the variable vacuum capacitor and a ceramic plated before final assembly. Complete data
standoff insulator mounted to the bottom for the plate circuit is given in Table 8.
plate of the inclosure. Inductor L:, is made The r -f wattmeter components are mount-
of %8 -inch copper tubing and provides addi- ed on a small printed -circuit board placed
tional inductance for 40- and 80 -meter oper- adjacent to antenna coaxial receptacle L.
ation. Leads from the tap points on the The connection between the receptacle and
coils to the bandswitch are made with %y- the bandswitch is made with a short length
inch copper strap; coils and straps are silver of RG -8A /U cable.
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.43
Calibration The values of capacitance and strutting a graph of capacitance values for
and Alignment inductance for the plate cir- different settings of the turns -counter dial.
cuit pi- network are given in The input pi- network coils are aligned by
Table 8. The values of the input tuning inserting an SWR meter in the coaxial line
capacitance include about 15 pF of tube between the exciter and the amplifier and
and stray circuit capacitance. The positions tuning the coil slug on each band for mini-
of the taps on the plate inductors may be mum SWR at the center of the band. This
found by first setting capacitors C; and C, adjustment should be done with the ampli-
to the correct values and then adjusting the fier operating at full power input. Since
appropriate coil tap until circuit resonance high- voltage components are in very close
TABLE 8. Plate Circuit Details
proximity to the slug adjustment screws, a
nonmetallic screwdriver should be used for
C3 Input C. Output Plate these adjustments.
Band Cap.(pF) Cap.(pF) Inductance (µH)
Calibration of the r -f wattmeter is done
80m 279 1460 7.33 after the amplifier is finally tested. Capacitor
40m 145 762 3.82 C,- is adjusted to null the reflected power
20m 74 386 1.94 with a 50 -ohm dummy load connected to the
15m 49 259 1.30 output of the amplifier. Potentiometers R :,-
10m 45 252 .778 R:, are adjusted to obtain full -scale meter
readings at the desired power output levels
Notes: (1) Input capacitance values include
15 -20 pF of tube and stray circuit using a calibrated r -f wattmeter for com-
capacitance. parison.
(2) Network designed for plate imped-
ance of 182012, load impedance of Amp:ifier Tuning After the amplifier wiring
5012 and operating Q of 12 (Q = 15 a o Adiustment has been completed and in-
on 10 meters).
(3) Calculated reactances at resonance:
spected it is ready for ini-
(80m -15m):
tial checks. The filament voltage should be
measured at the socket with a 1- percent
Xc In = 15212
= meter to determine that it is within the
Xc out 2952
= 172.6552
allowed range of 4.75 to 5.25 volts. Opera-
XL
(10 m) in = 121.652
tion at the lower end of this range will pro-
Xc
long tube life. After the 90 second time -
Xc out = 2252
delay relay activates, plate voltage may be
XL = 139.4552
applied to the 8877 and the dc resting plate
isachieved, as indicated by a calibrated dip - current of the tube should be about 160 mA
meter. The capacitors themselves can be to 180 mA. At this time, check to make sure
calibrated by the dip -meter and a known in- the blower is operating properly and a free
ductance; this is most easily done by con- flow of air is escaping from the anode of the
Figure
SCHEMATIC OF
48
240V %
2 Di - De z
0 62
00:
8+
FROM PLATE 25 6100
POWER SUPPLIES RELAr RY5
D7-D12
D -D . -Diode network consist-
ing of: 2.5 ampere. 1000 piv e-24v.
diode (HEP -170), .01 ..F, 1.8
kV disc capacitor and 470k,
-watt resistor
1
tube. The plate circuit controls should be As a final check of amplifier linearity, and
set to the values determined previously. to establish the correct ALC threshold, the
Apply a small amount of drive power amplifier output should be monitored on an
from the exciter and tune the plate circuit oscilloscope trapezoid display. Single -tone
controls to resonance. Maximum grid cur- plate current will run 660 mA, with a grid
rent, maximum r -f output, and minimum current of about 40 mA. Voice modulation,
plate current should occur at the same set- without audio clipping or compression, will
ting of the plate tuning capacitor. When run about one -half these values on voice
properly loaded to 2 kW input with carrier, peaks. Power output is about 1100 watts,
grid current will run about 35 mA to 40 peak.
mA, corresponding to a drive power of about
40 watts. Operation of the grid protection
circuit can be checked by temporarily re- 22 -7 A 2 -KW Linear
ducing the loading capacitor two or three Amplifier for 6 Meters
turns and whistling briefly into the micro-
phone, the grid overload relay should trip,
illuminating the grid reset button and lock- This rugged and reliable amplifier, de-
ing the amplifier into the standby mode. If signed and built by W6PO, is designed
the grid relay trips during subsequent opera- for the serious 50 -MHz experimenter. It
tion of the amplifier, it is usually a sign of uses an 8877 ceramic, high -p. triode and
improper loading, a badly mismatched an- operates at 1 -kW input for continuous c -w
tenna, or excessive drive power. In any case, or RTTY service and at 2 -kW PEP power
the difficulty should be remedied before re- input for SSB service (figure 49). The am-
suming operation of the amplifier. plifier is well shielded and all leads are fil-
Figure 49
TWO- KILOWATT LINEAR AMPLIFIER FOR 6- METERS
This powerful amplifier features the-8877 high - ceramic triode in a cathode -driven circuit. At the left
are the grid and plate current meters, with plate tuning and loading controls at the right. Amplifier
iequi:es about 40 watts teak drive for full output.
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.45
tered so that the unit has minimum har- the chassis. Plate and grid currents are meas-
monic radiation. A driver capable of 40 ured in the cathode return circuit. A 12-
watts PEP power output is required for volt, 50 -watt zener diode is placed in series
maximum amplifier input at a recommended with the cathode return lead to set the de-
anode potential of 2600 volts. Amplifier sired resting plate current.
efficiency is 61 percent and the power gain Standby current is reduced by means of
is about 15 decibels. a 10K, 25 -watt cathode resistor which is
Typically, at a potential of 2600 volts shorted out by the VOX relay, causing the
and a plate current of 750 milliamperes (2- tube to operate at its normal resting plate
kW PEP input) the third -order intermodu- current. The 200 -ohm resistor from the
lation products are better than -40 deci- negative terminal of the plate supply to
bels below one tone of a two -tone test signal. ground makes certain the negative supply
This is an order of magnitude better than terminal does not soar to the value of the
the majority of SSB exciters on the ama- plate voltage if the positive side of the sup-
teur market. Under these conditions, useful ply is accidentally shorted to ground. Two
power output is more than 1200 watts, over reverse -connected diodes across the safety
and above tank circuit losses. resistor limit any transient surges under a
shorted condition which might cause insula-
tion breakdown. In addition, the diodes pro-
The Amplifier The 8877 is used in a cath- tect the two panel meters from transient
Circuit ode driven circuit, as shown currents. A 200 -ohm resistor across the
in figure ¶0. The control zener diode provides a load for it and pre-
grid is operated at dc ground with a mini- vents the cathode voltage from soaring if
mum of inductance between the tube and the zener should burn open.
HII
Kv L3 .-e°
Ja
R -F OUT
C,, C -
C2-100 pF. Johnson 155 -10
Centralab type CRL 8588
Chimney -SK -2216 (Eimac)
M, -100 mA dc Weston
M, -1 ampere dc Weston
RFC, -Bifilar wound choke, 1/2-inch diameter
ferrite core (Indiana General CF -503). Three
L -6 tur -s #18 e. on CTC- 1538 -4-3 form, winding windings of 12 turns #10 formvar
length /e/ -inch
7 RFC 54 turns #20 e. on 1/2 -inch diameter Tef-
L -6 turns #18 e., -inch 1/2 diameter, 5/e -inch lon rod; winding length 1 -13/16 inches
-long, self -supporting RFC, -Ohmite Z-50
1, -7 turns 3/4-inch diameter copper tubing, in- Socket- Johnson 122 -247 -202
side diameter 17/e -inch; coil length 21/2-inch. T, -5 volts, 10 amperes. Stancor P4135
22.46 RADIO HANDBOOK
The cathode input matching circuit con- The plate circuit is a standard pi- network
sists of a simple T- network to transform (figure 50) with tube output and stray
the nominal 50 -ohm input to the cathode capacitances forming the input capacitance
impedance of the 8877 which is 54 ohms in of the network (about 30 pF). The output
parallel with 26 -pF input capacitance. loading capacitor is an air variable unit,
One coil (L,) and the shunt capacitor are shunted by two fixed ceramic capacitors.
variable. With these two adjustments it is Amplifier tuning is accomplished by vary-
possible to cover a wide range of impedance ing the inductance of the coil by adjusting
transformations. The controls for the vari- the coupling between the coil and a shorted
able elements are brought out the left rear turn.
side of the chassis. Once the adjustments
have been made, no tuning is required over
the first megahertz of the band.
The socket for the 8877 is mounted one -
half inch below the chassis using threaded Amplifier The amplifier is built on an
brass spacers. Four pieces of brass shim Construction aluminum chassis box which
stock, or beryllium copper, are formed into is shielded by a perforated
L- shaped contacts placed between the spac- aluminum cover plate and a solid bottom
ers and the chassis to make contact to the plate. Air is blown into the under -chassis
control -grid ring (figure 51) .
area, drawn up through the anode cooler of
the 8877, and exhausted through the per-
forated cover. Placement of the major com-
ponents may be seen in the photographs.
The amplifier plate tank coil is supported
on two short teflon insulators. The closed
ring near the front panel is the shorted turn
used for tuning; it is made of 3/8" diameter
copper tubing, hard -soldered to a brass
shaft coupler with copper -silver solder. Soft
solder is not advisable in this application
since the circulating current in the shorted
turn is quite high.
The amplifier coil is adjustable in that
the flexible strap connecting the blocking
capacitor to the plate r -f choke may be
moved about to subtract inductance from
the main coil which is slightly oversize (fig-
ure 53). The position of the blocking ca-
pacitor (supported on a short bracket from
the mounting insulator) is variable so that
the strap can be flexed and set to the proper
Figure 51
position. Note that the strap runs in the
reverse direction to the winding direction
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF of the main coil.
AMPLIFIER COMPARTMENT To adjust the amplifier for operation at
the low -frequency end of the 6 -meter band,
The input circuit is at the upper right with the
filament choke at center. The filment by -pass the tube is placed in the socket, the shorted
capacitor is placed across the socket terminals. turn completely decoupled and the position
The grounding clips for the grid ring of the
8877 are next to the chassis, held in position by of the blocking capacitor and anode strap
the socket -mounting studs and bolts. The sock- adjusted to resonate the plate circuit to 50
et is mounted below chassis level to allow pas-
sage of the cooling air. In the foreground are
MHz with the loading capacitor fully
the zener diode, metering resistors. and meshed. As the shorted turn is coupled
reverse -connected meter diodes. The various tighter, total tank inductance will be re-
filter capacitors for the power leads are mount-
ed on the rear apron of the chassis, with the duced, causing the resonant frequency to
Millen high -voltage terminal at the left. rise. When the shorted turn is fully coupled,
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.47
Figure 52
the resonant frequency of the plate tank Amplifier The output circuit is grid -
circuit will be about MHz.
S 1 Adjustment dipped to frequency with the
Amplifier loading is accomplished in the 8877 in the socket and the
same manner as in a typical pi- network output loading capacitor fully meshed. Fila-
circuit, with the shorted turn taking the ment voltage is adjusted to 5.0 volts at
place of the plate tuning capacitor. the socket and the top and bottom shields
A homemade plate r -f choke is used, since are bolted in position. The cooling blower
no commercial chokes were capable of pro- should be checked for proper operation. Am-
viding proper service at this frequency. The plifier operation is completely stable and
choke is wound on a 1/2-inch diameter teflon tuning and loading follow the same se-
rod and mounted atop the ceramic capacitor quence as with any standard grounded -grid
which bypasses the B -plus end of the choke. amplifier. Grid excitation, of course, should
Visible on the back of the front panel are never be applied when plate voltage is re-
the vernier ball -drive assemblies used on the moved from the amplifier.
plate tank controls. These allow the oper- For initial tuneup, an SWR meter should
ator good control over the tuning and load- be placed in series with the input line so
ing adjustments necessary for proper that the input network may be adjusted
amplifier operation. for lowest value of SWR. A second SWR
22.48 RADIO HANDBOOK
meter may be placed in the output. line to current, for a power output of about 640
serve as a power output indicator. watts.
Drive is applied to provide about 20 mA
of grid current and the plate circuit is 22 -8 A High Performance
tuned to resonance, drive level is raised in Amplifier
2 -Meter Power
small increments along with output cou-
pling until the desired power level is reached.
This compact, high performance amplifier
is rated for continuous duty at the 2 -kW
peak power level. It combines reliable service
with good linearity and efficiency. Designed
and built by W6PO, the amplifier has been
used for moonbounce communication with
Europe on many occasions.
The amplifier uses an 8877 high -.t ceramic
power triode in a cathode- driven circuit. A
half -wave plate line is employed, along with
a lumped- constant T- network input circuit.
The amplifier is fully shielded and built to
fit on a standard 19 -inch relay rack panel
(figure 54). The amplifier requires no neu-
tralization, is completely stable and free of
parasitics, and very easy to tune and operate.
The amplifier is designated for continu-
ous duty at the 1 -kW input level as well as
at the 2 -kW level for SSB operation. For the
high power operation, plate voltage should
Figure 53 be between 2500 and 3000 volts; under this
condition the amplifier will deliver 1240
CLOSEUP OF AMPLIFIER watts output. Stage gain is about 13.8 deci-
PLATE CIRCUIT bels and amplifier efficiency is 62 percent.
The shorted turn is hard -soldered to the shaft
coupler to allow front -panel loading and tun- The Amplifier A schematic of the amplifier
ing. The "anti- inductance" plate- circuit strap
can be seen connecting the top of the plate Circuit circuit is shown in figure 55.
choke to the plate -blocking capacitor. Note The 8877 is operated with the
that the position of the plate -blocking capaci-
tor can be changed by loosening one screw grid at dc and r -f ground potential. The
and rotating the capacitor around the screw. grid ring at the base of the tube provides a
low inductance path between the grid ele-
Always tune for maximum power at mini- ment and the chassis. Plate and grid currents
mum input power. are measured in the cathode- return lead and
When the amplifier is properly loaded, a 12 -volt, 50 -watt zener diode is placed in
the input circuit may be adjusted for mini- series with the negative return to set the
mum SWR on the coaxial line to the ex- proper value of zero-signal plate current.
citer. Once the adjustment has been made, Two diodes are reverse -connected across the
no tuning of the input circuit is required instrument circuit to protect the meters.
over the first 1000 kHz of the band. Standby plate current of the 8877 is re-
With a plate potential of 2600 volts, the duced to a very low value by the 10K cath-
amplifier is loaded to a plate current of 750 ode resistor which is shorted out when the
mA, with a grid current of 58 mA. This VOX relay is activated, permitting the tube
represents 2000 watts input. Under voice to operate in normal fashion.
waveforms, the grid and plate current will A 200 -ohm safety resistor ensures that the
be approximately one -half the above values. negative power lead of the amplifier does not
For c -w operation, the amplifier may be run rise above ground potential if the positive
at 400 mA plate current and 28 mA grid side of the high -voltage supply is acciden-
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.49
Figure 54
tally grounded. A second safety resistor plifier. The input tuning capacitor (C2) is
across the zener diode prevents the cathode adjustable from the front panel. When the
potential from soaring if the zener should network has been properly tuned, no ad-
accidentally burn open. justment is then required over the 4 -MHz
The Input Circuit -The cathode input range of the 2 -meter band.
matching circuit is a T- network which The Plate Circuit -The amplifier plate
matches the SO-ohm nominal input im- circuit is a transmission -line type resonator.
pedance of the amplifier to the input im- The line (L, plus L,,) is a half wavelength
pedance of the 8877 which is about 54 ohms long with the tube placed at the center
in parallel with 26 pF. The network con- (figure 56). This circuit, while having less
sists of two series -connected inductors and operational bandwidth than an equivalent
a shunt capacitor. One inductor and the quarter -wavelength line, is chosen because
capacitor are variable so the network is able standard water pipe can be used as the center
to cover a wide range of impedance trans- conductor of the line and the overall length
formation. The variable inductor (L1) is of the line is long enough to be practical.
mounted to the rear wall of the chassis and In addition, the heavy r -f current that flows
may be adjusted from the rear of the am- on the tube seals and control grid would,
22.50 RADIO HANDBOOK
Hk
RFCa 44!
3 Kv
i-1()00
-
LO
(L,L,
VVO
Cs
8877
Ji 11-1, IN Ci Li La
RFC
Ca
'I HI'
1N3311 i0en5 55/J_
0 25
Figure 55
Figure 56
ASSEMBLY OF 2 -METER AMPLIFIER
Structural details of the amplifier show relative size and position of the various com "onenrs. Inclos-
ure is made of aluminum panels. Bottom panel is solid and top panel is perforated to allow cooling
air to escape.
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.51
in the process of charging up the output only one quarter -wavelength line were used.
capacitance to the peak plate voltage swing, This is because only one -half of the tube
tend to concentrate on one side of the tube output capacitance loads each of the two
if a single- ended, quarter- wavelength line lines.
were used. This current concentration would Resonance is established by a moving
cause localized heating of the tube. The plate capacitor (C-,) and antenna loading is
best tuned -circuit configuration to mini- accomplished by a second capacitor (C6)
mize this effect is a symmetrical, cylindrical placed at the anode of the 8877. Output
coaxial cavity with the tube at the center. power is coupled through the series capacitor
That arrangement is complex and difficult into a 50-ohm output circuit. In the top -
to build. A practical compromise is to use view photograph (figure 57) tuning ca-
two quarter -wavelength lines connected to pacitor C is at the front of the compart-
opposite sides of the tube. Note that each of ment; variable loading capacitor C,; is at
the two quarter -wavelength lines used in the rear. The plate r -f choke is visible in the
this design are physically longer than if front corner.
Figure 57
Amplifier The 2 -meter power amplifier type -N coaxial fitting is connected to the
Construction built in an enclosure meas-
is moveable plate of the coupling capacitor.
uring 101/4" X 12" X 61/4". The fitting is centered in a tubular assembly
The 8877 socket is centered on a 6" X which allows the whole connector to slide in
6" subchassis plate. A squirrel -cage blower and out of the chassis, permitting the vari-
forces cooling air into the under -chassis area able plate of the coupling capacitor to move
and the air escapes through the 21/4"" diam- with respect to the fixed plate mounted on
eter socket hole. the tube anode clamp (figure 56). When the
The plate- tuning mechanism is shown in final loading adjustment has been set, the
figure 58. This simple apparatus will operate sliding fitting is clamped by means of a
with any variable plate capacitor, providing small cable clamp passed around the tubular
a back -and -forth movement of about one assembly, as shown in figure 57.
inch. It is driven by a counter dial and pro- The length of the plate -line inductors
vides a quick, inexpensive and easy means L,) is adjusted by means of two durai
of driving a vhf capacitor. The ground - blocks placed at the shorted ends of the
return path for the grounded plate is lines (figure 59). The position of the blocks
through a wide, low- inductance beryllium - is determined by setting plate- tuning ca-
copper or brass strip which provides spring pacitor C:, at its lowest value and adjusting
tension for the drive mechanism. line lengths so that the plate circuit reso-
The variable output coupling capacitor nates at 148 MHz with the 8877 tube in
is located at the side of the 8877 anode. The the socket.
In6' MASS SHEET 'SILVER PLATE)
B-32FLAT -HEAD A" WIDE, 2-N' NIGH
MACMNE SCREW
8877 in the socket. An SWR meter should the input impedance of a cathode -driven
be placed in the input line so the input net- amplifier is a function of the plate current
work may be adjusted for lowest SWR. of the tube.
Tuning and loading follow the same R -f drive is increased in small increments
sequence as with any lower- frequency along with output coupling until the de-
grounded-grid amplifier. Connect an SWR sired power level is reached. By adjusting
meter and dummy load to the output cir- drive and loading together it is possible to
cuit. Plate voltage is applied, along with a attain the operating conditions given in Ta-
very low drive level. The plate circuit is ble 9. Always tune for maximum plate effi-
tuned for resonance and the cathode cir- ciency; that is, maximum output power for
cuit is peaked for maximum grid current. minimum input power. Do not overload
Final adjustment of the cathode circuit and underdrive as plate efficiency will drop
should be done at full power input because drastically under these conditions.
Part III
Figure 62
500 -WATT AMPLIFIER FOR THE 420 -MHz BAND
This compact, high gain amplifier operates at -kW input, PEP or continuous rating, for c -w, SSB or
1
f-m service. A single 8874 power triode is used in a cathode -driven circuit. The amplifier is built on a
7" relay rack panel. The "push -in, pull -out" handle for plate cavity tuning is at center panel, with the
input tuning control beneath it. Plate and grid current meters are on the outer corners of the panel.
The high- voltage terminal on the plate cavity is just visible over the top of the panel.
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.55
ANTENNA PLATE
LOADING TUNING
CONTROL CONTROL
IN20715
Figure 63
circuit of illustration C. The latter assem- than a half -wavelength on a side because of
bly is used in this amplifier. The vertical the output capacitance of the tube, which
reference line indicates the electrical center is at, or near, the center of the cavity (figure
of the strip line, which is physically very 65) . It is difficult to equate the capacitance
close to the socket pins of the tube. The r -f of the tube, which is distributed over an
choke for the cathode return is connected at area large in comparison to a fraction of a
this point. The end of the line opposite the wavelength, so that conventional loaded cav-
tube is tuned with a variable capacitor, and ity equations cannot be used to mathemati-
the capacitor indicated at the tube end of cally determine cavity dimensions. In this
the line represents the input capacitance of case, a cavity with movable drawers was
the 8874. The tube places a low impedance constructed and "cold" resonance tests were
load on the input circuit and tuning is conducted to determine the approximate
extremely broad. volume of the cavity at resonance. An at-
The cathode of the 8874 is electrically tempt was made to use a standard size
insulated from the filament, however fila-
ment chokes are required as the filament/
cathode structure of the tube is an appre-
ciable fraction of a wavelength at 450 MHz
and an r -f potential appears in the filament
circuit to some degree.
RF IN 1
RF IN
I
-- I'
.
Figure 65
TOP VIEW OF 420 -MHz
Figure 64 POWER AMPLIFIER
THE AMPLIFIER INPUT CIRCUIT The cover has been removed from the
plate cavity to show placement of the
A -Split stator circuit for hf use with input tube socket, the antenna coupling rod
placed at 50 ohm tap point on inductor. Ca- and the movable drawers. The drawer at
pacitance Cc _G is cathode -grid capacitance of the left controls antenna loading and the
tube. one on the panel determines cavity reso-
B -The same circuit adapted to strip line con- nance. The socket for the 8874 is sub -
figuration. mounted to allow a free flow of air around
C -Strip line circuit using half -wave line in the base of the tube. The grid flange is
place of inductor. grounded to the chassis by means of a
special collet (Eimac 135-305). The fila-
ment transformer and zener diode are
The Plate Circuit-The amplifier plate mounted on a small chassis flange on
circuitis a rectangular cavity which has two one side of the amplifier. The cooling
blower is mounted to the opposite wall.
movable sides ( "drawers ") for plate tun- A screen across the blower opening pre-
ing and antenna loading adjustments. The vents r -f loss through the orifice. The fin -
gerstock visible on the movable drawers
natural resonant frequency of such a cavity' contacts the cover and walls of the
for the dominant mode is considerably less. cavity.
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.57
aluminum chassis for the cavity to save specified blower, or equivalent, will handle
money and construction time, and this goal this requirement with a good safety factor.
was achieved with the design shown. Dimensions for the input inductor (L1)
Power is extracted from the resonant cav- are shown in figure 66. This device is sup-
ity through the magnetic field, a coupling ported by pins 1 through 3 and 8 through
loop being introduced into the cavity so that TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW
it incloses some of the magnetic lines of ,
plished by disc capacitor C, which is mounted posite end is grounded to the top plate of
in a threaded block of copper fastened to the cavity. When the coaxial fitting is placed
the chassis near the front partition. A in the rear hole, coupling is at minimum and
threaded panel bushing provides an addi- when it is in the front hole, coupling is
tional bearing so that the capacitor disc maximum. For intermediate values of cou-
moves to and fro with an easy, rotational pling, a rod with a slight offset is used in
movement. A closeup of the input cavity place of the straight rod.
is shown in figure 67. The auxiliary components for the ampli-
Filament and cathode return leads are fier are mounted on brackets at the side of
brought out of the grid inclosure via small, the cavity assembly. On one side is the
ceramic feedthrough capacitors as shown in centrifugal blower which exhausts through
the illustrations and the small filament a screened port into the plate cavity. On the
chokes are air -wound coils mounted between opposite side are mounted the filament trans-
the socket pins and the feedthrough capaci- former, zener diode, and the various com-
tor terminals. The input inductor has a ponents of the metering circuit as well as a
"foot" on it that is positioned in such a way large terminal strip. Placement of compon-
as to provide a support for the series input ents outside the cavities is not critical.
tuning capacitor (CO . The capacitor is ad- The plate coupling capacitor (CO is a
justed through a hole drilled in the cavity planar device made of a sheet of via-inch
bottom plate. A short length of hollow teflon copper 31/4" X f''/y" in area insulated from
rod is slipped over the capacitor shaft to the cover plate by a sheet of 5 mil (.005 ")
serve as a guide for an insulated screwdriver Isomica. The capacitance is about 1800 pF.
used for adjustment. The connection to the anode of the tube is
An underview of the amplifier is shown made by a circular spring collet (Eimac part
in figure 68. The cover for the input cavity number 008 -294) which is soldered into a
is made of perforated aluminum stock held heavy copper ring. The outer diameter of
in place with screws and captive nuts. Di- the ring is 2" and the height is % -inch. The
rectly behind the rear wall of the box is ring, in turn, is soldered to the capacitor
r -f output connector J. Two sets of mount- plate, as shown in figure 69. The plate is
ing holes are drilled for the connector, one held firmly to the cavity cover by means of
behind the other. The unused mounting hole teflon bushings and 6 -32 bolts. The feedline
is covered with a small plate. The holes rep- choke (RFC,) is mounted on the outside of
resent the limits of adjustment of the pickup the cover plate between one of the capacitor
loop (L2) mounted in the plate cavity. The mounting bolts and an extra teflon standoff
loop, which consists of a length of I/4 -inch insulator (figure 70).
copper tubing, is soldered at one end to the A hole 17/s" diameter is cut in the cover -
center conductor of the receptacle. The op- plate and Isomica sheet directly above the
Figure 88
UNDERSIDE OF
420 -MHz AMPLIFIER
The input cavity is covered with perfo-
rated aluminum stock held in place with
r 4-40 hardware and captive nuts. At one
side is the teflon extension shaft for ca-
pacitor C,. The antenna receptacle (J,) is
immediately in the foreground. Next to it
is the plate covering the auxiliary mount-
ing hole. The center of the first hole is
22/2" from the rear edge of the plate cav-
ity. At the side of the cavity is a small
shelf that supports the zener diode,
safety resistors, terminal strip, and fila-
ment transformer. The handle for the
loading drawer is in the foreground.
HF AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION 22.59
anode of the tube to allow the cooling air of the amplifier. Each sliding drawer con-
to escape. sists of an aluminum plate measuring about
6 %2" X 13/4" and %g -inch thick. The plate
is lined on four sides with Eimac finger stock
(type CF -800) which provides a low in-
ductance, sliding contact with the walls of
the cavity. In order to make sure the contact
is firm and does not vary with pressure, a sec-
ond aluminum plate is cut slightly smaller
than the first, and the finger stock is "sand-
wiched" between the two plates. This as-
sembly, in turn, is driven from the exterior
of the cavity by means of two Sie -inch
diameter "push- and -pull" rods and a con-
necting handle as seen in figure 65 A bear-
.
Figure 70
MOVEABLE
CAVITY WALL
STATIONARY
MICARTA FINGER STOCK
BEARING PLATE
PUSH- AND-PULL
HANDLE ROD a -D2
!" LONG HARDWARE
THREAD
END OF
ROD
LOCKING BACK
RING PLATE
Figure 72
ASSEMBLY OF SLIDING DRAWER
A FOR PLATE CAVITY
Figure 71
Power Supplies
Hz may be found. In addition, unique com- Heavy Load entire transmitter, plug in an
binations, such as 137 volts at 42 Hz, or electric heater rated at about
110 volts at 162/3 Hz may exist as a result 50 percent greater wattage than the power
of special circumstances. Operation of equip- you expect to draw from the line. If the line
ment on one phase of a three -phase 240 -volt voltage does not drop more than f volts
power system calls for a design center of (assuming a 120 -volt line) under load and
208 volts. the wiring does not overheat, the wiring is
23.1
23.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
G are wired with this system, as are homes
utilizing electricity for cooking and heating.
With a three -wire system, be sure there is
no fuse in the neutral wire at the fuse box.
120V. . 15 A. 120 v., 20 A. A neutral fuse is not required if both "hot"
2 POLE, 2 WIRE NEMA legs are fused, and, should a neutral fuse
blow, there is a chance that damage to the
radio transmitter will result.
w
G
Relay Control Primary and secondary power
120V. .15 A. 120V.,20A
TWISTLOCK
circuits may be controlled by
2POLE,3WIRE NEMA
manually operated switches or remotely op-
w
erated relays. A Mat is an electrical switch
operated by an independent electrical cir-
H
cuit. It permits a low voltage circuit to
G control a high voltage or current circuit by
120 v.,30 A. 20 -240 VOLT
2 POLE,3 WIRE NEMA 30 A opening or closing appropriate contacts.
(figure 2). Because of construction require-
G
BLADES
CONTACTS
240 V., 20 A. 120 -240 VOLT
2 POLE, 3WIRE 30 A.
Figure 1
cuit before a contact is established with the seconds, and after the heater is disconnected,
normally open contact. Typically, a gen- the contacts may remain closed for as long
eral purpose power relay will close in 10 to as 10 seconds, depending upon relay design.
15 milliseconds and drop out in 5 to 10
milliseconds. Special, fast action relays are Primary Circuit The primary power source
available for keying circuits and other rapid Transients often contains transient
changeover systems. voltages that could pose a
The contact rating of a relay refers to the damage to certain electronic equipment.
electrical limit permitted at the contacts. High level switching of industrial loads or
These are frequently stated as 2, 5, or 10 lightning strikes on a nearby power system
amperes at 120 volts, 0.8 power factor, or can create primary transients as high as 5
28 volts dc, resistive load. If the relay is de- kV on the ordinary 120 volt line. The av-
signed to handle a motor or other inductive erage residential circuit receives more than
load, the contact rating may be expressed one transient a day in excess of 200 volts
in terms of horsepower; for example, 1/2 hp and can expect at least one a year in excess
at 120 volts ac. of 1000 volts. Some ordinary home motor
Many different mounting options are of- loads, such as sump pumps and oil burners,
fered for a relay having the same electrical regularly introduce transients of over 1500
and mechanical characteristics. For exam- volts into residential circuits.
ple, the basic structure may have plug -in Though the power system's protection
termination, plus a matching socket, or system limits the transient voltage at a sup-
soldering lugs. pressor built into the power network, re-
A thermostatic time -delay relay is com- flections and other interactions may permit
monly used to allow warmup time, or time high crest voltages at other points in the
for circuit stabilization after a primary cir- system. Transients can couple secondary
cuit is energized. Compact, inexpensive delay transients through a power transformer, not
relays provide a delay of 2 to 180 seconds by the turns ratio, but by the transformer's
and operate at various values of heater volt- often high value of primary to secondary
age (figure 3) Motor operated time -delay
.
capacitance, thus permitting a high voltage
relays are used for high power equipment, or transient to be present in a low voltage cir-
to achieve longer delay periods. Thermo- cuit, regardless of the step -down effect of
static relays have a recycle time of 3 to 7 the transformer. In addition to primary cir-
cuit transients, large voltage peaks are often
25
built up in a power supply when it is turned
AMPERITE 6N015 on or off. These transients are created by the
release of energy stored in an inductor or
capacitor passing through other inductors or
capacitors. These peak voltages may be far
in excess of the voltage rating of the com-
ponents or the rectifier units, leading to
arc over and eventual breakdown of insula-
tion or components in the circuit.
An expensive solution to the transient
o problem is to ensure that the peak voltage
4.5 50 55 60 65 7.0 7.5
HEATER VOLTAGE
rating of all components is higher than ex-
pected voltage transients. A more economi-
Figure 3 cal solution is to employ a transient sup-
pressor (taristor) in the circuit to protect
TYPICAL TIME DELAY OF the components from voltage peaks. Vari-
THERMOSTATIC RELAY ous such units have been developed to pro-
Thermostatic relay is actuated by a heater and vide transient protection, and most of the
can be run on either ac or dc. Delay time is a more modern communication equipment in-
function of heater voltage, as shown for this 6. corporates transient protection.
volt model. Inexpensive delay relays are sealed
in a glass bulb, making them impervious to A transient suppressor is a nonlinear de-
moisture. vice that is voltage sensitive (figure 4).
23.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
>
ci
300
,5 250
ó
R 30
j
T
N 200 VARISTOR
Z 150 Figure 6
< 100
RESISTANCE -CAPACITANCE
Z 50 TRANSIENT SUPPRESSOR
? k'Ilh
-
120 v.A.0
F
POWER CONTROL
TO H.V.
POWER SUPPLY
Jí _ RELAY
PLUG FOR
AISLE TO
VARIAC OR
POWERSTAT
DUMMY PLUG FOR
Figure 9 STRAIGHT OPERATION
INSTRUMENT TOFILAMENT
TRANSFORMERS
AND EQUIPMENT FUSES
Fast action and medium -lag fuses (top) can
carry a 10- percent overload and will open at EXTERNAL VARIAC
various time intervals under specific overload OR POWERSTAT
conditions. Typically, a 1- ampere fuse will open
in 2 to 4 seconds at 200 -percent overload. Slow - Figure 10
blow fuse (bottom) will open after one hour at
135-percent overload. Special instrument fuses CIRCUIT WITH VARIABLE -RATIO
will blow in milliseconds after overload. AUTOTRANS FORMER
A fuse is normally capable of carrying a When the dummy plug is inserted into the re-
ceptacle on the equipment, closing of the power-
10'; overload indefinitely but will fail after control relay will apply full voltage to the pri-
a few thousand hours when operated at 100 maries. With the cable from the Variac or
percent of its rated load because of cyclic Powerstat plugged into the socket the voltage
output of the high- voltage power supply may be
fatigue caused by mechanical stresses set up varied from zero to about 15 percent above
in the fuse element by current changes. normal.
23.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
FUSES
SAFETY SWITCH
(SEE FIG e )
°RECEIVER POWER
o
SI HUSKY TOGGLE SWITCH
ON TRANSMITTER
TRANSFORMER C.T.
THERMAL PROTECTIVE
TIME-DELAY INTERLOCKS
RELAY
IT-
-o RECEIVE SWITCH
HIGNVOLT.
120 V
o CHANGEOVER
20 ANTENNA -
O`o ()RELAY
TUNE-U
INDICATOR L IGHTS SWITCH
Figure 11
the plate voltage to the receiver when the with the equipment disconnected from the
transmitter is operating have been included. line.
The transmit -receive circuit controls the A circuit similar to that of figure 11 but
high voltage circuit and may be actuated incorporating push- button control of the
by VOX control from the transmitting transmitter is shown in figure 13. The circuit
equipment, making changeover from receive features a set of START -STOP and TRANS-
to transmit automatic. The operating se- MIT- RECEIVE buttons at the transmitter
quence is broken if the protective inter- and a separate set at the operating position.
locks are opened, or a fuse blows. The control push buttons operate independ-
ently so that either set may be used to con-
trol the transmitter. It is only necessary to
The Safety Switch The common technique push the START button momentarily to
of using a red pilot lamp light the transmitter filaments and start the
to show when a circuit is on is useless ex- time -delay relay in its cycle. When the
cept from an ornamental standpoint be- standby light comes on it is only necessary
cause the circuit can be on with the bulb to touch the TRANSMIT button to put the
not making contact or burned out. transmitter on the air and disable the re-
To enable the operator to use, or work ceiver. Touching the RECEIVE button will
on the equipment with safety, it is prudent turn off the transmitter and restore the re-
to incorporate an external warning device ceiver. After a period of operation it is only
similar to that shown in figure 12. The necessary to touch the STOP button at
safety switch is placed near the point where either the transmitter or the operating posi-
the primary power enters the room and in tion to shut down the transmitter. This type
such a position so as to be inaccessible to of control arrangement is called an elec-
small children. The switch breaks both trically locking push -to- transmit control
e S v. TO GREEN PILOT LIGHTS ON
FRONT PANEL AND ON EACH CHASSIS
system. Such systems are frequently used in
industrial electronic control.
,QJ IIL TRANS.
Relay Seq It is important that the
antenna changeover relay
be activated before r -f power flows through
MAIN '20 V SUPPLY Q--p OPOT SWITCH the relay contacts. Certain VOX or key -
operated sequences do not provide this pro-
tection. As a result, the contacts of the
A C TO ENTIRE TRANSMITTER antenna relay may be damaged from making
¡ 20
and breaking the r -f current, or eventual
Figure 12 damage may occur to the transmitting
equipment because of repeated operation
COMBINED MAIN SWITCH AND without r -f load during the periods of time
SAFETY SIGNAL
necessary for the antenna relay to close. The
When shutting down the transmitter, throw the proper relay sequence can be achieved by
main switch to neutral. If work is to be done actuating the antenna relay by the control
on the transmitter, throw the switch all the
way to "pilot," thus turning on the green pilot system, then, in turn, actuating the trans-
lights on the panel and on each chassis, and mitter by a separate set of control contacts
ensuring that no voltage can exist on the pri-
mary of any transformer, even by virtue of a on the antenna relay, as shown in figure
short or accidental ground. 14A. In this manner, the antenna relay must
be closed before r -f is applied to the con-
power leads, completely removing the equip- tacts.
ment from the power line so that the circuit
cannot be completed through an accidental
DC Relay Relays designed to operate from
ground. Members of the operator's family
Operation an ac source are often trouble-
should be instructed on the placement and
some sources of audible hum
use of the switch in times of an emergency.
and chatter. Cleaning the relay striker and
No work should be done on the equipment
unless the switch is in the safety position pole pieces will alleviate this annoyance
23.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
TRANSMIT RECEIVE
run STOP I
-o 0-,
SWITCH
(SEE 'u C.Q)
N 0-mÿ0- PROTECTIVE
INIER LOCH S
O w0 O D
OVERLOAD)
O
RELAY
CONTACTS
HIGH-VOLT.
FILS. ON STANDBY 120 V.
.20 v, ANTENNA-
CHANGEOVER
TUNE -UP
INDICATOR LIGHTS SWITCH
ANTENNA RELAY
RECEIVER
a plate transformer having a double pri-
ANTENNA mary; A shows the connections for use with
TRANSMITTER
a 120 -volt line and B shows the arrange-
e
o
TO TRANSMITTER
}CONTROL CATS
ment for a 240 -volt ac power line to the
transmitter.
When tuning the transmitter, the antenna
RELAY COIL coupling network, or the antenna system
SUPPLY
itself it is desirable to be able to reduce the
power input to the final stage to a relatively
TI DI
low value, and it is further convenient to be
+ TO EXCITER POWER SUPPLIES
TO PRIMARY 100
TO OTHER
TX POWER 20 W 100
SYSTEM T2,° RELAY COILS
A-Antenna
Figure
ANTENNA -RELAY CONTROL SYSTEM
14
rroc
tacts are used to control transmitter circuits HI -LO
after antenna relay closes. B-Ac relays may be POWER RELAY
the two primaries are connected in series and POWER - CONTROL RELAY
the plate transformer will allow a contin- in such a manner that it is capable of de-
uous variation in power input from zero to livering the required current at a specified
the full capability of the transmitter. voltage, that it has a degree of regulation
consistent with the requirements of the ap-
Switching Between A linear amplifier prop - plication, that its ripple level at full current
1 kW dc and
erly adjusted for 2 -kW is sufficiently low for the load which will be
2 kW PEP PEP input will often fed, that its internal impedance is sufficient-
show a very low level of ly low for the job, and that none of the
efficiency when the drive level and antenna components shall be overloaded with the
loading are adjusted for 1 -kW dc input for type of operation contemplated.
c -w operation. Some amplifier designs solve The meeting of all the requirements of
this problem by reducing the dc plate po- the previous paragraph is not always a
tential of the amplifier tube or tubes when straightforward and simple problem. In
switching from the SSB to the c -w mode. many cases compromises will be involved,
For example, a 2 -kW PEP linear amplifier particularly when the power supply is for
may be operating at a plate potential of 3 an amateur station and a number of compo-
kV and a peak dc plate current of 666 mA. nents already on hand must be fitted into
Power input is 2 kW PEP and power output the plan.
is, typically, 1.3 kW, PEP. Efficiency is The power- supply requirements needed to
about 65 percent. Switching to c -w, the establish the design of a satisfactory unit in-
operator drops excitation and readjusts an- clude the full -load output voltage; mini-
tenna loading to provide a dc input of 1 mum, normal and peak current drain; the
kW which corresponds to 3 kV at 333 mA. required voltage regulation; ripple voltage
In most instances, amplifier efficiency will limit, and type of rectifier circuit to be used.
drop to about 30 percent, providing a power Once these requirements have been ascer-
output of 300 watts, PEP. Unless the plate tained, the actual components for the supply
tank circuit has sufficient range to provide may be selected. It is prudent, however, to
the proper plate load impedance for the design a supply in such a manner that it will
1 -kW mode -and most simple pi- or pi -L have the greatest degree of flexibility; this
networks do not -plate efficiency will drop will allow the supply to be used without
badly. change as a portion of new station equip-
If however, the plate potential under c -w ment or as a bench supply to run experi-
operating conditions is dropped to about 65 mental equipment.
percent of that employed in the SSB mode,
plate efficiency will remain high in both con- Current -Rating The minimum current drain
ditions. For the above example, dropping the Considerations which will be taken from a
plate potential to about 2 kV and boosting power supply will be, in
the plate current to 500 mA will provide ap- most cases, merely the bleeder current. There
proximately the same degree of efficiency at are many cases where a particular power
the 1 -kW dc power level as will the 3 -kV supply will always be used with a moderate
potential and 666 mA peak plate current at or heavy load on it, but when the supply is
the 2 -kW PEP power level. Many manufac- a portion of a transmitter it is best to con-
tured linear amplifiers accomplish the SSB sider the minimum drain as that of the
to c -w switchover by dropping the plate bleeder. The minimum current drain from
potential on the amplifier tubes in the man- a power supply is of importance since it,
ner described. This is easily accomplished by in conjunction with the nominal voltage of
the use of a tapped primary or secondary the supply, determines the minimum value
winding on the plate power transformer. of inductance which the input choke must
have to keep the voltage from soaring when
the external load is removed.
23 -3 Power-Supply The normal current rating of a power
Requirements supply usually is a round -number value
chosen on the basis of the transformers and
A power supply for a transmitter or for a chokes on hand or available from the cata-
unit of station equipment should be designed log of a reliable manufacturer. The current
POWER SUPPLIES 23.11
rating of a supply to feed a steady load such in current. Power- supply regulation may be
as areceiver, a speech amplifier, or a con- expressed in terms of static and d) namic
tinuously operating r -f stage should be at regulation. Static regulation relates to the
least equal to the steady drain of the load. regulation under long -term conditions of
However, other considerations come into change in load whereas dynamic regulation
play in choosing the current rating for a relates to short -term changes in load condi-
keyed amplifier, an amplifier of SSB signals, tions. Regulation is expressed as a change in
or a class -B modulator. In the case of a output voltage with respect to load:
supply which will feed an intermittent load
such as these, the current ratings of the
transformers and chokes may be less than Percent Regulation = (E, - E_) X 100
E.
the maximum current which will be taken;
but the current ratings of the rectifier sys- where,
tem to be used should be at least equal E, is no -load voltage,
to the maximum current which will be E_ is full -load voltage.
taken. That is to say that 300 -mA trans-
formers and chokes may be used in the sup- Thus static regulation concerns itself with
ply for a modulator whose resting current the "on" and "off" voltages of the power
is 100mA but whose maximum current at supply and dynamic regulation concerns it-
peak signal will rise to 500 mA. However, self with syllabic or keyed fluctuations in
the rectifier system should be capable of load. Static regulation is expressed in terms
handling the full 500 mA. of average voltages and currents, whereas
The iron -core components of a power dynamic regulation takes into account in-
supply which feeds an intermittent load stantaneous voltages variations caused by
(such as demanded by an SSB transmitter) peak currents, or currents caused by un-
may be chosen on the basis of the current desired transient oscillations in the filter
averaged over a period of several minutes, section of the power supply. In particular,
since it is the heating effect of the current c -w and SSB transmissions having a high
which is of greatest importance in estab- peak -to- quiescent ratio of current drain are
lishing the rating of such components. Since affected by poor dynamic regulation in the
iron -core components have a relatively large power system.
amount of thermal inertia, the effect of an Examples of static and dynamic regula-
intermittent heavy current is offset to an tion are shown in figure 16. In example A,
extent by a resting period between words the no -load power- supply voltage is 1000
and syllables, or by kcy -up periods in the and the full -load voltage is 875. Static reg-
case of c -w transmission. However, the cur- ulation is therefore 14.3 percent. If an oscil-
rent rating of a rectifier tube is established loscope is used to examine the supply voltage
by the magnitude of emission available from during the first fractions of a second when
the filament of the tube, and the rating the full load is applied, the instantaneous
of a semiconductor rectifier is established voltage follows the erratic plot shown in
by the maximum temperature limit of the curve A of figure 16. The complex pattern
rectifier element, both of which cannot be of voltage fluctuations, or transients, are
exceeded even for a short period of time or related to resonant frequencies present in
the rectifier will be damaged. the power- supply filter network and are of
The above considerations arc predicated, sufficient magnitude to distort the wave-
however, on the assumption that none of form of c -w signals, or to appreciably in-
the iron -core components will become sat- crease intermodulation distortion and alter
urated due to the high level of intermittent the first syllable of speech in an SSB system.
current drain. Proper design of the filter system can reduce
dynamic voltage fluctuations to a minimum
Voltage Regulation Since the current drain and, at the same time, greatly improve the
of a power supply can static regulation of the power supply.
vary over a large magnitude, it is important Static and dynamic regulation values of
to determine what happens to the output about 10 percent or so are considered to be
voltage of the supply with regard to change limits of good design practice in amateur
23.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
VOLTAGE-
1 FULL LOAD VOLTAGE ing two pulses of 60 Hz, for example, pro-
duces a 120 -Hz ripple wave. A simple ca-
k-__ INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE
pacitive filter will reduce 120 -Hz ripple as
shown in figure 17. Ripple is an inverse
ratio with capacitance, so doubling the
....... capacitance will halve the ripple.
o
0
...ia
.........
...... .
0.05
TIME IN SECONDS
o I
.. os
TO FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
118
%1RIPPLEIlOx201
-1
0.6
Figure 16
STATIC AND DYNAMIC REGULATION
A- Dynamic regulation illustrates voltage peaks
caused by transient oscillations in filter net-
work. TO FULL -WAVE RECTIFIER
B- Static regulation is expressed in terms of
no-load and full -load currents and voltages.
%RIPPLE0.1
Ripple Voltage The alternating component
of the output voltage of a
dc power supply is termed the ripple volt-
age. It is superimposed on the dc voltage,
and the effectiveness of the filter system
TO FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
can be expressed in terms of the ratio of the
rms value of the ripple voltage to the dc
output voltage of the supply. Good design
practice calls for a ripple voltage of less than
5 percent of the supply voltage for SSB and
tant rating and is the maximum voltage pacitors when no external vacuum -tube cir-
which the capacitor should be required to cuit load is connected to the filter. This
withstand in service. bleeder resistor should normally draw ap-
The capacitor across the rectifier circuit proximately 10 percent of the full load
in a capacitor -input filter should have a current.
working -voltage rating equal at least to 1.41 The power dissipated in the bleeder resistor
times the rms voltage output of the rectifier. can be calculated by dividing the square of
The remaining capacitors may be rated the dc voltage by the resistance. This power
more nearly in accordance with the dc is dissipated in the form of heat, and, if the
voltage. resistor is not in a well -ventilated position,
The electrolytic capacitor consists of two the wattage rating should be higher than
aluminum electrodes in contact with a con- the actual wattage being dissipated. High -
ducting film which acts as an electrolyte. A voltage, high-capacitance filter capacitors
very thin film of oxide is formed on the can hold a dangerous charge if not bled off,
surface of one electrode, called the anode. and wirewound resistors occasionally open
This film of oxide acts as the dielectric. The up without warning. Hence it is wise to
electrolytic capacitor must be correctly con- place carbon resistors in series across the
nected in the circuit so that the anode is regular wirewound bleeder.
always at a positive potential with respect Several small resistors may be connected
to the electrolyte, the latter actually serv- in series, if desired, to obtain the required
ing as the other electrode (plate) of the wattage and voltage rating.
capacitor. A reversal of the polarity for any
length of time will ruin the capacitor. Transformers Power transformers and fila-
The high capacitance of electrolytic ca- ment transformers normally
pacitors results from the thinness of the will give no trouble over a period of many
film which is formed on the plates. The years if purchased from a reputable manu-
maximum voltage that can be safely im- facturer, and if given a reasonable amount
pressed across the average electrolytic filter of care. Transformers must be kept dry;
capacitor is between 450 and 600 volts; the even a small amount of moisture in a high -
working voltage is usually rated at 450. voltage unit will cause quick failure. A
When electrolytic capacitors are used in fil- transformer which is operated continuously,
ter circuits of high -voltage supplies, the ca- within its ratings, seldom will give trouble
pacitors should be connected in series. The from moisture, since an economically de-
positive terminal of one capacitor must con- signed transformer operates at a moderate
nect to the negative terminal of the other, temperature rise above the temperature of
in the same manner as dry batteries are con- the surrounding air. But an unsealed trans -
nected in series. fomer which is inactive for an appreciable
Electrolytic capacitors can be greatly re- period of time in a highly humid location
duced in size by the use of etched aluminum can absorb enough moisture to cause early
foil for the anode. This greatly increases the failure.
surface area, and the dielectric film cover-
ing it, but raises the power factor slightly. Filter Choke Filter inductors consist of a
For this reason, ultramidget electrolytic ca- Coils coil of wire wound on a lami-
pacitors ordinarily should not be used at full nated iron core. The size of
rated dc voltage when a high ac compo- wire is determined by the amount of direct
nent is present as would be the case for current which is to flow through the choke
the input capacitor in capacitor-input filter. coil. This direct current magnetizes the
core and reduces the inductance of the
Bleeder A heavy -duty resistor should be choke coil; therefore, filter choke coils of
Resistors connected across the output of a the smoothing type are built with an air
filter in crder to draw some load gap of a small fraction of an inch in the
current at all time. This resistor avoids iron core, for the purpose of preventing
soaring of the voltage at no load when saturation when maximum current flows
swinging -choke input is used, and also pro- through the coil winding. The "air gap" is
vides a means for discharging the filter ca- usually in the form of a piece of fiber in-
POWER SUPPLIES 23.15
ERMS I O
under maximum load conditions. The coil
1..Q0000,
must have a great many more turns for the
same initial inductance when an air gap is
used.
The dc resistance of any filter choke
should be as low as practical for a specified
Eoc = 0.9 ERNS
value of inductance. Smaller filter chokes, EPEAK = 1.41 ERMS
ERRS = 2 62 ERMs
such as those used in radio receivers, usually
have an inductance of from 6 to 15 henrys,
and a dc resistance of from 200 to 400
ohms. A high dc resistance will reduce the
output voltage, due to the voltage drop
across each choke coil. Large filter choke
coils for radio transmitters and class -B
Eoc 0.9 ERAS
amplifiers usually have less than 100 ohms TO
Fi LIER
=
23 -5 Rectification Figure 19
Circuits COMMON RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
There are a large variety of rectifier cir- A- Half -wave rectifier. Ripple is 121 %.
cuits suitable for use in power supplies. Fig- B -Full -wave
rectifier. Ripple is 4e%.
ure 19 shows the three most common cir- C- Bridge rectifier. Ripple is 4!%.
cuits used in supplies for amateur equipment.
Full -Wove full wave rectifier (figure
A
Half -Wove A half -wave rectifier (figure Rectifier 19B) consists of a pair of half -
Rectifier 19A) passes current in one di- wave rectifiers working on op-
rection but not in the other. posite halves of the ac cycle, connected in
During one half of an applied ac cycle when such a manner that each portion of the rec-
the anode of the rectifier is positive with tified wave is combined in the output cir-
respect to the cathode the rectifier is in a cuit, as shown in figure 20. A transformer
state of conduction and current flows with a center -tapped secondary is required.
through the rectifier. During the other half The transformer delivers ac to each anode of
of the cycle, when the anode is negative each rectifier element; one anode being
with respect to the cathode, the rectifier does positive at any instant during which the
not conduct and no current flows in the cir- other anode is negative. The center point of
cuit. The output current, therefore, is of a the high -voltage winding of the transformer
pulsating nature which can be smoothed is taken as the negative (B- minus) connec-
into direct current by means of an appro- tion.
priate filter circuit. The output of a half - The cathodes of the rectifier units are al-
wave rectifier is zero during one -half of each ways positive in polarity with respect to the
ac cycle; this makes it difficult to filter the anode of this type of circuit, and the output
output properly and also to secure good current pulsates 120 times per second for
voltage regulation for varying loads. The a 60 -Hz supply. The peak output voltage
peak inverse voltage with a resistive or is 1.4 times the rms transformer voltage
inductive load is equal to the peak ac volt- and the inverse voltage across each recti-
age of the transformer (1.41 X Erms) and fier unit is 2.8 times the rms voltage of the
is equal to twice the peak ac voltage with transformer (as measured across one half
a capacitive load. of the secondary winding). For a given
23.16 RADIO HANDBOOK
value of ripple, the amount of filter re- value is equal to R,, /1000, where Rt. is the
quired for a full -wave rectifier is half that load resistance. Inductance above the critical
required for a half -wave rectifier, since the value will limit the no -load output voltage
ripple frequency of the former is twice to about the average value (Ed.,..) in con-
that of the latter. trast to the capacitor -input filter circuit
(figure 20B) wherein the no -load output
voltage may rise as high as the peak value
Bridge Rectifier A bridge rectifier (figure of the transformer voltage. The capacitor-
19C) has four rectifier L
elements operated from a single ac source.
During one half -cycle of the applied ac
voltage, point A becomes positive with re- L
When capacitor input is used, considera- cuit, separate input chokes and filter sys-
tion must be given to the peak value of the tems are used on both output voltages. If a
ac voltage impressed on the filter capacitor, transformer designed for use with a full -
which usually runs equal to the peak trans- wave rectifier is used in this circuit, the
former voltage (1.41 Erin!). The input ca- current drain from the full -voltage tap is
pacitor, therefore, must have a voltage rat- doubled and added to the drain from the
ing high enough to withstand the peak half -voltage tap to determine whether the
voltage if breakdown is to be avoided. A rating of the transformer is being exceeded.
complete discussion of capacitor- and choke - Figure 21B shows a system which may be
input filter systems is contained in the Ra- convenient for obtaining two voltages which
diotron Designer's Handbook, published by are not in a ratio of 2 to 1 from a bridge -
the Radio Corporation of America, Harri- type rectifier; a transformer with taps along
son, New Jersey. the winding is required for the circuit how-
ever. With the circuit arrangement shown,
Special Single - Figure 21 shows six cir- the voltage from the tap will be greater
Phase Rectification cuits which may prove than one -half the voltage at the top.
Circuits valuable when it is de- An interesting variable -voltage circuit is
sired to obtain more than shown in figure 21C. The arrangement may
one output voltage from one plate trans- be used to increase or decrease the output
former or where some special combination voltage of a conventional power supply, as
of voltages is required. Figure 21A shows a represented by transformer T,, by adding
more or less common method for obtaining another filament transformer to isolate the
full voltage and half voltage from a bridge filament circuits of the two rectifier tubes
rectification circuit. With this type of cir- and adding another plate transformer be-
LL voLYAu
+EOo.E
O
AVVO TAOl
///
+ VOLTS
+EOo
+Eooo -Fr
+
Eoa.F Lila
0-9
tween the filaments of the two tubes. The ing of the filter choke (L2) for a certain
voltage contribution of the added trans- current drain from the power supply since
former T2 may be subtracted from or only half the current passes through each
added to the voltage produced by T, simply choke. Also, the two chokes (L1) act as
by reversing the double -pole double -throw input chokes so that an additional swinging
switch (S). A serious disadvantage of this choke is not required for such a power sup-
circuit is the fact that the entire secondary ply.
winding of transformer T2 must be insu- A conventional two -voltage power supply
lated for the total output voltage of the with grounded transformer center tap is
power supply. shown in figure 21E. The output voltages
An arrangement for operating a full -wave from this circuit are separate and not addi-
rectifier from a plate transformer not tive as in the circuit of figure 21B.
equipped with a center tap is shown in fig- A special bridge rectifier is shown in fig-
ure 21D. The two chokes (L1) must have ure 21F. Both L, and L2 should be swinging
high inductance ratings at the operating cur- chokes but the total drain from the power
rent of the plate supply to hold down the supply passes through L, while only the
alternating current load on the secondary of drain of the final amplifier passes through
the transformer since the total peak voltage L2. Capacitors C, and C2 need be rated only
output of the plate transformer is impressed half the maximum output voltage of the
across the chokes alternately. However, the power supply, plus the usual safety factor.
chokes need only have half the current rat- This arrangement is also of advantage in
= Io.C_..
o
PRIMARY
Co' 1.17 ES
15.0.57710C.
RIPPLE FREQUENCY 3F
RIPPLE PERCENT 18.3
PEAR INVERSE 2.00 Eo
TUBE VOLTAGE 2.44 ES
Figure 22
OA 3 -PHASE STAR
COMMON
o POLYPHASE-
RECTIFICATION
CIRCUITS
Eo 1.3S Es
These circuits are used
Is 0.408 10.C.
=
when polyphase power is
RIPPLE FREQUENCY 0 F available for the plate sup-
RIPPLE PERCENT 4.2 ply of a high -power trans-
PEAR INVERSE 2.00 EO mitter. The circuit at B is
TUBE VOLTAGE Es
tit3
2.05
also called a three-phase
full -wave rectification sys-
tem. The circuits are de-
scribed in the accompany-
OB 6 -PHASE STAR ing text.
tD.c,
+Eo
PRIMARY Eo
¡5.0.51$¡
34 E s
RI 0.81EIU.C.
RIPPLE FREQUENCY sr
ns
RIPPLE PERCENT 4.2
PEAR INVERSE 1.03 Eo
TUBE VOLTAGE 2.44 Es
© 6 -PHASE BRIDGE
POWER SUPPLIES 23.19
holding down the "key -up" voltage of a which are the peak values divided by 1.41
c -w transmitter since both L, and Ll are in for a sine wave.
series, and their inductances are additive, If a potential of 1000 rms volts is ob-
insofar as the "critical inductance" of a tained from a high voltage secondary wind-
choke -input filter is concerned. If 20 -µF ing of a transformer, there will be 1410
capacitors are used at both C, and C_ the volts peak potential from the rectifier plate
dynamic regulation of the supply will be to ground. In a single-phase supply the
adequate for SSB operation. rectifier tube has this voltage impressed on
Polyphase Itis usual practice in com-
it, either positively when the current flows
Rectification merciai equipment installa- or "inverse" when the current is blocked on
Circuits tions when the power drain the other half -cycle. The peak inverse volt-
age which the tube will stand safely is used
from a plate supply is to be
as a rating for rectifier tubes. At higher
greater than about one kilowatt to use a
voltages ' the tube is liable to arc back,
polyphase rectification system. Such power
supplies offer better transformer utilization, thereby destroying or damaging it. The
relations between peak inverse voltage, total
less ripple output and better power factor
in the load placed on the ac line. However,
transformer voltage, and filter output volt-
age depend on the characteristics of the fil-
such systems require a source of three -phase
ter and rectifier circuits (whether full- or
(or two-phase with Scott connection) ener-
gy. Several of the more common polyphase
half -wave, bridge, single -phase or polyphase,
rectification circuits with their significant etc.).
characteristics are shown in figure 22. The
Rectifier tubes are also rated in terms of
peak plate current. The actual direct load
increase in ripple frequency and decrease
in percentage of ripple is apparent from the current which can be drawn from a given
figures given in figure 22. The circuit of
rectifier tube or tubes depends on the type
figure 22C gives the best transformer utili- of filter circuit. A full -wave rectifier with
zation as does the bridge circuit in the capacitor input passes a peak current several -
times the direct load current.
single -phase connection. The circuit has the
In a filter with choke input, the peak cur-
further advantage that there is no average
dc flow in the transformers, so that three rent is not much greater than the load cur-
single -phase transformers may be used. A
rent if the inductance of the choke is fairly
tap at half voltage may be taken at the high (assuming full -wave rectification).
junction of the star transformers, but there
will be dc flow in the transformer secondar- Mercury -Vapor The inexpensive mercury -
ies with the power- supply center tap in use. Rectifier Tubes vapor type of rectifier tube
The circuit of figure 22A has the disadvan-
is often used in the high -
tage that there is an average dc flow in each
voltage plate supplies of amateur and
of the windings.
commercial transmitters. When new or long -
Rectifiers Rectifying elements in high -volt- unused tubes are first placed in service, the
age plate supplies are usually filaments should be operated at normal tem-
electron tubes of either the high- vacuum perature for approximately twenty minutes
or mercury-vapor type, although silicon before plate voltage is applied, in order to
rectifier stacks containing a large number remove all traces of mercury from the
of elements are often used. Low -voltage cathode and to clear any mercury deposits
high- current supplies may use argon gas from the top of the envelope. After this
rectifiers, silicon rectifiers, or other types of preliminary warmup with a new tube, plate
solid -state rectification elements. voltage may be applied within 20 to 30
seconds after the time the filaments are
In an ac circuit, the
Peak Inverse Plate turned on, each time the power supply is
Voltage and Peak maximum peak voltage used. If plate voltage should be applied be-
Plate Current or current is .\,/-f, or 1.41 fore the filament is brought to full temper-
times that indicated by ature, active material may be knocked from
the ac meters in the circuit. The meters the oxide -coated filament and the life of the
read the root mean square (rms) values, tube will be greatly shortened.
23.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
Small r -f chokes must sometimes be con- On one half the ac cycle capacitor C, is
nected in series with the plate leads of mer- charged to nearly the peak source voltage
cury -vapor rectifier tubes in order to pre- through rectifier D,. On the opposite half
vent the generation of radio -frequency hash. of the cycle, rectifier D_ conducts and ca-
These r -f chokes must be wound with suf- pacitor C_ is charged to nearly twice the
ficiently heavy wire to carry the load cur- source peak voltage. At the same time, the
rent and must have enough inductance to next rectifier conducts and with the charge
attenuate the r -f parasitic noise current to in C_ as the source, C3 is charged to the
prevent it from flowing in the filter supply peak input voltage, and so on. Ripple in
leads and then being radiated into nearby the output circuit is governed by:
receivers. Manufactured mercury -vapor
rectifier hash chokes are available in various E. =+ /load (N2 + N /2)
current ratings from various manufacturers.
When mercury -vapor rectifier tubes are Ripple thus increases with the square
operated in parallel in a power supply, small power of the number of stages.
resistors or small iron -core choke coils should Regulation is governed by:
he connected in series with the plate lead of
each tube. These resistors or inductors tend ER -- 12fC (N' +9/4N2 +N,2)
to create an equal division of plate current
between parallel tubes and prevent one The N' term indicates a practical limita-
tube from carrying the major portion of tion as to the number of stages in a prac-
the current. When high -vacuum rectifiers
tical circuit in that the internal impedance
of the multiplier rises very fast.
are operated in parallel, these chokes or The half -wave parallel multiplier circuit
resistors are not required. is shown in figure 24. The operation of the
parallel multiplier follows that of the series
Voltage Practical toltage multiplying design with the exception that each capaci-
Multiplying circuits can be built up using tor in the string is charged up to higher
Circuits silicon rectifiers and filter ca- voltages instead of each capacitor having
pacitors. The rectifier delivers the same potential across it as in the series
alternating half -cycles of energy to the fil- configuration. Ripple in the output circuit
ter capacitor and successive rectifier - capac- is independent of the number of stages and
itor stages may be connected to provide is a function of capacitance, load current
very high values of voltage from a low and frequency:
voltage source.
cl C3
C4 CN.
Figure 24
Figure 23
HALF -WAVE PARALLEL
HALF-WAVE SERIES
MULTIPLIER CIRCUIT
MULTIPLIER CIRCUIT
The operation of the parallel multiplier follows
A single stage consists of one capacitor and one that of the series design with the exception
rectifier unit and provides a de voltage at no that each capacitor in the string is charged up
load nearly equal to the peak se voltage. The to higher voltages instead of each capacitor
internal impedance of the multiplier is quite high having the same potential across it as in the
and rises as the third power of the number of series configuration. Ripple is independent of
stages. Variations of this circuit are common in the number of stages and is a function of
power supplies for electronic equipment. capacitance, load current, and frequency. Reg-
ulation is better than that of the series design
A common voltage multiplier is the half - and proportional directly to the number of
wave series multiplier circuit (figure 23). stages.
POWER SUPPLIES 23.21
DI RL
o+
b° +
O ERMS E P= I. 4 I R M 3
pO
o
HALF -WAVE RECTIFIER
COMMON
RL DI
Figure 25
FULL -WAVE VOLTAGE DOUBLER
FULL -WAVE VOLTAGE DOUBLER
RL CI DI
The half -wave rectifiers may be connected in EV Or
reverse sequence to provide full -wave rectifica-
tion. Diode D charges capacitor C to the peak bOERM3 D2 +Cx E. 2.8Z Rus
transformer voltage on one -half the cycle and
diode D, charges capacitor C. on the other half - P1 o
cycle. The output is taken across the two ca- HALF -WAVE VOLTAGE DOUBLER
pacitors connected in series. Ripple frequency
is 120 Hz. This "building block" may be made
into a voltage quadrupler or sextupler.
E,. - 'load
fC
C3
EP3.64 Rus
3
>
c
T Ì
.D
REC iK ER
1 megohm, or less.
e is the rms voltage of the transformer The resistance in series with the capacitor
secondary winding. should equal the load impedance placed
across the supply.
High -voltage transients can also be caused
by series filter chokes subject to abrupt load
changes. An RC suppressor network placed
across the winding of the choke can absorb 23 -7 Silicon Supplies
a portion of the energy released when the
magnetic field of the choke collapses, thus for SSB
preventing the current surge from destroy- Shown in figure 28 are three semiconduc-
ing the diode stack (figure 27D). The ap- tor power supplies. Circuit A provides 530
proximate value of the transient capacitor volts (balanced to ground) at 0.15ampere.
is: If the supply is isolated from ground by a
L X Iz 1:1 transformer of 250 watts capacity point
Capacitance OAF) = 10 X E2 A may be grounded and point B will pro-
vide half -voltage. Circuit B is a half -wave
where, tripler that delivers 325 volts at 0.45 am-
L is the maximum choke inductance pere. In this circuit, one side of the power
(henrys), line common to the negative side of the
is
1 the maximum current passing
is output. Circuit C is a 900 -watt, 0.S am-
through the choke (amperes) , pere supply composed of two voltage dou-
E is the maximum dc supply voltage blers supplied from a "distribution" trans-
(kV) former having dual 120 240 -volt windings.
4-265v.
150 MA.
265 V.
150 MA
O DUAL- VOLTAGE DOUBLER
WITH COMMON B -MINUS
_2_
10 w
300.10
1.25oV
6M,450MA
D2
.05 * Q.°+3z5v.
450MÁ
20 V ,so" T
zsov
130Lf* 40LF
vT
+
ti
s
© HIGH -CURRENT SUPPLY © 900 -WATT HIGH-VOLTAGE SUPPLY
Figure 28
SEMICONDUCTOR POWER SUPPLIES
A- Voltage -quadrupler circuit. If point "A" is actaken as ground instead of point "B," supply will
deliver 530 volts at 150 mA from 120 -volt line. Supply is "hot" to line.
B- Voltage tripler delivers 325 volts at 450maymA.beSupply is "hot" to line.
C-900 -watt supply for sideband service made from two voltage quadruplers working in
series from inexpensive "distribution- type" transformer. Supply features good dynamic voltage
regulation.
D , D,, D3-1N4005. Use .01µF capacitor and 100K resistor across each diode.
T, -Power distribution transformer, used backwards. 240/460 primary, 120/240 secondary, 0.75 KVA.
Chicago PCB- 24750.
23.24 RADIO HANDBOOK
I-
Power Supply Rating The duty cycle (ratio two of peak power at potentials ranging
for SSB Service of duration of maxi- from one to three thousand volts. Most suit-
i, .
mum power output to able power transformers are rated for com-
total "on" time) of a power supply in 45
/
SSB and c -w service is much smaller than
r
40
that of a supply used for a -m equip-
ment. While the power supply must be 35
11111
p,
e.1
'
/-
.
capable of supplying peak power equal
to the PEP input of the SSB equipment
30
25 b_ o
r,<
for a short duration, the average power de-
,I
'
v
manded by SSB voice gear over a period of 20 QV- s.P
44 `/"
.
series capacitor filter and assume that the The capacitors are sheathed in a Mylar
idling plate current of the amplifier is cut jacket and may be mounted on the chassis
to only a few milliamperes by the use of a or adjacent to each other without addi-
VOX -controlled cathode bias system. If the tional insulation between the units. The
idling plate current of the amplifier assumes stack may be taped and mounted to a metal
an appreciable fraction of the peak plate chassis with a metal clamp, as is done in
current, the power capability of the supply
decreases to that given for c -w service.
Most small power transformers work re-
Inrush Current Protection -
some of the units described here.
When the
power supply is first turned on, the filter
liably with the center tap of the secondary capacitors are discharged and present a near
winding above ground potential. Some of the short circuit to the power transfomer and
larger transformers, however, are designed rectifier stack. The charging current of a
to have the center tip grounded and lack high- capacitance stack may exceed the
sufficient insulation at this point to permit maximum peak- recurrent current rating
their use in either a bridge or voltage dou- of the rectifiers for several cycles, thus dam-
bling configuration. The only way of de- aging the diodes. Charging current is
termining if the center -tap insulation is limited only by the series impedance of
sufficient is to use the transformer and see the power- supply circuit which consists
if the insulation breaks down at this point! mainly of the dc circuit resistance (pri-
It is wise to ground the frame of the trans- marily the resistance of the secondary wind-
former so that if breakdown occurs, the ing of the power transformer) plus the
frame of the transformer does not assume leakage reactance of the transformer. Trans-
the potential of the secondary winding and formers having high secondary resistance
thus present a shock hazard to the operator. and sufficient leakage reactance usually limit
The Silicon Rectifier-A bewildering vari- the inrush current so that additional in-
ety of "TV- type" silicon rectifiers exists and rush protection is unnecessary. This is not
new types are being added daily. Generally the case with larger transformers having
speaking, 600 -volt PIV rectifiers, having an low secondary resistance and low leakage
average rectified current rating of ampere
1 reactance. To be on the safe side, in any
at an ambient temperature of 75`C with a case, it is good practice to limit inrush cur-
maximum single -cycle surge -current rating rent to well within the capability of the
of 15 amperes or better are suitable for use diode stack. A current -limiting circuit is
in the power supplies described in this sec- shown in figure 30 which can be added at
tion. Typical rectifiers are packaged in the little expense to any power supply. The cur-
top -hat configuration as well as the epoxy - rent- limiting resistor (R) is initially in the
encapsulated assembly and either type costs circuit when the power supply is turned on,
less than a dollar per unit. In addition, potted but is shorted out by the relay RY after a
stacks utilizing controlled -avalanche recti- sufficient time has elapsed to partially charge
fiers are available at a cost less than that of the filter capacitors of the power supply.
building a complete RC stack of diodes. The The relay coil is in a simple time -delay cir-
silicon rectifier, if properly used, is rarely cuit composed of R, -C,. The delay may be
the limiting factor in the design of steady - adjusted by varying the capacitance value,
state IVS power supplies, provided proper and need only be about one -half second or
transient protection is incorporated in the so. Surplus 24 -volt dc relays used in dyna-
supply. motor starting circuits work well in this
The Filter Capacitor- Compact, "com- device, as they have large low- resistance
puter" -type aluminum-foil electrolytic ca- contacts and reasonable coil resistance (250
pacitors combine high capacitance per unit ohms or so).
of volume with moderate working volt-
age at a low price. Capacitors cf this type
can withstand short -interval voltage surges Practical An IVS voltage -doubler power
of 15 percent over their dc working volt- IVS Supplies supply may be designed with
age. In a stack, the capacitors should be the aid of figures 29 and 31.
protected by voltage -equalizing resistors, as A typical doubler circuit, such as shown in
shown in the power supplies in this section. figure 30 is to be used. The full -wave volt-
23.26 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 30
INRUSH CURRENT PROTECTION
FOR POWER SUPPLY
Charging current of capacitor filter may be limited by series impedance of the power supply.
in voltage -doubler circuit shown here, primary resistor R limits inrush current to within the capa-
bility of the diodes. Limiting resistor is shorted out after sufficient time has elapsed to partially
charge the filter capacitors. Delay time of 0.5 second is usually sufficient. R -C combination de-
termines time delay. Secondary surge suppression (R -C is used, and shunt RC equalizing net-
)
works are employed across each diode stack. Filter capacitors (C C,) are "computer- grade"
electrolytic capacitors in series with 10K, 10-watt wirewound resistor placed across each capacitor.
.
1 11111111
1111111__.
type, as the former charges the filter ca- 1111
.M. 1
1
uu11u111ra.
IIII__. \ 1
111111
III
III1111
III1111111
former weight and expense. 11111111111111111 1111111111101111 11 II III111111111
Referring to figure 30, filter capacitors
1
1111111111111111111111111111111311111111 111111111111
C, and C,, are charged on alternate half
111111111111111111111111111111111:1111111111111111111111
cycles, but since the capacitors are in series
across the load, the ripple frequency has 111111111111111111 1111111111111111111111111111111111
twice the line frequency. ll
A second advantage of the full -wave
doubler over the half -wave type is that the ::
former tends to be self -protecting against
. u
inGsco
111111111..::: :
switching transients. One diode stack is al- __.t
I
111111111.....
.
ways in a conducting mode, regardless of INI 11111111 _.1..
1111_11I..
..
the polarity of a transient, and the transient
is therefore discharged into the filter- capaci-
tor stack.
alii
U111 II11u1
lxxuuu
Illrnul ululel..,..
1u111u11u II llllllx1\.
1111111
III umnxxuunuuuuw
IxI111111111111 u1 UOI ID1x 1111111I I I II I
IS 20 25 30
11
40
uuuu I11
II II II
30 W
1\
70 .0
II
10 100
R- FACTOR
The filter- capacitor stack is rated for the
peak no -load voltage (plus a safety factor), FIGURE 31
while the diode rectifiers must be able to R' FACTOR GRAPH FOR IVS
withstand twice the peak no -load voltage POWER SUPPLIES
(plus a safety factor). Good engineering
practice calls for the dc working voltage The full load dc voltage of an IVS -rated volt-
age- doubler power supply may be determined
of each portion of the capacitor stack to be with the aid of this graph. The secondary re-
equal to the peak ac voltage of the power sistance of the transformer is measured and
the R' Factor is found. For example, a trans-
transformer (1.41 X rms secondary volt- former having a secondary resistance of 20
age) plus 15 percent safety factor. ohms has an R' Factor of about 40. The factor
The R' Factor-The ac secondary volt- is used in the formula to calculate the full
load dc voltage of the power supply. For use
age, secondary resistance, circuit reactance, with bridge circuits, the R' Factor derived here
and IN'S capability of a transformer will should be divided by 2.5 before being used in
the formula.
POWER SUPPLIES 23.27
determine its excellence in voltage- doubler The total PIV for the diode stack is
service. The end effect of these parameters twice the peak rectified voltage and is 4720
may be expressed by an empirical R' factor volts. A 100 -percent safety factor is recom-
as shown in figure 31. As an example, as- mended for the complete stack, whose PIV
sume a power transformer is at hand weigh- should thus be about 9440 volts. The num-
ing 25 pounds, with a secondary winding of ber of individual diodes in a suitable stack
840 volts (rms) and a dc secondary resis- is:
tance of 8 ohms. The IVS rating of this 11.2 X rms voltage
transformer (from figure 29) is about 1.5 Number of diodes = Diode PIV
kW, PEP, or more. The appropriate dc
no-load voltage of an IVS supply making For this example, 600 -volt PIV rectifiers
use of this unit in voltage- doubler service, are chosen and 16 are required, eight in each
such as the circuit of figure 30, is: half of the stack.
The charging current of the capacitor
=2.S1 Xe stack may be safely ignored if the power
ENO LOAD
supply is energized through a series primary
where, resistor (R) such as shown in figure 30.
e is the rms secondary voltage. One-ampere diodes having a single -cycle
surge- current rating of 15 to 30 amperes
For this transformer, then, the no -load are recommended for general use. The dif-
dc supply voltage is about 2360 volts. The fused silicon rectifiers (1N3195 and 1N-
full load voltage will be somewhat less than 4005, for example) have a single -cycle
this value. For a maximum power capability surge -current rating of 30 amperes.
of 1.5 kW, a full -load current of about
0.75 ampere is required if the full load dc Capacitor Power supplies for SSB service
voltage is in the vicinity of 2000. This is a Filters whose current requirements have
realistic figure, so a "target" full -load volt- a large peak -to- average ratio
age of 2000 is hopefully chosen. often make use of capacitor filters (figure
The projected full -load voltage for a 32) . This simple circuit eliminates the reso-
doubler -type supply may be determined nant transients that are often found in LC
with the aid of the R' factor and is calcu- filter systems and, if the capacitance is suf-
lated from:
ELOAD = ENO LOAD - R' (I X R)
s000 -- - - --r -
where,
6000 -
R' determined from figure 31,
is FROM RECTIFIER,
1 is the full load current in amperes, cT iaL --
R is the secondary resistance of the trans-
former. ,000_ --" I,
Figure 33
ficiently large, provides adequate voltage slightly less secondary voltage would provide
regulation. In the case of a 2 -kw PEP sup- improved voltage regulation. The 840 -volt
ply (2500 volts at 0.8 ampere) the load transformer having an 8 -ohm secondary
resistance is 3100 ohms and the required winding discussed earlier would be ideal in
capacitance for 5- percent regulation is 55 this application.
µF. Dynamic regulation of this degree The power supply is constructed on a
is satisfactory for SSB and c -w service, as steel amplifier foundation chassis and dust
well as for amplitude modulation. As dis- cover. The diode stack is mounted on a per-
cussed earlier, the rectifier and power trans- forated phenolic board under the chassis.
former must be protected from the inrush The electrolytic capacitors are taped to-
charging current of the filter capacitor. gether and held in position atop the chassis
by a clamp cut from an aluminum sheet.
23 -8 A 1- Kilowatt IVS The interior of the clamp is lined with a
piece of plastic material salvaged from a
Power Supply package of frozen vegetables. The voltage -
Shown in figures 33 and 34 is a typical equalizing resistors are wired across the
1- kilowattIVS power supply designed from terminals of the capacitors. Normally, it
the above data. This supply is based on a takes 10 seconds or so to fully discharge the
40- percent duty cycle and may be used filter capacitors when no external load is
for c -w service at 1- kilowatt level, or connected to the supply. It is recommended
up to 1200 watts PEP or so for SSB that the supply be discharged with a 1000 -
service. The regulation of the supply is ohm, 100 -watt resistor before any work is
shown in the graph (figure 34), and the done on the unit. Power -supply components
unit is capable of delivering 2300 volts and all terminals should be well protected
at 0.5 ampere in IVS operation. The no- against accidental contact. The voltage de-
load voltage rises to 2750. The power sup- livered by this supply is lethal and the filter
ply is suitable for running a single 3- capacitors hold a considerable charge for a
400Z at maximum rating, or it may be surprising length of time. This is the price
used for a pair of 8873, 4CX2S0B, or 4CX- one pays for an intermittent -duty design,
300A tubes at the kilowatt level. A trans- and care should be exercised in the use of
former having less secondary resistance and Ellis equipment.
g,
POWER SUPPLIES 23.29
N6
!600 1
'_ -S 66)N66)660
RATING D60 w) 2800
MAXI VS
1.11tli1.ii.s1>s1>s1>Ni1>fafa="1111N4.
NG 2600
Ù
itlsì6iiiiNiiiiiO
MMMMMMMMM
6)6N60
se
(r,0
'200
200o MMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMM
i
W) 0 2400
iNSs-NNiiissO
66N66fItlNNNNNN6O
IiliNNiiNiNNNfO
IMIMMMMtIMOM ii i ii i iiii ii ii N i i i N ii O
I- 2200
J
MMMMMMMMMMMIM
MMMMMMMMMM>M
0
MMMMMMMMMMMM MMMIIIIIIMMMMNINIMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMIM
MMMMMMMMMMIM
MMMMMMMMMM.1M 6NN6tióNNN6N(6NO
iiiit61ss11sNiiiiNSs11O
MMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMIM .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .
o .s
.2 .3 .4 .e LOAD CURRENT (AMPERES)
LOAD CURRENT (AMPERES) Figure 35
Figure 34 REGULATION OF THE
REGULATION CURVE OF ONE 2 -kW SUPPLY
The power supply uses the circuit of figure 30.
KILOWATT IVS SUPPLY Surge components are as given in figure 34, ex-
The power supply uses the circuit of figure 30. cept that the surge capacitor (C,) has a rating
Primary surge resistor (R) is 5 ohms, 50 watts. of 5 kV. Twenty type- IN2071 (600 -volt PIV) di-
Secondary surge -voltage resistor (R,) is 200 odes are used in an assembly similar to that
ohms, 10 watts. Surge capacitor (C,) is .02 µF, shown in figures 38 and 39. Eight 240 ,F, 450 -
3 KV ( Aerovox P89 -M). Sixteen type 1N2071 (600 - working-volt (500 -volt peak) capacitors are used
volt PIV) diodes are used in an assembly such to provide 30 µF effective capacitance. Two
as shown in figures 38 and 39. The diode shunt 100K, 2 -watt resistors are shunted across each
capacitors are .01 -MF, 600 -volt ceramic discs, capacitor. Time -delay circuit components are
and the shunt resistors are 470K, 1/2 -watt units. as suggested in figure 30. The transformer used
Six 450 -volt (working), 240 -, F filter capacitors has a 120/240 -volt primary and an 1100 -volt sec-
are used in series, each capacitor shunted ondary, with an ICAS rating of 1.2 kW. (Berk-
with two 100K, 2 -watt resistors in parallel. The shire Transformer Corp., Kent, Conn. #BTC-
time delay relay (RY) has a 24 -volt dc coil with 4905 B ).
a resistance of about 280 ohms (Potter -Brum-
field PRS -DY). Contacts are rated at 25 amperes.
Delay time is about 0.5 second and is deter-
mined primarily by the time constant of R,-
23 -9 A 2- Kilowatt PEP
C,. Suggested values are 800µF (50 working Supply for SSB
volts) for C, and 600 ohms, 10 watts for R,. Di-
ode D, may be a 1N2070. The power transformer The power supply described in this section
shown is a surplus unit having a 120 /240 -volt
primary and a 960 -volt secondary. The trans- is designed for the maximum power rating
former weight is 18 pounds and it has an IVS for amateur service. It is capable of L2 kilo-
rating of 1.2 kW. (A commercial alternative is
Hill Magnetics Co., 2201 Bay Road, Redwood watts power for c -w (50 percent duty
City, Calif. ir.HMP- 1939A. This compact, 825 -volt, cycle) and 2 kilowatts IVS for SSB service.
wound -core transformer has improved regula- The supply is ideally suited for a grounded -
tion and is rated at 1 kW continuous duty (2
kW IVS rating] and provides 2000 volts at a grid amplifier using a single 3- 1000Z, 4-
continuous load of 500 mA.) 1000A, or a pair of 3- S00Z's. Regulation
To reduce the standby current and power of the supply is shown in figure 35. A
consumption, it is recommended that cath- voltmeter is incorporated in the supply to
ode bias be applied to the linear amplifier monitor the plate voltage at all times. The
stage shown in various designs in this Hand- supply makes use of the circuit of figure 30.
book. During transmission, the cathode re- Twenty 600 -volt PIV diodes are used in
sistor may be shorted out by contacts of the rectifier stack to provide a total PIV
the VOX relay, restoring the stage to proper of 12 kV, which allows an ample safety
operation. factor. Eight 240 -1tF, 450 -volt capacitors
Using the alternative 1100 -volt trans- are used in the filter stack to provide 30-
former, the supply delivers 2600 volts at a µF effective capacitance at 3600 volts
c -w rating of 380 mA. Peak [VS voice rating working voltage. The voltage across the
is 500 mA. (1.25 kW, PEP). No -load volt- "bottom" capacitor in the stack is moni-
age is about 3100, and eight electrolytic ca- tored by a 0 -to -1 dc milliammeter recali-
pacitors are required in the stack instead of brated 0 to 4 kV and which is used with a
six. series multiplier to provide a 0 to 5000 -volt
23.30 RADIO HANDBOOK
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5
The bridge -rectifier circuit is somewhat LOAD CURRENT (AMPERES)
more efficient than the full -wave circuit in
Figure 37
that the former provides more direct current
per unit of rms transformer current for a VOLTAGE -REGULATION CURVE OF
given load than does the full -wave circuit. 500 -WATT BRIDGE POWER SUPPLY
Since there are two rectifiers in opposite
arms of the bridge in the conducting mode rating of 200 mA. The weight of the trans-
when the ac voltage is at its peak value, former is 8 pounds, and the maximum IVS
the remaining two rectifiers are back -biased rating is about 500 watts or so. Secondary
to the peak value of the ac voltage. Thus resistance is 100 ohms. Used in bridge serv-
the bridge- rectifier circuit requires only ice, the transformer makes practical an in-
half the PIV rating for the rectifiers as expensive power supply providing about
compared to a center -tap full -wave recti- 1250 volts at an IVS peak current rating of
fier. The latter circuit applies the sum of 380 mA. The no -load voltage is about 1600.
the peak ac voltage plus the stored capaci- For c -w use, the current rating is 225 mA
tor voltage to one rectifier arm in the maxi- at 1400 volts (about 300 watts). Maximum
mum inverse -voltage condition. PIV is nearly 1700 volts so each arm of the
i 2 'l,
V
Figure 36
SCHEMATIC OF 500 -WATT IVS BRIDGE POWER SUPPLY
Diode package (C, -D, -R, etc.) is composed of six each: 1N2071 diode in parallel with .01 VF, 600-
volt ceramic capacitor and a 470K, 1/7 -watt resistor. Each bridge arm requires six packages, made
as shown in figures 38 and 39. The secondary voltage -surge network (C,-R,) is a 100 -ohm, 10 -watt
resistor in series with a .02 VF, 3 kV capacitor (Aerovox P89 -M). The power transformer has a 1200-
volt center tapped 200 -ma rating. (Stancor PC -8414 or Thordarson 22R36). The filter stack uses four
120 -VF, 450-volt electrolytic capacitors in series, with 10K, 10 -watt resistors across each capacitor.
Meter (M) is a 0.500 dc milliammeter. A 10- ampere fuse (F) is used. Transformer core is grounded
as a safety measure.
POWER SUPPLIES 23.31
Figure 38 Figure 39
ASSEMBLY OF HIGH -VOLTAGE REAR VIEW OF HIGH -VOLTAGE
DIODE STACK DIODE STACK
Inexpensive "TV- type" diodes may be con- The shunt capacitors and resistors are mounted
nected in series to provide a high value of on the rear of the phenolic board. Each diode -
peak- inverse voltage. Shown here are twelve resistor- capacitor package has an individual
type- 1N2071 diodes mounted on a Vectorbord pair of mounting terminals, which are jump -
(64AA32 cut to size). The diodes are soldered ered together to connect the diodes in series.
to Vector terminals (T9.6) mounted in the pre - This arrangement provides greatest available
punched holes in the phenolic board. A pair of heat sink for the components. The assembly
long -nose pliers should be used as a heat sink is mounted an inch or so away from the chas-
when soldering the diode leads. Grasp the di- sis by means of 4-40 machine screws and cer-
ode lead between the diode body and the joint, amic insulators placed in corners of the board.
permitting the pliers to absorb the soldering
heat.
bridge must withstand this value. Allowing
a 100- percent safety factor requires 3400
volts PIV per arm, which may be made up 23 -11 A Heavy -Duty
of six 600 -volt PIV diodes in series with an Primary Supply
appropriate RC network across each diode.
The diode assembly is constructed on two This husky power supply provides a nomi-
phenolic boards, one of which is shown in nal 12 volts dc at a maximum continuous
figures 38 and 39. A total of 24 rectifiers current of 10 amperes. It is useful as a shop
are required. Four 120 -µF, 450 -volt electro- supply to test mobile gear, as a battery
lytic capacitors in series provide 30 µF at a charger, and as a general -purpose low-volt-
working voltage of 1800. The negative of age power pack. The supply is unregulated
the supply is above ground by virtue of the and depends solely on the single- section fil-
10 -ohm, 10 -watt resistor which permits ler for ripple reduction. Regulation is quite
plate -current metering in the negative good at a current drain over one ampere, as
power lead while the supply and amplifier seen in figure 40. The output voltage is con-
remain at the same ground potential. trolled by the primary powerstat. To alert
This supply is designed for use with two the user to the unloaded supply voltage
811A's in grounded -grid service. The tubes (which may rise as high as 30 volts when the
are biased to plate- current cutoff in standby primary voltage is high) a meter protection
mode by a cathode resistor which is shorted and "alert" circuit is added. The red lamp
out by contacts on the push -to -talk or VOX is lit when more than 20 volts is present
circuitry. The power supply is built in an at the output terminals of the supply. Below
inclosed amplifier cabinet, similar to the one 20 volts, the zener diode is nonconducting.
shown in figure 33. The B -plus lead is made Above 20 volts, the 10 -volt zener conducts
of a length of RG -8/U coaxial cable, used and the current through it turns the NPN
in conjunction with a high -voltage coaxial transistor on and lights the warning indi-
connector. cator.
23.32 RADIO HANDBOOK
r- -AREA OP POOR
I RECLLAT OM
I z 3 s e 7 e e io
OUTPUT CURRENT - AMPERES
Figure 40
12 -VOLT, 10- AMPERE GENERAL PURPOSE PRIMARY SUPPLY
B, -1 amp, volts. Chicago =327
28 Thermalloy heatsinks, 6500B-2
C -12,000 ,F, 40 volts. Sprague 123G040BC T -Powerstat,200 watts, Superior 10B
CH, -.03 Henry, 10- ampere. Triad C -49U T T, -11 volts, 10 amperes. Stancor P3020
D -D -Two 1N3209 and two 1N3209R. Use two Meters: Weston model 301
properly heat -sinked) is shown in figure 43.
23 -12 Regulated Power No external pass transistor is required. This
Supplies IC regulator is designed for floating regula-
tion and can be powered by a small secondary
Zener diodes or voltage- regulator tubes 25 -volt supply that "floats," such as shown
are commonly used to regulate power sup-
plies to discrete voltages. Electronic voltage
regulators have been developed that will
handle higher voltage and current variations
than the tube and diode devices are capable
of handling. The electronic circuits, more-
over, may be varied over a wide range of
output voltage.
Electronic voltage regulators, in the main,
are based on feedback circuits, such as dis-
cussed in Chapter 8, Section 7 whereby an
error signal is passed through the feedback
loop in such a manner as to cause an ad-
justment to reduce the value of the error
signal.
Special integrated circuits have been de- Figure 41
veloped for voltage- regulator service such as
the LM300 and the µA -723. The IC regula- PRIMARY POWER SUPPLY
tor provides the gain required for the feed- Handy to test mobile equipment, charge bat-
back loop and an auxiliary power transistor teries or run surplus equipment, this supply
provides 12 volts at 10 amperes with good reg-
passes the major portion of the regular cur- ulation. Over -voltage lamp for meter protec-
rent. Thep.A -723 and the improved LM305 tion is included.
are shown as series positive regulators with
built -in current limiting in figure 42A -B. in figure 44. In this configuration, the IC
A negative regulator using an LM304 is never has the main supply voltage across it
shown in figure 42C. and the only semiconductor that must stand-
A positive regulator circuit capable of off the main supply voltage is the series pass
handling several hundred milliamperes (if transistor (usually a Darlington Pair). In
POWER SUPPLIES 23.33
IN ADJUST
UNREG. 2N4 898 VOLTAGE
VREF VOUT
C
UA-723 Rs
-VOur
Cs REG.
Figure 42
IC REGULATED POWER SUPPLIES
A-RA -723 integrated circuit provides gain for feedback loop to 2N4898 pass transistor for series
positive regulator. B -LM305 and 2N4037 provides simple adjustable positive voltage regulator.
C -LM304 and 2N4037 serve as adjustable negative voltage regulator.
Figure 44
"FLOATING" IC REGULATOR
High -voltage IC regulator uses "floating" 25 -volt supply. Series -pass transistors stand -off the main
supply voltage. This circuit also allows the output voltage to be varied from zero to maximum
value.
for several seconds after the power supply represented by the difference between the
is turned on. Under these conditions, the input voltage from the supply and the out-
current through the VR tube will never ex- put voltage from the regulator at the maxi-
ceed 40 mA even when it is running un- mum current flow to the load. In many
Rs ER
cases, tubes are operated in parallel to obtain
the required plate dissipation. The output
UNREGULATED
D -C SUPPLY
voltage of the electronically regulated sup-
(E) ply may be changed over a wide range by
varying the grid voltage of the dc amplifier
tube. The reference voltage may be supplied
S ER Rs- (E-ER) from a battery or voltage -regulator tube.
A.0 REGULATED
VR TUBE D.C. OUTPUT
SOURCE POWER SERIES
UNREGULATED AND CONTROL
D -C SUPPLY L RECTIFIER TUBE
(E)
V R TUBE
D -C COMPARISON
AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
Figure 45 1
VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE -REGULATOR TUBE CIRCUITS SERIES CONTROL TUBE
REFERENCE
Practical electronic regulated supplies usu- regulator is the heart of the supply and
ally employ pentode tubes in the dc ampli- yields more "regulation per dollar" than al-
fier for higher amplifier gain and low -p. tri- most any discrete circuit that can be built.
ode series control tubes for better control of The value of the series resistor (shown as
regulation, providing regulation of the or- 0.5 ohm) determines the current -limit point.
der of plus or minus 1 percent or so. This is about 1 ampere and decreases as
the resistor is increased in value. A 5 -ohm
resistor will current -limit the supply at
100 mA. The ratio of the series -connected
resistors across the output of the supply and
the voltage impressed on pin #2 of the IC
determines the value of the output voltage.
For powering a wide variety of linear ICs,
especially operational amplifiers, the supply
of figure 48C and figure 50 provides plus
and minus 15 volts at 300 mA. A dual regu-
lator IC, the SG 3SO1D, is used. As with the
IC supply previously described, current lim-
iting is provided for each of the two out-
puts. The two 2 -ohm series resistors in the
Figure 47 circuit are the controlling elements for cur-
rent limiting, which is set at 300 mA be-
THREE HANDY REGULATED
cause of the current capability of the par-
POWER SUPPLIES
ticular transformer used. Note the use of the
Compact supply at left provides 9 volts IC silicon bridge rectifier as a plus -and-
at 300 mA for small transistorized equip-
ment. Supply at center provides 5 volts minus full -wave rectifier. The center tap of
at 1 ampere for digital IC circuitry. Sup- the transformer is used, unlike the ordinary
ply at right provides +15 and -15 volts bridge connection.
for linear ICs and operational amplifiers.
In both the 5 -volt and the plus -and-
minus 15 -volt regulated supplies the volt-
Three Regulated Shown in figure 47 are age output is constant until the current -
Supplies three small, inexpensive limit point is reached, then the voltage value
regulated power supplies decreases abruptly.
designed by W6GXN that are useful for
work with solid -state equipment. The first A Variable -Voltage Although the simpler
low -voltage supply (figure 48A) provides Supply With supplies described in the
regulated 9 volts at 300 mA and may be Current Limiting previous section are
used to power the whole gamut of little very useful for the spe-
transistorized consumer electronic devices cific voltage requirements most often en-
normally powered by batteries as well as countered, it is helpful to have a continu-
some specialized f -m and vhf receivers op- ously variable power supply for experimen-
erating in this power range. The supply tal purposes. Shown in figure 51 is a "bench
provides a nominal 9 volts, regulated to 0.2 supply" which provides 0 to 20 volts with
volt up to approximately 300 mA current current limiting up to 200 mA. The small
drain. size of the supply makes it convenient to
23.36 RADIO HANDBOOK
COM
COM
Ti HEP176
2N5191
Figure 48
THREE REGULATED POWER SUPPLIES
A -9volts, 300 milliamperes. T, is 6.3 volts, 0.6 ampere. Triad F -13X. B-5 volts, 1 ampere. T. is 6.3
volts, 3 amperes. Staneor P6466. C -15 -volt, dual supply. T, is 40/20 volts, et., 300 mA. Triad F -91X.
use even if the builder has only a tiny cor- The supply is sufficiently complex so that
ner of his operating desk on which to make use of a printed- circuit board is suggested
experimental gear. and an etched and drilled board is available
The supply is designed around the MC- from Southwest Technical Products, Inc.,
1466L regulator IC which operates from a 219 West Rhapsody, San Antonio, Texas, as
"floating" 25-volt source to control another well as a complete kit of parts.
supply of arbitrary voltage. This concept is Switch S_A places a 39 -ohm resistor in
especially useful where the supply covers the series with the pass transistor, whichQ
range down to zero volts. A small dual - limits the collector dissipation of the device
winding transformer that mounts on a when operating at low voltage and high
printed -circuit board is used (figure 52). current. The other section of the switch
POWER SUPPLIES 23.37
Figure 49
D2eC5
Q
OR D4005
Ti
Figure 52
Figure 54
Ri Qa
o. is 2N277 OR HEP231
T2
Figure 55
Figure 57
MEDIUM -VOLTAGE
REGULATED SUPPLY
D, thru 13,- IN4005
or equivalent
T -480 volts,
c.t. at 70 mA,
6.3 volts at 3 amps
L -8 henrys, 75 mA
23.40 RADIO HANDBOOK
T D1 1N4.05 IN 4.05
RED
O
RJr s
02
Kv 2- TB
B 600 V
240 1* 5s06
450 5W
RED
240 50 K
5W
(GNO.)
B* 250
C -BiAS(40J)
0 12 6 V
6 A
f12V.
1200 MA. )
'NE 5+
Figure 59
SCHEMATIC, 600 -WATT TRANSCEIVER SUPPLY
T,-600 volts, 400 mA; 250 volts, 100 mA; 6.3 volts, 6 amps; 6.3 volts, 6 amps, 120 -volt primary.
Triad P -31A
CH, -1
henry, 300 mA
CH,-3 henrys, 300 mA
POWER SUPPLIES 23.41
A schematic of the 600 -watt PEP power line switch, usually located in the trans-
supply is shown in figure 59. A multiple - ceiver.
winding transformer is used which has suf- The construction of the supply is shown
ficient capacity to run the largest transceiv- in figure 58. The aluminum chassis is small
ers on a continuous voice -operated basis. enough to fit within the speaker cabinet of
The transformer weighs 16 pounds and has the transceiver, and parts layout is not
great reserve capacity. The power supply critical. The rectifier bridge is assembled on
provides 800 volts at an intermittent cur- a phenolic board, and mounted below the
rent of 800 milliamperes, 250 volts at an chassis in a clear area. The filter capacitors
intermittent current of 200 milliamperes, an are mounted to a phenolic board, their term-
adjustable bias voltage at a continuous cur- inals protruding into the under -chassis area.
rent of 100 milliamperes, and either 6.3 All voltage connections are terminated on
volts or 12.6 volts filament supply at 12 or a connector strip, and a single power cable
6 amperes, respectively. An additional cir- may be run from the power supply to the
cuit provides 12 volts dc for operation of transceiver. The leads carrying the filament
auxiliary VOX or switching relays. Con- voltage should be doubled up, using two
trolled- avalanche diodes are used in the wires for each lead to reduce voltaged drop
bridge -rectifier circuit, in conjunction with within the cable to a minimum. The 6.3 -volt
RC shunt networks and transient suppres- filament windings of the transformer may
sion across the power- supply secondary be arranged in either series or parallel con-
winding. figuration, according to the requirements of
Additional transient protection is afforded the transceiver.
by large bypass capacitors placed on the Complete filter- capacitor discharge takes
primary winding of the power transformer. about 10 seconds once the supply is turned
The supply is actuated by a remote-power- off, and it is recommended that the capaci-
Ti t
SA `p
TB
i20V. ti
III--tv q
O,
1L...
1100
2W
02
Q
10-.08 y80
240 1_4- SO K
IIo +750 V.
Tt.eKV
P Ti.é Nv q 430 3W
240 + SOK
450 T SW
_9 3M-300 MA. CH1 CH IM-300MA.
CND.
8+250V.
aF-
BIAS (ADJ.)
-_ 3K
D2 a
'O +12v. (RELAY SUPPLY)
1
CI-+ 3
I
l+tOO
23
e
Figure 60
SCHEMATIC, 300 -WATT IVS TRANSCEIVER POWER SUPPLY
Various replacement power transformers may be used with this power supply. Suggested units
are: (1) 650 -volt c.t. at 225 mA; 12.6 -volt at 5.25 amp. (Stancor P-8339), for 650-volt dc output.
(2) 750 -volt c.t. at 325 mA.; 12.6 volt at 6.0 amp. (Stancor P- 8365), for 750-volt dc output. (3)
540 -volt c.t. at 260 mA.; 6.3 -volt at 8.8 amp. (Stancor P- 8356), for 600 -volt de output and 6.3 volt
filament supply.
Transformer T, 6.3 volts at 1 amp. (Stancor P- 8389). CH,: 3 henrys at 300 mA (Stancor C-2334).
CH,: 1 henry at 300 mA (Stancor C-2343). D,: Diode bridge, 1400 -volt rms, 1.5 amp (2000-volt PIV).
Diodes Inc. #BR -820Á. 02, 0,: 1N2070.
23.42 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 61
PART I
Electromagnetic waves (radiant energy) place, and the use of this portion of the
encompass a number of familiar types of spectrum is governed by international treaty,
radiation, such as light, radio waves, X -rays, to which the United States is a signatory
heat and Cosmic waves. Despite this variety, power. That slice of the communications
all these forms of radiation are similar in spectrum between 1800 kHz and 30 MHz is
that they obey the same physical laws, dif- of immediate interest, since ionospheric -
fering only in wavelength and frequency. reflected radiocommunication over long dis-
The electromagnetic spectrum may be de- tances takes place in this region. The spec-
fined in terms of wavelength, or frequency, trum between 30 MHz and 450 MHz, in
ranging from extremely long waves of low addition, is widely used for shortrange com-
frequency inherent in the magnetic field munication and experimental long- distance
of the earth; through long, short and micro- communication making use of anamolies of
scopic radio waves; infrared waves; light propagation. These frequency ranges are
waves; ultraviolet and X -rays; and into the discussed at length in the following chapters.
infinite region of gamma and Cosmic waves
of unknown origin. Of this vast range of 24 -1 The Antenna System
electromagnetic radiation bathing the earth,
those waves of immediate interest in the The earliest use of a radio antenna was
field of communication are of a dimension
comparable with the size of man himself
radio waves.
- recorded by Hertz in his communication
experiments of 1884. As the knowledge of
radio grew, so the knowledge and use of
Every electric system that carries alter- radio antennas grew likewise. Today's an-
nating or pulsating current radiates a certain tennas represent modern design applied to
amount of this energy into space in the form ideas nearly 100 years old. And while the
of electromagnetic waves. The amount of antennas of today bear little resemblance
radiated energy is small when the waves are to those of yesteryear, so the antennas of
large compared to the radiating system, as tomorrow will seem strange and unusual to
in the case of 60 -Hz industrial current. As the communicator of today. In a sense, while
the frequency of alternation is raised and the basic theory of antennas remains the
the corresponding wavelength is shortened, a same, the application of the theory is con-
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is stantly expanded and modified, in step with
reached wherein the radiated energy becomes the growth of modern technology.
of some practical use for long -distance radio The antenna (aerial) is made up of a sys-
communication. This region is termed the tem of conductors designed to radiate or
communication region of the electromagnetic intercept electromagnetic waves. Antennas
spectrum and is composed largely of radio come in many shapes and sizes, but they all
waves. have one factor in common-they are made
Of greatest interest to the communication up of conducting material and require a
specialist is that portion of the spectrum feed system to extract or accept radio energy.
falling between 10 -kHz and 10,000 -MHz Many antennas are complicated, but most
limits, for within these arbitrary boundaries of them are not. Some of the better hf and
worldwide, coordinated communication takes vhf antennas are described in this Handbook.
24.1
24.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
The antennas shown are practical and may abrupt, a region of reflection exists in the
be duplicated from the dimensions given. system such that a portion of the wave is
However, it is necessary for proper under- sent back down the transmission line. The
standing of antenna operation and use to reflected wave may be compensated for, to a
briefly examine the outer limits of antenna degree, by adjustments made to a matching
theory. Whenever possible, this will be done device which creates equal and opposite re-
by the use of formulas, charts, and illustra- flections to annul the original reflection
tions which minimize the mathematical generated by the abrupt transition in the
processes involved. antenna system. In any case, the frequency
span, or bandwidth, of the antenna system
TRANS
M ITTER \ MATCHING
DEVICE
ANTENNA
)I
I WAVES
is considerably reduced over that achieved by
a perfect transformation between guided and
free waves.
The bandwidth of an antenna system is
relative, and one way of specifying it is to
TRANSMISS ION LINE
define the limit of wave reflection allowed
Figure 1 on the transmission line feeding the antenna.
REPRESENTATIVE ANTENNA SYSTEM For example, if it is specified that the re-
flected wave shall be limited in amplitude to
The antenna is a device for converting guided
electric waves into electromagnetic waves in one quarter the value of the incident (direct)
free space. A matching device is often used to wave on the line, the overall system band-
ease this abrupt transition, and a transmission width may be defined by this limit, as mea-
line guides the electric waves from the trans-
mitter to the antenna. sured under actual operating conditions.
It is common practice to specify antenna
system bandwidth in terms of the amplitude
The Complete The antenna
is a device for of the reflected wave with respect to the
Antenna converting guided electric incident wave. This specification may be ex-
waves into electromagnetic pressed as a voltage standing -wave ratio
waves in free space. A matching device of (abbreviated VSWR, or simply SWR) which
some sort is generally employed to ease this is measurable by an inexpensive instrument
abrupt transition, and a transmission line is placed in series with the transmission line.
often used to efficiently guide the electric The SWR figure bears a definite relationship
waves from the transmitter to the antenna to the amplitude of the reflected wave, and
(figure 1) . It is understood, moreover, that it is simpler to measure and plot the SWR of
the antenna system follows the general laws an antenna and then to define the operating
of reciprocity and can extract electromag- limits by SWR readings than it is to in-
netic waves from free space and convert terpret the SWR in terms of the amount of
them to electric waves capable of being reflection. Generally speaking, SWR values
detected by a radio receiver. up to 3 are acceptable in simple antenna
The range of frequencies (bandwidth) systems, while a somewhat lower SWR value
over which a reasonable match or transfor- of 2 is often specified as a maximum limit
mation between guided waves and free waves for various forms of beam antennas. On the
can be achieved depends to a degree on the other hand, some antennas employ so- called
amplitude and nature of the mismatch in the tuned feeders which operate with SWR
antenna system. If the transformation is values as high as 100. Strictly speaking, the
gradual so that wave parameters do not un- maximum value of SWR acceptable in a sys-
dergo a sudden change, but vary gradually tem is often limited by the economics of the
between the guided and the free condition, problem and is subjective rather than ob-
the transition is smooth and the frequency jective, being a relative concept rather than
span of efficient operation may be quite an absolute limitation arbitrarily imposed.
large. Accordingly, the disturbance or un- In practice, the maximum acceptable SWR
wanted reflection of the guided wave may limit of an antenna system may be decreed
be quite small. by the greatest allowable line loss, the desired
If, on the other hand, the transition be- operating bandwidth, or perhaps be expanded
tween the guided and the free -space waves is beyond credibility by an aggressive adver-
RADIATION AND PROPAGATION 24.3
tising department of a particular antenna space at the velocity of light. The wave is
manufacturer, or it may merely be decided considered to be made up of interrelated
by whim. In any event, the SWR values electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields at
mentioned earlier are acceptable for the right angles to each other and lying in a
various antenna designs commonly used by plane, as pictured in figure 2. The wave
radio amateurs and are specified as arbi- energy divided equally between the two
is
trary system bandwidth parameters in this fields. If the wave is pictured as originating
Handbook. at a point source in space, the wave spreads
out in an ever-growing sphere with the
source as the center. The path of an energy
ray from the source to any spot on the where
24 -2 The Electromagnetic is a straight line and, at a large distance from
Wave the source, the wavefront does not appear
to be spherical, but is assumed to be a flat
A time -varying electromagnetic field, or
surface, as shown in the illustration.
wave, may be propagated through empty
The plane electromagnetic wave may be
E represented in terms of its fields, with the
# # vertical arrows representing the direction
and strength of the electric field and the
horizontal arrows the direction and strength
of the magnetic field. The wave shown is
said to be t'ertically polarized because the
H electric field is vertical. If the electric field
were horizontal, the wave would be hori-
zontally polarized. Other waves may be cir-
cularly polarized, corresponding to lef t-
handed and right- handed helices.
The abstract concept of an electromag-
netic wave travelling through space is diffi-
cult to comprehend without the assistance
0 of mathematical proof. Viewed from the
theory of electron flow in a conductor, there
is no suggestion of energy radiation into
DIRECTION space. A set of relationships termed Max-
OF TRAVEL well's equations form the basic tools for
the analysis of most electromagnetic wave
problems.
áH
(1) div E = 0 (3) curl E =
c
Figure 3
MAXWELL'S FAMOUS EQUATIONS
Maxwell's equations (figure 3) picture the with the energy radiating outward from the
interplay of energy between electric and point of origin. The equations express the
magnetic fields which is self -maintained, continuous nature of the fields and define
RADIATION AND PROPAGATION 24.5
equations describe a beautifully simple elec- continuity in the medium, there must be a
tromagnetic wave travelling radially out- new redistribution of energy. Whether the
ward from the doublet, becoming weaker new medium is a conducting, semiconduct-
with distance since the two component ing, or nonconducting material, there will
fields are proportional in strength to the have to be a readjustment of energy relations
distance travelled from the doublet. There as the wave reaches the surface of the
is no loss of energy, it is merely dissipated
discontinuity.
in area as the wave spreads. Once having Since no new energy can be added to the
been produced, the expanding wave travels wave as it passes through the boundary sur-
and propagates itself for an unlimited time, face, the only way that a new balance may
be achieved is for some of the energy to be
as do the light waves reaching the earth
from an extragalactic nova, millions of years rejected. The rejected energy constitutes a
reflected tear e. In this manner, the observer
after the star that created them has ceased to
sees reflection of light from a conducting
exist.
metal surface or from a nonconducting glass
surface.
24 -3 The Standing Wave The electromagnetic wave, if unimpeded,
will travel indefinitely in free space. In the
A previous paragraph touched on the volt- hypothetical case of an infinitely long con-
age standing -wave ratio (SWR) and its ducting medium, the travelling wave could
relation to antenna system discontinuity, and voyage onward forever. But if the medium
to the coefficient of reflection. This is an is broken at a point, and a load, or absorptive
important concept and deserves additional device (a discontinuity) of the correct mag-
elaboration. nitude replaces the rest of the medium, the
When an electromagnetic wave travels energy is completely absorbed and converted
through space, there is a balance between the to heat in the load. If the medium is termi-
electric and magnetic fields, with half the nated by a discontinuity having reflective
energy in each field (figure ) . If the wave
S properties, the discontinuity will reflect
RADIATION AND PROPAGATION 24.7
energy back through the medium toward the the form of friction in the case of the
source. The reflected energy will combine vibrating string, or energy lost in the trav-
with the forward energy in such a way as to elling wave, the standing wave would persist
produce a pattern in the medium known as indefinitely.
a standing wave. Derivations of Maxwell's equations show
that where there are nodes of magnetic fields,
Wove Reflection An example of a simple dis- maximum electric fields (loops) occur. In
continuity is a perfectly addition, the standing waves of magnetic
conducting plane surface (figure 6). A wave and electric fields pulse out of phase in time,
falling on the surface is totally reflected. so that when the magnetic field is zero, the
Both the electric and magnetic components electric field is maximum, and vice versa.
of the travelling wave are reflected, but Thus, the standing wave has a very different
while the electric component is reflected with appearance from a traveling wave, although
reversal of sign (A) thus leaving the elec- it is nothing more than the sum of two
tric field at the reflecting surface zero, the traveling waves.
magnetic component is reflected with un-
changing sign (B) and is so doubled at the The Reflection When an electromagnetic
reflecting surface. The sum of the forward Coefficient wave falls on the surface of
and reflected travelling waves is a standing a dielectric or insulating ma-
wave which is continually changing in mag- terial, or meets a discontinuity, there is a
nitude but is fixed in space, resembling the partial reflection and partial transmission
vibration of a string on a musical instru- of the incident energy. That fraction of the
ment. The total electric intensity at the incident wave that is reflected, when ex-
reflecting surface is always zero, and also pressed as a ratio of the original wave, is
zero at distances that are multiples of half - termed the reflection coefficient. If the re-
wavelengths from the surface. These points flection coefficient is low (the discontinuity
of zero electric field are termed nodes. There of the medium possessing poor reflective
are also nodes in the intensity of the mag- qualities), there is very little reflected
netic field, at one -fourth wavelength and energy, and the total field about the reflec-
odd multiples thereof from the reflector. If ting surface is only slightly modified from
there were no loss of energy, for example, in that of a traveling wave. If, on the other
0 0
REFLECTED WAVE
RESULTING
RESULTING
STANDING WAVE
STANDING WAVE
REFLECTED WAVE
INCIDENT WAVE INCIDENT WAVE
i Y-AXIS
X-AXIS ___ X -AXIS
Y -AXIS
MAGNETIC FIELD
ELECTRIC FIELD
Figure 6
hand, the reflection coefficientis near unity sonable to expect the largest amount of
(the discontinuity possessing good reflective current that can be achieved from the power
qualities), the maximum field strength will available will provide the best radiation from
vary as a function of the distance from the a given antenna. The greatest amount of
surface, with well -defined nodes and loops. current flows when the reactance of the
The resulting wave bears a definite relation- antenna is cancelled and the antenna made
ship to the amplitude of the reflected wave resonant at the operating frequency. The
and to the reflection coefficient, as expressed shortest conductor that will be self- resonant
by: at a given frequency is one that is about
half as long as the size of the radio wave.
o - 1
The half -wavelength antenna is used as a
Coefficient of reflection = + 1 basis for all antenna theory and is a funda-
where, mental building block in antenna design
(figure 7).
a = the voltage standing -wave ratio
Finally, it should be noted that if the VOLTAGE
Figure 7
The formula in the English system is: tenna impedance which, in addition to im-
Half wavelength (ft) = plying radiation resistance, also implies the
presence of reactance in the antenna circuit.
492 In addition to radiation resistance, practi-
Frequency in MHz cal antennas also exhibit loss resistance which
is energy dissipated in heat loss in the an-
The physical length of an antenna element tenna element and nearby dielectrics. The
varies slightly from this fundamental elec- total resistance of the antenna, which is the
trical length because the element has thick- sum of these two figures, is often referred
ness and is affected by nearby objects. Infor- to as feedpoint resistance, although in popu-
mation will be presented in a later Section lar usage the term "radiation resistance"
defining this relationship in practical terms. usually encompasses the two separate entities.
Radiation Resistance When r-f power is ap- The radiation resistance and resonant fre-
and Reactance plied to an antenna, it quency of an antenna depend on the antenna
is radiated into space, 10000
DIAMETER mitom
the antenna acting as a load, or sink, for the
transmitter. In order to establish a frame of 6000
reference, the power dissipated in a dummy
load (such as a resistor) may be compared in 8000
0
0.13). 0.3). 1.0). 1.3). 2.0). 2.3).
OVERALL LENGTH OF RADIATOR
Figure 9
as the ground, or other antennas or conduc- and the impedance rises uniformly toward
tors. The length -to- diameter ratio of the an- the ends of the antenna, where it can reach
tenna also affects the radiation resistance; as a value as high as 10,000 ohms for a thin
the antenna becomes thicker with respect to dipole remote from ground (figure 9).
the length, the radiation resistance decreases Like a tank circuit, an antenna may ex-
(figure 8) . hibit reactance at the feedpoint. Since the
The feedpoint resistance of a resonant an- antenna, by definition, is nonreactive at res-
tenna is the load for the transmitter and its onance, antenna reactance implies a state of
value is important in determining the nonresonance. Antenna reactance rises rap-
method used to couple the two together. idly off- resonance and the manner in which
the reactive component varies is illustrated
Antenna Impedance Because the power at any in figure 10. The rate -of- change of the re-
point in an antenna is actance increases as the antenna length de-
the same at any other point, the impedance parts from resonance and also increases as the
at any point along the antenna expresses length -to- diameter ratio decreases. The reac-
the ratio between voltage and current at tive component of an antenna is zero when
that point (figure 7). Thus, the lowest im- the overall antenna length is slightly less
pedance occurs where the current is highest than a multiple of quarter -wavelengths long.
Near resonance, the resistance and reactance
+ 5000
terms of an antenna vary much in the man-
ner shown in figure 11.
+5000
DIAMETER- I0t0
+4000 00
RES I
+3000
+2
+1000
1000
2000
IM
f 1//Itl
WA
I -I
%
I/
,--ñI
I
I/
+20
40
-60
0.47 0.48 0.49 0.50 0.51
REACTANCE
3000 Figure 11
4000
FEEDPOINT RESISTANCE AND
REACTANCE AS FUNCTION OF
3000
ANTENNA LENGTH
Near resonance, the resistance and reactance
5000 of a dipole antenna vary in this typical manner.
O.ISA 0.3A 1.07. 1.3). 2.0 ). 23). Reactance is zero when the antenna is slightly
OVERALL LENGTH OF RADIATOR less than one -half wavelength long. The reac-
tance changes more rapidly for "thin" antennas
than for "fat" ones.
Figure 10
Both feedpoint resistance and reactance
REACTIVE COMPONENT AT change more slowly with frequency for a
FEEDPOINT OF CENTER -FED fixed radiator length with "fat" elements
ANTENNA than with "thin" elements, indicating that
Feedpoint reactance rises rapidly when antenna the effective antenna Q is lowered as element
is in nonresonant condition and also increases diameter increases. Lower Q is desirable, be-
as the length- to -diameter ratio of the antenna
decreases. "Fat" antennas exhibit less reac- cause it permits the use of a radiator over a
tance than "thin" ones. Reactance varies rapidly wide frequency range without resorting to
for center-fed antenna one wavelength long. means for eliminating the reactive compo-
RADIATION AND PROPAGATION 24.11
nent. If the antenna Q is low enough, the ground or from nearby objects. Structures
radiator is termed a broadband antenna. which lie within a few wavelengths of the
The curves of figure 12 indicate the theo- antenna have the greatest influence on the
retical feedpoint resistance of a dipole an- directivity of the antenna. The change in
tenna for various heights above a perfect directivity is caused by the ability of the
ground plane. in free space, the feedpoint nearby conducting structure to reradiate
resistance of a thin dipole is approximately energy emitted by the antenna. This re-
73 ohms. The modifying effects of the radiation may either reinforce or cancel the
HEIGHT IN WAVELENGTHS OF CENTER OF VERTICAL
direct radiation of energy from the antenna,
HALF-WAVE ANTENNA ABOVE PERFECT GROUND
.1 .a .7 .7a
thus producing a distortion of the free -space
.23 .1 .4
pattern of the antenna (figure 13) By using .
ANTENNA 1 --o-
0 . .2 .1 .4 .1 .s .7 .5 .11 1.0 0
Figure 12
Figure 13
dipole is removed from the ground by more RADIATION PATTERN FROM TWO
than a wavelength. ANTENNAS
Wave interference patterns created by two ad-
Antenna Directivity Because of the manner in jacent antennas. Radio waves from two adjacent
sources of the same frequency reinforce or
which current flows in an cancel each other to provide wave pattern in
antenna, radiation from practical antennas space adjoining the antennas. In this represen-
is not uniform, but is directive to a certain tation, the waves reinforce each other along
radial lines OA, OB, 00', OC, and 00. Midway
degree. The amount of directivity can be between these lines the waves cancel each
altered or enhanced through the use of extra other. This pattern represents an antenna array
having five lobes.
radiating elements, reflecting planes or
curved surfaces; or, in the microwave por-
tion of the radio spectrum, by the use of antenna radiation pattern may be deliber-
electromagnetic horns, lenses, and slotted ately distorted to produce an enhanced sig-
devices. nal in a desired direction (figure 14). The
The directive pattern of an antenna may signal gain varies with the adjustment and
also be modified by wave reflection from the spacing of the various elements and the radi-
24.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
EFFECTIVE 500
POWER GAIN eh xee
BEAM WIDTH
be best expressed as a directive pattern which by loss in gain, change of antenna pattern,
is a graph showing the relative radiated field excessive SWR on the feed system, or change
intensity expressed in terms of the azimuth in input impedance. One of these factors,
angle for horizontal directivity and in terms such as gain or impedance, usually limits the
of the elevation angle for vertical directivity low- frequency limit of operation, whereas
(figure 16). change of pattern shape might determine the
high- frequency limit. In amateur practice,
Antenna Bandwidth The bandwidth of an bandwidth is usually specified in terms of a
antenna is a measure of maximum SWR limit on the transmission
its ability to operate over a specified range of line feeding the antenna system.
frequencies. Unlike other antenna properties,
bandwidth does not have a unique definition, Mutual Impedance A conductor placed in
as it depends on the operational requirement the field of an antenna
of the antenna. Bandwidth may be limited will have a current induced in it by virtue
of the voltage applied to the antenna. In the
AZIMUTH ANGLE OF
case of two adjacent antennas, if a voltage
MAIN LOBE is applied to the terminals of the first an-
tenna and the induced current measured at
the terminals of the second antenna, then an
equal current will be found at the terminals
of the first antenna if the original voltage is
applied to the terminals of the second
antenna.
This classic theory can be expanded into
the concept of mutual impedance between
two coupled antennas and accounts for the
fact that the feed impedance of an individ-
ual element in an array of antennas may
differ considerably from its free -space im-
pedance because of the effect of mutual
coupling with the other elements of the
array. In an antenna array where the cur-
rent distribution in the elements is critical
because of pattern requirements, it is neces-
sary to adjust the coupling system between
the elements to provide correct current dis-
wigarro
50° 60° 700 BO° 90° 80° 70° 60° 500
tribution and to match the input impedance
of the array, rather than the self -impedance
I
40° 40°
of the input element.
30°
20°
10°
o°
4
.
w
3 2 0 2 3
masmisiti1
ELEVATION ANGLE
30°
20°
10°
o°
The input impedance is the sum of the
self -impedance of the fed clement and the
mutual impedance with all other elements in
the array. The magnitude and phase of the
mutual impedance denends on the amplitude
of the current induced in the fed antenna by
the other elements and this, in turn, is a
OF MAIN LOBE function of the spacing and tuning of the
Figure 16
additional elements. Induced currents in the
DIRECTIVITY PATTERNS FOR DIPOLE fed clement are greatest when the elements
ANTENNA ONE -HALF WAVELENGTH of the array are close together, resonant, and
ABOVE THE EARTH parallel.
The induced current may be in phase, or
Plotted field intensity for dipole antenna. Azi- out of phase, with the fed -element current
muth angle for horizontal directivity is shown
at (A). Vertical angle (elevation angle) is shown and the impedance of the array may be
at (8). higher, or lower, than that of the fed ele-
24.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
array.
The mutual impedance between antennas
GROUND
of an array is important as this factor deter-
mines the current that flows in the system
IMAGE ANTENNA
for a given amount of power. The current Figure 11
determines the power in a given array and if
the mutual impedance between the elements GROUND PLANE PROVIDES
of an array is such that the resulting cur- MIRROR -IMAGE ANTENNA
rents are greater (for the same amount of The effects of a nearby conducting ground may
power) than if the antenna elements were be estimated by laws of optical reflection from
a mirror. An image antenna is introduced below
not coupled, then the power gain of the the ground plane at the same distance from it
system is greater. that the master antenna is above the plane. At
a distant point the field strength of the antenna
is the resultant of two rays, one direct from
24 -5 The Antenna the antenna and the other reflected from the
Above A Ground Plane ground.
The properties of an antenna placed near A reflected ray is assumed to radiate from
a large conducting ground plane will be the image antenna and is combined with the
modified by the effect of ground reflection. direct ray, the resultant ray depending upon
In the hf region, the ground is a basic part the orientation of the antenna with respect
of the antenna system and affects both the to the earth. The reflected, or image, ray
radiation pattern of the antenna as well as travels a longer distance to a given point
its radiation resistance. To estimate the ef- than does the direct ray and this difference
fects of the ground plane, an image antenna in path length results in a distant field pat-
is introduced below the ground plane as tern that is dependent on the height of the
shown in figure 17. The electric charges of antenna above the ground and the charac-
the master antenna above the ground are teristic of the ground. At some vertical
reversed in the imaginary ground image an- angles above the horizon the direct and re-
tenna. In addition, the vertical components flected rays may be in phase, additive, and
of the image are in the same direction as at other angles the rays may be out of phase
those in the master antenna, while the hori- with the resultant field being the difference
zontal components are reversed in direction. between the two.
The radiated field of the master antenna In summary, then, the effect of the re-
above the ground plane can be determined flecting ground plane is different for hori-
by replacing the ground plane with the zontal and vertical antennas because of the
image antenna and computing the resulting reversal of electric charges in the image
field of the two antennas. In a similar man- antenna. Vertically polarized waves are re-
ner, the effect of the ground on the radia- flected with no change in phase and hori-
tion resistance of the antenna can be de- zontally polarized waves have their phase
termined by image theory. shifted 180 degrees on reflection. These ef-
(Of interest is the case where one end fects produce profound differences in the
of the master antenna terminates on the field pattern of the antenna, as will be dis-
ground. For the case of the Marconi an- cussed in a subsequent chapter.
tenna (figure 18), the input impedance of
the antenna is one -half of the value of the The "Perfect" A simple antenna capable of
antenna plus its image when driven in free Antenna covering an immense fre-
space. The impedance of a quarter -wave quency span and having a
Marconi, then, is one -half that of a half - smooth electrical transition between guided
wave dipole in space, or about 36.S ohms.) and free waves is shown in figure 19. A
RADIATION AND PROPAGATION 24.15
MARCONI ANTENNA
MODIFIED
GROUND PLANE
COAXIAL LINE
IMAGE ANTENNA
/i
Figure 18 Figure 19
In the hf and vhf spectrums, in particular, bandwidth antenna systems having high
very thin wire or tubing elements are com- gain, suitable only for operation over a quite
monly used to assemble relatively narrow- restricted frequency region.
PART II
HF AND VHF PROPAGATION
Radio waves may be propagated from a
transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna
along the surface of the earth, through the
atmosphere, or by reflection or scattering
from natural or artificial reflectors. At the É
lower end of the communications spectrum,
the ground wave may be propagated for -1 r
F2
24 -6 Propagation
2 to 30 MHz
- winter values but F, nighttime critical frequen-
cies during the summer months are higher than
in winter. Thus the difference between day and
night critical frequencies is much smaller in
the summer than during the winter.
is the reflecting region for hf transmission, possible up to about2500 miles (4000 km)
but usually waves that penetrate the E layer E propagation has been
on occasion. Sporadic
also penetrate the F, layer, to be reflected by observed in the 144 MHz band, but is not
the F2 layer. The F, layer introduces addi- as common as on the lower frequency bands.
tional absorption of such waves. At night E layer propagation on the vhf bands is
the F, layer is nonexistent, merging with most common during the summer months,
the F2 layer to form the single nighttime F with a shorter season during the winter,
layer. with the periods reversed in the southern
hemisphere.
The E Layer
Below the F layer at a height
of about 60 miles (100 km) The D Loyer Below the E layer, the D layer
is an absorptive layer termed the E layer, exists at heights of 30 to 50
which exists during daylight hours, reaching miles (50 -80 km) . It is absorptive and
ir 12 e/,/ exists in the middle of the day during the
= 11 warmer months. Not much is presently
l0 16i. UPPER LIMIT OF
.7 known about the characteristics of this
c 9
r
.
i
SCATTERINGMEDIUM -
HEIGHT 60 MILES layer, as it is so weakly ionized that the usual
ó 8
á 7
pulse -probing techniques do not produce
6 meaningful echos. It is known that the D
Ír'»lI
< 5 layer remains ionized as long as the atmo-
óó 4 sphere receives solar radiation and disappears
3 quickly at sundown. It is thought this layer
2
causes high absorption of signals in the med-
`fQ//Ai,/dn...
1
cc.)
-HEIGHT ABOUT 36 MILES ium- and high- frequency range during the
I I I 1
middle of the day.
400 500 600 700 IYJo 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
MILES
The Critical The critical frequency (fe) of
Figure 21 Frequency an ionospheric layer is the high-
E LAYER SCATTER RANGE est frequency which will be
reflected when the wave strikes the layer at
E layer scatter range may be as great as 1400 vertical incidence. Frequencies higher than
miles for low angle, single hop transmission. A
high antenna (several thousand feet high, such
as on a mountain top), combined with a sea 10
f pass through the layer. The critical fre- signal to travel from T to R via the iono-
quency of the most highly ionized layer of sphere, its frequency must be less than a
the ionosphere may be as low as 2 MHz at maximum value. Above this frequency, the
night and as high as 10 to 15 MHz in the electron density at B will not be great
middle of the day. enough to bend the signal back to earth
The critical frequency and height of the and it will continue on through the iono-
layers are measured by a pulse technique, sphere into space. There is, therefore, an
the pulse and its return echo being observed upper limit to the range of frequencies that
on a cathode -ray tube, as in a radar set. The will be reflected by the ionosphere between
virtual height, or point of reflection in the any two fixed points. This upper limiting
ionosphere determined by this technique is frequency is called the maximum usable fre-
presented in an ionogram, showing height as quency (MUF) for a given circuit. The
a function of frequency for specific periods MUF is highest near noon or in the early
of time (figure 22) . afternoon and is highest during periods of
The critical frequency is of interest in greatest sunspot activity, often going to
that a skip distance zone will exist on all frequencies higher than 30 MHz (figure
frequencies greater than the highest critical 24). The MUF often drops below 5 MHz in
frequency at a given time for a given cir- the early morning hours. Ionospheric losses
cuit. The higher the critical frequency, the are at a minimum near the MUF and in-
greater the density of ionization and the crease rapidly for lower frequencies during
higher the maximum usable frequency. daylight. MUF data is published periodically
in radio amateur magazines and the MUF
The Maximum High -frequency radio can be calculated with the aid of Basic Radio
Usable Frequency waves travel from the Propagation Predictions, CRPL -D, published
(MUF) transmitter to a distant monthly by the Government Printing Office,
point by reflection from Washington, DC 20402.
the ionosphere and earth in one or more 20
hops, as indicated in figure 23. For a radio 34
4 f'MUF 32
30
/ 2a
WINTER
SUNSPOT
MAXIMUM
1B IONOSPHERE, 2
24
22
f MUF 20
1
10
SUMMER
SUNSPOT -
1 MINIMUM
-r
14
12
D
Sir-
Figure 23
2
2
0 2 6 10 12 14 16
1l
IS 20 22 24
LOCAL TIME
THE MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY
In order for a radio signal to be reflected from Figure 24
T to R, the electron density at B must be high
enought to support reflection. As the frequency MUF IS HIGHEST DURING PERIODS
of the signal is raised, at some point the elec- OF MAXIMUM SUNSPOT ACTIVITY
tron density will not be great enough to bend
the wave back to earth and it will continue MUF extremes are greatest during periods of
through the ionosphere into space. The upper high sunspot activity. Ionospheric losses are at
frequency limit, or maximum usable frequency, a minimum near the MUF and increase rapidly
can be calculated from ionospheric measure- for lower frequencies, especially during daylight.
ments by determining the critical frequency at The recommended upper limit of frequency for
point E. The vertical critical frequency deter- maximum circuit reliability is called the Opti-
mined is multiplied by a factor to provide the mum Traffic Frequency and is selected some-
value of the oblique incident MUF for a partic- what below the MUF to provide margin for
ular distance (D) and layer height (h). ionospheric irregularities.
RADIATION AND PROPAGATION 24.19
24 -7 Cycles in
Ionospheric Activity
The first recorded observations of sunspot
activity were made by Chinese observers
more than 2000 years ago (figure 25). Cen-
turies later, in 1901, Marconi was unaware
that his successful spanning of the Atlantic
Ocean by radio for the first time was possi- Figure 26
ble only because of the existence of sunspots SPOTS ON THE PHOTOSPHERE
which, the astronomers of that time thought, OF THE SUN
might be holes cut in the sun's surface by
solar hurricanes, exposing the cooler layers Large spots embedded in the solar surface are
seen in this NASA photograph made from an
below. unmanned research balloon at an altitude of
Experiments conducted by Heaviside 80,000 feet. The granular composition of the
(1902) , Appleton (1924) , and Naismith sun's surface can be seen clearly.
24.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
investigators discovered a direct relationship The Sunspot Cycle The number of sunspot
between the ultraviolet radiation, the degree groups, and individual
of ionization in the atmosphere, and its sunspots, visible on the sun's surface vary
relationship with long distance radio between wide limits over a period of time.
communication. Sunspot activity follows an approximate 11-
year cycle, steadily rising from very few to
Sunspots in Action With the aid of suitable a maximum amount, then slowly receding to
instruments, sunspots can a minimum amount again (figure 27).
be seen to develop from small dark areas on
the brilliant surface of the sun. Studies in-
The sunspot count is recorded in Zurich
Sunspot Numbers on a daily and monthly
dicate that the inner portion of the sunspot
basis, and 12- month, smoothed running
is a depression in the sun's surface having an
average depth of several thousand miles numbers are published in CQ magazine and
various astronomical publications. The re-
(figure 26). The temperature of the sun-
spot is several thousand degrees cooler than cordings began in 1750 and 19 complete
cycles have been recorded to date. No two
that of the general surface of the sun and
gives off about one -half as much light as cycles have been exactly alike, although a
the same area of the photosphere, or surface definite repetitive behavior is established.
Basic characteristics of the cycle, such as
of the sun.
Sunspots almost always appear in groups, duration, height of maximum, depth of
some spots as large as 80,000 miles (128,000 minimum and ascent and descent time are
km) in diameter. The groups move parallel observed, and vary from cycle to cycle. No
to the equator of the sun in an east to west explanation of the sunspot cycle has yet
direction in accord with the sun's rotation. proven to be completely satisfactory and
Many terrestrial phenomena which are in- current estimates of future performance are
fluenced by localized sunspot activity on the open to speculation. The present search for
sun tend to occur at intervals of about 27 empirical laws governing solar activity has
proceeded according to two different schools
days, which is the period of rotation of the
sun. of thought, one holding that solar activity
is a periodic phenomenon, the other consid-
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M11a1EMMMMMNEMES
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PREDICTED
CYCLE PI
a
M
O
20
Figure 27 o
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
SMOOTHED SUNSPOT CYCLE,
1955 -1985 Figure 28
Sunspot cycle 19 reached the greatest maximum
level measured since the year 1750. Sunspot RELATION BETWEEN OBSERVED MUF
analyses predict that cycle 21 will have a rather AND SMOOTHED SUNSPOT NUMBER
broad peak and that the smoothed sunspot
number at the peak may not exceed 55. The When the sunspot count is high, ionization of
following sunspot minimum is predicted to be the earth's atmosphere is heavy and the MUF
reached in 1988. Smoothed sunspot numbers is correspondingly high, opening up additional
in excess of 100 are not predicted to be ob- frequencies for long distance communication.
served again until approximately the year 2015. Predictions for cycle 21 indicate a maximum
Thus the next 40 years may be characterized by sunspot count of about 55, thus limiting the
relatively low sunspot activity as compared to MUF to approximately 32 MHz for the next 15
the activity of the last 40 years. years.
RADIATION AND PROPAGATION 24.21
ering each solar cycle as an independent improvement even though the higher fre-
event. quencies may show marginal performance.
Since hf radio transmission is dependent Thus, communication using ionospheric re-
on the ionosphere, which varies with the flection in the hf bands will be a challenge
sunspot cycle, the action of the cycle is of in the years to come and improved tech-
extreme interest to communicators (figure niques, equipment and better propagation
(28). When the sunspot count is high, predictions will be the key to overcome the
ionization of the earth's atmosphere is heavy poorer conditions.
and the MUF is correspondingly high, open-
ing up additional frequencies for long -dis- Geographical At any specific time of day
tance communication. During cycle 19, Variations the sun's zenith angle varies
which peaked at a count of over 200, the in the MUF with geographical latitude,
MUF regularly exceeded 50 MHz. Cycle 20, and the intensity of ionizing
which ended in 1975 was considerably lower, radiation sweeping across the earth's upper
limiting the MUF to something over 30 atmosphere varies accordingly. The critical
MHz at the peak of sunspot activity. Pre- frequency and MUF, therefore, vary with
dictions for cycle 21 indicate a rather low, geographical location, being highest in
broad peak reaching a maximum count of equatorial regions, where the sun is more
approximately 55 in late 1982. An extended directly overhead, and decreasing propor-
prediction indicates that sunspot numbers tionately north and south of these latitudes
in excess of 100 will not be observed again (figure 29).
until approximately 2015. Thus, the next
40 years may be characterized by relatively 24-8 Ionospheric
low sunspot activity as compared to the ac- Disturbances
tivity of the last 40 years.
The implication of low sunspot activity The diurnal, seasonal and solar cycle vari-
is that the MUF will be considerably lower, ations of the ionosphere discussed previously
long distance propagation will be more in- are dependent on the regular, more-or -less
frequent and will occur for shorter periods predictable behavior of the ionizing solar
of time, and with reduced signal levels. Fre- radiation. From time to time, however, the
quencies below 8 MHz, however, may show normal behavior of the ionosphere is upset
50
40
30
1
_ - - --
-
_ - -- 90
11- 1 1
38° N. LATITUDE
12° 5. LATITUDE
N. LATITUDE
1
40
50
30
by disturbances of a transistory or short -
duration character. It is believed that these
are the result of abnormal radiations from
the sun. These disturbances give rise to ab-
normal radio propagation conditions, some-
20
times leading to a temporary "radio black-
15 15
out," or complete failure of hf radio com-
10 10 munications.
L, 9 98
Ionospheric disturbances fall into two
c
8
7 7 main categories: the sudden ionospheric dis-
c
6
5
6
5
turbance (SID) and the ionospheric storm.
4 4
The SID commences suddenly and lasts from
a few minutes to an hour or so. The iono-
3
3
spheric storm develops over a period of a
2 2
day or two and generally continues for
00 Ot 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 several days. In either case, the normal
LOCA TIME
behavior of the ionosphere is upset, with
Figure 29 critical frequencies dropping, and ionosperic
LATITUDE VARIATION IN F2 absorption increasing as the intensity of the
CRITICAL FREQUENCIES disturbance increases.
The SID has a spectacular effect on hf
Values of critical frequency are generally high- propagation. A near -simultaneous radio fade-
est in equatorial regions and lowest in high -
latitude regions. Frequency also varies with time out occurs over a large portion of the hf
of day. spectrum, from approximately 2 Mhz to 30
24.22 RADIO HANDBOOK
MHz, with even background noise some- 30 MHz) drop to a very low level and may
times disappearing. The only signals that even disappear entirely for periods of several
can be heard during an SID are those from days. Measurements indicate that the F layer
stations within the ground -wave range. The is usually at an abnormally great height dur-
fadeout lasts for a short period, then condi- ing the disturbance and is subject to con-
tions slowly return to normal. siderable turbulence. Unlike the SID, the
It is thought that the SID is a result of a higher frequencies are most affected, and the
solar flare; a sudden, short -lived, bright storm occurs in both daylight and darkness
eruption on the face of the sun. The inci- regions of the world. Ionospheric absorption
dence of solar flares varies with the solar increases and signals are subject to consider-
cycle and are most prominent during years able fading, often of an unusual type known
of very high solar activity. as flutter fading.
The SID takes place about 11 minutes It is thought that the ionospheric storm
after a solar flare commences, and occurs is caused by corpuscular radiation of ionized
only in those areas of the world in complete calcium emitted from solar flares at the same
daylight. Not all flares produce SIDs, indi- time the flare emits ultraviolet and X -ray
cating that the SID is only one manifestation radiation which produce the SID. Corpus-
of the release of solar energy. cular radiation travels at a velocity much
The typical change in a communication lower than the speed of light because of its
circuit during an SID is shown in figure 30. greater energy content and arrives at the
Signal drop -off is approximately 40 decibels earth at a later period of time. The radiation
in a matter of a few minutes, with the signal is so confined that unless the emission is
returning to normal in about 40 minutes. pointing directly at the earth, it may miss
SOLAR FLARE OBSERVED
the earth entirely (figure 31) .
VISUALLY AT 1422 LOCAL TIME
60
EARTH'S ORBIT
S D OBSERVED
AT 432
50 LOCAL TIME
SOLAR FLARE
40 .4----- AND SUNSPOT
30
AVERAGE LOCAL
20
NOISE LEVEL
EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD
I
TRAPS PARTICLES AND GUIDES
10
THEM TOWARD MAGNETIC POLES
0
1400 1420 1440 1500 1520 1540
LOCAL TIME
Figure 31
ceived as a hissing sound on a sensitive re- radio propagation at these frequencies. The
ceiver. The flares also violently disrupt the boundary between the hf and the vhf region
earth's magnetic field for short periods of is variable, falling between 30 MHz and 50
time as they disrupt the ionosphere. These MHz and is generally taken to be the MUF,
magnetic storms are most intense in high above which normal ionospheric reflection
latitudes and often last for several days. ceases. Deviations from this simple definition
As satellites and space vehicles probe fur- are numerous. Interestingly, certain types of
ther into space, many of the secrets of the vhf propagation provide the only reliable
solar flare, the SID and the magnetic storm means of long distance radio communication
will be revealed, and in the future the pre- known today. These types will be discussed
diction of these phenomena may be made in detail later in this chapter.
with greater accuracy than is possible at
the present time. lonspheric Scatter Ionospheric scatter prop -
Propagation agation permits commun-
Atmospheric Noise The usefulness of a radio ication in the frequency
signal is limited by the range of about 30 MHz to 300 MHz over
total noise in the receiver which may be distances ranging from 600 miles (1000
either unwanted, external noise or the in- km) to nearly 1200 miles (2000 km). It
is believed that this type of propagation is
ternal noise of the receiver.
Atmospheric static is usually the limiting due to scattering of the signal from the
factor in receiver sensitivity at frequencies lower D Layer, or possibly the E Layer. Be-
below 30 MHz, while receiver noise is the cause only a small portion of the radiated
primary limitation at higher frequencies, energy is scattered and returned to earth,
i
especially those above 200 to 500 MHz. In such scatter signals are very weak (figure
the hf band, the controlling factor depends 32) . The lower limit of ionospheric scatter
upon the location of the receiver, time of 0200 0600 im 1400 1800 2200 0200
METEOR BURSTS ñ
Static is caused by lightning and other ~
F
Y
natural electrical disturbances and is prop- <
{
than in the daytime and the levels are higher " MEMO,- .rrr_..+41rlwlrIfBMlA
IIIIIIINrafar- "I' ^"'"'
in the warm tropical areas than in the cooler 1aaaNll'- - -IL aaaraat Mara.
I
scatter, which could extend the range to The effect of asingle meteor of medium
2000 miles (3200 km) or so, but circuit size (1 cm) shows up as a sudden "burst"
attenuation would be extreme. of signal of short duration at a point not
normally reached by the transmitter. The
Meteor -Burst Meteors have been observed aggregate effect of many meteors impinging
Propagation for centuries, but until re- on the earth's atmosphere, while perhaps too
cently they were assumed to weak to provide long -term ionization, is
be relatively few in number. Recent studies, thought to contribute to the existence of
however, have shown that the earth is con- the nighttime E layer.
stantly colliding with innumerable particles
as it sweeps on its annual journey around
the sun. Over ten billion particles are esti- Aurora Propagation At the earth's poles,
mated to reach the earth each 24 hour per- where the atmosphere is
iod, with the largest number of these less more rarefied than elsewhere, radiation from
than 0.016 cm in diameter. Only a very few the sun not only causes ionization, but often
are large enough to be noticed, and only an causes the air molecules to ignite. This phe-
extremely small percentage of the latter are nomenon is called an aurora (or "northern"
large enough to reach the ground before or "southern" lights). The action is similar
they are burned up by friction with the to that which takes place in a neon tube.
earth's atmosphere (figure 3 3) The aurora is a spectacular observance,
.
with lights arcing across the night sky as
Name of Date of Peak Duration Meteors yellowish -green dancing ribbons, or curtains,
Shower Intensity (Days) Per Hour or great draperies which appear to fold and
Quandranids January 3 1 35-40 unfold. They occur at E layer height in the
ionosphere and can be seen on the horizon
Lyrids April 2 12 -15
21
as far as 600 miles (960 km) from the
Eta Aquarids May 5 9 12-20 zenith point.
20-30
In the northern hemisphere, the zone of
Delta Aquarids July 29 10
maximum occurrence (auroral zone) swings
Perseids August 12 5 50 across northern Norway, Greenland and
Orionids October 21 4 20-25 central Canada and back across Alaska, Si-
beria and northern European USSR (figure
Taurids Nov. 5; Nov. 12 20 12.15
34). Both north and south of this belt the
Leonids November 17 4 20-25 occurrence of auroras decreases.
Geminids December 13 5 40.50
Auroras play havoc with high frequency
radio communication and cause severe ab-
Ursids December 22 2 15 sorption of any hf wave that passes near or
Figure 33 through the auroral zone. Besides absorp-
tion, the aurora superimposes an auroral
MAJOR METEOR SHOWERS flutter on hf signals.
List of major meteor showers. The spring show- Auroral propagation of vhf signals is com-
ers peak between midnight and 0600 the Ursids mon at frequencies between 100 MHz and
peak during the early afternoon hours. Others 450 MHz. The propagation involves reflec-
generally peak during hours of darkness. Sea-
sonally, more meteors occur during May and tion of the wave from the auroral display.
July than at any other time. The reflection properties of the aurora vary
quite rapidly, with the result that the re-
When a meteor strikes the earth's atmo- flected vhf signal is badly distorted by mul-
sphere, a cylindrical region of free electrons tipath effects. Voice modulation becomes
is formed at about the height of the E very rough and c -w telegraphy is usually
Layer. This slender, ionized column is quite employed for auroral communication in the
long, and when first formed is sufficiently vhf amateur bands.
dense to reflect radio waves back to the Since aurora is caused by emission of
earth. Frequencies in the range of 50 MHz charged particles from the sun, it is natural
to 80 MHz have been found best for meteor - to find that aurora propagation follows the
burst transmission. sunspot cycle and reaches a peak at the
RADIATION AND PROPAGATION 24.25
Figure 34
AURORA DISPLAY IS MOST
PREVALENT AT NORTHERN
LATITUDES
Aurora can be seen on occasion as
far south as Mexico City. The average
number of nights per year having
aurora displays are shown in this
polar chart. Auroral propagation of
vhf signals is common at frequencies
between 100 and 450 MHz, but aurora
disrupts hf radio communication at
the same time.
same time as the cycle. In addition, auroras associated with temperature and humidity
follow a seasonal pattern, peaking around changes. The result of scatter refraction is
March and September, although they may a faint signal illumination of the ground
occur at any time. well beyond the horizon (figure 35).
Because of the shallow nature of the The forward- scattering mechanism in-
aurora belt, east -west transmission paths are volves a large transmission loss and it be-
usually favored. At times it is possible to comes necessary to use high gain, narrow
communicate up to 2000 miles (3200 km) beam antennas for both transmission and re-
or more, via aurora propagation, but ranges ception. The effect of the scatter angle be-
of a few hundred miles are more common.
Aurora propagation seems to reach a peak
around sundown or early evening, and again
around 0200, local time. The farther north
a station is situated, the more frequently it TROPOSPHERE SCATTER
will encounter aurora propagation, but dur- ANGLE
noise level is about 1.9 decibels, so a system The distance to the radio horizon over
noise figure much better than this only al- smooth earth, when the height h is very
lows the listener to hear more noise) . small compared with the earth's radius is
Because the moon may be moving toward given with a good approximation by:
or away from the EME stations at speeds up
to 980 miles per hour, Doppler shift will d
J3Kh
change the received frequency, according to 2
the formula:
where,
Doppler shift (Hz) = 2.966 X f la1HZI h = height in feet above the earth,
d = distance to radio horizon in miles,
When the shift is measured at the equator
K = effective earth radius in miles.
of the earth. The nomograph of figure 38 gives the ra-
When the moon is rising, the Doppler ef-
dio horizon distance between a transmitter
fect increases the received frequency; at
at a height ht and a receiver at height hr.
moonset the frequency is decreased.
hr RECEIVING -
In addition to the normal path attenua- ANTENNA
RADIO
ht TRANSMITTING -
GEOMETRICAL HORIZON
tion, additional problems are caused by Far- HEIGHT
"HORIZON" DISTANCE
ANTENNA HEIGHT
IN FEET
aday rotation of the polarization of the re- IN FEET
IN MILES IN MILES
lution of propagation and other engineering World maps with overlay frequency con-
problems encountered in establishing hf ra- tours are available for making frequency es-
dio circuits. It is possible, therefore, to es- timates manually and MUF estimations for
timate the MUF and FOT for a particular months in advance may be made, if a pre-
smoothed sunspot number for a given com- dicted value of smoothed sunspot number is
munication circuit. A representative propa- known. The maps are available in a set of
gation analysis chart for the New York to four volumes: Ionospheric Predictions, OT-
London circuit for a sunspot number of 150 TER 13, obtainable from the Superinten-
is shown in figure 39. dent of Documents, U.S. Government Print-
ing Office, Washington, DC 20402. The In-
50 50 stitute of Telecommunication Sciences of
40 40 the Environmental Sciences Services Admin-
30
istration (ESSA) issues forecasts which may
30
be used to determine the MUF and FOT for
20 20
high- frequency communication paths. A
handy source of propagation information is
15
15 broadcast by the National Bureau of Stand-
> Y ards station WWV during part of every
10
b 9 19 W 15th minute period on the standard fre-
E 8 8 'a
ce T f¡ T quencies in the hf range. Finally, the head-
"-
6 6
5
quarters station of the American Radio
5
MUF Relay League, W 1 AW, rebroadcasts Propa-
4
3
l -- FOT
LUF
N
4
3
gation Forecast Bulletins on a regularly,
weekly scheduled basis to all radio amateurs.
2/ The best estimates indicate that the us-
0200 0400 0600 0800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 20 2200 2400 able hf spectrum is expected to dwindle to
LOCAL TIME half that space available during 1959 and
that between the years 1974 to 2005 the
Figure 39 amount of usable hf spectrum may never
exceed 70 percent of that available during
PROPAGATION ANALYSIS CHART FOR 1959. On the other hand, the steady use of
NEW YORK TO LONDON PATH the hf spectrum is expected to continue,
This analysis chart shows the propagation path even in spite of the transfer of large volumes
for a frequency of 14 MHz and an estimated of traffic to space satellites. Spectrum con-
radiated power of 1000 watts. The highest prob
able frequency (HPF) is that value of MUF servation and improved propagation know-
that will occur on less than 10 percent of the ledge are two actions that must be taken
days of the month. The lowest usable frequency to prevent the high -frequency spectrum
(LUF) is dependent upon the local noise level
at the receiving site. The path will be closed from becoming less useful for communica-
when the LUF is greater than the HPF. tions as a result of decreasing solar activity.
...mwrffliw.fwerg-
-1
,
- 1"..; Lf.
1, '1161!
" .
Va.:a
04
410
. '
t ;
L Am: es. -biE.A.//;111%
CHAPTER TWENTY -FIVE
A transmission line is a conducting sys- pedance per unit of length (composed of the
tem used to guide electrical energy from one series resistance and the series reactance) and
point to another. Transmission lines are used the shunt capacitance and conductance per
to couple antennas to transmitters and re- unit of length. These parameters are func-
ceivers, or to establish proper phase relation- tions of the position and diameter of the
ships between the various elements of an conductors, the spacing between them, and
antenna array. Of interest to the user is the the structure of the conductors and of the
distribution of voltage and current along surrounding medium. The two -wire trans-
the transmission line for a radio wave of a mission line serves as a generalized example
single frequency, as this knowledge is neces- for discussion, and a lumped equivalent of a
sary to achieve maximum energy transfer line section is shown in figure 1.
along the line. Distributed As predicted by Maxwell's
Any transmission line has an input (gen- Line Properties equations (Chapter 24, part
erator) end and a load end. The electrical I), a magnetic
field is set up
properties of the line are specified by its dis- about the conductors by the flow of current
tributed parameters which are the series im- along the line, and energy is stored in, or
released from, the field about the line, pro-
SERIES AND
R L
viding the line with the property of induc-
tance. In addition, as the conductors are
placed near each other, with air or other
medium between them, they exhibit capaci-
tance (C) to each other and, if the medium
SHUNT G AND C
or dielectric is imperfect, a leakage path
exists between the conductors, which is ex-
pressed in terms of conductance (G).
The illustration shows these properties as
lumped constants in a sample section of two -
SERIES R AND L
wire transmission line. All of the properties
may be expressed in terms of the series im-
UNIT LENGTH OF LINE
pedance and shunt admittance per unit
Figure 1
length of line and are summed up in terms
of the characteristic impedance (surge im-
REPRESENTATIVE CIRCUIT OF A pedance) (Z) which, in turn, may be spe-
SHORT SECTION OF TWO -WIRE cified in terms of the physical characteristics
TRANSMISSION LINE making up the line.
The distributed properties of resistance, induc-
tance and capacitance may be lumped in a unit 25 -1 Characteristic
section of line, short compared to the length of
the line in wavelengths. This approximation is Impedance
accurate enough for practical purposes and the
properties may be specified in terms of the A transmission line is described in terms
characteristic impedance of the line.
of its characteristic impedance which has
25.1
25.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 2
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF 25 -2 Transit Time and
A TRANSMISSION LINE Wave Reflection
A-The coaxial transmission line is terminated
by network analogous to the lumped-constant
a
While electromagnetic waves travel ap-
equivalent proximately 186,240 miles per second in
B- Mathematical equation of circuit A with space, it takes more time for a wave to
components in series connection. The equip
aient load circuit is electrically equal to the progress along a transmission line, from one
characteristic impedance of the line. end to the other, as the energy must charge
THE TRANSMISSION LINE 25.3
the distributed capacitance of the line and amount finally due has been determined. In
induce an electric field along the distributed such cases, it is necessary to make an esti-
inductance of the cable (figure 3) . For mated payment subject to later adjustment
many solid -dielectric coaxial cables, the if the total sum is found to be in error. In
wave travels at about 66 percent as fast as a similar fashion, the generator has to "pay"
in air, and the cable is said to have a velocity current into the transmission line before it
of propagation (Vp) of 0.66. "knows" how much current the terminating
As the energy passes down the transmis- load resistance will take. Ohm's law is, in
sion line from generator to load, it is inter- effect, held in suspense until the current
esting to note that the generator has no reaches the load at the end of the transmis-
means of determining the load conditions at sion line. During this finite period of transit,
the end of the line, nor does it "know" if the only load the generator "sees" is that
the proper terminating condition R= V/L/C load caused by the creation of the electro-
is fulfilled or not. Thus, during the short magnetic field about the line.
interval the wave initially travels along the If, when the energy reaches the end of
line, the current supplied by the generator the transmission line the load is a resistance,
is determined only by the characteristic im- and the ratio of load voltage to line current
pedance of the line. The power supplied by is equal to the characteristic impedance of
the generator is used exclusively to create a the line, then Ohm's law is fulfilled and the
pattern of electric and magnetic fields speed- power arriving at the load is absorbed at
ing along the line. Since the characteristic exactly the same rate as it is being fed into
impedance of the line is a resistance (ne- the generator end of the line. The only effect
glecting cable losses), the current and volt- of the transmission line, assuming it is loss-
age along the line are in phase. Until the less, is the transit time -lag of the electro-
energy reaches the end of the transmission magnetic wave along the line.
line, it would seem that Ohm's law has been On the other hand, if the line energy
placed in suspended animation. arrives at the load and "finds" a load re-
sistance unequal to the characteristic line
i impedance, Ohm's law is not fulfilled and a
portion of the energy is sent back down the
0 line toward the generator in opposition to
the normal line current and voltage, the
COAXIAL LINE remainder of the energy being absorbed by
the load in accordance with Ohm's law.
Phase Shift The finite period of time the
radio wave takes to flash along
the transmission line at near the velocity of
light may be expressed in terms of phase
shift along the line. The amount of phase
shift introduced by the line is a function
of the velocity of propagation of the wave
0
TWO -WIRE LINE
and the distance of the point of reference
from the end of the line.
Figure 3
Phase shift is commonly expressed in elec-
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS trical degrees and to determine the phase of
ABOUT TRANSMISSION LINES the current at any point along the line, it
Lines of electric field (solid) terminate on con- is only necessary to determine the number
ductors and lines of magnetic field (dashed)
curve about conductors. of electrical wavelengths and fractions
thereof between the point of investigation
The "Suspension" The transit time required nd one end of the line and divide the result
of Ohm's Law for the wave to pass the into 360 degrees; this gives the phase shift
length of the transmission in degrees per unit length (figure 4).
line may be compared to quarterly income The current and voltage in a transmission
tax payments made before the annual line exhibit a phase shift of 360 degrees
25.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
I - i
343 VOLTS
1.14AMPS Along a
REFLECTED POWER ABSORBED POWER Transmission Line
I 2.86 AMPS 343 x 1.14. 391 WATTS
e 143 VOLTS Maxwell's equations define the action of
p 409 WATTS
a transmission line as expressed in terms of
field theory. A simplified discussion of fields
Figure 5
and waves on a line may help clarify the
WAVE REFLECTION ON A previous discussion.
TRANSMISSION LINE The current along, and voltage between,
the conductors of a line produce magnetic
A-A matched line (Z = R = 50 ohms) delivers and electric fields about the line containing
800 watts to a load and satisfies Ohm's law.
B- Urmatched line (Zo = 50 ohms, R = 300 the energy which has left the generator but
ohms) delivers 391 watts to load and returns which has not yet arrived at the load. In :t
409 watts to the generator, thus satisfying
Ohm's law. sense, the transmission line guides and con-
fines an electromagnetic field, as well as
impedance of the line, the generator will conducting the energy in a form of alternat-
completely accept the returned power, which ing current. The former concept is of great
in this case is 409 watts. As a result, the net use in explaining the action of uhf wave -
outgoing power from the generator is re- guides (hollow pipes that conduct radio
duced to: 800 -
409 = 391 watts. energy by propagating it as a traveling elec-
Thus, the mismatch at the load has drop- tromagnetic field within the pipe) . At the
ped the system power from 800 to 391 same time, this field concept is equally cor-
watts. If, however, the internal impedance rect in the investigation of hf transmission
of the generator is other than equal to the lines. Figure 3 showed end -on views of a
characteristic impedance of the transmission two -conductor line and a coaxial line. The
line (the usual case), it will rereflect a por- currents flowing in the conductors produced
tion of the reflected power reached it. In a magnetic field and the voltage difference
turn, a portion of the rereflected power will between the conductors produced an elec-
once again travel down the line, to be re- trostatic field. It is impossible to have cur-
flected in the load, the total power traveling rent and voltage at a point on a transmission
in each direction along the line being a sum- line without the existence of a corresponding
mation of all incident and reflected powers. electromagnetic field, and vice versa. The
The net outgoing power at the generator, of two concepts are so interrelated that it is
course, is a function of the mismatch of the immaterial whether at a point along the line
generator to the line, looking backward to- the r-f current within and the voltage be-
ward the generator. tween the conductors are due to the electro-
25.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
so, a collapse also occurs in the magnetic Wave reflection also occurs along a trans-
field, creating an electric field which acts in mission line shorted at the load end for rea-
the manner of a reverse generator, inducing sons comparable to the open -end situation.
a new current equal to that of the incident The voltage at the short circuit collapses
wave, traveling back along the line toward because a potential difference cannot exist
the input end. The reinforced electric field across zero resistance, the current at this
at the end of the line is in phase with the point is doubled, the current and voltage
incident voltage, while the current compon- roles being reversed from the case of the
ent of the reflected wave at this point is open -end termination (figure 7B). The volt-
equal in amplitude and opposite in phase to age undergoes a phase reversal upon reflection
that of the incident wave, giving a resultant and a reflected wave flows back along the
current of zero (figure 7A) . line toward the generator. The line does not
If the generator switch is again closed have to be of any particular length to allow
during the reflected wave cycle, a condition reflections to be created on it; the only re-
then exists in which energy is traveling both quirement is that the line be finite in length
ways on the line. If the switch is held closed, and not terminated in its characteristic
both incident and reflected waves are present impedance.
on the transmission line, in the manner sug-
gested in figures S and 6, chapter 24.
Reflection and Hertz's early experiments
Standing Waves show that when a radiated
0 wave strikes an abrupt
change in medium, or a sharp boundary,
some of the wave is reflected, and all of it
is reflected in the case of meeting a conduct-
OPEN
ing sheet or plane of perfect conductivity.
CIRCUIT Hertz also observed that the reflected wave
GEN
tended at some points along the path to
interfere destructively with the incident
wave, while at other points it tended to
"storehouse" of energy similar to a lumped The r -f power at any point along the line
circuit.
B- Reflection on a half -wavelength closed line. remains constant, regardless of excursions of
Current and voltage waves are 180 degrees out voltage and current caused by the wave
of phase from condition (A). Open- and closed -
end lines are used as tank circuits in vhf and interference pattern. The consecutive points
uhf equipment as well as in matching devices. of maximum current of the standing wave,
25.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
k - R - Z0
R +Z0
GEN where,
R is the terminating load,
Z. is the characteristic line impedance.
For example, assume a 50 -ohm line is
terminated in a 25 -ohm load. Then,
k
_ 25-50 -25 0.33
25 + 50 75
Thus, the reflected wave is of opposite
GEN phase to the incident wave and has one -third
the voltage amplitude.
CURRENT PATTERN
The Standing - The ratio of maximum rms
Wave Ratio voltage or current to mini-
Figure 8
mum rms voltage or current
STANDING WAVE PATTERNS OF along a transmission line defines the standing
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT ON A wave ratio:
TRANSMISSION LINE
max Emax
Mismatched two -wire line has reflected wave SWR =
which interferes with incident wave, creating a 1min Emin
third wave which remains fixed in position,
while incident and reflected waves travel along The SWR may have a range of values
the line. from unity to infinity, and is an indicator
A- Representation of voltage standing wave. of the line properties. The voltage standing -
B- Representation of current standing wave.
wave ratio (VSWR) can be measured with
moreover, are separated by a quarter wave-
an inexpensive instrument (SWR meter)
length along the line from the maximum
and is a convenient quantity in making cal-
voltage points, and the pattern is repeated
culations of line performance. The general
at half -wavelength intervals.
case for a line terminated in a resistive load
of any value is:
25 -4 The Standing -Wave
Ratio SWR =
Z
Wave interference creates standing waves when R is greater than Z,,, and
of voltage and current on a transmission line
and measurement of these waves provides SWR = R'
useful information concerning the electrical
condition of the line. The condition may be when R is less than Zn.
defined in terms of the reflection coefficient
(k) and the standing wave ratio (SWR).
Input Impedance The value of impedance
The Reflection The reflection coefficient ex- seen at the input end of a
Coefficient presses the ratio of the re- transmission line is important as this is the
flected wave voltage (E,) to value that the transmitting equipment must
the incident, or forward wave voltage (Er) : work with. The input impedance must be
within the limits imposed by the output
Er matching network of the equipment in order
k gr to achieve proper loading.
THE TRANSMISSION LINE 25.9
The input impedance of the line depends resonance. exhibiting various combinations
not only on the load impedance at the far of resistance and reactance to the transmis-
end of the line, but also on the electrical sion line (figure 9). Some combination of
length of the transmission line. Thus, the these qualities is the rule, rather than the
input impedance is a function of frequency, exception, although the resistive term of the
as the electrical length of the transmission combination is predominant in most cases.
line changes in relation to the physical
length with a change in frequency. 25 -5 Impedance Matching
When the load impedance is not matched
to the line, the input impedance of the line
With Resonant Lines
may be inductive, capacitive, resistive, or A transmission line exhibiting wave re-
a combination of all three of these qualities. flection is termed a resonant line since it
The magnitude and phase angle of these assumes many of the characteristics of a
qualities depends on the line length, the resonant circuit. Variations of formulas that
SWR, and the characteristic impedance of apply to LC circuits also apply to resonant
the line. lines. Sections of such lines can be economic-
An antenna system of the type used by ally substituted for lumped tuned circuits in
most amateurs, is resistive at the resonant wave filters, impedance- matching devices,
frequency and is reactive at frequencies off- phase shifters, line -balance converters, and
frequency control circuits.
E
O!max -LESS
114A
THAN,
GEN xc Zo
Emdx
- 1
I14 A
4-LESS THAN
114A
GEN XL - Zo
Figure 10
Open -end and closed -end resonant lines where, Z is the characteristic line impedance.
are useful as matching devices between dif- The equivalent, lumped circuit is shown
ferent impedance levels in antenna systems. in figure IOC.
Short, resonant lines (stubs, or matching The impedance inverting property of the
stubs) can approximate capacitance or in- line provides a good match between a high
ductance and may be used to compensate for, impedance circuit and a low impedance one.
or match out, unwanted reactive components By inverting the formula, the impedance of
in an antenna system. the matching transformer (Z) required to
The Quarter -Wave The input impedance match two different impedances is:
Transformer (Z1) of a quarter -wave Zo= VZ,XZ1
line terminated in a load
showing that the transformer impedance is
impedance of Z, is:
equal to the geometric mean of the two
(Z0)2 impedances to be matched.
_ Z1
CLOSED END CASE
O--
OPEN END CASE
I-<114A-{
A A
Ó` ZAB d
ZAB
AO
.- ]/8A-1 A
r--- I /B A --1
BO
ZAB Zo O B
ZAB
ZO
A HIGH RESISTIVE
IMPEDANCE/
1/4A 1/4A
A IA LOW AO
O BO
RESISTIVE
IMPEDANCE) O
ZAC
3 /8A 318 A
AO
4 ZAB Zo ZAB Zo -;..
BO
I12A 112A
AO AO
O BO
Figure 11
The Resonant Stub A shorted, quarter -wave varies with length for the open- and closed -
line is equivalent to a end cases. Figure 12 represents the reactance
parallel resonant circuit, making it possible curves for the two types of line.
to substitute the line for a lumped LC cir-
cuit (figure 7B) . For the general case, the Stub Matching A line segment less than a
open -end impedance of a shorted or open quarter -wavelength long
line varies with line length and may be presents a value of reactance at the measur-
capacitive, inductive, or present a low or ing end that can be used to match out un-
high resonant impedance. The open -end wanted reactance in an antenna system.
inductive reactance of a loss -free, shorted Either open- or closed -end stubs may be
line, less than a quarter -wavelength long is: used, depending on the circuit requirements.
If a transmission line is connected di-
X, = Zo tan I rectly to an antenna at, or near, a current
where, loop or node, the chances are that the an-
l is the electrical length in degrees,
tenna will present other than a matched load,
Z. is the characteristic impedance of the and standing waves will exist on the line.
line. At a point on the line, less than one -half
The open -end capacitive reactance of a wavelength from the antenna, the resistive
loss -free, open line, less than a quarter -wave-
component of the antenna load will equal
length long is: the characteristic line impedance, and a re-
actance whose value is equal and opposite
Xe = Zn cot I placed at this point will cancel the unwanted
reactance on the transmission line (figure
Figure 11 illustrates the manner in which 13) . Stub dimension and placement is a
the input reactance of a transmission line function of the SWR on the line, as mea-
5.0
sured at the load. In some cases, lumped
constants are substituted for the matching
4. 5 stub, and the resulting device is called an
impedance matching network.
a.o
XcIZo IOPEN LINE)
3.5
Balancing Networks Most hf antennas are
..
3.0
balanced systems in that
1 XLIZo ¡CLOSED LINE, equal and out -of -phase voltages to ground
exist at each input terminal. The Marconi
2.
1.
1.
0.
i
I..'` ;;
..`.
antenna, discussed in the previous chapter,
is an example of an exception to this state-
ment.
When a balanced antenna is used, the
two- conductor transmission line feeding the
antenna should carry equal and opposite cur-
rents throughout its length to maintain the
1 In 7n an eD 50 60 70 80 4 electrical symmetry of the antenna system.
LINE LENGTH IN ELECTRICAL DEGREES The popular coaxial transmission line (dis-
Figure 12 cussed later in this chapter) is an unbalanced
device, with one conductor normally oper-
REACTANCE CURVES FOR OPEN - ated at ground potential. An electrical un-
AND CLOSED -END LINES balance exists when such a line is connected
The quantity X/2 multiplied by the charac- to a balanced antenna.
teristic impedance of the line is equal to the In addition, a transmission line in the near -
input reactance. The behavior of the two types field of an antenna is coupled to the antenna
of line is complementary, the quarter -wave
open -end line acting as a series- resonant cir- by virtue of its proximity, and induced cur-
cuit and the closed -end line acting as a parallel - rents can flow in the outer conductor of
resonant circuit. Such sections of line are the coaxial line. This current is called an
often used as chokes or tuned circuits in the
vhf /uhf region. antenna current and it tends to upset the
25.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
TO GENERATOR
(TRANSMITTER)
COAXIAL
1 /4A-
INPUT BALANCED OUTPUT
r
L3 L2 L1
COAXIAL U
r- 1/4 A-I BALANCED OUTPUT
INPUT 4
O
BALANCED OUTPUT
XCXL (APPROXIMATELY)
0. cc
I I
1!'
I I
LOCATION OF STUB
0. 20 FROM Emmc POINT -
18
...a,
16 ZO COAXIAL INPUT
OPEN STUB
14
O
12
COAXIAL BALANCED
0. 10
0. 08
4 CLOSED STUB
INPUT OUTPUT
06 Figure 14
IN BALANCING DEVICES
D2 A- Quarter wave section made of parallel trans-
mission line serves as balancing device. Coax-
ial line is run through one leg of the section.
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Equal and opposite currents flowing in legs
STANDING WAVE RATIO Emax / Emin of quarter wave section cancel each other
and resultant current flowing on outside of
Figure 13
B- transmission line is zero.
Coaxial version of quarter -wave section.
The outer sleeve acts much like an rf choke
STUB MATCHING to suppress antenna currents from flowing on
the coaxial transmission line.
An open -end or shorted -end stub connected C -Half- wavelength coaxial balun provides im-
across the main transmission line is used to pedance step -up of four to one. Balancing
reduce the SWR on the line and provide a good line is 0.66 of half -wavelength if solid dielec-
match between line and load impedance. The tric coaxial line is used, taking the velocity
location of the stub in relation to the load factor of the line into account.
(dimension L,) and the length of the stub D -Balun coil consists of bifilar winding which
(dimension L,) may be set from the measured may be considered as a portion of the trans-
value of the SWR. It is not necessary for the mission line. Currents in windings are in
antenna to be resonant at the operating fre- phase and act to choke off antenna current
quency as the stub matching sys'em can com- tending to flow along coaxial transmission
pensate for the physical antenna length. line.
THE TRANSMISSION LINE 25.13
antenna currents on the line to a minimum, various transformation ratios. Shown in fig-
the line should be brought away from the ure 15 are representative designs for phase-
antenna at right angles to it, reducing in- reversal, balance -to- unbalance and imped-
ductive coupling to a minimum, and a bal- ance- transforming baluns.
ancing device should be placed between the The bandwidth of a particular balun is
transmission line and a balanced antenna. determined at the low- frequency end of the
A suitable device is termed a balancing net- operating range by the inductance of the
work, or balun. Linear and lumped- constant windings and at the high- frequency end by
baluns are illustrated in figure 14. the distributed capacitance of the design.
If a ferrite core is used in the device, care
Wideband Boluns Wideband baluns may be must be taken to limit the signal level so
made of a section of that saturation does not occur.
transmission line wound into an inductance. A two -winding balun may be used for
A frequency span of 10 or 20 to 1 is phase reversal, or balance to unbalance. A
achieved with the proper design and the 1 -to -4 balun requires either 3 or 4 wind-
device may be balanced or unbalanced with ings, depending on the state of balance, as
+e12 -+-- -Il 00Qi0 +e
IN OUT
IN OUT
(000001 e12
O O
O Figure 15 0
WIDEBAND BALUN TRANSFORMERS
A -Phase reversing, 1 -to -1 transformation ratio.
B- Balance to unbalance, 1 -to -1 transformation
ratio.
C-Balance to balance, 1 -to -4 transformation
ratio.
D- Unbalance to unbalance, 1 -to-4 transforma-
tion ratio.
E- Balance to balance, 1 -to -9 transformation
ratio.
F- Unbalance to unbalance, 1 -to -9 transforma-
tion ratio.
25.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
...........
W 120
80
IIi!!!iiii
F 40 OAXIAL
Figure 16
0
SERIES CONNECTED BALUNS TO 1.0 1.2 1.4 1 61.8 2 24 3 4 5 6
Did
PROVIDE LOW IMPEDANCE,
g.tTr.I
BALANCED INPUT TO 50 -OHM LOAD
TERMINATION 700
I-tii-..
Left balun provides balance to balance termina- 600
1
tion with 1 to 4 transformation ratio. Right -6500
balun provides balance to unbalance termina- Vf
!%LLI.y .
-
-5/IMMIIÍ111
--_'
tion with 1 -to -1 transformation ratio. This con- Ixi 400
figuration is often used to match push-pull
VHF power transistors to a 50 -ohm load, with
a strip -line balun design.
a1 300
-_INI'1.! llI
MEN
25 -6 Transmission Lines
U 293
103
0
I//i1
WMia
1..-
2 4 6 10 20
R
40 60 100
COAXIAL
200
MO
Mg
400 1000
Did
Practical transmission lines for the hf and
vhf region are composed of two conductors
separated by a dielectric. Two classes of
lines, parallel- conductor and coaxial, are in
wide use, although there are many styles of -Id1-
PARALLEL WIRES IN AIR COAX IAL
each class of line. Transmission lines may be
either air -insulated or may be embedded in Zo. 120 cosh-1 Did ZO 138
Iog10Db
FORD>Dd CURVE IS FOR -1.00
a solid dielectric.
Z0- 2761og10200
Two -Wire A typical open transmission line Figure 17
Open Line is shown in figure 17. The con-
ductors are held in position by TWO CONDUCTOR
means of insulating rods, the spacing vary- TRANSMISSION LINES
ing from less than one inch for vhf serv-
ice, to over one foot for high -power, hf "Ribbon" and Flexible, prefabricated paral-
service. Tubular Line lel- conductor line is widely
Expressed in physical terms, the charac- available for television lead -in
teristic impedance of a two -wire open line cable. The majority of this line has a nomi-
is: nal characteristic impedance of 300 ohms.
THE TRANSMISSION LINE 25.15
Receiving types and transmitting types hav- the sum of the effective resistance loss along
ing power levels of up to one kilowatt in the the length of the cable and the dielectric
hf range are listed, with their pertinent char- loss between the two conductors. Of the two
acteristics in Table 1. losses, the resistance loss is the greater; since
it is largely due to the skin effect and the
Table 1. Ribbon and Tubular Line loss (all other conditions remaining the
same) will increase directly as the square
Power root of the frequency.
Amphenol Velocity Rating The coaxial cable used in the majority of
Impedance Type of (30 MHz)
(Ohms) Number Propagation In Watts amateur installations is a flexible type, the
outer conductor consisting of a braid of
75 214.023 0.71 1000
copper wire, with the inner conductor sup-
ported within the outer by means of a semi-
300
(Flat)
214 -056 0.82 - solid dielectric of exceedingly low -loss
characteristics called polyethylene. The char-
300
(Oval)
214 -022 0.82 - acteristic impedance of the cable is about 30
500
ohms, but other cables are available in an
300 214-271 0.82
impedance of 75 ohms (Table 2).
(Tubular) 214-076 0.82 1000 In order to preserve the waterproof char-
(Foamed) 214 -103 - - acteristic of the flexible, coaxial line, special
coaxial fittings are available as well as less -
Coaxial Line The coaxial line has advan- expensive nonwaterproof fittings (Table 3) .
tages that make it very prac-
tical for efficient operation in the hf and Waveguides Electromagnetic energy at mi-
vhf regions. It is a perfectly shielded line crowave frequencies may be
and has a minimum of radiation loss. It may propagated through a hollow metal tube
be made with braided conductors to gain under fixed conditions. Such a tube is called
flexibility and is impervious to weather. Since a waveguide. Any surface which separates
the line has little radiation loss, nearby metal- distinctly two regions of different electrical
lic objects have minimum effect on the line properties can exert a guiding effect on
as the outer conductor serves as a shield for electromagnetic waves and the surface may
the inner conductor (figure 17). take the form of a hollow pipe, generally
As in the case of a two -wire line, power rectangular or circular in cross section, with
lost in a properly terminated coaxial line is an air dielectric.
Table 3. Coaxial Cable Connectors A hollow waveguide has lower loss than
FOR RG -8 /U, RG -11/11 AND RG -213/U
a two -wire or a coaxial line since it has no
COAXIAL LINES (0.405" DIAM.) dielectric or radiation loss, and the copper
"UHF" -TYPE CONNECTORS loss is low, because the area of current flow
in the waveguide is great.
Amphenol
Description Type Number Number
Energy may be propagated along a wave -
guide in several modes which are described
PL -259 83 -1 SP by the relation between the electric (E)
Plug PL -259A 83-756
UG -111 /U 83 -750
and magnetic (H) fields and the walls of
the guide. The configuration of the electro-
Solderless magnetic fields in a waveguide can take
83.151
Plug
many forms, and each is called a mode of
Splice PL-258 83.1J operation. in all cases, either the magnetic
Reduction
or electric field must be perpendicular to the
Adapter: direction of wave travel. The modes, there -
RG -58/U UG -175/U 83 -185 a
-
TYPE -N CONNECTORS (50 -OHM CABLES)
UG-21B/U 82-61
Plug
UG -21C /U 82.96 a' ELECTRIC INTENSITY
MAGNETIC INTENSITY
Splice UG-29A /U 83-65 a
SECTION a -a'
Receptacle UG-58A /U 82.97
Plug
Splice
UG -88/U
UG -88B /U
UG-914/U
UG -290/U
31 -002
31 -018
31.219
31.003
- ELECTRIC INTENSITY
MAGNETIC INTENSITY
Receptacle
UG -625B /U 31 -236 Figure 18
-1
which it will not propagate energy efficiently
J
TE1 D MODE WR -112
2
I_ 1.310'x 0. 857"
the dimensions of the guide approach a half
wavelength. Actually, propagation with high
ODE
ELLIPTICAL attenuation does take place for a small dis-
INSIDE TE1, 0
tance, and a short length of waveguide op-
^-Mil
MODE
1 122"
erating below cutoff is often used as a cali-
1.0
SQUARE brated attenuator.
0.8 INSIDE
Energy is coupled into and removed from
OD
0.6
d 1.310" CIRCULAR INSIDE
waveguides by the use of a coupling loop
4 6 8 10
FREQUENCY IN GIGAHERTZ
20 40
(which cuts, or couples, the lines of the
magnetic field) or a probe (antenna) which
Figure 19
is placed parallel to the electric lines. A
ATTENUATION OF WAVEGUIDE third method is to link or contact the field
of the guide by an external field through the
Relationship between transmission modes and use of a common slot or hole between the
crosssection of waveguides shows cutoff fre-
quency below which guide will not propagate guide and the external circuit.
energy efficiently.
, .
11=
p.
Ii
It
4.
i; - AA.
CHAPTER TWENTY -SIX
Some antennas, such as the half -wave di- transmission line which is a function of line
fdUII
pole, can often be attached to a low- imped- impedance, line length, load mismatch, and
ance transmission line for direct connection the operating frequency.
to the station equipment without the need Most antennas, even the simple ones, ex-
of impedance matching devices at either end hibit a marked change :n feedpoint imped-
of the line. ance when operated off-frequency and, even
In all antenna systems using a resonant at resonance, offer a feedpoint load of other
antenna and a transmission line, however, than 50 ohms. Off- resonance, the feedpoint
impedance shifts rapidly, producing a sub-
ii'I
the load presented to the transmitter is that
value of impedance present at the antenna, stantial mismatch to the transmission line
modified by the transforming action of the and a consequent high value of SWR on the
r4
line (figure 1) . The load presented to the
L!
tion, most antenna systems require some type
+20 1111111111M /
ß1u
alg of impedance transformation or reactance
}.1
W
cg
IMAM
fil
111
SWAM
+10
RESISTANCE
3 6
1
11
MHz
El
II
7
1,0
1
compensation to provide a nominal match
to the universally used 50- or 75 -ohm coax-
ial transmission line. In some cases, addi-
tional compensation is required at the station
end of the line to afford a good match to
the transmitting equipment over a desired
frequency span. The maximum value of mis-
MOWN
61111
í'1 match permitted at the station usually de-
fines the limits of SWR on the antenna sys-
tem for a given frequency range.
Figure 1
tive, showing large values of reactance for the greater the SWR, the more the input
small frequency changes from resonance. The level being limited.
frequency sensitivity, or Q, of the antenna In the great majority of cases, compen-
determines to an extent the parameters and sating circuits of some type are employed at
complexity of the matching circuit to be one end or the other of the transmission line
used. to provide a low value of SWR on the line
The feedpoint reactance of an antenna and to provide a convenient load for the
varies with frequency and cannot be matched transmitter than might otherwise be pro-
perfectly over a wide frequency band. For vided by a high -Q antenna operated at, or
practical purposes, the bandwidth obtain- near, the resonant frequency.
able for a given value of SWR on the trans- The characteristics of transmission lines
mission line is of importance, or conversely, and basic impedance matching systems have
the minimum limit of SWR that may be been described in a previous chapter and
achieved for a given bandwidth. In the gen- this, and the following chapters, describe
eral case, the feedpoint impedance of a impedance compensation devices and their
resonant antenna takes the form of a series - practical application.
resonant circuit whose O, or figure of merit,
is:
/~+150_^
Z 50+ o +140
¡DEFINITION
+130 CIRCLE
SWR 3
I
+I120
I
+I 110
Dff NITION
+100 C I RC LE
SWR 2
1
+90
.70
1
} DEFINITION I
NORMAL
__,POINT +60 IMPEDANCE
SWR1, Z50+jo
+50
I
+40
I
+30 .0"
ó 20
Z 16.6+jo
_. -1 _-9 _ -8
00 0 0 -70 _-60 +30_ +40_+50_+60_+70_+80_+90_+100
1
Figure 2
dashed lines represent the series boundaries, perimeter of the chart in terms of the elec-
that is, if the impedance curve falls within trical wavelength along a transmission line,
these lines, by adding a series component, one scale running clockwise, the other coun-
the curve can be shifted to be within the ter- clockwise. The complete circle, in either
definition circle. case, represents a half -wavelength.
The scaled vertical line of the chart rep-
The Impedance The impedance circle dia- resents the ratio of the resistive component
Circle Diagram gram, or Smith Chart is a of the antenna (R) to the impedance of the
specialized graph having a transmission line (Z ),
measured at a par-
curved coordinate system. The system is ticular frequency. SWR circles may be added
composed of two families of circles, the to the Smith Chart by the user, centered at
resistance circles and the reactance circles 1.0 on the vertical resistance scale. A circle
(figure 3) . These circles are curves of con- centered at 1.0 and which passes through
stant resistance and constant reactance. The 3.0 on the same scale, for example, encloses
complete coordinate system of the Smith all values of impedance which will cause a
Chart is shown in figure 4. Wavelength and SWR of 3 or less when they terminate a trans-
phase -angle scales are plotted around the mission line having a characteristic imped-
26.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
WAVELENGTHS
TOWARD
GENERATOR
0.25
WAVELENGTHS
TOWARD
LOAD
0.125 A
Figure 4
Figure 5
into SWR and impedance values. In the hf ance although the term balun implies a
region, the characteristics of an antenna transformation from the balanced to the un-
system may be determined with the aid of balanced state.
an r -f impedance bridge (see Electronic Simple and inexpensive balun transform-
Test Equipment chapter) and the figures ers having wideband characteristics can be
derived from these measurements transferred wound of wire or coaxial cable on either air
to a Smith Chart. Properly interpreted, the or ferrite cores, as shown in this section.
chart then can tell the user what impedance A Ferrite Core Balun for 3.5- to 29.7 -
transformations must be made in the sys- MHz Service -A simple, compact ferrite
tem to achieve the desired end results. Smith balun design is shown in figures 6 and 7. It
charts may be obtained at most college book may be built for either a 1 -to -1 or 4 -to -1
stores or at many technical book stores. A transformation and a balance-to- unbalance
comprehensive article on the use of the condition. The power level is a function of
Smith Chart for amateur applications ap- core saturation and distributed capacitance,
peared in the November, 1970 and Decem- and is limited to about 250 watts average
ber, 1971 issues of ham railir, magazine. power at the high and low frequency limits,
rising to about 600 watts average power
over the midfrequency range. The unit may
be used at impedance levels as low as 20
26 -3 Practical Wideband ohms and still provide good balance.
Balun Transformers The 1 -to -I balun employs a trifilar wind-
ing; the three separate coils placed on the
A summary of simple balun transformers core in parallel and connected as shown in
was given in the previous chapter. Imped- the drawing. The input terminals of the
ance matching transformers are often called balun are nonsymmetrical, point A at the
baluns, even though they may match be- input end being taken as ground. The 4 -to -1
tween systems having the same state of bal- balun has a bifilar winding and provides an
26.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
IBI IA)
TO CENTER TO SHIELD
CONDUCTOR OF COAX
IBI IA)
IB) IAi
SCHEMATIC
Figure 7
Figure 6
WINDING DATA FOR
FERRITE -CORE BALUN FERRITE BALUN
FOR 3.5 TO 29.7 MHz The balun consists of 3 coils, each 6 turns of
«14 enamel or Formvar wire. The wires are
This balun has a trifilar winding and provides wound side by side, the ends being held in a
a -to -1 transformation. The center winding is
vise. The center winding is cross- connected at
1
50-OHM
UNBALANCED
INPUT GROUND
JUMPER
INPUT COIL
50-OHM
BALANCED SHORTED
OUTPUT COIL
Figure 9
THE AIR -CORE BROADBAND BALUN the weather. A coaxial plug may be attached
to the input terminals of the balun. Connec-
The baluns of this design have the same wind- tion to the balanced antenna is made at the
ing technique as described for the ferrite balun.
The units are wound on plastic tubing (poly- center connections of the coil, using short,
vinyl- chloride) of the proper diameter. Three heavy straps.
windings of v14 enamel or Formvar wire are
used, the ends anchored in place with 4-40
An Adjustable Balnn Transformer -The
hardware. The windings are cross- connected by lumped constant baluns described in the pre-
additional lengths of copper wire run between vious section have a fixed impedance trans-
the connecting points. The common connection
of outer and inner windings is taken as ground formation of 1 to 1 or 4 to 1. In many
at one end of the balun. The text describes cases some other ratio is desirable. The balun
two designs which cover the 2.5- to 10 -MHz described in this section will match a 50-ohm
range and the 6- to 30 -MHz range.
coaxial line to a balanced load over the range
The balun coil is self- resonant near the of 10 ohms to 50 ohms.
center design frequency which, in this case The balun is composed of a shorted sec-
is 15 MHz. The coil is made from a 16' 8" tion of transmission line having a coaxial
(5.08 m.) length of 50-ohm coaxial line line running down one leg of the assembly.
(RG -8A/U or RG- 213/U) closewound into Points A and B (figure 10) are balanced to
a coil of nine turns having an inside diam- ground and the inner conductor of the co-
eter of 6%" (17.15 cm.) . At one end of axial line is cross -connected to the opposite
the coil the inner and outer conductors of balun leg to provide the proper phase re-
the line are shorted together and grounded versal. The impedance transformation is
to the common ground point of the antenna achieved by varying the length of the balun
assembly. The unbalanced coaxial transmis- and also the length of the center -fed antenna
sion line is attached to the other end of the connected to it. The antenna termination
coil and a ground jumper is run between the must appear capacitive at the balun termi-
outer ends of the braided connector. At the nals for proper operation and this is achieved
center of the coil, the outer braid is severed by shortening the antenna element slightly
for a distance of about one inch, and a con- past the point of resonance.
nection is made to the inner conductor at The balun transformer is made of two
this point. In addition, the inner conductor lengths of 3f4-inch diameter, hard drawn
is jumpered to the outer braid of the shorted copper rod about four feet long. Spacing
coil section. The connections are wrapped between the rods is 3 inches. The balun is
with vinyl tape and coated with an aerosol designed for 20 -, 15 -, and 10 -meter opera-
plastic spray to protect the joints against tion.
26.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
300
200
TO
DRIVEN
GO
GROUND TOBOON ZO ELEMENT
(XC)
0
BD-
COAXIAL LINE
FROM TRANSMITTER
i4- -Q-
20
XL c Zo tan Si
10
o IO 20 30 40 SO
LOAD IMPEDANCE (OHMS)
Figure 10
TO CENT ER
z-
E.
a
0.50
C3100 PF OF DRIVEN
ELEMENT 0.25
2
SD 0.53 LINE COAXIAL = DIA TUBING 10 15 20 25 30 35
CONN EC C RS RADIATION RESISTANCE (OHMS)
Figure 11 Figure 12
THE INDUCTO -MATCH
COAXIAL STUB BALUN
FOR 14 -MHz BEAM Dipole element acts as matching transformer
by placing inductor at the center and short-
Matching stub and balun are combined to pro- ening element to provide capacitive reactance
vide balanced feed point for a 50 -ohm transmis- across feedpoint. Typical three-element Yagi
sion line to match low- impedance driven element. antenna has feedpoint impedance of about 20
Balun is designed to be mounted on beam, at ohms and calls for 0.5 H inductor. Impedance
the center of driven element using short, heavy match is made by varying inductor and length
interconnecting leads. of dipole. Above chart is for 20 meters.
ANTENNA MATCHING SYSTEMS 26.9
The radiation resistance of the antenna the terminals of the driven element. The
element is made to appear as a capacitive re- L/C ratio of the combination determines the
actance at the driving point by shortening transformation ratio of the network when
the element past the normal resonant length. the LC product is resonant at the center
The inductive portion of the network takes frequency of antenna operation. Inductance
the form of a hairpin or coil placed across of the hairpin or coil is best determined by
L1 experiment. Measurements made at 14 MHz,
point to a shortening effect of about six
inches in the overall length of the driven
element, and an inductance of about 0.5 p.H
in the hairpin. Complete information on
this compact and efficient matching system
is given in the Beane Antenna Handbook,
published by Radio Publications, Inc., Wil-
ton, Conn.
A Broadband LC Balun -The derivation
of a broadband lumped constant balun is
given in figure 13. Illustration A shows two
pi- network circuits with the inputs con-
nected in parallel and the outputs series -
connected. For this example, the balun is as-
sumed to match a 50 -ohm unbalanced line to
200 a 20 -ohm balanced load, a common condi-
tion for a Yagi beam antenna. One network
is the conjugate of the other. The circuit
can be redrawn, as in illustration B, omit-
ting the components C, and L, as they form
a resonant circuit at the design frequency.
The final revision is redrawing the circuit
as a bridge, as shown in illustration C. There
is no coupling between the coils and they
2 OUTPUT
should be mounted at right angles to each
other. The bandwidth of the balun is in-
versely proportional to the transformation
ratio, and a balun having a transformation
Xc XL R1
ratio of unity has a theoretically infinite
R2
bandwidth.
Figure 13
26-4 Antenna Matching
BROADBAND UNIVERSAL Devices
BALUN TRANSFORMER
The feedpoint impedance of a hf or vhf
This lumped- constant impedance transformer
can be used in either balanced, or unbalanced - antenna can vary from a few ohms to as
to- balanced condition. It may be used either high as several hundred ohms, and can ex-
for stepdown or stepup transformation. The cir- hibit either capacitive or inductive reactance
cuit is derived from two pi networks (A), each
of which has a 90- degree phase shift through during off- resonance operation. Modern ama-
it. The combination provides a 180 -degree phase teur stations use either low- impedance coax-
shift across the series- connected load termi-
nals. The circuit is redrawn at (B), eliminating ial lines in the feed system or balanced lines
C, and L, which are parallel resonant at the of medium impedance.
design frequency. The circuit is redrawn as a These transmission systems require some
bridge at (C). To match a 50 -ohm load to a
20 -ohm load at 14 MHz, for example, the value sort of matching device at the antenna to
of XL or X, is 31.6 ohms. C is thus 360 pF and make an efficient transition from the imped-
L is 0.36 ,H. The capacitors are made adjust-
able so as to provide some variance in trans- ance of the line to that of the antenna, other-
formation and balance. wise severe standing waves can occur on the
26.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
F51Hz
in the previous section and the matching
systems shown in this section can provide a where,
good transition between the differing imped- L is antenna length,
ance levels existing between feedline and D is the distance in from each end at
antenna. which the Y taps on,
E is the height of the Y section.
The Delto- Matched The delta -type matched- Since these constants are correct only for
Dipole impedance dipole antenna a 600 -ohm transmission line, the spacing S
is shown in figure 14. The of the line must be approximately 75 times
impedance of the transmission line is trans- the diameter of the wire used in the trans-
formed gradually into a higher value by mission line. For No. 14 wire, the spacing
the fanned -out Y portion of the feeders, will be slightly less than 5 inches.
and the Y portion is tapped on the antenna The delta match has become quite popu-
at points where the Y portion is a compro- lar in the vhf region as a simple feed system
mise between the impedance at the antenna
and the impedance of the unfanned portion
of the line.
D --1 L
D
MATCHING SECTION
50 OHM
NONRCSONANT COAXIAL LINE
LINE
Figure 14 BAND A B C D
MHz IN CM IN CM IN CM IN CM
THE DELTA -MATCHED DIPOLE
ANTENNA 50 111. 0 281. 9 22. 0 55. 9 15. 0 381 79, 0 200 7
The dimensions for the portions of the antenna 38.0 96. 5 6. 5 16. 5 4. 0 10. 2 27. 0 68 6
144
are given in the text.
220 25. 4 64. 6 4. 2 10. 7 2. 7 6.9 18 0 45. 7
The constants of the system are rather
critical, and the antenna must resonate at 432 12.9 32.8 3.0 7.6 1.5 3.8 9.1 23.1
the operating frequency in order to mini-
mize standing waves on the line. Some slight
Figure 15
readjustment of the taps on the antenna is
desirable, if appreciable standing waves per- DELTA MATCH DIMENSIONS
sist in appearing on the line. FOR VHF SERVICE
The constants for a dipole are determined
The delta dimension B is adjusted to provide
by the following formulas: a 200 -ohm termination point for use with a 50-
ohm coaxial line and a four-to-one coaxial ba-
467 lun transformer. Antenna length may have to
Lre,.t be readjusted slightly to achieve lowest value of
F51Hz SWR because of reactive effect of delta wires.
ANTENNA MATCHING SYSTEMS 26.11
Figure 16
"T" MATCH
26.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
ti
}
}
Figure 19
300 -.00
OHM 'CEDERS
ANTENNA MATCHING SYSTEMS 26.13
two. This assumes that the feedline will be Decoupling In the Transmission Line chap-
connected in series with the smaller of the Devices ter it was stated that when a
two conductors so that an impedance step - balanced antenna is used, the
up of greater than four will be obtained. If two conductor transmission line feeding the
an impedance step -up of less than four is antenna should carry equal and opposite cur-
desired, the feedline is connected in series rents throughout its length to maintain the
with the larger of the two conductors and electrical symmetry of the system. To main-
Z, in the above equation becomes the im- tain this balance when a coaxial transmis-
pedance of a hypothetical line made up of sion line is used, various balance-to- unbal-
the larger of the two conductors and Z_ is ance devices have been described earlier in
made up of the smaller. The foldcd vhf uni- this chapter. The purpose of these devices
pole is an example where the transmission (in addition to providing an impedance
line is connected in series with the larger of match) is to prevent unwanted antenna cur-
the two conductors. Representative trans- rent from flowing on the outside of the
formation ratios are shown in figure 20. coaxial line.
The unwanted current may be choked off
The Q-Section One of the earliest forms of by forming the transmission line into an r -f
impedance transformer used choke which will present a high impedance
by amateurs is the Q- section, or quarter - to currents flowing on the outer surface of
wave transformer (figure 21). An imped- the line, while allowing the current within
ance match between a dipole element and a the line to proceed unimpeded. This can be
balanced transmission line is obtained by done by coiling the line into a "doughnut"
utilizing a matching section, the character- about a foot in diameter. Six turns of line,
istic impedance of which is the geometric coiled in this fashion and held in place with
mean between the input and output termi- electrical tape will provide a satisfactory
nal impedances. An equivalent device for an r -f choke for the high frequency bands. An
unbalanced system can be made up of an even more effective choke can be made by
electrical quarter -wavelength section of co- passing three turns of the line through a
axial transmission line. large ferrite core, as shown in figure 22.
tco_
R RADIATION
Dt roa Dl D2
RFRAO.
.4
-i_
T roeD1.1-
t Da Dao.YRARAD. 6.9
f S 1.!
FOLDED -ELEMENT FOR DI1-
MATCH D244RAD. 10.5
S1. s,,
roa DI1-
Da..as -EFO 16
S. 1- RAD.
D FOR D 1-
1 I12
S a- Q11
Figure 20 T WIR[
f WIRE SIZE
roa D I- F![D
AD. 14
S
DATA FOR *12 IRR
an
YOKE MATCH
FOLDED- ELEMENT FOR D1-
S
*12 Wut
1t5 p 16
MATCHING SYSTEMS
FOR D 1
In all normal applications of S. 1- WILL 24
Ms
F
WIRR
the data given the main ele- D 1-
Fos
ment as shown is the driven 1- 32
element of a multi-element 12 WIRE RAD.
Q-MATCNING SCCTiON
z'TUBING
L _ zaL
FIMHrI
ZQ= 2-1/t Za
FERRITE CORE -
L
Figure 22
UNTUNED LINE
AN LENGTH HF DECOUPLING CHOKE
Center to Impedance Impedance FOR COAXIAL LINE
Center in Ohms in Ohms Three turns of the transmission line passed
Spacing for 1/2" for 1/4" through a large ferrite core will effectively de-
in Inches Diameters Diameters couple the transmission line from antenna cur-
1.0 170 250 rents. The choke is placed near the antenna
1.25 188 277 terminals. Coil diameter is about 10" (25.4 cm)
for RG-8A/ U line. The core is Indiana General
1.5 207 298
CF -124. For catalog and list of distributors,
1.75 225 318 write Indiana General Corp., Crow Mills Road,
2.0 248 335 Keasby, NJ 08832. Core is Q -1 material with a
permeability of 125 at MHz. 1
Figure 21
F-1- DIPOLE
0
-DIPOLE
ANTENNA
i STUB
-
Z34
L f IMHzI
Figure 23 ANTENNA
26 -5 Coupling to the
Antenna System
When coupling an antenna feed system to
a transmitter the most important considera- Figure 24
tions are as follows: (1) means should be
provided for varying the load on the ampli- MATCHING STUB APPLICATIONS
fier; (2) the load presented to the final Illustration A shows the use of a half -wave
amplifier should be resistive (nonreactive) shorted stub to feed a relatively low impedance
point such as the center of the driven element
in character; and (3) means should be pro- of a parasitic array, or the center of a half -wave
vided to reduce harmonic coupling between dipole. The use of an open -ended quarter -wave
stub to feed a low impedance is illustrated at B.
the final amplifier plate tank circuit and the C shows the conventional use of a shorted quar-
antenna or antenna transmission line to an ter -wave stub to voltage -feed two half -wave an-
extremely low value. tennas with a 180 phase difference.
26.16 RADIO HANDBOOK
Transmitter The problem of coupling filter, and at a point where this impedance i%
Loading and TVI the power output of a likely to remain fairly constant with varia-
high- frequency or vhf tions in frequency.
transmitter to the radiating portion of the
antenna system has been complicated by the Block Diagrams of There are two basic
virtual necessity for eliminating interference Transmitter -to- Antenna arrangements which
to TV reception. However, the TVI elimi- Coupling Systems include all the provi-
nation portion of the problem may always sions required in the
be accomplished by adequate shielding of the transmitter -to- antenna coupling system,
transmitter, by filtering of the control and and which permit the harmonic attenuating
power leads which enter the transmitter filter to be placed at a position in the cou-
enclosure, and by the inclusion of a har- pling system where it can be operated at an
monic attenuating filter between the output impedance level close to its nominal value.
of the transmitter and the antenna system. These arrangements are illustrated in block
Although TVI may be eliminated through diagram form in figures 25 and 26.
inclusion of a filter between the output of a The arrangement of figure 25 is recom-
shielded transmitter and the antenna system, mended for use with a single -band antenna
the fact that such a filter should be included system, such as a dipole or a rotatable array,
in the link between transmitter and antenna wherein an impedance matching system is
makes it necessary that the transmitter - included within or adjacent to the antenna.
loading problem be re- evaluated in terms of The feedline coming down from the anten-
the necessity for inclusion of such a filter. na system should have a characteristic im-
Harmonic attenuating filters must be op- pedance equal to the nominal impedance of
erated at an impedance level which is close the harmonic filter, and the impedance
to their design value; therefore they must matching at the antenna should be such that
operate into a resistive termination substan- the standing -wave ratio on the antenna
tially equal to the characteristic impedance feedline is less than 3 over the range of fre-
of the filter. If such filters are operated into quency to be fed to the antenna.
an impedance which is not resistive and ap- The arrangement of figure 25 is more or
proximately equal to their characteristic less standard for commercially manufac-
impedance: (1) the capacitors used in the tured equipment for amateur and commer-
filter sections will be subjected to high peak cial use in the hf and vhf range.
voltages and may be damaged, (2) the har- The arrangement of figure 26 merely adds
monic attenuating properties of the filter an antenna coupler between the output of
will be decreased, and (3) the impedance at the harmonic attenuating filter and the an-
the input end of the filter will be different tenna transmission line. The antenna coupler
from that seen by the filter at the load end will have some harmonic attenuating action,
(except in the case of the half -wave type but its main function is to transform the
filter). It is therefore important that the
I
impedence at the station end of the antenna
filter be included in the transmitter -to- transmission line to the nominal value of
antenna circuit at a point where the im- the harmonic filter. Hence the arrangement
pedance is close to the nominal value of the of figure 26 is more general than the figure
AT TRANSMITTER AT ANTENNA
1
Figure 25
ANTENNA COUPLING SYSTEM
The harmonic suppressing antenna coupling system illustrated above is for use when the antenna
transmission line has a low standing -wave ratio, and when the characteristic impedance of the an-
tenna transmission line is the same as the nominal impedance of the low -pass harmonie -attenuating
filter.
ANTENNA MATCHING SYSTEMS 26.17
AT MITTOR AT ANTENNA
3nu1,12
1
L J
Figure 26
ANTENNA COUPLING SYSTEM
The antenna coupling system illustrated above is for use when the antenna transmission line does
not have the same characteristic impedance as the TVI filter, and when the standing-wave ratio on
the antenna transmission line may or may not be low.
25 system, since the inclusion of the anten- as illustrated in figures 27 and 28. Figure 27
na coupler allows the system to feed an shows the variable -link arrangement often
antenna transmission line of any reasonable used in home -constructed equipment, while
impedance value, and also without regard to the pi- network coupling arrangement is il-
the standing -wave ratio which might exist lustrated in figure 28. Either method may be
on the antenna transmission line. Antenna used, and each has its advantages.
couplers are discussed in a following section.
Output Coupling It will be noticed by refer- Variable Link The variable -link method il-
Adjustment ence to both figure 25 Coupling lustrated in figure 27 pro-
and figure 26 that a box vides good rejection to sub -
labeled Coupling Adjustment is included in harmonics. For greatest bandwidth of oper-
the block diagram. Such an element is nec- ation of the coupling circuit, the reactance
essary in the complete system to afford an of link coil L and the reactance of link
adjustment in the value of load impedance tuning capacitor C should both be between
presented to the tubes in the final amplifier 3 and 4 times the nominal load impedance
stage of the transmitter. The impedance at of the harmonic filter. This is to say that
the input terminal of the harmonic filter is the inductive reactance of coupling link I.
established by the antenna, through its should be tuned out or resonated by capaci-
matching system and the antenna coupler, tor C, and the operating Q of the LC link
if used. In any event the impedance at the circuit should be between 3 and 4. If I.
input terminal of the harmonic filter should and C are made resonant at the center of
be very close to the nominal impedance of a band, with a link circuit Q of 3 to 4,
the filter. Then the Coupling Adjustment and coupling adjustment is made by physical
provides means for transforming this im- adjustment of L with respect to the final
pedance value to the correct operating value amplifier tank coil, it usually will be possi-
of load impedance which should be presented ble to operate over an entire amateur band
to the final amplifier stage. without change in the coupling system.
There are two common ways for accom- Capacitor C normally may have a low volt-
plishing the antenna coupling adjustment, age rating, even with a high -power trans -
COAX. TO
RECEIVER
SHIELD
TO ANTENNA
HARMONIC
ATTENUATING
FILTER
I (COAX ANT. I
i
CHANGEOVER-
RELAY
- FEEDLINC OR
TO ANTENNA
F
COUPLER
1+e Figure 27
COAX TO
RECEIVER
HARMONIC
COAXIAL TO rCCDLINE
ANTENNA
ATTENUATING CHANGEOVER OR ANTENNA
FILTER RELAY COUPLER
Figure 28
PI- NETWORK ANTENNA COUPLER
The design of pi-network circuits is discussed in Chapter Eleven. The additional output -end shunt-
ing capacitors selected by switch S are for use on the lower frequency ranges. Inductor L may be
selected by a tap switch; it may be continuously variable; or plug -in inductors may be used.
mitter, due to the low Q and low impedance harmonic filter between the output of the
of the coupling circuit. transmitter and the antenna coupler.
Pi- Network The pi- network coupling sys- Function of an The function of the an-
Coupling tem offers two advantages: (1) Antenna Coupler tenna coupler is, basically,
a mechanical coupling variation to transform the imped-
is not required to vary the loading of the ance of the antenna system being used to
final amplifier, and (2) the pi- network (if the correct value of resistive impedance for
used with an operating Q of about 10) of- the harmonic filter, and hence for the trans-
fers within itself a harmonic attenuation of mitter. Thus the antenna coupler may be
30 dB or more, in addition to the harmonic used to resonate the feeders or the radiating
attenuation provided by the additional har- portion of the antenna system, in addition
monic attenuating filter. Some commercial to its function of impedance transformation.
equipment incorporates an L- network in ad-
It is important to remember that there is
dition to the pi- network, for accomplishing
nothing that can be done at the antenna
the impedance transformation in two steps
to provide additional harmonic attenuation. coupler which will eliminate standing waves
on the antenna transmission line. Standing
waves are the result of reflection from the
Practical As mentioned in the pre- antenna, and the coupler can do nothing
Antenna Couplers vious section, an antenna about this condition. However, the antenna
coupler is not required coupler can resonate the feedline (by intro-
when the impedance of the antenna trans- ducing a conjugate impedance) in addition
mission line is the same as the nominal to providing an impedance transformation.
impedance of the harmonic filter, and the Thus, a resistive impedance of the correct
antenna feedline is being operated with a value can be presented to the harmonic fil-
low standing -wave ratio. However, there are ter, as in figure 26, regardless of any reason-
many cases where it is desirable to feed a able value of standing -wave ratio on the
multiband antenna from the output of the antenna transmission line.
harmonic filter, where a tuned line is being
used to feed the antenna, or where a long Types of All usual types of an-
wire without a separate feedline is to be fed Antenna Couplers tenna couplers fall into
from the output of the harmonic filter. In two classifications: (1)
such cases an antenna coupler is required. inductively coupled resonant system as ex-
In certain cases when a pi- network is be- emplified by those shown in figure 29, and
ing used at the output of the transmitter, (2) conductively coupled network systems
the addition of an antenna coupler will pro- such as shown in figure 30. The inductively
vide sufficient harmonic attenuation. But in coupled system is convenient for feeding a
all normal cases it is prudent to include a balanced line from the coaxial output of
ANTENNA MATCHING SYSTEMS 26.19
the usual harmonic filter. The pi- network will be found to be adequate, since harmonic
system is most useful for feeding a length of attenuation has been accomplished ahead of
wire from the output of a transmitter. the antenna coupler.
Several general methods for using the in- An alternative arrangement shown in
ductively coupled resonant types of antenna figure 31 utilizes the antenna- coupling tank
coupler are illustrated in figure 29. The circuit only when feeding the coaxial output
coupling between link coil L and the main of the transmitter to the open -wire feed
tuned circuit need not be variable; in fact line (or similar multiband antenna) of the
it is preferable that the correct link size 40- and 80 -meter antenna. The coaxial lines
and placement be determined for the tank to the 10 -meter beam and to the 20 -meter
coil which will be used for each band, and beam would be fed directly from the output
then that the link be made a portion of the of the coaxial antenna -changeover relay
plug -in coil. Capacitor C then can be ad- through switch S.
justed to a predetermined value for each
band so that it will resonate with the link
coil for that band. The reactance of the 26 -6 A Single -Wire
link coil (and hence the reactance of the Antenna Tuner
capacitor setting which will resonate the
coil) should be about 3 or 4 times the im-
pedance of the transmission line between One of the simplest and least expensive
the antenna coupler and the harmonic filter, antennas for transmission and reception is
so that the link coupling circuit will have the single -wire, end -fed Hertz antenna.
an operating Q of 3 or 4. When used over a wide range of frequencies,
The pi- network type of antenna coupler, this type of antenna exhibits a very great
as shown in figure 30, is useful for certain range of input impedance. At the low -fre-
applications, but is primarily useful in feed- quency end of the spectrum such an antenna
ing a single -wire antenna from a low- imped- may present a resistive load of less than
ance transmission line. In such an application one ohm to the transmitter, combined with
the operating Q of the pi- network may be a large positive or negative value of react-
somewhat lower than that of a pi- network ance. As the frequency of operation is raised,
in the plate circuit of the final amplifier of the resistive load may rise to several thousand
a transmitter, as shown in figure 28. An ohms (near half -wave resonance) and the
operating Q of 3 or 4 in such an application reactive component of the load can rapidly
COAX. TO
RECEIVER
C>
-
0
HARMONIC COAX. ANT.
TRANSMITTER FILTER CHANGEOVER WIRE
RELAY L LINO TO ANTENNA
p-
O
Figure 29
ALTERNATIVE ANTENNA
COUPLER CIRCUITS
Plug -in coils, one or two variable capacitors
of the split -stator variety, and a system of zcFr
switches or plugs and jacks may be used in the FEEDERS
antenna coupler to accomplish the feeding of
different types of antennas and antenna trans-
mission lines from the coaxial input line from
the transmitter or from the antenna changeover
relay. Link L should be resonated with capaci-
tor C at the operating frequency of the trans-
mitter so that the harmonic filter will operate
into a resistive load impedance of the correct
nominal value.
26.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
COAX TO
RECEIVER
SINGLE -WIRE
ANTENNA A Practical A simple antenna tuner for
Antenna Tuner use with transmitters of
(TRANSMITTER
HARMONIC COAR ANT. 250 watts power or less is
FILTER ^CHANGEOVER
shown in figures 32 through 34. An SWR -
bridge circuit is used to indicate tuner reso-
nance. The resistive arm of the bridge con-
sists of ten 10 -ohm, 1 -watt carbon resistors
Figure 30
connected in parallel to form a 1 -ohm re-
sistor (R,) . The other pair of bridge arms
PI- NETWORK are capacitive rather than resistive. The
ANTENNA COUPLER bridge detector is a simple r-f voltmeter em-
ploying a 1N56 diode and a 0 -1 dc
An arrangement such as illustrated above is
convenient for feeding an end -fed Hertz an- milliammeter. A sensitivity control is in-
tenna, or a random length of wire for portable corporated to prevent overloading the meter
or emergency operation. from the nominal value
of impedance of the harmonic filter. when power is first applied to the tuner.
Final adjustments are made with the sensi-
tivity control at its maximum (clockwise)
change from positive to negative values, or position. The bridge is balanced when the
vice- versa. input impedance of the tuner is 50 ohms
To provide indication for tuning the net-
work, a radio -frequency bridge (SWR me-
ter) is included to indicate the degree of
mismatch (standing -wave ratio) existing
at the input to the tuner. All adjustments
to the tuner are made with the purpose of
reaching unity standing -wave ratio on the
coaxial feed system between the tuner and
the transmitter.
PARALLEL -WIRE TO TO COAX. LINES TO
40 -e0 M. ANTENNA RECEIVER 10 M. ANT 20M. ANT
r-
Figure 32
COAX TYPE ANT
CHANGEOVER
RELAY ANTENNA TUNER IS HOUSED IN
METAL CABINET 7 INCHES X 8
115 TO RELAY
COIL I INCHES IN SIZE
Inductance switch S and sensitivity control
are at left with counter dial for L1 at center.
L J Output tuning capacitor C is at right. SWR
meter is mounted above S .
TO
TRANSMITTER THROUGH
HARMONIC FILTER
resistive. This is the condition for maximum
energy transfer between transmission line
Figure 31
and antenna. The meter is graduated in arbi-
ALTERNATIVE COAXIAL ANTENNA trary units, since actual SWR value is not
COUPLER required.
This circuit is recommended for coaxial lines
with low SWR used to feed antenna systems Tuner Major parts placement in the
such as rotatable beams, and when it is de- Construction tuner is shown in figures 32
sired to feed open -wire line to some sort of
multiband antenna for the lower- frequency and 34. Tapped coil L1 is
ranges. The tuned circuit of the antenna cou- mounted on 12 -inch ceramic insulators, and
pler is operative only when using the open -
wire feed, and then it is in operation both for all major components are mounted above
transmit and receive. deck with the exception of the SWR bridge.
ANTENNA MATCHING SYSTEMS 26.21
SZ n INPUT
FROM XMTR
The components of the bridge are placed
R 1II
below deck, adjacent to the coaxial input
plug mounted on the rear apron of the chas-
250
5
SINGLE - sis. The ten 10 -ohm resistors are soldered
La
WIRE
ANT to two 1 -inch rings made of copper wire
Ca 20 ,¡ Si
25 M as shown in the photograph (figure 3 5) . The
S ÑV
MICA bridge capacitors are attached to this assem-
SENSITIVITY
TUNETCI
154
NV.
bly with extremely short leads. The 1N56
diode mounts at right angles to the resistors
to ensure minimum amount of capacitive
coupling between the resistors and the de-
0 -t tector. The output lead from the bridge
Li- 35 TURNS 1119. 2 DIA.. CI- JOHNSON 350E20
passes through a ceramic feedthrough insula-
3.5 " LONG (A/R-04X)
TAP AT 1ST.. 27 T.. C2- CENTPALAS TYPE 822 tor to the top side of the chassis.
FROM POINT A JI -TYPE 50 -239 RECEPTACLE Connection to the antenna is made by
L2-JOHNSON 229 -20 /VARIABLE RI -TEN -WATT CAR-
10 -014M
means of a large feedthrough insulator
1
Figure 34
REAR VIEW OF
TUNER SHOWING
PLACEMENT OF
MAJOR
COMPONENTS
Rotary inductor is
driven by Johnson 116-
208-4 counter dial. Co-
axial input receptacle
J, is mounted directly
below rotary inductor.
26.22 RADIO HANDBOOK
Bridge The SWR bridge must be cali- Tuner All tuning adjustments are
Calibration braced for SO -ohm service. This Adjustments made to obtain proper trans-
can be done by temporarily dis- mitter loading with a balanced
connecting the lead between the bridge and (zero- meter-reading) bridge condition. The
the antenna tuner and connecting a 2 -watt, tuner is connected to the transmitter through
52 -ohm carbon resistor to the junction of a random length of S0 -ohm coaxial line, and
Ri and the negative terminal of the 1N56 the single -wire antenna is attached to the
diode. The opposite lead of the carbon re- output terminal of the tuner. Transmitter
sistor is grounded to the chassis of the bridge. loading controls are set to approximate a
A small amount of r -f energy is fed to the S0 -ohm termination. The transmitter is
input of the bridge until a reading is ob- turned on (preferably at reduced input) and
tained on the r -f voltmeter. The 25 -pF resonance is established in the amplifier tank
bridge- balancing capacitor C, is then ad- circuit. The sensitivity control of the tuner
justed with a fiber -blade screwdriver until a is adjusted to provide near full -scale deflec-
zero reading is obtained on the meter. The tion on the bridge meter. Various settings of
sensitivity control is advanced as the meter S1, L2, and C, should be tried to obtain a
null grows, in order to obtain the exact reduction of bridge reading. As tuner reson-
point of bridge balance. When this point is ance is approached, the meter reading will
found, the carbon resistor should be re- decrease and the sensitivity control should be
moved and the bridge attached to the an- advanced. When the system is in resonance,
tenna tuner. The bridge capacitor is sealed the meter will read zero. All loading adjust-
with a drop of nail polish to prevent mis - ments may then be made with the transmit-
adjustment. ter controls. The tuner should be readjusted
whenever the frequency of the transmitter
is varied by an appreciable amount.
26 -7 Antenna
Supports
The foregoing portion of this chapter has
been concerned primarily with the electrical
characteristics and considerations of anten-
nas. Some of the physical aspects and me-
chanical problems incident to the actual
erection of antennas and arrays will be
discussed in the following section.
Up to 30 feet, there is little point in using
mast -type antenna supports unless guy wires
either must be eliminated or kept to a mini-
mum. While a little more difficult to erect,
because of their floppy nature, fabricated
wood poles of the type to be described will
be just as satisfactory as more rigid types,
provided many guy wires are used.
Rather expensive when purchased through
Figure 35 the regular channels, 40- and S0 -foot tele-
phone poles sometimes can be obtained quite
CLOSE-UP OF SWR BRIDGE reasonably. In the latter case, they are hard
Simple SWR bridge is mounted below the chas-
to beat, inasmuch as they require no guying
sis of the tuner. Carbon resistors are mounted if set in the ground six feet (standard
to two copper rings to form low- inductance one depth), and the resultant pull in any lateral
ohm resistor. Bridge capacitors form triangular
configuration for lowest lead inductance. Bal. direction is not in excess of a hundred
ancing capacitor C, is at lower right. pounds or so.
ANTENNA MATCHING SYSTEMS 26.23
For heights of 40 to 120 feet, either three - material cost is relatively small. The three
or four -sided lattice -type towers are most pieces of selected 2 by 2 are first set up on
practical. They can be made self -supporting, three sawhorses or boxes and the holes
but a few guys will enable one to use a drilled for the three 1/4-inch bolts through
smaller cross section without danger from the center of the assembly. Then the base
high winds. The torque exerted on the base legs are spread out to about 6 feet and the
of a high self- supporting tower is terrific bottom braces installed. Finally the upper
during a strong wind. braces and the cross pieces are installed and
Guyed towers are the least expensive, the assembly given several coats of good -
while free -standing towers are more robust quality paint as a protection against weath-
and considerably higher in cost than the ering.
guyed types. Crank -up towers, the most Figure 36C shows another common type
expensive of all, may be obtained in either of mast which is made up of sections of 2
guyed or free standing styles. A version of X 4 placed end -to -end with stiffening sec-
the crank -up tower is the fold -over tower, tions of 1 by 6 bolted to the edge of the 2
which has a special base allowing the re- by 4 section. Both types of mast will require
tracted tower to be tilted over for work on a set of top guys and another set of guys
the antenna at ground level. about one -third of the way down from the
In addition to the antenna requirements, top. Two guys spaced about 90 to 100 de-
the prospective tower owner must consider grees and pulling against the load of the
the practical limitations imposed on the an- antenna will normally be adequate for the
tenna installation by local building codes top guys. Three guys are usually used at
and ordinances, the proximity of power and the lower level, with one directly behind
telephone lines and the esthetic effect upon the load of the antenna and two more
family, friends and neighbors. spaced 120 degrees from the rear guy.
Raising the mast is made much easier if a
gin pole about 20 feet high is installed about
The A -Frame An inexpensive wood mast 30 or 40 feet to the rear of the direction
Most suitable for use with wire an- in which the antenna is to be raised. A line
tennas and small VHF beams from a pulley on the top of the gin pole is
is the A -frame mast shown in figure 36. then run to the top of the pole to be raised.
This design is popular as there is only a The gin pole comes into play when the
moderate amount of work involved in the center of the mast has been raised 10 to 20
construction of the assembly and since the feet above the ground and an additional ele-
20' 222
Figure 36
2%
TWO SIMPLE WOOD MASTS
Shown at A is the method of as-
/ a LAP
$4a0z
26.24 RADIO HANDBOOK
vated pull is required to keep the top of the it is not worth taking chances, and egg -type
mast coming up as the center is raised fur- strain halyard insulators are no more expen-
ther above ground. sive.
Only a brass or bronze pulley should be
used for the halyard, as a high pole with a
Using TV Masts Steel tubing masts of the rusted pulley is truly a sad affair. The bear-
telescoping variety are ing of the pulley should be given a few
widely available at a moderate price for use drops of heavy machine oil before the pole
in supporting television antenna arrays. or tower is raised. The halyard itself should
These masts usually consist of several 10- be of good material, preferably waterproofed.
foot lengths of electrical metal tubing Hemp rope of good quality is better than
(EMT) of sizes such that the sections will clothesline cord from several standpoints,
telescope. The 30- and 40 -foot lengths are and is less expensive. Soaking it thoroughly
well suited as masts for supporting antennas in linseed oil, and then wiping it off with a
and arrays of the type used on the amateur rag, will not only extend its life but min-
bands. The masts are constructed in such a imize shrinkage in wet weather. Because of
manner that the bottom 10 -foot length may the difficulty of replacing a broken halyard
be guyed permanently before the other sec- it is a good idea to replace it periodically,
tions are raised. Then the upper sections without waiting for it to show excessive
may be extended, beginning with the top- deterioration.
mast section, until the mast is at full length It is an excellent idea to tie both ends of
(provided a strong wind is not blowing) the halyard line together in the manner of
following which all the guys may be an- a flag -pole line. Then the antenna is tied
chored. It is important that there be no load onto the place where the two ends of the
on the top of the mast when the "vertical" halyard are joined. This procedure of mak-
raising method is to be employed. ing the halyard into a loop prevents losing
the top end of the halyard should the an-
tenna break near the end, and it also pre-
Guy Wires Guy wires should never be pulled vents losing the halyard completely should
taut; a small amount of slack is the end of the halyard carelessly be allowed
desirable. Galvanized wire, somewhat heavier to go free and be pulled through the pulley
than seems sufficient for the job, should be at the top of the mast by the antenna load.
used. The heavier wire is a little harder to
A somewhat longer piece of line is required
handle, but costs only a little more and but the insurance is well worth the cost of
takes longer to rust through. Care should be the additional length of rope.
taken to make sure that no kinks exist when
the pole or tower is ready for erection, as
Trees as Often a tall tree can be used to
the wire will be greatly weakened at such
points if a kink is pulled tight, even if it Supports support one end of an antenna,
is later straightened. but one should not attempt to
Stranded aluminum wire, which is corro- attach anything to the top, as the swaying
sion resistant, may be used in place of gal- of the top of the tree during a heavy wind
vanized wire guys for light weight towers. will complicate matters.
If "dead men" are used for the guy wire If a tree is utilized for support, provision
terminations, the wire or rod reaching from should be made for keeping the antenna taut
the dead men to the suface should be of without submitting it to the possibility of
nonrusting material, such as brass, or given being severed during a heavy wind. This can
a heavy coating of asphalt or other protec- be done by the simple expedient of using a
tive substance to prevent destructive action pulley and halyard, with weights attached to
by the damp soil. Galvanized iron wire will the lower end of the halyard to keep the
last only a short time when buried in moist antenna taut. Only enough weight to avoid
soil. excessive sag in the antenna should be tied
Only strain -type (compression) insulators to the halyard, as the continual swaying of
should be used for guy wires. Regular ones the tree submits the pulley and halyard to
might be sufficiently strong for the job, but considerable wear.
ANTENNA MATCHING SYSTEMS 26.25
Painting The life of a wood mast or pole For transmission lines and tuning stubs
can be increased several hundred steel -core or hard -drawn wire will prove
percent by protecting it from the elements awkward to handle, and soft -drawn copper
with a coat or two of paint. And, of course, should, therefore, be used. If the line is long,
the appearance is greatly enhanced. The the strain can be eased by supporting it at
wood should first be given a primer coat of several points.
flat white outside house paint, which can be More important from an electrical stand-
thinned down a bit to advantage with sec- point than the actual size of wire used is
ond -grade linseed oil. For the second coat, the soldering of joints, especially at current
which should not be applied until the first loops in an antenna of low radiation resist-
is thoroughly dry, aluminum paint is not ance. In fact, it is good practice to solder
only the best from a preservative standpoint, all joints, thus ensuring quiet operation when
but looks very well. This type of paint, the antenna is used for recieving.
when purchased in quantities, is consider-
ably cheaper than might be gathered from
the price asked for quarter -pint cans. Insulation A question that often arises is
Portions of posts or poles below the sur- that of insulation. It depends, of
face of the soil can be protected from ter- course, on the r -f voltage at the point at
mites and moisture by painting with cresote. which the insulator is placed. The r -f volt-
While not so strong initially, redwood will age, in turn, depends on the distance from a
deteriorate much more slowly when buried current node, and the radiation resistance
than will the white woods, such as pine. of the antenna. Radiators having low radia-
After the base of the pole or post has been tion resistance have very high voltage at the
treated, it should be given a wrapping of voltage loops; consequently, better than
heavy aluminum foil paper to insulate it usual insulation is advisable at those points.
against ground water. Open -wire lines operated as nonresonant
lines have little voltage across them; hence
Antenna Wire The antenna or array itself the most inexpensive ceramic types are suffi-
presents no special problem. ciently good electrically. With tuned lines,
A few considerations should be borne in the voltage depends on the amplitude of the
mind, however. For instance, soft -drawn standing waves. If they are very great, the
copper should not be used, as even a short voltage will reach high values at the voltage
span will stretch several percent after whip- loops, and the best spacers available are
ping around in the wind a few weeks, thus none too good. At the current loops the
affecting the resonant frequency. Enameled voltage is quite low, and almost anything
copper wire, as ordinarily available at radio will suffice.
stores, is usually soft -dawn, but by tying When insulators are subject to very high
one end to some object such as a telephone r -f voltages, they should be cleaned occa-
pole and the other to the frame of an auto, a sionally if in the vicinity of sea water or
few husky tugs can be given and the wire, smoke. Salt scum and soot are not readily
after stretching a bit, is equivalent to hard - dislodged by rain, and when the coating be-
drawn. comes heavy enough, the efficiency of the
Where a long span of wire is required, insulators is greatly impaired.
or where heavy insulators in the center of If a very pretentious installation is to be
the span result in considerable tension, cop- made, it is wise to check up on both Under-
per -clad steel wire is somewhat better than writer's rules and local ordinances which
hard -drawn copper. It is a bit more expen- might be applicable. If you live anywhere
sive, though the cost is far from prohibitive. near an airport, and are contemplating a
The use of such wire, in conjunction with tall pole, it is best to investigate possible
strain insulators is advisable where the regulations and ordinances pertaining to
antenna would endanger persons or property towers in the district, before starting con-
should it break. struction.
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(Y
CHAPTER TWENTY -SEVEN
An antenna is a system of conductors pattern of the main lobe is quite broad and
that radiates and intercepts electromagnetic occupies a large area in front of the antenna.
waves. The general characteristics of hf and The antenna "sprays" a great section of the
vhf antennas were outlined in an earlier ionosphere with energy, ensuring that even
chapter. This chapter, and the following with a large change in layer height and vari-
ones, deal with the practical aspects of ations in propagation along the path, a cer-
designing, building, and adjusting antennas
for optimum performance. ió
Under normal circumstances, long dis- .o
tance hf transmission is propagated along a 0
a sr
_----- --
Great Circle path to the target area. Iono-
spheric reflection for this path is most effec- ó 70`
ooueLC
.r HOP
'°
-lÏ
__
ÌE IÌIÍI
'11.I1,1Ie:
111'eÌ,..
Long distance vhf propagation is generally 30 30 100 300 300 1000 2000 $0000
over a straight -line route to the target area, GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCE IN MILES
but the mode of propagation may be one or Figure 1
more of many types. Directive vhf antennas
are effective for all of the corimon propaga- OPTIMUM ANGLE OF RADIATION
tion modes and also help to reduce fading WITH RESPECT TO DISTANCES
and interference arriving from unwanted Shown above is a plot of the optimum angle
directions. Thus, the directional character- of radiation for one -hop and two -hop com-
istics and angle of radiation above the hori- munication. An operating frequency close to
of radiation for one -hop and two -hop com-
zon of the antenna are of great importance munication distance is assumed.
to the hf or vhf operator. Other antenna
attributes, such as bandwidth, power gain and tain amount of the radiated signal has a good
front -to-back ratio are equally important. chance of reaching the target area. Multiele-
ment vhf antennas that are large compared
to the wavelength of the radiated wave, on
the other hand, are capable of providing a
27 -1 The Angle of sharply defined pattern at a specific angle of
Radiation radiation, and their aiming may prove to be
quite critical.
The angle of radiation of an antenna is The angle of radiation above the horizon
the angle above the horizon of the axis of for a typical antenna close to the earth is
the main lobe of radiation. With practical dependent on the antenna height above the
hf antennas of moderate size, the radiation surface of the earth, the polarization of the
27.1
27.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
antenna, and the frequency of operation. In angle of the reflection and cancellation pat-
calculating the vertical angle of radiation terns may be readily changed. Ground re-
for a particular antenna, the image concept flection patterns have been developed by
(Chapter 24 -5) is used to establish the ef- which the free space pattern of a dipole an-
fects of wave reflection. The surface of the tenna can be modified to show the true ver-
earth in the vicinity of the antenna is as- tical pattern of the antenna at any height
sumed to be flat and perfectly conductive. above the ground, as shown in figure 2.
The angle of radiation of the vertical field These plots are multiplying factors that
pattern maximum is created by addition and represent the effect of ground reflection on
cancellation of the fields from the antenna a horizontal antenna.
and the hypothetical image antenna. Sim- Because the current relationships between
ilarly, the image antenna concept is also the actual antenna and the image antenna
used to calculate the impedance and current are reversed in the case of vertical polariza-
distribution characteristics of the actual an- tion, the ground reflection patterns for a
tenna. The effect of reflection from a con- vertical dipole are different from those of
ducting surface can be expressed as a factor a horizontal dipole (figure 3) .
which, when multiplied by the free space
radiation pattern of the antenna, gives the
resultant pattern for various angles above Ground The ground reflection charts
the surface. The limiting conditions are Characteristics are based on the assumption
those when the direct and reflected waves that the earth is a perfect
are in phase or out of phase, and the result- conductor, which it is not. Under actual con-
ing field strength at a distant point will be ditions, ground conductivity varies widely
either twice the field strength from the with locale. In areas of poor surface conduc-
antenna alone, or zero. tivity, the actual reflection surface may
By changing the height of the antenna seem to be several feet below the actual
above the reflecting ground, the vertical surface and the layer of earth near the sur-
face acts as a lossy dielectric to the radlo
II I
wave. If the amplitude of the reflected wave
;`
300° 270°
900
240° is reduced through ground losses, the verti-
60° 120°
cal pattern of reflection will be affected, as
v11111
,1
jl
3300 210°
1
300
150°
0111114
o°
p,
Illtta
:¢- : 111/
,°Fg
:!!/Í'i11\Qg.
O0.1 (SOLID) AND 0.251BROKEN) WAVELENGTH ABOVE GROUND.
180°
Figure
GROUND REFLECTION
PATTERNS FOR A
DIPOLE ANTENNA
2
fiil
of a horizontal half -wave dipole
are shown here. Illustration A
indicates the relative intensity
¡.siii
of radiation at 0.1 and 0.25
270°° 240° wavelength above ground, and
90 120°
illustration B shows the in-
330° 210° crease in low -angle radiation
30 150° at 0.5 and 1.0 wavelength above
wf =Rj//SwIN
030
tal plane. A perfectly conduct-
0° ing ground plane is assumed
for these patterns.
I,
300° 27t 2a0á
3000
i.,i
90 120
so`ot jj
330 210°
300
`\ii:i,',if,1
150°
Figure 3
/
1:
1111
GROUND REFLECTION
¡01
...C
PATTERNS FOR A
VERTICAL HALF -
WAVE ANTENNA
0°
taiC
-=3tiSjíi,///111
SQ¡111//
%n 180°
`I
The vertical directivity patterns
of a vertical antenna are shown
here. Illustration A indicates
the relative intensity of radia-
0 0.25 (SOLID) AND 0.375 (BROKEN) WAVELENGTH ABOVE GROUND.
jiej'i
300° 270° 210°
length above ground and illus- 360o
90 120°
tration B shows the radiation
I/,;;t
patterns for 0.5 and 0.75 wave- 330° 11 210°
r i
ta i/I
length above ground. These 30 1 1 151f
i111I
,``,t'
plots represent multiplying fac-
jj¡/
tors representing the effect of
ground reflection. Note that the
nulls and maxima are inter-
changed with those of the hor- ! %/fa1
`,
izontal antenna. o°
`` '
,
will the feedroint impedance of the antenna. attenuation is limited to that normal amount
The chief etect of the lossy dielectric is to caused by path attenuation and spreading.
absorb a large portion of the energy radiated A perfectly conducting ground can be
at low angles to the earth. In addition, the simulated by a ground screen placed under
magnitude of the main lobes is decreased by the antenna. The screen should have a small
the amount of energy lost, or dispersed, and mesh compared to the size of the radio wave
the nulls of the pattern tend to become and should extend for at least a half wave-
obscured (figure 4). length in every direction from the antenna.
In the vhf region, the antenna is usually Unless the screen is extremely large (several
several wavelengths above the surface of the wavelengths in every direction) the screen
earth and the direct wave from the antenna will affect only the high angle radiation from
travels to the target area without benefit of a horizontal antenna and will not materially
the portion of the wave that travels along aid the effect of the earth on low angle ra-
the ground. The loss of energy at low angles diation which is useful for long distance hf
'
due to a lossy ground is quite low and wave communication.
Figure
gR
4 300° 27o° 2100
,' o /,,ERFE
60o 90o
1200
GROUND LOSS ALTERS 33Oó 2111°
VERTICAL PATTERN GROUND 15o°
kI1
41
ii 1
30
LOSYGOUND
OF ANTENNA
a
r._
t`I1M
diated at low angles and to
fill in the nulls of the pattern.
27.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
Optimum Angle The optimum angle of ra- propagation to simultaneously provide sig-
of Radiation diation for hf propagation nals between two points. This means, of
between two points is de- course, that more than one angle of radia-
pendent upon a number of variables, such tion is effective. If no elevation directivity
as height of the ionospheric layer providing is used under this condition of propagation,
the reflection, the distance between the selective fading will take place because of
two stations and the number of hops neces- interference between waves arriving over
sary for propagation between the stations. the different paths.
It is often possible for different modes of Measurements have shown that the opti-
mum angles useful for long distance hf
40
communication lie between 5° and 40 °, the
lower angles being more effective for the
higher frequencies (figure 5 ) These figures
.
VERTICAL RADIATION
PATTERNS
Showing vertical radiation
patterns of a horizontal two
element beam (solid curves)
and a horizontal dipole
(dashed curves) when both
are 0.5 wavelength (A) and
0.75 wavelength (B) above
ground. Note the suppression
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.3 3.0 of the high angle radiation
GAIN IN FIELD STRENGTH -D in the latter case.
HF GENERAL PURPOSE ANTENNAS 27.5
above ground and the operating frequency, The Tuned The current -fed dipole with
and has little to do with antenna configura- Dipole spaced feeders, sometimes called
tion, at least in the case of the simpler a center -fed zepp, is an inher-
antenna arrays. ently balanced system if the two legs of
the radiator are electrically equal. This fact
holds true regardless of the frequency, or of
Horizontal Horizontal directivity is desir- the harmonic, on which the system is oper-
Directivity able for hf or vhf operation, but ated. The system can successfully be oper-
it is not easily obtainable with ated over a wide range of frequencies if the
reasonable antenna dimensions at the lower system as a whole (both tuned feeders and
frequencies. Arrays having extremely high the center -fed flat top) can be resonated to
horizontal directivity are cumbersome, but the operating frequency. It is usually pos-
the smaller designs can be rotated for point - sible to tune such an antenna system to res-
to -point work. As in the case of ground re- onance with the aid of a tapped coil and a
flection, the effect of a nearby conducting tuning capacitor that can optionally be
surface can alter the horizontal directivity placed either in series with the antenna coil
of an antenna. The result is that the radia- or in parallel with it (figure 7D).
tion pattern loses symmetry. In some cases, The antenna has a different radiation pat-
pattern distortion is deliberate, as in estab- tern when operated on its harmonics, as
lishing the front -to -back ratio of a beam would be expected. The arrangement used on
antenna; in other cases it is unintentional. the second harmonic is better known as the
Franklin collinear array.
Figures 7E and 7F show alternative ar-
rangements for using an untuned transmis-
Dipole The most popular and least sion line between the transmitter and the
Antenna Types expensive antenna for gen- tuned -dipole radiator. In figure 7E a half -
eral usage is the dipole. An- wave shorted line is used to resonate the
tennas for the lower -frequency portion of radiating system, while in figure 7F a quar-
the hf range and temporary or limited use ter -wave open line is utilized. The adjust-
antennas for the upper portion, usually are of ment of quarter -wave and half -wave stubs
a relatively simple type in which directivity is discussed in Chapter 26.
is not a prime consideration. Also, it is often
desirable that a single antenna system be
capable of operation on various bands, or on
frequencies outside the amateur band Dipoles with The average value of feed
(MARS, etc.). Variations of the dipole and Quarter -Wave impedance for a center -fed
Marconi antenna designs are well qualified Transformers half -wave dipole is 75 ohms.
for this usage and the first portion of this The actual value varies with
chapter is devoted to a discussion of such height and is shown in Chapter 24. Other
antenna systems. The latter portion of the methods of matching this rather low value
chapter is devoted to matching systems and of impedance to a medium -impedance trans-
antenna installation. mission line are shown in G, H, and I of
figure 7. Each of these three systems uses
a quarter -wave transformer to accomplish
the impedance transformation. The only
difference between the three systems lies in
27 -2 The Center -Fed the type of transmission line used in the
Antenna quarter -wave transformer. G shows the
Q -match system whereby a line made up
A center -fed half -wave antenna system
of %z -inch durai tubing is used for the low -
is usually to be desired over an end -fed
impedance linear transformer. A line made
system since the center -fed system is in-
up in this manner is frequently called a set
herently balanced to ground and is therefore
less likely to be troubled by feeder radiation.
of Q bars. Illustration H shows the use of
a four -wire line as the linear transformer,
A number of center -fed systems are illus-
and I shows the use of a piece of 150-ohm
trated in figure 7.
27.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
O TUNED DIPOLE_
300-600 OHM
LINE OPEN
0-FEO
1500TWINLEAD
0.193 OF FREE
SPACE WAVE-
0
TWINLEAD
na may be either center- or
end -fed, as discussed in the
FOUR -WIRj LENGTH OR
0.77 OF A/4 FEO text. For the hf region (be-
LINE -FED
low 30 MHz), the length of a
simple dipole is computed
600 0 LINE
by: length (feet) = 488/f,
6O0ß LINE 300 0 TWINLEAD
ANY LENGTH with f in MHz. For the
folded dipole, length is com-
IA-0.94 X/2-+j --0.94 X/2 --A{ I.---0.95 A/2 --Ai puted by: length (feet) =
402/f, with f in MHz. Above
3000 TWINLEAD 2 -0R 6' 30 MHz, the length of the
OLOW
IDERNED
O FEEDER
SPREADERS
dipole is affected to an im-
TWINLEAD
portant degree by the diam-
2 -WIRE DOUBLET DELTA MATCHED
`FOLDEODIPOLE' OR 'FOLDED DIPOLE
eter of the element and the
DIPOLE
method of supporting the
dipole.
300 OHM TWINLEAD SOO OHM TWINLEAD 600 OHM LINE
ANY LENGTH ANY LENGTH ANY LENGTH
D'14b OF
TOTAL LENGTH
STANDARD CO-AX FED
DIPOLE DIPOLE.
twin -lead, electrically 1/4 wave in length, Multiwire An alternative method for in-
as the transformer between the center of Dipoles creasing the feedpoint impedance
the dipole and a piece of 300 -ohm twin - of a dipole so that a medium -
lead. In any case the impedance of the impedance transmission line may be used is
quarter -wave transformer will be of the shown in figures 7J and 7K. This system
order of 150 to 200 ohms. The use of sec- utilizes more than one wire in parallel for
tions of transmission line as linear trans- the radiating element, but only one of the
formers is discussed in detail in Chapter 26. wires is broken for attachment of the feeder.
HF GENERAL PURPOSE ANTENNAS 27.7
The most common arrangement uses two in figure 8A. An alternative arrangement
wires in the flat top of the antenna so that for a twin -lead folded dipole is illustated in
an impedance multiplication of four is ob- figure 8B. This type of half -wave antenna
tained. system is convenient for use on the 3.5-
The antenna shown in figure 7J is the MHz band when the 116- to 132 -foot dis-
so- called twin -lead folded dipole which is a tance required for a full half -wave is not
commonly used antenna system on the quite available in a straight line, since the
medium- frequency amateur bands. In this single -wire end pieces may be bent away or
arrangement both the antenna and the downward from the direction of the main
transmission line to the transmitter are con- section of the antenna.
structed of 300 -ohm twin -lead. The flat Figure 7K shows the basic type of two -
top of the antenna is made slightly less than wire, or folded, dipole wherein the radiating
the conventional length (462 /FMH: instead section of the system is made up of standard
of 468 /FHH: for a single-wire flat top) and antenna wire spaced by means of feeder
the two ends of the twin -lead are joined spreaders. The feeder again is made of 300 -
together at each end. The center of one of ohm twin -lead since the feedpoint imped-
the conductors of the twin-lead flat top is ance is approximately 300 ohms, the same
broken and the two ends of the twin -lead as that of the twin -lead folded dipole.
feeder are spliced into the flat -top leads. The folded -dipole type of antenna has the
Better bandwidth characteristics can be broadest response characteristics (greatest
obtained with a folded dipole made of rib- bandwidth) of any of the conventional half -
bon line if the two conductors of the ribbon wave antenna systems constructed of small
line are shorted a distance of 0.82 (the wires or conductors. Hence such an anten-
velocity factor of ribbon line) of a free - na may be operated over the greatest fre-
space quarter- wave -length from the center quency range, without serious standing
or feedpoint. This procedure is illustrated waves, of any common half -wave antenna
sea types.
FMNZ
30
O r 300 -ONO/ RIBBON
aó
figure 7M. Either 50 -ohm or 75 -ohm coaxial
cable may be used to feed the center of the
FMN:
FMHZ
dipole, although the 50 -ohm type will give
a somewhat better impedance match at
lower antenna heights.
Figure 8
Off- Center- The system shown in figure 70
FOLDED DIPOLE WITH SHORTING Fed Dipole is sometimes used to feed a half -
STRAPS wave dipole, especially when it
The impedance match and bandwidth charac- is desired to use the same antenna on a num-
teristics of a folded dipole may be improved ber of harmonically related frequencies. The
by shorting the two wires of the ribbon a dis-
tance out from the center equal to the velocity feeder wire (No. 14 enameled wire should be
factor of the ribbon times the half -length of the used) is tapped a distance of 14 percent of
dipole as shown at A. An alternative arrange- the total length of the antenna either side of
ment with bent down ends for space conserva-
tion is illustrated at B. center. The feeder wire, operating against
27.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
ground for the return current, has an imped- great majority of noise seems to be vertically
ance of approximately 300 ohms. polarized.
Dimensions for dipole antennas for the The vertical antenna produces high cur-
hf bands are tabulated in Table 1. rent density in the ground beneath and
around it and ground conduction currents
Table 1. return to the base of the antenna. Ground
Length of Wire Dipole Antenna system losses can dissipate a major portion
of the antenna power and reduce the radiated
FREQUENCY OR DIPOLE LENGTH field accordingly unless precautions are taken
BAND TIP -TO -TIP to ensure a low resistance ground return
(MHz) Feet M path for the induced currents.
The best ground surface, or ground plane,
1800 - 1900 kHz 253.0 77.16
is an infinite copper sheet placed beneath the
1900.2000 kHz 240.0 73.20 antenna. This may be approximated in the
3.5 - 3.8 MHz 125.25 38.20 medium- and high- frequency region by a
system of radial wires. Broadcast specifica-
3.7 - 4.0 MHz 121.0 36.90 tions call for 120 radials, each approximately
7.0 - 7.3 MHz 65.5 19.97 0.25 wavelength long. The radials may be
10.06
buried a few inches beneath the surface of
14.0 -14.35 MHz 33.0
the earth for protection from damage, or
21.0 -21.45 MHz 22.1 6.74 laid atop the surface.
28.0 -29.7 MHz 16.3 4.97
i
27 -3 The Vertical INSULATOR
Antenna _ SHOAT
Vhf vertical antennas, mounted many a 75-ohm coaxial line and a quarter -wave
wavelengths above ground, are less susc:p- matching section made of 50 -ohm coaxial
tible to ground losses and experience has line.
shown that 4 radial wires usually do a good The feedpoint impedance of a ground
job on antennas of this category. plane may be raised to about 50 ohms by
drooping the radials down at a 45° angle.
Some horizontally polarized radiation from
The Ground - An effective form of Mar- the radials will take place, raising the radia-
Plane Antenna coni antenna is the quarter - tion resistance of the antenna. The radials
wave ground -plane antenna, can serve as guy wires when they are brought
so named because of the radial ground wires. down in this fashion.
The ground plane may be mounted with the
radial wires a few inches above the ground,
or elevated with the radials well above the The Vs -Wave The field strength of a short
surface of the ground. Since the radials are Vertical vertical antenna reaches a
resonant, the ends are at a high voltage po- maximum figure when the an-
tential and they should be insulated to pre- tenna is %g wavelength high, as opposed to
vent accidental contact. In a like manner, %y wavelength. A power gain of about 3
the radials should not be grounded or buried, dB over a quarter -wave vertical is achieved
as this would destroy their resonance. A typi- with the extended design. The feedpoint of
cal ground -plane antenna for the hf bands a 1/4-wave vertical is reactive and a series
is shown in figure 10 along with suggested inductance is required to establish a non-
dimensions. reactive termination (figure 11) Quarter - .
The base impedance of the ground plane wave radials are used with this antenna
is of the order of 30 to 3 5 ohms, and it may configuration.
be fed with a 50 -ohm coaxial line with only
a slight impedance mismatch. For a more
exact match, the antenna may be fed with
0. 625 A
L
Fl MN )
LOADING
COIL
4 RADIAIS
EACH 0.25 A
RADIALS EACH
F MHz)
COAXIAL
52 - OHM COAXIAL LINE. /LINE
CENTER CONDUCTOR CONNECTS
TO VERTICAL WHIP
Figure 10
Short Vertical An antenna that is electrically to reduce the height of the antenna by the
Antennas small (the length small with inclusion of a loading coil near the center of
respect to the wavelength of the vertical section (figure 13) Overall an-
.
operation) can perform as an efficient radi- tenna height is cut to about 25 feet and the
ator provided power can be efficiently ap- radiation resistance of the antenna is reduced
plied to the antenna. Generally speaking, to approximately 15 ohms.
very short antennas have low values of radi-
ation resistance and very high Q. Typically, LOADING COIL
APPROXIMATELY 34 TURNS
an 8 -foot base -loaded whip antenna at 3.8 12 WINE. 4.5"DIAMETER
AND I FOOT LC/NG
MHz exhibits a load resistance value as
shown in figure 12A. At all frequencies be-
low self- resonance, the equivalent circuit of
the short antenna is composed of a low value
of resistance in series with a large value of
4RADIAL! EACH 442-040
capacitive reactance. In order to establish a
state of resonance, and to match the whip
antenna to a 50-ohm source, the reactance
must be cancelled out and an impedance
transformation effected. Both requirements
33 -OHM COAXIAL LINE
demand high -Q networks, such as the type
shown in figure 12B. Even with care, a sub-
stantial portion of the available power may Figure 13
be lost in such networks. Generally, the
higher the radiation resistance value of the 80 -METER LOADED GROUND -PLANE
whin antenna is, the easier it is to match and ANTENNA
the higher will be the efficiency of the net- Number of turns in loading coil to be adjusted
work. until antenna system resonates at desired fre-
quency in 80 -meter band.
BOLT JOINT
Figure 14
e9 -- e
S2-OHM COAX TO
TRANSMITTER
11
ne
BAND 80 40 20 15 TAPS MEASURED FROM
COAX TAP 7 S 3 2 GROUND ENO OF COIL.
COIL NOT USED ON
ANTENNA TAP 25 12 e 3 10 METERS.
Figure 15
Antennas may be arranged in broadside (A), end -fire (B), or collinear (C) configuration depending on
phase difference between the two antennas. Antennas are spaced one -half wavelength apart. The
collinear vertical stack antenna produces an omnidirectional pattern.
Four -wire TV rotator cable is used to con- den in the attic, or passed about the yard (if
struct the hf radial system, each cable in- the antenna is ground -mounted).
cluding a radial wire for one of the three The vertical radiator is made of two ten -
bands. The fourth radial wire mai' be ex- foot sections of aluminum TV mast, plus one
tended for 40- or 80 -meter operation. At five -foot section cut to the proper length.
least three such radial assemblies should be The sections are assembled with self - tapping
used. These can be laid out on the roof, hid- sheet metal screws. The antenna and base
27.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
coil are attached to ceramic insulators to obtain additional power gain and direc-
mounted on the upright support post. tivity. The antennas may be in broadside.,
The antenna is resonated to the operating end -fire, or collinear configuration (figure
frequency in each band with the aid of an 15). In illustration I SA, the broadside an-
SWR meter in the coaxial feedline. The two tennas are fed in -phase by two coaxial lines
taps are adjusted for lowest value of SWR to produce a figure -8 pattern broadside to
reading. The approximate tap positions are the plane of the antennas. The length of the
indicated in the illustration. lines from the line junction to the antennas
Phased Vertical Antennas -Two or more is unimportant as long as both lines are of
vertical antennas can be operated in an array equal length. Illustration ISB shows the
same antennas in end -fire connection, with
the antennas fed out -of- phase. The pattern
is in -line with the plane of the antennas. The
interconnecting coaxial line must be an elec-
trical half- wavelength long (or multiple
thereof) to provide the figure -8 pattern. A
collinear, vertically stacked array is shown
in illustration 15C. The pattern is omnidi-
rectional and a configuration of this type is
popular on the vhf amateur bands.
The end -fire array can be modified to pro-
12 LAGS 11, BY 90° duce a unidirectional pattern (figure 16).
The antennas are spaced a quarter wave-
Figure 16 length with a 90° phase reversal between
PHASED VERTICALS PRODUCE the antennas. The pattern is in -line with the
UNIDIRECTIONAL PATTERN
plane of the antennas and in the direction of
the vertical receiving the lagging excitation.
Two vertical antennas, spaced one -quarter wave-
The interconnecting line is an electrical
length apart and fed with a 90° phase reversal quarter wavelength (or odd multiples there-
between them produce a unidirectional, cardioid of) long.
pattern, as shown. The pattern is in line with
the antennas and in the direction of the verti- A good ground system is required for
cal receiving the lagging current. proper operation of a phased array and ex-
12 PHASING
Af2
o o3 w ao 0
Al4 I 4
9 DooC
a18
O o C ODwGO O o
Figure 17
A variety of patterns can be obtained by selection of spacing and phasing between two vertical
antennas. The deep null of the phased array is of great help in the broadcast service, where protection
must be given to a distant station working on the same channel.
HF GENERAL PURPOSE ANTENNAS 27.13
14
_PORTION OF
iiiiìiií
FAM, ,.,.. .
EQUIVALENT
VERTICAL
, AI..,
'
SUPPRESSED BY (ti
, r
pogo _-
TOP LOADING
O
,FLAT TOP)
fi FARM"
Ampo,s, Am -
C114
A,,- RA
pPi
A 3>2
4
CURRENT DISTRIBUTION
ON TOP-LOADED VERTICAL
ANTENNA ®
2
__
o
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
30
ANTENNA HEIGHT H. h DEGREES
Figure 18
The theoretical radiation resistance for a top- loaded vertical antenna is quite low, if any degree of
loading is assumed. For an eighth -wave vertical antenna with full top loading, the radiation resistance
is about 20 ohms. Practical loading conditions provide a lower value of radiation resistance than
indicated here. (Graph adapted from "Performance of Short Antennas," Smith & Johnson, Proceedings
of the IRE, October, 1947).
27.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
shown in figure 18. A sine wave current joints in the pipe, due to the "dope" put on
distribution in the antenna is assumed. the coupling threads. By attaching the
Variations on the basic Marconi antenna ground wire to a junction with three or more
are shown in figure 19. The vertical antenna legs, the possibility of requiring the main
is shown in illustration 19A and the in- portion of the r -f current to flow through
verted-L in illustration 19B. Top loading a high resistance connection is greatly re-
techniques are shown in illustrations 19C duced.
through 19F. The object of all loading tech-
niques is to produce an increase in the ef-
fective length of the radiator, and thus to
Marconi A Marconi antenna is an odd
raise the point of maximum current in the
radiator as far as possible above the ground.
Dimensions number of electrical quarter
waves long (usually only one
The arrangement in illustration 19F pro-
vides the maximum amount of loading for quarter wave in length), and is always reso-
a given antenna height.
nated to the operating frequency. The cor-
Amateurs primarily interested in the rect loading of the final amplifier is ac-
higher- frequency bands, but liking to work complished by varying the coupling, rather
80 or 160 meters occasionally, can usually than by detuning the antenna from reso-
manage to resonate one of their hf antennas nance.
Physically, a quarter -wave Marconi may
as a Marconi by working the whole system
be made anywhere from one -eighth to three -
(feeders and all) against a ground system,
eighths wavelength overall, including the
resorting to a loading coil, if necessary.
total length of the antenna wire and
ground lead from the end of the antenna
to the point where the ground lead attaches
Water -Pipe Copper water pipe, because of its to the junction of the radials or counter-
Grounds comparatively large surface and poise wires, or where the water pipe enters
cross section, has a relatively low the ground. The longer the antenna is made
r -f resistance. If it is possible to attach to a physically, the lower will be the current
junction of several water pipes a satisfactory flowing in the ground connection, and the
ground connection will be obtained. If one greater will be the overall radiation effi-
of the pipes attaches to a lawn or garden ciency. However, when the antenna length
sprinkler system in the immediate vicinity of exceeds three -eighths wavelength, the an-
the antenna, the effectiveness of the system tenna becomes difficult to resonate by means
will approach that of buried copper radials. of a series capacitor, and it begins to take
The main objection to iron water -pipe shape as an end -fed Hertz, requiring a
grounds is the possibility of high -resistance method of feed such as a pi- network.
Figure 19
VARIATIONS OF THE
MARCONI ANTENNA
The Marconi uses the ground
image as the missing half of
LOADING
COILS NAT the half -wavelength antenna.
(A) Simple quarter -wave verti-
cal. (B) Inverted -L Marconi. (C)
Top -loaded Marconi. (D) Top -
loaded Marconi, using loading
inductance at top of structure.
(E) Loaded Marconi with induc-
tor placed near midpoint of
structure. (F) Optimum loading
configuration combining load-
ing inductor with capacitive
L "hat" at top of antenna. This
arrangement provides maximum
degree of loading for a given
Q © o © antenna height.
HF GENERAL PURPOSE ANTENNAS 27.15
Quad antennas will be discussed in a later such an antenna since the wire is bent at a
chapter. position intermediate between a current loop
and a voltage loop.
Figure 21B shows a method for using a
27 -6 Space-Conserving two -wire dipole on one -half of its normal
Antennas operating frequency. It is recommended
In many cases it is desired to undertake a that spaced open conductor be used both
considerable amount of operation on the 80- for the radiating portion of the folded dipole
or 40 -meter band, but sufficient space is and for the feedline. The reason for this
simply not available for the installation of lies in the fact that the two wires of the
a half -wave radiator for the desired fre- flat top are not at the same potential
quency of operation. This is a common ex- throughout their length when the antenna
perience of apartment dwellers. is operated on one -half frequency. If it is
N` -../. AT L0'/EST FREQUENCY desired to feed the antenna with a nonreso-
nant line, a quarter -wave stub may be con-
nected to the antenna at the points X -X in
figure 21B. The stub should be tuned and
the transmission line connected to it in the
RLEONANr M RESONANT UNE
normal manner.
NONRESONANY UNE
The antenna system shown in figure 21C
may be used when not quite enough length
is available for a full half -wave radiator.
The dimensions in terms of frequency are
given on the drawing. An antenna of this
type is 93 feet long for operation on 3600
kHz and 86 feet long for operation on
3900 kHz. This type of antenna has the
additional advantage that it may be oper-
Figure 21 ated on the 7- and 14 -MHz bands, when
the flat top has been cut for the 3.5 -MHz
THREE EFFECTIVE SPACE - band, simply by changing the position of
CONSERVING ANTENNAS the shorting bar and the feeder line on the
The arrangements shown at A and B are satis- stub.
factory where resonant feed line can be used. A sacrifice which must be made when
However, nonresonant 75-ohm feed line may be
used in the arrangement at A when the di- using a shortened radiating system (as for
mensions in wavelengths are as shown. In the example the types shown in figure 21) , is in
arrangement shown at B, low standing waves the bandwidth of the radiating system.
will be obtained on the feed line when the
overall length of the antenna is a half wave. The frequency range which may be covered
The arrangement shown at C may be tuned for by a shortened antenna system is approxi-
any reasonable length of flat too to give a mini-
mum of standing waves. mately in proportion to the amount of
shortening which has been employed.
One technique of producing an antenna
for lower- frequency operation in restricted
space is to erect a short radiator which is The Twin -Lead Much of the power loss in
balanced with respect to ground and which Marconi Antenna the Marconi antenna is a
is therefore independent of ground for its result of low radiation re-
operation. Several antenna types meeting this sistance and high ground resistance. If the
set of conditions are shown in figure 21. Fig- radiation resistance of the Marconi antenna
ure 21A shows a conventional center -fed is raised, the amount of power lost in the
dipole with bent -down ends. This type of ground resistance is proportionately less. If
antenna can be fed with coaxial line in the a Marconi antenni is made out of 300 -ohm
center, or it may be fed with a resonant line TV -type ribbon line, as shown in figure 22,
for operation on several bands. The overall the radiation resistance of the antenna is
length of the radiating wire will be a few raised from a low value of 10 or 15 ohms to
percent greater than the normal length for a more reasonable value of 40 to 60 ohms.
HF GENERAL PURPOSE ANTENNAS 27.17
The ground losses are now reduced by a fed with a 50 -ohm unbalanced coaxial line.
factor of 4. In addition. the antenna may The antenna system consists of a fan -type
be directly fed from a 50 -ohm coaxial line, dipole, a balun matching section, and a suit-
or directly from the unbalanced output of able coaxial feedline. The Q of the half -
a pi- network transmitter. wave 80 -meter dipole is lowered by de-
creasing the effective length -to- diameter
ratio. The frequency range of oneratien of
A Broadband Shown in figures 23 and 24 the dipole is increased considerably by this
Dipole System are broadband dipoles for the change. A typical SWR curve for the 80-
40- and 80 -meter amateur meter dipole is shown in figure 25.
bands. These fan -type dipoles have excellent
The balanced dipole is matched to the
broadband response, and are designed to be unbalanced coaxial line by the nu-+rter -wave
balun. If desired, a shortened balun may be
used (figure 26). The short balun is ca-
pacitance leaded at the junction between the
WIRES SHORTED TO- balun and the broadband dipole.
GETHER AT END
FEED UNE
Figure 22 The Inverted -V The Inverted -V antenna is
Antenna a center -fed dipole with the
TWIN -LEAD MARCONI ANTENNA FOR ends lower than the middle.
THE 80- AND 160 -METER BANDS The radiation pattern is similar to a dipole,
64.5 except that more radiation is apparent off
the ends of the antenna. The main advantage
FOR DETAIL SEE FIG. A
of this antenna is that it may be hung, or
PHENOLIC BLOCK 2- A LS. A ON- 4:ij/i
supported, at the center from an existing
WRAP CABLES ANO BLOCK / // tower, with the ends tied off near the sur-
WITH SCOTCH ELECTRICALTAFE
SPACE BLOCKS B' APART
ALONG BALUN
////f face of the ground. For 40- or 80 -meter
inverted V's, the center support should be
from 40 to 60 feet above ground and the
ends should clear the ground by at least 10
feet.
The impedance of an inverted V is less
than that of an equivalent dipole placed at
the apex of the array. however, a good match
may be hid to 50 -ohm coaxial transmission
FIGURE A FIGURE B
line. Bandwidth is about equal to that of a
// /%///
CUT OFF SHIELD ANO OUTER REMOVE OUTER JACKET
JACKET AS SHOWN. ALLOW FROM A SHORT LENGTH OF
regular horizontal dipole.
DIELECTRIC TO ENTEND PART
WAY TO OTHER CABLE. COVER
ALL EXPOSED SHIELD AND
//// CABLE AS SHOWN HERE.
UNBRAID THE SHIELD OF
COAX C. CUT OFF THE DI- The length of the inverted V is greater
DIELECTRIC ON BOTH CABLES ELECTRIC AND INNER CON -
WITH A CONTINUOUS WRAP -
PING OF SCOTCH ELECTRICAL
DUCTOR FLUSH WITH THE
OUTER JACKET. 001,3T cur
than that of a dipole and may be computed
TAPE TO EXCLUOE MOISTURE. THE SHIELD. WRAPSHIELD
OF COAX C AROUND SHIELD from the following formula:
OF COAX D. SOLDER THE
KEEP BALUN AT LEAST B
CLEAR CONNECTION. BEING VERY
OP GROUND AND OTHER OBJECTS. CAREFUL NOT TO DAMAGE 485
FOR DETAIL SEE FIGURE
THE DIELECTRIC MATERIAL
HOLD CABLE D STRAIGHT
WHILE SOLDERING. COVER
Overall length (feet) =
THE AREA WITH A CONTIN-
¡MHz
S2 -OHM NG-B /U, ANY LENGTH UOUS WRAPPING OF SCOTCH
ELECTRICAL TAPE. NO CON-
NECTION TO INNER CONDUC-
TORS. Objects near the end of the inverted V
DIMENS IONS SHOWN NERD' ARE FOR THE 40 -METER BAND. THIS ANT-
will affect the resonant frequency to some
ENNA MAT If
BU /LT FOR OTHER BANDS Sr US /Ni DIMENSIONS THAT
ARE MULTIPLES OR SUIMUL TIPLES Of THE DIMENSIONS SHOWN.
extent and the installation may require end
DAWN SPACING IS I.S ON ALL HANDS. trimming to bring it on or near the desired
Figure 23 frequency, especially in the presence of
HALF -WAVE ANTENNA WITH QUARTER - nearby buildings, telephone wires, or other
WAVE UNBALANCED -TO- BALANCED conductors. For best results, a balun should
TRANSFORMER (BALUN) FEED SYSTEM be used between the inverted V and the
FOR 40 -METER OPERATION coaxial feedline.
27.18 RADIO HANDBOOK
L,
-. L2 "- . L2 ""
500 LINE
7.15 45' 9" 14.0 26' 3" S 00 90H-SAME AS ABOVE EXCEPT 25 TURNS. 1 -12" LONG.
Figure 27
Long Wire One of the simplest multiband ANY EVEN NUMBER Or QUARTER -WAVES
Multiband antennas is the long wire, either
Ant end -fed, or fed at the center. METER 000
Two practical designs are shown here, along
with compact models suitable for operation
HIGH J'LI
CAPACITANCE 7¡' 91
LOW
CAPACITANCE e
on all hf bands from a small lot.
The End -Fed Long Wire-A random Figure 28
length, long wire makes an inexpensive mul-
THE END -FED HERTZ ANTENNA
tiband antenna. It may be matched to the
transmitter with a simple network and tuned Showing the manner in which an end -fed Hertz
may be fed through a low- impedance line and
to resonance with the aid of an SWR meter SWR meter by using a resonant tank circuit as
(figure 28). For operation on all bands from at A, or through the use of a reverse -connected
160 through 6 meters, the recommended wire pi- network as at 8.
length is about 136 feet. In practice, the
length of the antenna can be compensated isfactory. A good ground system is recom-
for by the tuning unit, and any length that mended and tuned radials for each band, plus
is at least 0.2 wavelength long at the lowest a connection to ground are suggested. On
operating frequency will be found to be sat- the lower frequencies, the antenna is essen-
27.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
S,
PARALLEL
PARALLEL
SERIES
PARALLEL
12300 OXUS
1200 OMMS
Ts OHMS
1200 OHMS
1300 OOHS
S,
SS
make up the two -wire, balanced feed system.
A flexible antenna tuner is shown in fig-
ure 30. A 0-ohm coaxial line and SWR me-
,.MXE 1000 OWN
.MME PS 100 AAAAA LEL 00 OHMS S 3 ter connect the tuner to the transmitter.
2N,Xr PARALLEL 1300 OHMS
Proper antenna adjustment is achieved by
observing the SWR reading and adjusting
the variable capacitors for the lowest SWR
Figure 29 reading consistent with proper transmitter
DIMENSIONS FOR CENTER -FED loading. The switch connects the primary
MULTIBAND ANTENNA coils in either series or parallel. In general,
the coils are series- connected for the 80-
meter band and parallel connected for the
tially omnidirectional, but on the higher fre- higher bands.
quencies it tends to have a cloverleaf pat- The Windom Antenna -The single -wire
tern, exhibiting directivity off the ends. fed, or Windom) antenna is widely used for
The Center -Fed Long Wire -The center - portable installations and locations where an
fed antenna requires no ground return for unobtrusive antenna is required (figure 3 1 ) .
proper operation and has good rejection to A single -wire feeder is used, having a char-
harmonics. For ease of tuning, certain an- acteristic impedance of about 300 ohms. The
FROM TRANS
AND SWR METER 4 SECTION COIL LI. 1.2
TWO WIRE
I-II-II.IInimI
TRANSMISSION
LINE TO ANTENNA
ImmIIliIIIsI
32 5 5 32
TURNS TURNS TURNS TURNS
EXTERNAL
GROUND
Figure 30
ANTENNA TUNER FOR CENTER -FED ANTENNA
The four section coil is made from a single length of coil stock (I -core Air Dux 2008, or equivalent).
The coil is 212" diameter, 8 turns per inch of x+14 wire. Leave a 6" lead on one end and count 32 turns.
Break the 33d turn at the center to make the leads for L.A and L A. Five more turns are counted and
the coil broken at the 6th turn to make the opposite lead for coil LEA and the lead for coil LB.
Adjacent leads from the center coils are connected to the arms of the ceramic- insulated switch. Coil
clips are Mueller =88. Capacitor C, is Johnson 154 -2, or equivalent. Capacitor C, is Johnson 154 -510, or
equivalent. (Circuit and diagram courtesy of "Wire Antennas for Radio Amateurs ", Orr, Radio
Publications, Inc.).
HF GENERAL PURPOSE ANTENNAS 27.21
250 PF
Figure 32
folded horizontally to form a radiator for bands. Since the discone is a broadband de-
the high- frequency band. On the lower band, vice, it may be used on several harmonically
the antenna acts as a top -loaded vertical an- related amateur bands. Size is the limiting
tenna, while on the higher band, the flat top factor in the use of a discone, and the 20-
does the radiating, rather than the vertical meter band is about the lowest practical fre-
portion. The vertical portion, instead, acts quency for a discone of reasonable dimen-
as a quarter -wave linear transformer, match- sions. A discone designed for 20 -meter opera-
ing the 6000 -ohm nominal antenna impe- tion may be used on 20, 15, 11, 10, and 6
dance to the 50-ohm impedance of the coax- meters with excellent results. It affords a
ial transmission line. good match to a 50 -ohm coaxial feed system
A radial ground system should be installed on all of these bands. A practical discone an-
beneath the antenna, two or three quarter - tenna is shown in figure 34, with a SWR
wave radials for each band being recom- curve for its operation over the frequency
mended. range of 13 to 55 MHz shown in figure 35.
When operating on either band, the trans- The discone antenna radiates a vertically po-
mitter should be checked for second har- larized wave and has a very low angle of
monic emission, since this antenna will ef- radiation. For vhf work the discone is con-
fectively radiate this harmonic.
The Low-Frequency Discone Antenna
The discone antenna is widely used on the
- structed of sheet metal, but for low -fre-
quency work it may be made of copper wire
and aluminum angle stock. A suitable me-
vhf bands, but until recently it has not been chanical layout for a low- frequency discone
put to any great use on the lower -frequency is shown in figure 36. Smaller versions of this
antenna may be constructed for 15, 11, 10,
and 6 meters, or for 11, 10, 6, and 2 meters
as shown in figure 34.
For minimum wind resistance, the top
"hat" of the discone is constructed from
three -quarter inch aluminum angle stock, the
rods being bolted to an aluminum plate at
the center of the structure. The tips of the
rods are all connected together by lengths
of No. 12 enameled copper wire. The cone
elements are made of No. 12 copper wire
and act as guy wires for the discone struc-
ture. A very rigid arrangement may be made
from this design, one that will give no trou-
ble in high winds. A 4" X 4" post can be
used to support the discone structure.
The discone antenna may be fed by a
,I...
R
52 -ONM COAXIAL
length of S0 -ohm coaxial cable directly
fi
..
MII..
FELD LINE
4.0
DIMENSIONS
a
20,iS,II,10,4 METERS I0, METERS
15,11, I I,10, e 2 METERS 3.5
L12
IN^I
D =e e L=ee^
D= 12 L=111'
Ss D=
S= 30
.I........
M
S. io R= 1e R =Iz R=ee- V
H=1s7 H= lo 5 H=e3^ 2
ii
as
2.o
Figure 34
1.5
DIMENSIONS OF DISCONE ANTENNA a
N le
a_
42 4e
...
54
e M 22 2e 30 34 30 30 5e
FOR LOW- FREQUENCY CUTOFF AT 14
FREQUENCY (soli)
13.2 MHz, 20.1 MHz, AND 26 MHz
Figure 35
The Discone is a vertically polarized radiator,
producing an omnidirectional pattern similar SWR CURVE FOR A 13.2 -MHz DISCONE
to a ground plane. Operation on several ama-
teur bands with low SWR on the coaxial feed ANTENNA. SWR IS BELOW 1.5 TO 1
line is possible. FROM 13.0 MHz TO 58 MHz
HF GENERAL PURPOSE ANTENNAS 27.23
from the transmitter, with a very low SWR Typical trap construction is discussed in the
on all bands. reference chapter, and the vertical radiator
The Trap Vertical Antenna -The trap is built of sections of aluminum tubing, as
technique described in a later chapter can be described earlier.
employed for a three-band vertical antenna
as shown in figure 37. This antenna is de- 1/2" ALUM. TUBING
signed for operation on 10, 15, and 20 me-
ters and uses a separate radial system for
1S -METER TRAP
each band. No adjustments need be made to
the antenna when changing frequency from 3/4" ALUM. TUBING
one band to another. Substitution of a 12 10"
ground connection for the radials is not rec- 10 -METER TRAP
ommended because of the high ground loss 10' 2"
normally encountered at these frequencies.
balun, if desired.
Data is also given in figure 38 for a tri - the frequency of operation is changed. The
band doublet covering the 20 -, and 15 -, and lumped trap may be replaced by a quarter -
10 -meter amateur bands. Operational band- wavelength section of transmission line,
width is sufficient to cover all the included shorted at the far end with equal results. Be-
bands with a maximum SWR figure at the cause of the problem of constructing a
band edges of less than 2/1 on the trans- waterproof inductor and procuring a high -
mission line. As with any antenna configu- voltage capacitor, the transmission-line form
ration, bandwidth and minimum SWR in- of trap is occasionally used, as in the Hy-
dication are a function of the height of the gain DB -24A duoband beam for 20 and 40
antenna above the ground. meters. In this particular design, the trap
extends parallel along the element to con-
serve space and is termed a decoupling stub.
The Linear Trap The parallel -tuned trap A resonant coaxial section may take the
circuit used in multifrequency antennas op- place of the decoupling stub and this con-
erates as an electrical switch, connecting and figuration is often used in multifrequency
disconnecting portions of the antenna as vhf beam antennas.
11"r { IIµ1=
111,11M7711~!1
u ARVt".VMti¡
CHAPTER TWENTY -EIGHT
gains of 3 to 12 dB seem to be most practi- The radiation patterns of long -wire anten-
cal for amateur communication, since the nas are well known and available informa-
width of a beam with this order of power tion is based on theory and field measure-
gain is wide enough to sweep a fairly large ments. The dipole antenna in free space has
area. Gains of 3 to 12 dB represent effective a figure -8 pattern in the plane of the wire.
transmitter power increases from 2 to 16 The full -wave antenna has four lobes at an-
times. gles to the wire, an antenna two wavelengths
long has eight lobes, etc. (Figure 1). When
Types of There is an enormous vari- the antenna is more than two wavelengths
Directive Arrays ety of directive antenna long, the end lobes begin to exhibit notice-
arrays that can give a sub- able power gain while the broadside lobes
stantial power gain in the desired direction become smaller, even though more numerous.
of transmission or reception. However, some The actual directivity of the main lobes
are more effective than others which require of radiation is not particularly well defined
the same space. In general it may be stated and the minor lobes tend to fill in the nulls
that long -wire antennas of various types, and a real -life long -wire antenna provides
such as the single long wire, the V beam, nearly omnidirectional characteristics, espe-
and the rhombic, are less effective for a cially when the ground beneath it has poor
given space than arrays composed of reso- conductivity. This is due to the fact that the
nant elements, but the long -wire arrays have antenna is affected by the r -f resistance of
the significant advantage that they may be the wire and the ground and also because the
used over a relatively large frequency range current amplitude drops off at successive cur-
while resonant arrays are usable only over a rent loops as a result of attenuation along
quite narrow frequency band. the wire. The attenuation is due to radiation
While fixed wire beams have been eclipsed of power from the wire and also the resis-
by the more glamorous rotatable Yagi and tance of the wire. As the length of the long
Quad antennas, dollar- for -dollar the wire wire increases, these factors become predomi-
beam is hard to beat. The wide- spaced col- nant and the tuning of the antenna becomes
linear arrays, moreover, have low -Q and quite broad.
wide bandwidth and may be used over a The physical length of a long wire an-
larger frequency range than their higher-Q tenna is related to its electrical length by the
counterparts. Finally, in some instances, the following formula:
wire beam is more unobtrusive than one
made of aluminum and may be erected in
Length ,t,.e = 492 (N - 0.025)
areas where more conventional antennas are F(MHz)
or,
(N -
frowned upon.
This chapter covers long -wire and multi - Length (meters) = 150 0.05)
element fixed arrays, while the next chap- where,
F(MHz)
ter covers rotary arrays of the Yagi and
Quad configuration. N is the number of half wavelengths
on the wire.
The directive gain of a long wire antenna
28 -2 The Long -Wire in terms of wire length is shown in figure 2.
Antenna Suggested antenna lengths are listed in
Table 1.
A harmonically operated antenna radiates
more energy in certain directions than others Practical The simplest long wire antenna
and can be considered to have power gain Long Wire is one that is end -fed, with the
and directivity when it is several wave- Antennas wire brought directly to the
lengths long, or longer. The long wire has a equipment site, at which point it
natural current distribution in the form of is connected to the transmitter through an
either a travelling or a standing wave with antenna tuner. Care must be taken to sup-
the radiation adding in certain directions and press transmitter harmonics before they
cancelling in others. Long wires having a reach the antenna, since an end -fed antenna
standing -wave pattern will be discussed first. offers no discrimination against harmonic
HIGH -FREQUENCY FIXED DIRECTIVE ANTENNAS 28.3
I I -lf
O
Figure t
Figure 3
FREE -SPACE FIELD PATTERNS OF
LONG -WIRE ANTENNAS FEED SYSTEM AFFECTS
The presence of the earth distorts the field pat- RADIATION PATTERN OF
tern in such a manner that the azimuth pat- LONG WIRE ANTENNA
tern becomes a function of the elevation angle.
When a long wire antenna is center -fed, the
energy. The antenna can operate on its har- radiation pattern is symmetrical on each side
monic frequencies with good efficiency and of the feed point (A). When the antenna is fed
can also be operated against ground at half at a low impedance point near one end (B),
the pattern symmetry is destroyed and the lobes
frequency as a quarter -wave Marconi on the longer leg become stronger, as compared
antenna. to the shorter leg lobes.
When a long wire antenna is center -fed,
the antenna radiation lobes are symmetrical
Center -Fed Wire Antenna for 15 and 10
on each side of the feedpoint (figure 3) , but
Meters -The single -wire antenna can pro-
if the antenna is fed near one end, the lobes vide good two -band performance when fed
1
LONG STRAIGHT WIRE ANTENNAS
14
h
I
F
(,! 12
z
W
J
j
I
10
Figure 2 z
DIRECTIVE GAIN OF I
u
LONG WIRE ANTENNA Z
ta
J
W
Q 4
00
2 3 4 S 10
DB POWER RATIO OF MAIN LOBE TO A DIPOLE
28.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
Frequency
In MHz 1\ 1'/ \ 2\ 2'/,\ 3\ 31/1\ 4\ 41/,\
C
4 1 BALUN
Figure 5
20 16' 6 " 5.03 154' 0" 46.97 or Sloper antenna is a popular design and a
15 11' 0" 3.35 103' 6" 31.57 long wire may be modified by dropping the
ends, or raising the center of the antenna, as
77' 6" 23.64
10 8' 3" 2.51
shown in figure 6. The total included angle
of the V should be not less than 90 °, with
Figure 4 angles as high as 120° providing good per-
formance. The inverted -N' provides less di-
LONG WIRE ANTENNA FOR
20, 15 OR 10 METERS
rectivity off the ends of the antenna than a
comparable horizontal installation.
It is practical to construct a multiband
This 5 /2-wavelengths antenna provides maxi-
mum radiation at angles of about 30 degrees to inverted -V antenna by end -tuning the legs.
the wire, with minor lobes filling in the areas A pair of copper alligator clips and two seg-
at right angles to the wire. A 4 -to -1 balun, such
as described in Chapter 26, figures 6 and 7 is
ments of wire permit resonance on each of
suggested for use with this antenna. the three bands, as shown in figure 7. Since
HIGH -FREQUENCY FIXED DIRECTIVE ANTENNAS 28.5
i2I
additive in a line bisecting the V (figure 8) .
50f2
COAXIAL
LINE
TRANSMITTER
TRANSMIT
FEEDERS OR STUB
RECEIVE
Figure 6
ií
8
L
Two long wires in a V pattern, starting from a
I,
common apex, both parallel to the ground, form
a V -beam. The pattern is bidirectional in a line
M
bisecting the V.
.d
Each leg of the V -beam can be any num-
ber of quarter wavelengths long, the feed
E
system depending on whether the feedpoint
M
is a high or low impedance. Representative
11P5
gain figures are shown in figure 9, with sug-
gested dimensions tabulated in Table 2. Best
directivity and gain for beams having legs
13
'I
12
Figure 7
11
EW/
ßimumm
Each leg of the antenna is 50'3" (15.33 meters)
for 20 meter operation. A jumper 5' 10" (1.77
meters) is added for 15 meters, and a second
jumper 2' 8" (0.82 meters) is added for 10 -meter
msImass .... `V" BEAM GAI N
The V Antenna If two long wires are formed This curve shows the approximate directive gain
of a V beam with respect to a half -wave an-
into a V, it is possible to tenna located the same distance above ground,
make two of the maximum radiation lobes in terms of the side length L.
28.6 RADIO HANDBOOK
Frequency L = X L 2\ L - 4\ L - 8\
in kHz 8 = 90° 70' 52' 39°
140
Figure 10
120
INCLUDED ANGLE FOR
A V BEAM
Showing the included angle be-
tween the legs of a V beam for
various leg lengths. For opti-
mum alignment of the radia-
tion lobe at the correct vertical
40
angle with leg lengths less
than three wavelengths, the
optimum included angle is
20 shown by the dashed curve.
a 4 10 42
4-TO-I
BALUN
329.
40° ~
500 COAXIAL
LINE
Figure 11 50 0
COAXIAL
LINE
TEN -METER V -BEAM
Il
TILT
ANGLE
A
FEED END
4F B APEX ANGLE
MAXIMUM MAXIMUM
B
-
DIRECTION DIRECTION
Figure 15
.3
Figure 16
TYPICAL RHOMBIC
ANTENNA DESIGN
The antenna system illus-
trated may be used over LINE TO TA
the frequency range from 7 N.14 SPACED 0
to 29 MHz without change.
SPACING BETWEEN SIDES S. 214 FEET TERMINATING LINE
TOTAL LENGTH 002 FEET OF250' OF N 20
NICHROME SPACED 0"
AND 600-OHM 1e -WATT
Heo' CARSON RESISTOR AT
CND 0 2-WATT 100-OHM
RESISTORS IN SERIES
an array of elements. The characteristics of When a second dipole is placed in the vi-
the half -wave dipole antenna have been de- cinity of a fed -dipole, and excited either di-
scribed, and this element is commonly used rectly or parasitically, the resultant radiation
in building antenna arrays. pattern will depend upon dipole spacing and
28.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 17
Z
A
Ls 30
10 u IS 14 IS II IS It 70
II
11 17
phase differential, as well as the relative mag- to each other or end -to -end (collinear), or
nitude of the current in the two dipoles. a combination of both arrangements may be
The dipole elements may be placed parallel used. The elements may be either horizontal
or vertically polarized, depending on their
relationship to the earth.
The array can have the maximum field of
radiation broadside to the elements, (perpen-
dicular to the axis of the array and to the
plane containing the elements) or the maxi-
mum field may be end-fire (in line with the
direction of the array axis, and through the
elements) . The radiation pattern for simple
driven arrays is commonly controlled by
holding element spacing and current con-
stant and adjusting the phase relationship
between the elements. With spacing less than
1 LtMTN us Ywvtl[N{TNt row mA. ouTrlR 0.65 wavelength, the radiation is mainly
t1M 4
Uw4TN N vlAVtL[NtTW 15-1- ova All°MYtNT
S-.I
+ OP WINES
I
END VIEW
o' 1r M w ,r r tr ar Zr
S+
WAVE ANGLE A
1110 OUT OP PHASE
Figure 18
-WAVE STUBS
NONRESONANT
Figure 22
PEED LI
GAIN APPROX. 4.5 De PRECUT COLLINEAR ARRAY
FOR 40 METERS
Figure 20
The collinear array may be fed with a 4-to -1
THE FRANKLIN OR COLLINEAR balun placed at the feedpoint (see Chapter 24)
and a 50-ohm coaxial line in place of the 300 -
ANTENNA ARRAY ohm line. If the 300 -ohm line is used, an an-
tenna tuner is needed at the station end to
An antenna of this type, regardless of the num-
convert the system to 50 ohms termination.
ber of elements, attains all of its directivity
through sharpening of the horizontal or azimuth
radiation pattern; no vertical directivity is pro- dipole tips are adjacent, the power gain over
vided. Hence a long antenna of this type has an a dipole of a two -element collinear array is
extremely sharp azimuth pattern, but no vertical
directivity. 1.9 decibels, that of a three- element array is
3.2 dB and that of a four -element array is
fled current distribution accomplished by in- 4.3 dB.
serting a phase- reversing network every Additional gain may be achieved at the
half -wavelength. The network may be a expense of simplicity by increasing the spac-
lumped LC circuit, but usually takes the ing between the collinear elements. A two -
form of a quarter- wavelength transmission clement, spaced array is termed a double ex-
line. The antenna is generally known as a tended array and provides about 3 dB power
Franklin antenna, after its inventor. Addi- gain (figure 21) .
tional dipole elements may be added in sym- The elevation radiation pattern for a col-
metrical fashion to form three- and four- linear array is essentially the same as for a
element collinear arrays (Table 3) . If the dipole and this consideration applies whether
h- MHt7-4"--
stub at the point which provides the lowest directional and the gain increased by 3 dB
SWR on the transmission line. if a similar array is placed 0.25 wavelength
behind the driven array to act as a parasitic
Practical An array of collinear and stacked reflector. The wires in the reflector should
Broadside dipole elements is termed a Sterba be parallel to the radiating elements. For vhf
Arrays curtain, after the inventor of this work, a screen or mesh of wires, slightly
antenna type. Figure 25 shows greater in area than the antenna may be
two simple Sterba curtains. Illustrations A substituted for the wire configuration. In
and B show two methods of feeding a small some instances, parasitic elements are used as
curtain antenna, and an alternative method reflectors or directors with a broadside array,
is shown in illustration C. A coaxial line and but these have the disadvantage that their
1:1 balun transformer may be used with the operation is selective with respect to fre-
design shown at B in place of the balanced quency and a relatively small change in op-
feedline. erating frequency will seriously affect the
In the case of either the Lazy -H or the parasitic elements.
Sterba curtain, the array can be made uni- Di Di
L3 La Ls
i D2
END-LINK COIL TO
TUNE FREQUENCY
3
C
î
*OFF
DIMENSIONS
404. SO M.
S2 Q
COAXIAL LINE DI AWE- I24'
Dz a SO'
Ds s0',OSA' S4IOAr
e
GAIN APPROX. 6 DB
Ls La La Figure 26
BOBTAIL BIDIRECTIONAL BROADSIDE
CURTAIN FOR THE 7 -MHz OR THE
4.0 -MHz AMATEUR BANDS
This simple vertically polarized array provides
low angle radiation and response with compara-
tively low pole heights, and is very effective for
DX work on the 7 -MHz band or the 4.0 -MHz
phone band. Because of the phase relationships,
radiation from the horizontal portion of the an-
NONRESONANT FEEOER tenna is effectively suppressed. Very little cur-
O rent flows in the ground lead to the coupling
GAIN APPROX. 6 DB tank; so an elaborate ground system is not re-
Ls La Ls quired, and the length of the ground lead is not
critical so long as it uses heavy wire and is
A
reasonably short.
The Bobtail Beam for 80 and 40 Meters
truncated version of Sterba curtain is
a
-
shown in figure 26. This Bobtail beam pro-
vides vertical polarization in order to ob-
tain low -angle radiation at the lower end of
the hf spectrum without resorting to un-
reasonable pole heights. When precut to the
Figure 25 dimensions shown, this bidirectional array
will perform well over the 7 -MHz band, or
THE STERBA- CURTAIN ARRAY the 4 -MHz phone band. For the latter, the
Approximate directive gains along with alter- required pole height is about 70 feet, and
native feed methods are shown. the array will provide a signal gain of about
28.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
S dB over a comparison vertical antenna angles to the plane of the array. A parallel
when the path length exceeds 2500 miles. wire feedline is used, in conjunction with an
The horizontal directivity is only moder- antenna tuner at the station, which con-
ate, the beam width at the half -power points verts the balanced feed system to an unbal-
being slightly greater than that obtained anced, S0 -ohm line, suitable for connection
from three co- phased vertical radiators fed to the majority of modern transmitters.
with equal currents.
Lazy-H Array for 20, 1 S, and10 Meters
The basic Lazy -H design can be modified
- The Bi- Square Broadside Array- Illustra-
ted in figure 28 is a simple, one element
broadside array that may be suspended from
for three band operation, as shown in figure a single pole. The power gain is approxi-
27. The array is fed at the center to preserve mately 4 dB over a dipole placed at the
the proper phase relationship between the same average elevation.
upper and lower radiators. Dimensions are Two Bi- Square arrays may be suspended
not critical as long as symmetry is main- from a single pole, at right angles to each
tained. The array is bidirectional, at right other for general coverage. Alternatively, ar-
22' 22' rays for separate bands may be suspended,
16.71M) 16.71M1 with the smaller one inside the larger.
The Bi- Square is fed with a quarter -wave
matching transformer made of parallel wire
22' (6.71M)
line. The balun and S0 -ohm coaxial line are
attached to a movable insulator with clips on
it, which is adjusted up and down the stub
for minimum SWR on the line. A balun is
22' 22'
used between the line and the stub in this
16. 7161) // 16.71M)
simple design to achieve good antenna cur-
TWO WIRE BALANCED
rent balance.
L INE TO ANTENNA TUNER
Figure 29
COMPARATIVE VERTICAL
RADIATION PATTERNS
Showing the vertical radia-
tion patterns of a horizontal
single -section flat -top beam
(A), an array of two stacked
horizontal in -phase half -wave
elements -half of a "Lazy H"
-(B), and a horizontal dipole
(C). In each case the top of
the antenna system is 0.75
wavelength above ground, as
shown to the left of the
curves.
1.5 i0 3.S
CENTER FED TO CENTER END FED
Or FLAT TOP
1SECTION 1 SECTION
MATCHING STUB
1~L2
1-IX
2 SECTION
STUB OF FEEDERS
CONNECT AT F F
4 SECTION
I-L
1111
D% L--D-fL IDI
A A A
Bond S L, L_ L, L. M D (t/e) (1/2) (3/4) X
.40 17' 33'6" 59' 51'8" 43'1" 8'8" 4' 26' 59' 94' 4'
20 8'8" 17' 30' 26'4" 22' 4'9" 2' 13' 30' 48' 2'
15 7'10" 12'8" 22'6" 18'3" 15' 4'0" 1'8" 10'6" 22' 36' 1'6"
10 5'2" 8'6" 15' 12'7" 10' 2'8" 1'6" 7' 15' 24' 1'
-J
Figure 30
FLAT -TOP BEAM (8JK ARRAY) DESIGN DATA
Dimension chart for flat -top beam antennas. The meanings of the symbols are as follows:
L,, L2, L,, L,, the lengths of the sides of the flat -top sections as shown. L, is length of the
sides of single- section center -fed, L, single- section end -fed and 2- section center -fed, L, 4-
section center -fed and end -sections of 4- section end -fed, and L, middle sections of 4- Section
end -fed.
S, the spacing between the flat -top wires.
M, the wire length from the outside to the center of each crossover.
D, the spacing lengthwise between sections.
A, Stub length (14, 1!2, 3/4 wavelength).
X, the approximate distance above the shorting wire of the stub for the connection of a
600 -ohm line. This distance, as given in the table, is approximately correct only for 2- section
flat -tops. For single- section types it will be smaller and for 4- section types it will be larger.
The lengths given for a half -wave stub are applicable only to single- section center-fed flat-
tops. To be certain of sufficient stub length, it is advisable to make the stub a foot or so
longer than shown in the table, especially with the end -fed types. The lengths, A, are mea-
sured from the point where the stub connects to the flat -top.
Both the center and end -fed types may be used horizontally. However, where a vertical
antenna is desired, the flat -tops can be turned on end. In this case, the end -fed types may be
more convenient, feeding from the lower end.
HIGH -FREQUENCY FIXED DIRECTIVE ANTENNAS 28.17
greater directivity gain while maintaining a tween the two curtains is such that con-
bidirectional characteristic. However, it siderable spacing is required in order to
must be kept in mind that to realize a realize a gain approaching 3 dB (the re-
worthwhile increase in directivity and gain quired spacing being a function of the size
while maintaining a bidirectional pattern of the curtains) . While it is true that a
the individual arrays must be spaced suffi- space -directivity gain of approximately 4 dB
ciently to reduce the mutual impedance to can be obtained by placing one half -wave
a negligible value. dipole an eighth wavelength ahead of an-
When two flat -top beams, for instance, other and feeding them 180 degrees out of
are placed one above the other or end to phase, a gain of less than 1 dB is obtained
end, a center spacing on the order of one when the same procedure is applied to two
wavelength is required in order to achieve large broadside curtains. To obtain a gain of
a worthwhile increase in gain, or approxi- approximately 3 dB and retain a bidirectional
mately 3 dB. pattern, a spacing of many wavelengths is
Thus it is seen that, while maximum gain required between two large curtains placed
occurs with two stacked dipoles at a spacing one ahead of the other.
of about 0.7 wavelength and the space direc- A different situation exists, however,
tivity gain is approximately f dB over one when one driven curtain is placed ahead of
element under these conditions; the case of an identical one and the two are phased so
two flat -top or parasitic arrays stacked one as to give a unidirectional pattern. When a
above the other is another story. Maximum unidirectional pattern is obtained, the gain
gain will occur at a greater spacing, and the over one curtain will be approximately 3
gain over one array will not appreciably dB regardless of the spacing. For instance,
exceed 3 dB. two large curtains one placed a quarter
When two broadside curtains are placed wavelength ahead of the other may have a
one ahead of the other in end -free relation- space- directivity gain of only 0.5 dB over
ship, the aggregate mutual impedance be- one curtain when the two are driven 180
ROPE
MAXIMUM
MAX RADIATION RADIATION
4 5 D 4.5 0!
Figure 31
DIMENSIONS
WM ISM. 20M MATERIAL
L a, 5 are
1!'r ave THR1Lktal!b 3.
S woe 711 11
degrees out of phase to give a bidirectional tionship will depend on the directivity
pattern (the type of pattern obtained with pattern of the individual curtains used
a single curtain). However, if they are alone, and as previously noted the optimum
driven in phase quadrature (and with equal spacing increases with the size and directiv-
currents) the gain is approximately 3 dB. ity of the component arrays.
The directivity gain of a composite array A concrete example of a combination
also can be explained on the basis of the broadside and end -fire array is two Lazy H
directivity patterns of the component arrays arrays spaced along the direction of maxi-
alone, but it entails a rather complicated mum radiation by a distance of four wave-
picture. It is sufficient for the purpose of lengths and fed in phase. The space- directiv-
this discussion to generalize and simplify by ity gain of such an arrangement is slightly
saying that the greater the directivity of less than 9 dB. However, approximately the
an end -fire array, the farther an identical ar- same gain can be obtained by juxtaposing
ray must be spaced from it in broadside re- the two arrays side by side or one over the
lationship to obtain optimum performance; other in the same plane, so that the two
and the greater the directivity of a broad- combine to produce, in effect, one broad-
side array, the farther an identical array side curtain of twice the area. It is obvious
must be spaced from it in end -fire relation- that in most cases it will be more expedient
ship to obtain optimum performance and to increase the area of a broadside array
retain the bidirectional characteristic. than to resort to a combination of end -fire
It is important to note that while a bi- and broadside directivity.
directional end -fire pattern is obtained with One exception, of course, is where two
two driven dipoles when spaced anything curtains are fed in phase quadrature to ob-
under a half wavelength, and while the tain a unidirectional pattern and space-
proper phase relationship is 180 degrees re- directivity gain of approximately 3 dB with
gardless of the spacing for all spacings not a spacing between curtains as small as one
exceeding one half wavelength, the situation quarter wavelength. Another exception is
is different in the case of two curtains where very low angle radiation is desired
placed in end -fire relationship to give a bi- and the maximum pole height is strictly
directional pattern. For maximum gain at limited. The two aforementioned Lazy H
zero wave angle, the curtains should be arrays when placed in endfire relationship
spaced an odd multiple of one -half wave- will have a considerably lower radiation
length and driven so as to be 180 degrees angle than when placed side by side if the
out of phase, or spaced an even multiple of array elevation is low, and therefore may
one half wavelength and driven in the same under some conditions exhibit appreciably
phase. The optimum spacing and phase rela- greater practical signal gain.
CHAPTER TWENTY -N N E I
The rotary beam antenna has become ment determine how the field about the
standard equipment for the vhf and upper - elements is modified by the presence of the
hf amateur bands. The rotary array offers parasitic. Both spacing and parasitic element
many advantages, such as power gain, re- length determine the phase difference be-
duction in interference from undesired di- tween the intercepted and reradiated energy
rections, compactness and the ability to and proper adjustment of these variables can
quickly and easily change the azimuth produce an array which exhibits power gain
direction. in a favored direction at the expense of
The majority of hf rotary antennas are radiation in unwanted directions. An in-
horizontally polarized, unidirectional para- finite number of combinations of element
sitic type designs while the vhf rotary an- spacing and parasitic length exists, which
tenna may be either horizontally or verti- makes the problem of designing a multi -
cally polarized, depending on local usage and element parasitic array a complex one. As a
the mode of communication desired. In most result, many of the existing array designs
cases the arrays are self -supporting, being are based on experimental data collected
constructed of aluminum or wire elements from the study of model antennas on an
with a metal or wood framework. The elec- antenna range.
trical design is mainly end -fire, with parasitic A parasitic director element is one that
elements lying in a single plane. This design provides power gain in a direction through
is chosen because it provides a maximum gain the element. It is generally shorter in length
figure for a given antenna volume, without than the driven element and thus capacitive
the need of interconnecting feedlines be- in reactance and leading in phase. A parasitic
tween array elements. The parasitic beam reflector element is one that provides power
antenna makes use of elements whose cur- gain in a direction away from the element.
rents are derived by radiation from a nearby It is generally longer than the driven ele-
driven element. ment and thus inductive in reactance and
lagging in phase.
The presence of a parasitic element tends
29 -1 The Parasitic Beam to reduce the feedpoint resistance of the
driven element for close spacings and to
A beam antenna may be composed of a increase it for spacings greater than one -
radiator, or driven element, plus an addi- half wavelength. Optimum dimensioning of
tional number of parasitic elements, uncon- spacing and element lengths, moreover, can
nected to the driven element. The magnitude only be obtained over a very narrow fre-
of current in the parasitic elements falls off quency range, and the parasitic beam will
rapidly with increasing distance from the work only over a relatively restricted band
driven element and thus there is a tendency of frequencies. In most cases, the bandwidth
to use relatively close spacing between the of such an array is compatible with the
elements of a parasitic array. width of the hf amateur bands.
The parasitic element intercepts and re- The compactness of a parasitic beam an-
radiates energy from the driven element. The tenna more than outweighs the disadvantage
distance between the parasitic and the driven of the critical performance and no other an-
elements and the length of the parasitic ele- tenna exists that can compare, size for size,
29.1
29.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
with the power gain and directional charac- ment is used as a director or as a reflector
teristics of the parasitic array. are shown. It can be seen that the director
provides a maximum of 5.3 dB gain at a
The Two Element The parasitic beam, or
Parasitic Beam Yagi array (named after
Dr. Hidetsugu Yagi of
Tokyo University), was invented in 1926
and first placed in service by radio amateurs
about 1935. The simplest form of Yagi is
a two element configuration with a very m
o
'
close spaced, resonant parasitic element (fig-
ure 1) . This array provides bidirectional di- z
< 2
rectivity with a power gain of about 3 dB, u
since in the X -Y plane only one -half as much
energy is radiated as compared to a simple
dipole. The front -to -back (F /B) ratio is
unity. If the length of the parasitic element 01 0IS 02 nss
is increased by about 5 percent, the parasitic ELEMENT SPACING (s)
element now acts as a reflector, reducing Chart 1.
radiation to the rear and providing a forward
gain close to 6 dB (figure 2). The front -to- GAIN VERSUS ELEMENT SPACING FOR
back ratio is now evident. By decreasing the A TWO- ELEMENT CLOSE- SPACED PARA-
length of the parasitic elements from reso- SITIC BEAM ANTENNA WITH PARASITIC
nance by about 5 percent, the parasitic ele- ELEMENT OPERATING AS A DIRECTOR
ment serves as a director, providing essenti- OR REFLECTOR
ally the same directive pattern as before.
Finally, both a reflector and a director may
be combined to form a three -element parasit-
ic beam providing a power gain of about 8.5
dB over a comparison dipole.
Generally speaking, the two -element para-
DE
sitic beam provides the greatest amount of
gain per unit size of any commonly used
array. Such an antenna is capable of a signal
gain of about 5.5 dB in real life, with a
front -to -back ratio of 7 to 15 dB, depending z
on the adjustment of the parasitic element.
Y
The parasitic may be used either as a director i
or as a reflector. I I
33
7
Y REFLECTOR CASE
so
';f3
2,-x - -x x
o 40
W
DE u ss
z
PARASITIC LENGTHENED w
h
47) 2s
W
K
20
DIRECTOR CASE
z z
Y o 15
I-
Ó 10
¢ s
o 01 0. 5 0 2 0.21
DE ELEMENT SPACING (X)
PARASITIC SHORTENED Chart 2.
Figure 2
RADIATION RESISTANCE AS A FUNCTION
DETUNED PARASITIC ELEMENT OF THE ELEMENT SPACING FOR A
PROVIDES FRONT-TO -BACK RATIO TWO- ELEMENT PARASITIC ARRAY
resistance of the array becomes quite low, means that an array precut to a frequency
the bandwidth becomes very narrow, and of 14,150 kHz would have a bandwidth of
the tuning becomes very critical. Thus the 350 kHz (plus or minus 175 kHz of the
Q of the antenna increases as the element center frequency), and therefore would be
spacing is decreased and restricted frequency effective over the whole 20 -meter band. In
coverage is the result. like fashion, a 15 -meter array should be
precut to 21,200 kHz.
Element Lengths A beam designed for use on the 10 -meter
The length of the parasitic
band would have an effective bandwidth of
element in a Yagi antenna
some 700 kHz. Since the 10 -meter band is
is affected by the diameter of the element,
1700 kHz in width, the array should either
all other factors being equal. The smaller
be cut to 28,500 kHz for operation in the
the element diameter, the greater will be the
low - frequency portion of the band, or to
element length for a given set of operating
29,200 kHz for operation in the high -fre-
conditions (Chart 4).
quency portion of the band. Operation of
For the hf spectrum, and with element
the antenna outside the effective bandwidth
diameters of 1" to 2 ", the following di-
will increase the SWR on the transmission
mensions for the two -element beam are
line, and noticeably degrade both the gain
applicable:
and front -to -back ratio performance. The
476 height above ground also influences the F/B
Driven element length (feet) = ratio.
FMHz
The bandwidth on the high- frequency side
Director length (feet) - 450
FMHz
of the design frequency is limited at the
frequency at which the director becomes
self- resonant. At that frequency, the direc-
Element spacing (feet) = 120 tional pattern of the array reverses itself
FMHz and the parasitic element acts as a reflector
instead of a director. For this reason, care
is taken to make sure that director resonance
falls outside the upper frequency limit of
the amateur band, even if this means detun-
z
. ing the element slightly from the length that
Z
provides maximum gain at the design fre-
o quency. If the director is placed farther
au
V
away from the driven element, the gain will
ce
be less than optimum, but the reversal effect
will also be diminished.
A similar action takes place with the re-
20 ,00 200 200 400 GOO 000 /000 2000 3000
RATIO OF LENGTH TO DIAMETER
flector when the array is operated lower than
Chart 4.
the design frequency, the reflector reversing
itself and acting as a director at some criti-
LENGTH -TO- DIAMETER RATIO AFFECTS cal frequency. Thus, the self-resonant fre-
LENGTH OF ELEMENT quency of the parasitic elements is the
When an element approximately a halfwave-
limiting factor in determining the opera-
length in length is constructed of material tional bandwidth of a parasitic array.
whose diameter is an appreciable fraction of
the length, the resonant length will be short-
ened as illustrated in this graph. This particular
chart applies to frequencies below approximately 29 -2 The Multielement
54 MHz and applies to the basic formula where
element length is expressed in 476 f ",. Parasitic Array
The three -element Yagi array is made up
The effective bandwidth taken between of a director, driven element and reflector.
the 1.5/1 standing -wave points of an array The practical power gain is about 8.5 dB
cut to the above dimensions is about 2.5 over a dipole placed at the same height above
percent of the operating frequency. This ground and the front -to -back ratio runs
from
Element Spacing
HF ROTARY BEAM ANTENNAS
mom
s
i
SMM
.._u
!Iri7M
a.sha
//
N
moamm .
.......
...-
.....t.
........................
iC ..............................
,jQD:na
MMMEMMMNON
BOOM LENGTH IaI
fa
Chart
MOM
OMMOMO...U....
the director should be considerably shorter, element) will add slightly less than 1 dB
and the reflector considerably longer than more. In the vhf range, where the additional
the driven element. For example, the direc- elements may be added without much diffi-
ter should still be less than a resonant half - culty, and where required bandwidths are
wavelength at the upper frequency limit of small, the use of more than two parasitic
the range wherein the antenna is to be oper- elements is quite practical.
ated, and the reflector should still be long Doubling the number of directors boosts
enough to act as a reflector at the lower fre- the overall gain figure by about 3 dB, as
quency limit. Another way of stating the indicated in Table 1. Additional data on
same thing is to say, in the case of an array long Yagi antennas is included in the next
to cover a wide frequency range such as the chapter.
amateur range from 28 to 29.7 MHz that the
director should be cut for the upper end
of the band and the reflector for the lower 29 -3 Building The
end of the band. In the case of the 28- to Yagi Beam
29.7 -MHz range this means that the director The majority of hf Yagi beam antennas
should be about 8 percent shorter than the make use of elements made up of lengths of
driven element and the reflector should be telescoping aluminum tubing. This assembly
about 8 percent longer. Such an antenna is easy to construct and avoids the problem
will show a relatively constant gain of about
of getting sufficiently good insulation at the
6 dB over its range of coverage, and the pat-
ends of the elements, as the elements may
tern will not reverse at any point in the be supported at the center with a minimum
range.
amount of sag.
Where the frequency range to be covered
Available tubing comes in 12 -foot sec-
is somewhat less, such as the 14.0- to 14.4 -
tions and 6061 -T6 alloy is recommended as
MHz amateur band, or the lower half of
a good compromise between strength and
the amateur 28 -MHz phone band, the re-
flector should be about 5 oercent longer than ability to resist corrosion.
the driven element, and the director about 5 The element diameter depends on the size
percent shorter. Such an antenna will per- of the element. Generally speaking, a 20-
form well over its rated frequency band, meter Yagi element may be made of a
will not reverse its pattern over this band, center section of tubing about 1%2" (3.81
and will show a signal gain of 7 to 8 cm) diameter, with end -sections made of
11/4" (2.86 cm) diameter tubing. Alter-
dB. See Table 1 for design figures for 3-
element arrays. natively, the element may be made of a
11/4" diameter center section, intermediate
More Thon Additional gain may be ob- sections of 11/4" diameter tubing, and end
Three Elements tained through use of more sections of 1" (2.54 cm) tubing. Overall
than two parasitic elements, element length is determined by the dis-
at the expense of reduced feedpoint im- tance the smaller sections are extended be-
pedance and lessened bandwidth (figure 3) . yond the end of the center section (figure
One additional director will add about 1 dB, 4). For ease in telescoping, the difference in
and a second additional director (making a diameters (clearance) between the sections
total of five elements including the driven should be about 0.01" (0.025 cm).
3- ELE4ENT
DRIVEN CLEMENT
LENGTH
73
F (NN.)
RErLLCTOR
LENGTH
F
501
pad
1ST
43
DIRECTOR
LENGTH
F (NN.)
- --
2ND DIRECTOR SRD DIRECTOR SPACING OET-
LENGTH LENGTH WEEMELLMENTS
.15-.15
0
APPROX.GAIN
7.5
APPROX. RADIATION
RESISTANCE
20
(A)
3- ELEMENT
4- ELEMENT
5-ELEMENT
-
t a14
F 1Nó
PIP-mu)
NMt)
(NMd
le-1117)
F NN.)
.) 1.)
- Mt)
.25 -.25
2-2-.2
.2- .2 -.2-
.S
.2
10.0
35
20
1 S
HF ROTARY BEAM ANTENNAS 29.7
TOP GUYS
LINE OF
ELEMENTS
BOOM. MADE
ALUMINUM PLATE
- OF SECTIONS
OF STEEL TV
MAST OR OF
APPROX. 3"X 12" ALUMINUM
IRRIGATION
TUBING
ROTATING
/7
MAST
- ELEMENT HELD TO PLATE WITH U- BOLTS. STRENGTHENING
(2 REO.0) OR MUFFLER CLAMPS PLATE ON
DIRECTOR AND
REFLECTOR
ADJUSTABLE
TIP
SLIT CENTER SECTION TUBE
3AT EACH END.
ADJUSTABLE
TIP
Figure 5
TYPICAL ELEMENT
GUY WIRES FORM TRUSS TO
STRENGTHEN ROTARY BEAM
Figure 4
A top truss will reduce boom sag and strengthen
3- ELEMENT ALL -METAL the beam assembly. Mast is extended above the
beam and two guy wires are run to reflector and
ANTENNA ARRAY director elements. The elements can be strength-
ened by adding short plates at the center, the
All -metal configuration permits rugged, light as- guy wires attaching to holes in the ends of the
sembly. Joints are made with U -bolts and metal plates. The guy wires should be broken up with
plates for maximum rigidity. strain insulators.
29.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
Stocking of Parasitic arrays (yagis) may be dipoles would add the gain of one yagi ar-
Yogi Arrays stacked to provide additional ray to the gain obtained with the dipoles.
gain in the same manner that However, the yagi arrays must be more
dipoles may be stacked. Thus if an array of widely spaced than the dipoles to obtain this
six dipoles would give a gain of 10 dB, the theoretical improvement. As an example, if
substitution of yagi arrays for each of the six 5-element yagi arrays having a gain of
0 2 A
A
\a\
I.-0.2 O.2ar-0 2 A--4.-0.2
OGAIN ABOUT 12 DB
WITH 2 SECTIONS
FEEDER LINE
© GAIN ABOUT IS DB
WITH 3 SECTIONS O AIN ABOUT 17 De
Figure 6
about 10 dB were substituted for the di- mum SWR on the line after the antenna has
poles, with appropriate increase in the spac- been tuned to frequency. A coaxial line and
ing between the arrays, the gain of the 4 -to -1 balun transformer may take the place
whole system would approach the sum of of the open wire transmission line. The di-
the two gains, or 20 dB. A group of arrays mensions shown will operate with either
of yagi antennas, with recommended spac- 20 -, 15 -, or 10 -meter low impedance driven
ing and approximate gains, is illustrated elements. The rings are parallel and lie in a
in figure 6. plane normal to the axis of rotation of the
Additional data on stacked arrays is given array. The supporting pipe for the array
in the next chapter. passes through the center of the rotary rings.
52 A COAXIAL CABLE
© QUARTER -WAVE
TRANSFORMER FEED
Figure 7
75 O. TWIN LINE
FEED SYSTEMS
WHERE THE DRIVEN
ELEMENT MAY BE
450-600 A LINE
BROKEN IN THE
CENTER
© TRANSFORMER
MATCHING SYSTEM
OD ROTARY -LINK
COUPLING
COIL SPACED COILS 10-
APPROX. 0.5" DIAMETER
;
50 -S00 IL LINE 1
F
r -
1 1 1
Figure 9 f
COMPACT THREE -ELEMENT BEAM
D
DIMENSIONS
BAND
D f IMHZI
DES
I IMHzt
R
f IMHz)
S
f IMHz>
40 65'r 19.91 66' 10" 20.32 70' 8" 21.60 18' 0" 5.50
20 32' 8' 9.96 33' 5" 10.16 35' 4" 10.82 9' 0" 2.75
15 21' 10' 6.68 22' 4" 6.81 23' 7' 7.25 6' 2" 1.87
10 16' 4" 4.98 16' 8" 5.08 17' 8" 5.41 4' 6" 1.37
approximately 2.0 times the lowest operating the traps affect the overall antenna effi-
frequency, the inner set of traps becomes ciency. As with all multipurpose devices,
resonant, effectively disconnecting a larger some compromise between operating con-
portion of the element from the driven sec- venience and efficiency must be made with
tion. The length of the center section is antennas designed to operate over more than
resonant at the highest frequency of opera- one narrow band of frequencies. Taking into
tion. The center section, plus the two ad- account the theoretical difficulties that must
jacent inner sections are resonant at the be overcome it is a tribute to the designers
intermediate frequency of operation, and the of the better multiband beams that they
complete element is resonant at the lowest perform as well as they do.
frequency of operation.
The efficiency of such a system is deter- The Isolating The parallel -tuned circuit
mined by the accuracy of tuning of both Trap which serves as an isolating
the element sections and the isolating traps. trap for a multiband anten-
In addition the combined dielectric losses of na should combine high circuit Q with good
ISOLATING TRAPS -T environmental protection. A highly satis-
factory trap configuration based on the
original design of W3DZZ is shown in fig-
FEED OINT I
ure 11. The trap capacitor, which has a
IIRESONANT
value of about 25 pF is made of two sec-
AT HIGHEST FREQUENCY tions of aluminum tubing which form a
+ - RESONANT 3 Al' portion of the antenna element. The capaci-
I ATE LIEQUENCY
tor dielectric is molded lucite, or similar
RESONANT I AT LOWEST FREQUENCY
plastic material, given a coat of epoxy to
Figure 10
help resist crazing and cracking caused by
exposure to sunlight. The coil is wound of
TRAP -TYPE "THREE- BAND" No. 8 aluminum wire and, with the capacitor
ELEMENT placed within it, has a Q of nearly 300.
Isolatng traps permit dipole to be self- resonant
The leads of the coil are bent around the
at three widely different frequencies. tubing and a small aluminum block is used
29.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
loops, function equally well regardless of FEET METERS FEET METERS FEET METERS
the polarization of the driven element.
40 35' 2" 10.76 36' 4" 11.08 17' 0" 5.2
The power gain of a driven Quad loop is
about 1.4 dB over a dipole and the addition 20 17' 8 " 5.38 18' 2 ' 5.36 8' 6" 2.6
of parasitic loop elements brings the gain
up in the same ratio as adding the equivalent 15 11' 8' 3.56 12' 3" 3.74 5' 7" 1.7
elements to a Yagi array. Thus, element for
element, the Quad exhibits about 1.4 dB 10 8'8" 2.65 9'1" 2.77 4'2" 1.3
tion, it ultimately becomes a two -wire trans- critical. The framework shown in figure 14 may
be used with this array.
mission line, one -half wavelength long,
shorted at the far end. The input impedance
of the loop is about half that of the folded the lower heights is appreciably below that
dipole, or approximately 140 ohms. The loop of a dipole or Yagi array. At a height of /-
exhibits a figure -8 radiation pattern similar wavelength, for example, the angle of radi-
to the dipole. ation of the main lobe of a Quad antenna is
about 4c below that of a dipole. At an ele-
The Two -Element The conventional two - vation of %8- wavelength, the angle of radi-
Quad element Quad for hf ation of a Quad is nea -ly 100 below that
operation is horizontally of a dipole and, at a height of wavelength /-
polarized and the parasitic element is tuned the dipole is almost useless as most of the
as a reflector (figure 13) . At a spacing of radiation is directed upwards. The Quad an-
about 0.13 wavelength, the Quad provides tenna, however, at the same height holds
a power gain of nearly 7.3 dB over a dipole the main lobe at an angle of 400 above the
mounted at the median height of the Quad. horizon. Thus for low heights, the Quad
The gain curve for a change in element antenna provides an appreciably lower angle
spacing is quite flat for spacings between 0.1 of radiation than does either the dipole or
and 0.2 wavelength. The radiation resistance, the Yagi array.
at a spacing of 0.13 wavelength is very
close to 60 ohms.
The angle of radiation above the horizon- Element Dimensions Element lengths for the
tal of a two- clement Quad resembles that of a Quad antenna may be
dipole or Yagi at the higher elevation angles. expressed in terms of the circumference of
However, because of the effect of stacking, the loop, regardless of whether the shape of
the angle of radiation for a Quad antenna at the element is square, diamond, triangular
29.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
or circular. The following formulas apply to A Simple Quad Shown in figure 14 is an all -
hf Quads made of wire: Framework metal support structure for
Circumference of driven element: a 2- element Quad. Built of
thin wall conduit pipe and angle iron, this
1005
"spider" will accommodate bamboo or Fiber-
Feet = glas arms of sufficient length for a 20 -, 15 -,
f or 10 -meter Quad, or an interlaced triband
306.5 version. The "spider" is made in two parts
= so the elements may be assembled on the
f MHz
ground and carried to the top of the tower
for final assembly. Boom length is only two
Circumference of director element: feet, so the entire Quad can be easily sup-
975 ported by a single person.
Feet = fl?111z)
When the structure is completed, it should
be given a good coat of antirust paint, fol-
Meters = f297.4
\1Hz)
lowed by a coat of heavy duty, outdoor
paint to retard rust and corrosion. All hard-
ware should be either stainless steel, or heav-
Circumference of reflector element: ily plated.
PLACES
K
!
DETAIL '' / -9D°
TYP.
-
DETAIL A' - --
DETAIL C"
PLACES
DRILL
4 PLACES
-2 R
SYM.
DRILL
PLACES
T
4-F°{ 3'
SLOT MTG. HOLES 6'
MAIL ! THK. C.R. STEEL PLATE
DETAIL "A"
MAIL: - IHK. C.R. STEEL PLATE
DETAIL "B"
MAIL' - 1-HK. C.R. STEEL PLATE
DETAIL "C"
Figure 14
tends to interfere with the rotational and num fittings. A simple gamma match is used
support system of the antenna. The four - to provide adjustment and the antenna is
element Quad, on the other hand, is quite fed with a coaxial transmission line.
popular as it is symmetrical with respect to A complete discussion of Quad antennas
the supporting structure and does not inter- of all types is contained in the book, All
fere with the rotating system. About Cubical Quad Antennas, available
The four -element Quad provides a power from Radio Publications, Inc., Wilton,
gain of about 10.5 dB over a dipole, and Conn., 06897.
about 1.7 dB over a four -element Yagi beam
mounted on the same length boom. Dimen- 29 -8 The Driven Array
sions for a typical four -element Quad are
shown in figure 15. The boom length is 30 Multielement beams may be composed of
feet, made up of two sections of 2 %2" (6.4 driven elements, rather than parasitically
cm) aluminum tubing having an 0.065" excited elements. This arrangement provides
(0.17 cm) wall. Material is 6061 -ST6. The somewhat greater frequency coverage than
sections are joined by a short section of does the parasitically excited array. Shown in
tubing machined to slip -fit within the boom figure 16 is the so- called ZL- Special, two -
sections. element driven array. Half -wave elements
The elements are supported on Fiberglas are used, fed at the center with a transposed
arms mounted to the boom with cast alumi- feedline. The antenna provides a cardioid
REFLECTORN ELEMENT DIRECTOR f1 DIRECTOR f2
111
20 18' 2" 5.58 17' 7" 5.37 17' 2' 5.23 20 12' 9 314" 3.90 12' 5 112" 3.80 12' 1 112" 3.70
15 12' 1" 3.69 11' 9" 3.58 11' 5" 3.47 15 8' 6 112" 2.60 8' 3 1/2" 2.53 8' 1" 2.46
10 9' 0" 2.75 8' 8" 2.65 8' 6" 2.59 10 6' 4" 1.93 6' 2" 1.88 6' Cr 1.83
Figure 15
DIRECTIONAL
DIRECTIONAL
GAIN ABOUT 6 DB
Figure 16
over a dipole.
Various other types of unidirectional
driven arrays are illustrated in figure 17. The
array shown in figure 17A is an end -fire
system which may be used in place of a par-
asitic array of similar dimensions when
greater frequency coverage than is available
with the yagi type is desired. Figure 17B is
a combination end -fire and collinear system
Broadside Arrays side arrays shown in figure one -half wave vertically, operating with re-
18. The first type, shown at flectors. In figure 18C is shown a more com-
figure 18A, is the simple lazy -H type of plex array with six half waves and six re-
antenna with parasitic reflectors for each flectors which will give a very worthwhile
element. Figure 18B shows a simpler antenna amount of gain.
HF ROTARY BEAM ANTENNAS 29.17
In all three of the antenna arrays shown identical half -wave element is placed one -
the spacing between the driven elements quarter wave behind it.
and the reflectors has been shown as one - A very slight increase in gain for the en-
quarter wavelength. This has been done to tire array (about 1 dB) may be obtained at
eliminate the requirement for tuning of the the expense of lowered radiation resistance,
reflector, as a result of the fact that a half - the necessity for tuning the reflectors, and
wave element spaced exactly one- quarter decreased bandwidth by placing the re-
wave from a driven element will make a flectors 0.1 S wavelength behind the driven
unidirectional array when both elements are elements and making them somewhat longer
the same length. Using this procedure will than the driven elements. The radiation re-
give a gain of 3 dB with the reflectors over sistance of each element will drop approxi-
the gain without the reflectors, with only a mately to one -half the value obtained with
moderate decrease in the radiation resistance untuned half -wave reflectors spaced one -
of the driven element. Actually, the radia- quarter wave behind the driven elements.
tion resistance of a half -wave dipole goes Antenna arrays of the type shown in fig-
down from 73 ohms to 60 ohms when an ure 18 require the use of some sort of lat-
GAIN APPROX. Oa
I-
e
Figure 18 BROADSIDE HALF -WAVES
WITH REFLECTORS
BROADSIDE ARRAYS FOLDED DIPOLES REFLECTORS GAIN APPROX 1 DR
WITH PARASITIC
REFLECTORS
The apparent gain of the
arrays illustrated will be
greater than the values 3000. LINE
given due to concentration
of the radiated signal at
the lower elevation angles.
rice work for the supporting structure since Tuning the The actual tuning of the array
the arrays occupy appreciable distance in Array for best front -to -back ratio or
space in all three planes. maximum forward gain may
best be accomplished with the aid of a low -
power transmitter feeding a dipole antenna
Feed Methods The requirements for the feed (polarized the same as the array being
systems for antenna arrays of tuned) at least four or five wavelengths
the type shown in figure 18 are less critical away from the antenna being tuned and
than those for the close -spaced parasitic ar- located at the same elevation as that of the
rays shown in the previous section. This is antenna under test. A calibrated field -
a natural result of the fact that a larger
strength meter of the remote- indicating type
number of the radiating elements are direct- is then coupled to the feedpoint of the
ly fed with energy, and of the fact that the antenna array being tuned. The transmis-
effective radiation resistance of each of the sions from the portable transmitter should
driven elements of the array is much higher be made as short as possible and the call
than the feedpoint resistance of a parasitic sign of the station making the test should
array. As a consequence of this fact, arrays be transmitted at least every ten minutes.
of the type shown in figure 18 can be ex- One satisfactory method of tuning the
pected to cover a somewhat greater fre- array proper, assuming that it is a system
quency band for a specified value of stand- with several parasitic elements, is to set the
ing -wave ratio than the parasitic type of directors to the dimensions given in Table 1
array. and then to adjust the reflector for maxi-
In most cases a simple open -wire line may mum forward signal. Then the first director
be coupled to the feedpoint of the array should be varied in length until maximum
without any matching system. The stand- forward signal is obtained, and so on if ad-
ing -wave ratio with such a system of feed ditional directors are used. Then the array
will often be less than 2 -to -1. However, if may be reversed in direction and the reflector
a more accurate match between the antenna
adjusted for best front -to -back ratio. Sub-
transmission line and the array is desired a sequent small adjustments may then be
conventional quarter -wave stub, or a quar- made in both the directors and the reflector
ter -wave matching transformer of appro- for best forward signal with a reasonable
priate impedance, may be used to obtain a ratio of front -to -back signal. The adjust-
low standing -wave ratio. ments in the directors and the reflector will
be found to be interdependent to a certain
29 -9 Tuning the Parasitic degree, but if small adjustments are made
Array after the preliminary tuning process a sat-
isfactory set of adjustments for maximum
Although satisfactory results may be ob- performance will be obtained. It is usually
tained in most cases by precutting the an- best to make the end sections of the ele-
tenna elements to the dimensions given ear- ments smaller in diameter so that they will
lier in this chapter, the occasion might arise slip inside the larger tubing sections. The
when it is desired to retune the parasitic smaller sliding sections may be clamped in-
beam, or to check on the operation of the side the larger main sections.
antenna. The following information applies
to the Yagi antenna, but the same general
process applies to any parasitic array, such Matching to the The problem of matching
as the Quad. Antenna Trans- the impedance of the an-
The process of tuning an array may sat- mission Line tenna transmission line to
isfactorily be divided into two more or less the array is much simpli-
distinct steps: the actual tuning of the ar- fied if the process of tuning the array is
ray for best front -to -back ratio or for maxi- made a substantially separate process as just
mum forward gain, and the adjustment to described. After the tuning operation is
obtain the best possible impedance match complete, the resonant frequency of the
between the antenna transmission line and driven element of the antenna should be
the feedpoint of the array. checked, directly at the center of the driven
HF ROTARY BEAM ANTENNAS 29.19
element if practical, with a grid -dip meter. Before any adjustments to the matching
It is important that the resonant frequency system are made, the resonant frequency of
of the antenna be at the center of the fre- the driven element must be ascertained, as
quency band to be covered. If the resonant explained previously. If all adjustments to
frequency is found to be much different correct impedance mismatch are made at this
from the desired frequency, the length of frequency, the problem of reactance termi-
the driven element of the array should be nation of the transmission line is eliminated,
altered until this condition exists. A relative- greatly simplifying the problem. The fol-
ly small change in the length of the driven lowing steps should be taken to adjust the
element will have only a second -order effect impedance transformation:
on the tuning of the parasitic elements of
the array. Hence, a moderate change in 1. The output impedance of the matching
the length of the driven element may be device should be measured. An Anten-
made without repeating the tuning process nascope and a grid -dip oscillator are
fer the parasitic elements. required for this step. The Antenna -
When the resonant frequency of the an- scope is connected to the output ter-
tenna system is correct, the antenna trans- minals of the matching device. If the
mission line, with impedance- matching de- driven element is a folded dipole, the
vice or network between the line and Antennascope connects directly to the
antenna feedpoint, is then attached to the split section of the dipole. If a gamma
array and coupled to a low -power exciter match or T -match is used, the An-
unit or transmitter. Then, preferably, a tennascope connects to the transmis-
standing -wave meter is connected in series sion -line end of the device. If a Q-
with the antenna transmission line at a section is used, the Antennascope
point relatively much closer to the trans- connects to the bottom end of the
mitter than to the antenna. section. The grid -dip oscillator is cou-
If the standing -wave ratio is below 1.5 pled to the input terminals of the
to 1 it is satisfactory to leave the installation Antennascope as shown in figure 19.
as it is. If the ratio is greater than this range 2. The grid -dip oscillator is tuned to the
it will be best when twin line or coaxial resonant frequency of the antenna,
line is being used, and advisable with open - which has been determined previously,
wire line, to attempt to decrease the SWR. and the Antennascope control is turned
It must be remembered that no adjust- for a null reading on the meter of
ments made at the transmitter end of the the Antennascope. The impedance pre-
transmission line will alter the SWR on the sented to the Antennascope by the
line. All adjustments to better the SWR matching device may be read directly
must be made at the antenna end of the line on the calibrated dial of the Antenna -
and to the device which performs the im- scope.
pedance transformation necessary to match 3. Adjustments should be made to the
the characteristic impedance of the antenna matching device to present the desired
to that of the transmission line. impedance transformation to the An-
tennascope. If a folded dipole is used
DRIVEN EL f as the driven element, the transforma-
tion ratio of the dipole must be varied
ANTENNASCOr[
as explained previously in this handbook
RESONATING
CAPACITOR to provide a more exact match. If a
T -match or gamma match system is
used, the length of the matching rod
may be changed to effect a proper
GRID - DIP METER match. If the Antennascope ohmic
Figure 19 reading is lower than the desired read-
ing, the length of the matching rod
ADJUSTMENT OF GAMMA MATCH should be increased. If the Antenna -
BY USE OF ANTENNASCOPE scope reading is higher than the de-
AND GRID -DIP METER sired reading, the length of the match-
29.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
ing rod should be decreased. After may be raised to -rotatable height and the
each change in length of the matching fastening clamps left loose enough so that
rod, the series capacitor in the match- the elements may be slid in by means of a
ing system should be re- resonated for long bamboo pole. After a series of trials a
best null on the meter of the Anten- satisfactory set of adjustments can be ob-
nascope. tained.
The matching process does not require ro-
Raising and practical problem always
A tation, but it does require that the antenna
Lowering present when tuning up and proper be located at as nearly its normal
the Array matching an array is the physi- operating position as possible. However, on
cal location of the structure. If a particular installation the standing -wave
the array is atop the mast it is inaccessible ratio on the transmission line near the trans-
for adjustment, and if it is located on step- mitter may be checked with the array in the
ladders where it can be adjusted easily it air, and then the array may be lowered to
cannot be rotated. One encouraging factor ascertain whether or not the SWR has
in this situation is the fact that experience changed. If it has not, and in most cases if
has shown that if the array is placed 8 or the feeder line is strung out back and forth
10 feet above ground on some stepladders well above the ground as the antenna is
for the preliminary tuning process, the rais- lowered they will not change, the last ad-
ing of the system to its full height will not justment may be determined, the standing -
produce a serious change in the adjustments. wave ratio again checked, and the antenna
So it is usually possible to make preliminary re- installed in its final location.
adjustments with the system located slightly
greater than head height above ground, and
then to raise the antenna to a position where 29 -10 Indication of
it may be rotated for final adjustments. If Direction
the position of the matching device as de-
termined near the ground is marked so that The most satisfactory method for indi-
the adjustments will not be lost, the array cating the direction of transmission of a ro-
S.P D.T.
RELAY
SOCKET ' PLUG SOCKET I PLUG
ANTENNA ROTATOR
TO PROP MOTOR
REVERSE LEADS
t 4=4 11'
0 40
0. ,Q
iViab
al
PILOT
LIGHT
Figure 20
SCHEMATIC OF A COMPLETE ANTENNA CONTROL SYSTEM
HF ROTARY BEAM ANTENNAS 29.21
tatable array is that which uses Selsyns or These units do not have braking ability in
Synchros for the transmission of the data most cases and high winds or strong gusts
from the rotating structure to the indicating will turn the antenna and rotate the motor
pointer at the operating position. A num- in reverse fashion through the gear train.
ber of Synchros and Selsyns of various types Damage to the rotor may result when the
are available. Some of there are designed for antenna is forced against the end -stop of
operation on 120 volts at 60 Hz, some are the train.
designed for operation on 60 Hz but at a Larger and more costly TV rotors have
lowered voltage, and some are designed for heavier gear trains and often include a brak-
operation, from 400- or 800 -Hz energy. This ing mechanism that holds the antenna in
latter type of high- frequency Selsyn is the position when power is removed. The heavi-
most generally available type, and the high - est design, specifically built for amateur use
frequency units are smaller and lighter than includes a heavy -duty brake and an accurate
the 60 -Hz units. Since the indicating Selsyn direction indicating system and is recom-
must deliver an almost negligible amount of mended for the heavier antenna arrays.
power to the pointer which it drives, the Regardless of the type of rotor used, it is
high- frequency types will operate quite satis- recommended that the rotor not be required
factorily from 60 -Hz power if the voltage to support the full weight of a heavy an-
on them is reduced to somewhere between tenna, especially if the antenna is at the end
6.3 and 20 volts. The operating voltage of a long lever arm from the rotor. The
should be held as low as it may be and still rotor should be mounted below the top of
give satisfactory transmission of data from the tower and a bearing placed at the top of
the antenna to the operating position. Cer- the tower to absorb the sidewards thrust of
tainly it should not be necessary to run such the wind that would otherwise be imposed
a voltage on the units that they become on the gear mechanism of the rotor. If the
overheated. antenna installation is a heavy one, a thrust
A suitable Selsyn indicating system is bearing should be used between the antenna
shown in figure 20. and the rotor to ease the downward strain
The majority of TV rotators and heavy - on the rotor mechanism.
duty rotators designed for amateur service All joints between the antenna and the
have built -in direction -indicating systems. rotor should be securely pinned to prevent
In most instances, this is a modified form of the antenna working free and "wind -mill-
indicating potentiometer and a milliammeter ing" in a heavy storm. The force of a heavy
connected so that the rotation of the an- antenna working back and forth in a storm
tenna is represented by the current flowing can cause havoc with the mechanism of any
through the meter. rotor and replacement or repair of the ro-
tator usually means that the whole antenna
installation must be disassembled and the ro-
29 -11 Antenna Rotators tor brought to earth for repairs.
Various commercial rotators are available Finally, all hardware used in the support
to the amateur operator. The less- expensive and rotation system should be either stain-
TN' rotators are strong enough to turn small less steel, or heavily plated. Rusty hardware
2- and 6 -meter beams and perhaps light 10- will make repairs almost impossible on any
and 15-meter single -band parasitic beams. antenna system.
py. %.4 "511.11S,_
lirP717 r".111."
- Z.': ".''
.
^ `.*
f;4:
111":
=V,
LN- .,4'2
0. -
_mad
jab. -..6.1-"ii. .'
.
'
,
--
a
:
'
j....t... , ,..k ,
.
CHAPTER THIRTY
The very- high -frequency or vhf domain factor in vhf and uhf reception is in almost
is defined as that range falling between 30 every case the noise generated within the re-
and 300 MHz. The ultrahigh -frequency or ceiver itself. Atmospheric and solar noise are
uhf range is defined as falling between 300 quite low, and ignition interference can al-
and 3000 MHz. This chapter will be devoted most invariably be reduced to a satisfactory
to the design and construction of antenna level through the use of an effective noise
systems for operation on the amateur 50 -, limiter. Even with a low noise front -end in
144 -, 220 -, and 420 -MHz bands. Although the receiver, the noise contribution of the
the basic principles of antenna operation are first tuned circuit will be relatively large.
the same for all frequencies, the shorter phy- Hence it is desirable to use an antenna system
sical length of a wave in this frequency range which will deliver the greatest signal voltage
and the differing modes of signal propagation to the first tuned circuit for a given field
make it possible and expedient to use antenna strength at the receiving location.
systems different in design from those used Since the field intensity being produced at
in the range from 3 to 30 MHz. the receiving location by a remote transmit-
ting station may be assumed to be constant,
the receiving antenna which intercepts the
30 -1 Antenna greatest amount of wave front (assuming
Requirements that the polarization and directivity of the
receiving antenna is proper) will be the an-
Any type of antenna design usable on the tenna which gives the best received signal -
lower frequencies may be used in the vhf to -noise ratio. An antenna which has two
and uhf bands. In fact, simple nondirective square wavelengths of effective area will pick
half -wave or quarter -wave vertical antennas up twice as much signal power as one which
are very popular for general transmission l-as one square wavelength area, assuming the
and reception from all directions, especially same general type of antenna and that both
for short -range repeater work. But for serious are directed at the station being received.
vhf or uhf work the use of some sort of di- Many instances have been reported where a
rectional antenna array is a necessity. In the frequency band sounded' completely dead
first place, when the transmitter power is with a simple ground -plane receiving antenna
concentrated into a narrow beam the appar- but when the receiver was switched to a
ent transmitter power at the receiving sta- three -element or larger array a considerable
tion is increased many times. A "billboard" amount of activity from 80 to 160 miles
array or a Yagi beam having a gain of 16 dB distant was heard.
will make a 25 -watt transmitter sound like
a kilowatt at the other station. Even a much
simpler and smaller three- or four -element VHF Antenna Types The vhf directional an-
parasitic array having a gain of 7 to 10 dB tennas most used by se-
will produce a marked improvement in the rious experimenters fall into four character-
received signal at the other station. istic groups:collinear, broadside, end -fire, and
However, as all vhf and uhf workers frequency -independent (figure 1). All of
know, the most important contribution of a these, except the last, have been discussed in
high -gain antenna array is in reception. If a earlier chapters of this handbook. It is com-
remote station cannot be heard it obviously mon vhf practice to combine antennas of
is impossible to make contact. The limiting one type into a large directional array of an-
30.1
30.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
0
BROADSIDE
t ! t All
Figure 1
tennas, exhibiting a high gain figure and very This chapter covers some of the more pop-
narrow beam width. Such assemblies are usu- ular antenna designs that have been proven
ally impractical on the lower frequencies be- in service and can be easily built, assembled
cause of the excessively large size of the an- and adjusted without the use of complicated
tenna combination. However, at ¶0 MHz test equipment.
and higher, a high -gain antenna is quite The choice of antenna to use depends on
small, and "back yard" arrays can be built the type of communication the experimenter
for moonbounce communication, meteor re- is primarily concerned with and usually in-
flection, or tropospheric scatter work that volves a trade -off between operational band-
provide upward of 20 dB gain. Arrays for width and power gain. No "universal" vhf
the higher bands of comparable power gain antenna exists that will satisfy the require-
are, of course, much smaller. ments of every vhf operator.
VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS 30.3
Because vhf beams are relatively small ever, the antenna height must be balanced
compared to hf beam antennas of equivalent against the increase in transmission line loss,
gain, it is possible for the experimenter to which can be quite high, especially in the
easily build and evaluate various vhf antenna upper vhf and lower uhf range. Large vhf
designs. The broadside, curtain style beams antennas, too, are often damaged by winter
are generally simpler to get working than weather, especially when mounted high and
the Yagi, although the Yagi can be made in the clear. For specialized communication,
with fewer elements for a given amount of such as moonbounce, antenna height is of
power gain. Unless the Yagi is accurately ad- little importance as long as the antenna can
justed, the broadside array may end up with "see" the moon. Satellite work with OSCAR
more signal gain than the Yagi. Stacking does not require great antenna height either,
Yagi antennas, in addition, can raise addi- as long as the satellitepath is in the clear,
tional problems not always encountered in with regard to the transmitting and receiving
the broadside array. The expected 3 -dB power antennas.
gain expected for the addition of a second
Yagi may not be realized unless the antennas VHF Antenna Vhf mobile operation gener-
are spaced far enough apart so that the aper- Polarization ally implies vertical polari-
tures do not overlap. This may cause the zation and base stations in
minor lobes of the pattern to enlarge, which general contact with mobiles use vertical
may lead to undesired signal pickup and de- polarization exclusively. Long range vhf
graded front -to -side ratio. operation, however, seems to show no prefer-
In spite of the design problems associated ence for one form of polarization over an-
with the Yagi, many successful designs have other. Manmade noise seems to be vertically
been worked out and some of the better ones polarized and many amateurs avoid vertical
are described in this chapter. The log - periodic polarization if they live in an area having
Yagi (LPY) beam overcomes some of the a high level of "r-f smog." Generally speak-
difficulties associated with the Yagi and a ing, horizontal polarization seems to hold a
wideband, LPY array for 50 MHz is shown. slight edge over vertical polarization for long
Other practical beams for 220 and 420 MHz distance vhf communication and construc-
are shown in later sections. tion problems seem to be less with horizontal
Generally speaking, an omnidirectional an- elements when a large antenna array is as-
tenna pattern with vertical polarization and sembled. Cross polarization (horizontal to
moderate gain is desired by the f -m enthusi- vertical, and vice versa) entails a circuit
ast who wishes to work into numerous re- loss of about 20 dB, so it is wise to check
peaters at various distances and directions what type of polarization is in use in your
from his station. A rotary beam antenna in area before the construction of a large an-
this instance would be a nuisance. The moon - tenna array is undertaken.
bounce enthusiast requires a high gain an-
tenna, movable in both azimuth and elevation VHF Transmission Both parallel- conductor
so that he can track the moon. The OSCAR Lines air line and coaxial line
experimenter perhaps requires a medium -gain having a solid dielectric
antenna having a broad lobe that will allow are commonly used in the vhf region. In
the satellite to move a distance across the sky cases where line loss is a limiting factor,
before it becomes necessary to realign the an- air -insulated coaxial line may be used. It is
tenna. Selecting the proper vhf antenna is wise to use the very minimum amount of
the first important step, then, in the order transmission line possible since line loss
of priorities that faces the vhf operator. mounts rapidly at frequencies above 50 MHz
(figure 2) . Generally speaking, the popular
VHF Antenna For hf DX work, the higher 50 -ohm coaxial line (RG -8A /U and RG-
Placement the antenna, the lower the an- 5 8A U) are commonly used for short cable
gle of radiation will be and, runs on the vhf bands up to 450 MHz.
presumably, the better the DX results. In Longer runs require the larger, expensive
the vhf region, height is a virtue, especially RG-17 U cable, or open -wire line. Foam -
for extended, line -of -sight contacts. How- dielectric coaxial line may be used for less
30.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 2
loss, as compared to solid -dielectric line, and pared, a coaxial line is waterproof and may
many amateurs prefer this newer type of be run anywhere, since the r -f energy is
cable. mainly contained within the cable. In addi-
Since most vhf f -m gear is designed for tion, vhf S \\'R meters arc available, or easily
use with coaxial cable, the use of low -loss, made, to be used with standard 50- or 75-
open line is impractical. Some amateurs, ohm coaxial line.
however, use an antenna tuner or balun and While the coaxial line is waterproof, the
convert their station equipment to use either ends of the line are not, and water can
TV -style 300 -ohm twin lead, or open -wire easily get inside the exposed end of the line
line in order to reduce line losses (figure 3) . if precautions are not taken. To protect the
While the initial cost of the TV line is low line, it is necessary to coat the coaxial fittings
and the overall efficiency of the line is high, with a waterproofing sealant, such as General
the line loss increases rapidly when the line Electric RTV -102. As a substitute, white
is wet or covered with ice and snow. In bathtub calking compound may be used. The
addition, the line must be installed well clear coaxial plugs should be coated on the interior
of metallic objects and run in straight lengths with Doe Corning DC -4 paste, or equiva-
with gradual turns. Heavy -duty transmit- lent, to prevent moisture from entering the
ting line is better than the smaller receiving plug.
line, but either type must be carefully in-
stalled to hold signal loss to a minimum. VHF Coaxial Most amateur equipment is
Air -insulated parallel- conductor line must Hardware fitted with the so- called nbf-
also be carefully installed or its low loss style coaxial fittings, which
characteristic may be lost. The line should are a relic of the "forties." The plug is
be taut, with no sharp turns. The line must known as the PI. -259 and the receptacle is
be symmetrical with respect to ground and the SO -239. These items are not waterproof
nearby metallic objects which might unbal- and are not suited for use above 150 MHz,
ance it. Even a slight electrical unbalance since they introduce an appreciable SWR
can cause the line to radiate energy and to "bump" in the transmission line. The newer
decrease the power delivered to the load. and more efficient t y/w-N, or type BNC
As a result of the installation problems, coaxial connectors are now used in up -to-
most vhf amateurs settle for flexible coaxial date vhf equipment (figure 4). These fam-
line in spite of its higher loss. Properly pre- ilies of vhf hardware are considered to be
VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS 30.5
ATTENUATION
changeover relay become of increasing im-
dB/100 FEET
portance as the frequency of transmission is
DESCRIPTION 50 100 400
increased. When coaxial cable is used as the
AND MAKE Vp MHz MHz MHz
antenna transmission line, satisfactory coax-
GENERAL PURPOSE
ial antenna changeover relays with low
7X28 WIRE reflection can be used.
AM -214 -056 0.85 0.72 1.3 2.6 On the 220- and 420 -MHz amateur
C -4506 bands, the size of the antenna array becomes
CL-01004
quite small, and it is practical to mount two
HEAVY DUTY
identical antennas side by side. One of these
7X26 WIRE
TUBULAR 0.82 0.7 1.1 2.3 antennas is used for the transmitter, and the
AM-214-076 other antenna for the receiver. Separate
C -4523 transmission lines are used, and the antenna
GENERAL PURPOSE relay may be eliminated.
HOLLOW OR
FOAM CORE
7 X 28 WIRE 0.84 0.55 0.8 1.8 TYPE -N CONNECTORS
AM -214-022 DESCRIPTION MILITARY AMPHENOL
C -4527 TYPE TYPE
SHIELDED PLUG UG -21/U 3900
FOAM DIELECTRIC SPLICE UG -29/U 15000
C -4535 0.76 2.0 2.8 5.9
RECEPTACLE UG -58/U 82-97
CL -05720
TYPE BNC CONNECTORS
UNSHIELDED
FOAM DIELECTRIC PLUG UG -88/U 31.002
C -4532 0.80 1.4 SPLICE UG-914/U 31 -219
CL -05790 RECEPTACLE UG -625/U 5575
C= Consolidated Wire A M=Amphenol ADAPTER
CL= Columbia Wire TO UHF UG -273/U 31-028
Figure 3 Figure 4
addition, the radiation angle of the main the various elements in a vhf array must be
lobe of the antenna may be bent upward by sufficient so that they are self- supporting
the effect of line radiation, and if the trans- even in severe weather and so that their
mission line passes through a noisy arca, line surface conductivity is not low enough to
pickup may mask the weak -signal ability of degrade the performance appreciably. If, on
the receiving system. the other hand, the diameter of the elements
Thus, the best grade of coaxial line should is too large, the circuit O of the element is
be used to minimize line radiation through lowered and its effectiveness, particularly as
the braid, and the line itself should be led a parasitic in a Yagi array, is decreased. Most
away from the antenna at right angles to vhf antenna designs are based on 3/R" (0.9
the radiating elements of the antenna. cm) or 1" (2.54 cm) diameter tubing for
Lastly, a balun or other balancing device 50 -MHz work, %" (0.6 cm) or 3/16" (0.5
should be placed between a balanced antenna cm) diameter tubing for 144 -MHz work,
and a coaxial feedline to keep antenna cur- and %" (0.3 cm) diameter rod for 220- or
rent from flowing on the outside of the 420 -MHz work. If smaller diameter elements
shield of the line. are used, the length of the elements must be
increased accordingly to maintain resonance.
Element In the vhf region, aluminum tub- The relationship between element diameter
Diameter ing is commonly used for an- and length is difficult to ascertain, beyond
tenna construction since element actual measurements made on an antenna
length is short and the material is inexpen- range, and variations in element diameter
sive and readily available. The diameter of from a given design should be approached
Table 1. Wavelength and Antenna Dimensions
(Rounded)
F (MHz) A/2 (SPACE) A/4 (SPACE) A/2 DIPOLE 0.2A (SPACE)
Inches cm Inches cm Inches cm Inches cm
50.5 116.5 295.9 58.3 148.0 110.5 280.7 46.8 118.8
51.5 114.5 290.8 57.3 145.5 108.5 275.6 45.8 116.3
52.5 112.5 285.7 56.3 143.0 106.5 270.5 44.5 113.0
53.5 110.5 280.6 55.3 140.5 104.5 265.4 44.0 111.7
144 41.0 104.1 20.5 52.0 38.9 98.8 16.4 41.7
145 40.8 103.6 20.4 51.7 38.6 98.0 16.3 41.4
146 40.5 102.8 20.2 51.3 38.3 97.2 16.2 41.1
147 40.2 102.1 20.1 51.0 38.0 96.6 16.1 40.8
148 40.0 101.6 20.0 50.7 37.8 96.0 16.0 40.6
220 26.8 68.0 13.4 34.0 25.5 64.7 10.7 27.2
221 26.7 67.8 13.4 34.0 25.3 64.3 10.7 27.2
222 26.6 67.5 13.3 33.7 25.2 64.0 10.6 26.9
223 26.5 67.3 13.3 33.7 25.1 63.7 10.6 26.9
224 26.4 67.0 13.2 33.5 25.0 63.5 10.5 26.6
420 14.0 35.6 7.0 17.8 13.3 33.8 5.6 14.2
430 13.7 34.8 6.8 17.4 13.0 33.0 5.5 13.9
440 13.4 34.0 6.7 17.0 12.7 32.2 5.4 13.7
450 13.1 33.2 6.5 16.6 12.4 31.4 5.3 13.5
CHANGE
Per MHz
FORMULAS -
50 MHz = 2.0" A/2 (Space) - f
5905
(MHz)
5600
144 MHz = 0.3" A/2 (Dipole) - f (MHz)
with caution. As an example, reducing ele- Various vertical antennas are shown in
ment diameter by a factor of four at 50 figure 5. Antenna A is known as the sleeve
MHz requires an increase in element length antenna, the lower half of the radiator being
by about 8 percent to maintain resonance. a large piece of pipe up through which the
Representative lengths for a dipole element concentric feedline is run. At B is shown
for the vhf bands is given in Table 1. the ground-plain' vertical, and at C a modi-
Since the length -to- diameter ratio of an- fication of this latter antenna. In many
tennas above 100 MHz or so is somewhat cases, the antennas of illustrations A and
smaller than that of high- frequency arrays C have a set of quarter -wavelength radials
and because the arrays are physically smaller placed beneath the array to decouple it from
dimensions are generally given in inches, the transmission line.
based on the following formula: The radiation resistance of the ground -
plane vertical is approximately 30 ohms,
5600
Dipole length (inches) _ which is not a standard impedance for co-
J ruz axial line. To obtain a good match, the first
The metric equivalent is: quarter wavelength of feeder may be of 50
ohms impedance, and the remainder of the
14,224 line of 75 ohms impedance. Thus, the first
Dipole length (cm) _ quarter -wavelength section of line is used
f z
as a matching transformer, and a good match
The dimensions for small (3, 4, or S ele- is obtained.
ment) Yagis may be derived from Table 1, In actual practice the antenna would con-
based on elements of the listed diameters sist of a quarter -wavelength rod, mounted by
and using a nominal spacing of 0.2 wave- means of insulators atop a pole or pipe mast.
length. If other element spacings are to be Elaborate insulation is not required, as the
used, the reflector and director elements voltage at the lower end of the quarter -
will have to be readjusted accordingly. wavelength radiator is very low. Self -sup-
Closer reflector driven -element spacing will porting rods 0.25 wavelength long are ex-
call for a slightly shorter reflector for tended out, as shown in the illustration, and
optimum gain. Closer director driven -ele-
ment spacing will call for a slightly longer
director for optimum gain. Generally speak-
ing, anything closer to 0.2- wavelength spac-
ing in Yagi arrays tends to reduce the
bandwidth, reduce the driven- element im-
pedance, and increase the front -to -back
ratio.
The parasitic element should not be painted
as this tends to detune the element. A light
coat of Krylon plastic spray may be used to
protect the element against weather.
connected together. Since the point of con- The modification shown in figure SC per-
nection is effectively at ground potential, no mits matching to a standard 50- or 75 -ohm
insulation is required; the horizontal rods flexible coaxial cable without a linear trans-
may be bolted directly to the supporting former. If the lower rods hug the line and
pole or mast, even if of metal. The coaxial supporting mast rather closely, the feedpoint
line should be of the low -loss type especially impedance is about 75 ohms. If they are bent
designed for vhf use. The shield connects to out to form an angle of about 30° with the
the ¡unction of the radials, and the inner support pipe the impedance is about 50 ohms.
conductor to the bottom end of the vertical The number of radial legs used in a vhf
radiator. An antenna of this type is moder- ground -plane antenna of either type has an
ately simple to construct and will give a important effect on the feed -point imped-
good account of itself when fed at the lower ance and on the radiation characteristics of
end of the radiator directly by the 50 -ohm the antenna system. Experiment has shown
RG -8 U coaxial cable. Theoretically the that three radials is the minimum number
standing -wave ratio will be approximately that should be used, and that increasing the
1.5 -to -1 but in practice this moderate SWR number of radials above six adds substanti-
produces no deleterious effects. ally nothing to the effectiveness of the an-
1- f
I
rALUMINUM TUBING
TTP
TT1
3B^
TT P. 2-
TTP.
2x2'X1B' MHz F
1q p
-rt.
I
- L-
:'iSEJN -LOOSE
ALUM/HUM CROSS -
BAR TIGHTENS '7h»
FIT 300-ONM
FEEDLIN 10-
144 MHz
I
P 2X4-
300-OHM 20'
TUBULAR
TWIN LEAD 300-ONM
FEEDUNE
RO -8/U CABLE
Figure 6
1} DIA.
A Nondirectional Half -wave elements may MAST SECTION
Vertical Array be stacked in the vertical
plane to provide a non-
directional pattern with good horizontal
gain. An array made up of four half -wave
vertical elements is shown in figure 7A.
This antenna provides a circular pattern SLEEVE
with a gain of about 4.5 dB over a vertical 2'DIA.
tor, as does the center conductor of the fed at the base with a quarter -wave match-
coaxial feedline. The outer shield of the line ing transformer and a coaxial line. The as-
is grounded to the mast section at the in- sembly is quite rugged and can be mounted
sulator. The outer sleeve (A) is attached atop an existing tower, or can be formed
to the mast section by means of machine from an existing whip antenna.
screws tapped into the aluminum plug. The 144MHz J -Pole antenna is shown in
The lower sleeve is attached to the mast figure 9B. The antenna is basically the same
in a similar manner, as shown in the draw- as the 6 -meter version, except that a gamma
ing. The radials, made of aluminum clothes- match system is used to match the coaxial
line wire are threaded and screwed to an line to the quarter -wave transformer. The
aluminum mounting cylinder (similar to B) tap point of the gamma and the setting of
which encircles the mast. the series capacitor are adjusted for lowest
Three aluminum fittings (B) are required: SWR on the coaxial transmission line.
one for the top sleeve, one for the lower
sleeve, and one for the radials. The top fitting
is shown in figure 8. The center one is simi- The Discone The Discone antenna is a verti-
lar, except that it is drilled to pass the mast Antenna cally polarized omnidirectional
section. The fitting for the radials is similar radiator which has very broad-
to the center one, except that the '/y -inch band characteristics and permits a simple,
lip at the top is omitted. rugged structure. This antenna presents a
The length of the fitting is such so that substantially uniform feedpoint impedance,
the inner resonant portion of the sleeve is suitable for direct connection of a coaxial
slightly shorter than the outer section. The line, over a range of several octaves. Also,
outer section acts as a portion of the antenna the vertical pattern is suitable for ground -
and the inner section acts as a decoupling wave work over several octaves, the gain
transformer. The resonant lengths are dif- varying only slightly over a very wide
ferent for each case, and the length of the frequency range.
fitting makes up the electrical difference. A Discone antenna suitable for multiband
The sleeves are free at the lower ends, amateur work in the uhf /vhf range is shown
with no connection or support at this point. schematically in figure 10. The distance (D)
Care must be taken to make the assembly should be made approximately equal to a
waterproof, as an accumulation of moisture free -space quarter wavelength at the lowest
in the sleeve may detune it. Plugs at the operating frequency. The antenna then will
bottom of the sleeves, therefore, are not ad- perform well over a frequency range of at
vised. least 8 to 1. At certain frequencies within
The 50-ohm coaxial transmission line runs this range the vertical pattern will tend to
up the inside of the mast to the top fitting rise slightly, causing a slight reduction in
where the outer shield is grounded to the gain at zero angular elevation, but the re-
structure by means of a washer placed be- duction is very slight.
neath the feedthrough insulator. The shield Below the frequency at which the slant
is soldered to a lug of the washer, which may height of the conical skirt is equal to a free -
be cut from thin brass or copper shim stock. space quarter wavelength the standing -wave
When fed with a 50 -ohm transmission ratio starts to climb, and below a frequency
line, the measured SWR across the 144 -MHz approximately 20 percent lower than this
band is less than 2/1, and better than 1.5/1 the standing -wave ratio climbs very rapidly.
at the center frequency of 146 MHz. This is termed the cutoff frequency of the
antenna. By making the slant height approx-
The J -Pole Ahalf -wavelength vertical makes imately equal to a free -space quarter wave-
Antenna agood general purpose base sta- length at the lowest frequency employed
tion antenna as it requires no (refer to figure 11), an SWR of less than
radials for proper operation and provides a 1.5 will be obtained throughout the oper-
slight power gain over a ground -plane ating range of the antenna.
antenna. The Discone antenna may be considered
Shown in figure 9A is a / -Pole- antenna as a cross between an electromagnetic horn
for50 MHz. It comprises a vertical dipole and an inverted ground -plane unipole an-
VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS 30.11
1 "(2.54cml DIAMETER
ALUMINUM TUBING
3"17-6cml
tenna. It looks to the feed line like a prop- coaxial line. The line is run down through
erly terminated high -pass filter. The top disc the supporting mast. An alternative arrange-
and the conical skirt may be fabricated ment, one suitable for certain mobile appli-
either from sheet metal, screen (such as cations, is to fasten the base of the skirt
"hardware cloth ") , or 12 or more "spine" directly to an effective ground plane such
radials. If screen is used, a supporting frame- as the top of an automobile.
work of rod or tubing will be necessary for
mechanical strength except at the higher
frequencies. If spines are used, they should Horizontally On occasion, horizontal polar-
be terminated on a stiff ring for mechanical Polarized ization is desired in a base
strength, except at the higher frequencies. Antennas station. Shown in figure 12
The top disc is supported by means of are two simple, omnidirec-
three insulating pillars fastened to the skirt. tional horizontally polarized antennas. A set
Either polystyrene or low -loss ceramic is of crossed dipoles, fed 90° out of phase is
suitable for the purpose. The apex of the shown in illustration A. This turnstile an-
conical skirt is grounded to the supporting tenna is the basic antenna element used in
mast and to the outer conductor of the many f -m broadcast arrays. The antennas
30.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
VECTOR SUM OF
2 PATTERNS
z=aSn
COAXIAL LINE
TO TRANSMITTER
TO XMTR
Figure 12
Figure 13 70 -
EVOLUTION OF THE HALO ANTENNA 6s
A -Half wave dipole antenna fed at FF
B- Dipole bent into circle 60
C -Short dipole bent into circle and end -loaded
to establish resonance. Halo antenna is placed 35.
parallel to the earth to establish horizontal
polarization and essentially omnidirectional
pattern. Conventional feed system, such as a SO.
IOA
gamma match, may be used. Circuit -G of a 2A 4). 6).
Halo is quite high and operational bandwidth SIDE LENGTH. S
is less than that of equivalent dipole.
Figure 14
be necessary to elongate the array a few
percent (pulling in the sides ilightly) if the VHF RHOMBIC ANTENNA DESIGN
horizon elevation exceeds about 3 degrees. CHART
Table 2 gives dimensions for two dual The optimum tilt angle (see figure 15) for "zero-
purpose rhombic arrays. One covers the angle" radiation depends on the length of the
6 -meter amateur band and the "low" tele- sides.
30.14 RADIO HANDBOOK
TOP VIEW this type are finite in size, thus limiting the
frequency- independent behavior. Variations
of this basic design may take the form of
toothed structures, such as illustrated.
An outgrowth of this form of wideband
antenna is the log - periodic dipole array (fig-
ure 17) which is well suited to vhf and uhf
work. This interesting antenna is made up
of dipole elements whose lengths are deter-
0 = TILT ANGLE RI, R2 = 300 OHMS EACH
mined by the angle they subtend from the
NONINDUCTIVE
L apex point, and whose distance from the apex
is such as to provide the log- periodic be-
Figure 15 havior. The dipoles are fed at the center
from a parallel -wire line in such fashion
VHF RHOMBIC ANTENNA
that successive dipoles come out from the
CONSTRUCTION line in opposite directions, equivalent to a
390 -ohm carbon resistors in series. If 2 -watt 180` phase shift between elements. A broad-
resistors are employed, this termination also is band log- periodic structure is thus formed,
suitable for transmitter outputs of 10 watts with most of the radiation coming from
or less. For higher powers, however, resistors those dipole elements in the vicinity of a
having greater dissipation with negligible half -wavelength long. The bandwidth of the
reactance in the upper vhf range are not structure is thus limited by the length of
readily available. the longest and shortest elements, which must
For powers up to several hundred watts a be approximately a half -wavelength long
suitable termination consists of a "lossy" at the extreme frequency limits of the an-
line consisting of stainless -steel wire (cor- tenna array. Gain and bandwidth of the
responding to No. 24 or 26 gauge) spaced log- periodic antenna thus bear a definite
2 inches, which in turn is terminated by two relationship to the included angle of the
390 -ohm 2 -watt carbon resistors. The dissi- structure and the length.
pative line should be at least 6 wavelengths An easily constructed log- periodic antenna
long. is the log - periodic dipole array, a two- dimen-
sional structure made up of a series of
dipoles, fed at the center in such a way
30 -3 The Log- Periodic that adjacent dipoles are out of phase. The
Antenna array is fed at the apex and the elements
are excited from a parallel -wire transmis-
Frequency- independent antennas, of which sion line which, if properly designed, may
the Log - periodic array is an example, are serve as the support structure for the dipoles.
structures that have the same performance The dipole array, in effect, is a balanced
at different frequencies by virtue of the fact transmission line with elements fed from
that the array is self- scaling and has no each line, each set of elements reversed in
dimensions that are frequency sensitive. A feed polarity. The limiting structure, is a
basic self -scaling structure (shown in figure two- element array, and amateur versions of
16) is described by angles alone, with no this device are often termed the "ZL-
characteristic length. Practical structures of Special" antenna.
VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS 30.15
516
E
6E
5 E11 Ela
E10
E7
E6 i
E5
E3
EI
84"
(213 cm)
112" ALUMINUM
CIAMP (TYPICAL) SLOTS FOR 10-32
1 SUPPORT BLOCK
/
1-118'
13.2cm) 17' ALUMINUM
Ir.J
TUBING
(7.62 cm) M-,A (1.3 cm) BOOMS
B ,'L-10-32HARDWARE
L -P YAGI DIMENSIONS
ELEMENTS (L) I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
INCHES 19.5 17.5 16.5 15.0 13.0 11.8 10.8 9.8 8.8 8.0 7.3 6.5 6.0 5.8 4.8 4.5
cm 49.5 44.5 41.9 38. I 33.0 29.9 27.4 24.9 22.4 20.3 18. 5 16.5 15.2 14.7 12.2 1I.4
SPACINGS (S) I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
INCHES - 10.0 9.5. 8.3 7.8 6.8 6.3 5.5 5.5 4.5 4.5 3.8 3.5 2.8 2.5 2.0
cm - 25.4 24.1 21.0 19.8 17.3 16.0 13.9 13.9 11.4 11.4 9.7 8.9 7.1 6.4 5.1
Figure 17
posed of a five element log- periodic section the antenna is shown in figure 18. The an-
designed to cover the 50- to 52-MHz range tenna exhibits about 12 decibels forward gain
and is used in conjunction with three par- and compares nearly identically with an
asitic director elements mounted in front 8- element yagi mounted on a 30 -foot boom.
of the log-periodic section. A top view of The overall length of the L -P yagi is only
VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS 30.17
E3
E8
_S2 S S4 - _ 55_ S6 S7 S8
ELEMENTS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
SPACING I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 18
about 18%2 feet (5.64 meters) and it pro- lady polarized antennas having interesting
vides improved bandwidth performance and characteristics which may be useful for
smaller size than the comparable yagi array. certain applications. The installation of such
an antenna can effectively solve the problem
of horizontal versus vertical polarization.
30 -4 The Helical Beam A circularly polarized wave has its energy
Antenna divided equally between a vertically polarized
component and a horizontally polarized
component, the two being 90 degrees out of
Most vhf and uhf antennas arc either phase. The circularly polarized wave may be
vertically polarized or horizontally polar- either "left handed" or "right handed," de-
ized (plane polarization). However, circle- pending on whether the vertically polar-
30.18 RADIO HANDBOOK
ized component leads or lags the horizontal little variation in the pattern of the main
component. lobe and a fairly uniform feed -point im-
A circularly polarized antenna will re- pedance averaging approximately 125 ohms
spond to any plane polarized wave whether over a frequency range of as much as 1.7
horizontally polarized, vertically polarized, to 1. The direction of "electrical twist"
-ROUND OR SQUARE TRANSMIT (right or left handed) depends on the direc-
GROUND SCREEN RECEIVE tion in which the helix is wound.
A six -turn helical beam is shown sche-
matically in figure 19. The dimensions shown
will give good performance over a frequency
G
range of plus or minus 20 percent of the
design frequency. This means that the di-
COAX FEED POINT (RG -413/U)
mensions are not especially critical when the
AT CENTER OF
GROUND SCREEN
array is to be used at a single frequency or
over a narrow band of frequencies, such as
D= á S =+ G=o.eA L=1.11A
an amateur band. At the design frequency
CONDUCTOR DIA APPROX 0.17A
\=
=
WAVELENGTH IN FREE SPACE
the beam width is about 50 degrees and the
power gain about 12 dB, referred to a non-
Figure 19 directional circularly polarized antenna.
For the frequency range 100 to 500 MHz
THE HELICAL BEAM ANTENNA
a suitable ground screen can be made from
This type of directional antenna system gives "chicken wire" poultry netting of 1 -inch
excellent performance over a frequency range mesh, fastened to a round or square frame
of 1.7 to 1.8 to 1. Its dimensions are such that
it is ordinarily not practical, however, for use as of either metal or wood. The netting should
a rotatable array on frequencies below about be of the type that is galvanized after weav-
100 MHz. The center conductor of the feedline
should pass through the ground screen for con ing. A small, sheet -metal ground plate of
nection to the feedpoint. The outer conductor diameter equal to approximately D/2 should
of the coaxial line should be grounded to the be centered on the screen and soldered to it.
ground screen.
Tin, galvanized iron, or sheet copper is
or diagonally polarized. Also, a circular po- suitable. The outer conductor of the RG-
larized wave can be received on a plane 63 U (125 -ohm) coax is connected to this
polarized antenna, regardless of the polari- plate, and the inner conductor contacts the
zation of the latter. helix through a hole in the center of the
When using circularly polarized antennas plate. The end of the coax should be taped
at both ends of the circuit, however, both with Scotch electrical tape to keep water
must be left handed or both must be right out.
handed. This offers some interesting possibil- It should be noted that the beam proper
ities with regard to reduction of interference. consists of six full turns. The start of the
At the time of writing, there has been no helix is spaced a distance of S/2 from the
standardization of the "twist" for general ground screen, and the conductor goes di-
amateur work. rectly from the center of the ground screen
Perhaps the simplest antenna configura- to the start of the helix.
tion for a directional beam antenna having Aluminum tubing in the 2014 alloy
circular pol.trization is the bnlical brain grade is suitable for the helix. Alternatively,
which consists simply of a helix working lengths of the relatively soft aluminum
against a ground plane and fed with coaxial electrical conduit may be used. In the vhf
line. In the uhf and the upper vhf range range it will be necessary to support the
the physical dimensions are sufficiently small helix on either two or four wooden long -
to permit construction of a rotatable struc- erons in order to achieve sufficient strength.
ture without much difficulty. The longerons should be of the smallest
When the dimensions are optimized, the cross section which provides sufficient rigid-
characteristics of the helical beam antenna ity, and should be given several coats of
are such as to qualify it as a broadband an- varnish. The ground pl. ne butts against the
tenna. An optimized helical beam shows longerons and the whole assembly is sup-
VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS 30.19
ported from the balance point if it is to be lowing dimensions (180 MHz design cen-
rotated. ter) :
DE
112 WIRE
RG -BAN
TO STATION
S0.5" S0.5'
11. 3 cm) 11.3 cm>
DE /l ILl cJ DE f2
53 54 -J-- 55
cm 101.6 97.8 91.4 90.1 89.0 2r' 168. 3 cm) 27' 168.3 cm)
R6-11A1 RG-11111
INCHES - 20 12 12 12
MANIFOLD HARNESS
cm - 50 30 30 30
Figure 20
BEAM ANTENNA FOR OSCAR SATELLITE
Two 144MHz Yagi beams, mounted at right angles to each other on the same boom and fed 90° out
of phase will provide circular polarization. (A)- Dimensions of one Yagi array are shown. The ele-
ment lengths are cut for a wood boom. The second set of elements are mounted on the same boom,
displaced by 90° and moved along the boom about one inch so that the elements do not touch when
they pass through the boom. The parasitic elements are cut from 1/e "(0.3 cm) diameter aluminum rod
or wire. (B)- The manifold harness uses a single length of DG-11/U (75 -ohm) coaxial line as a
phasing section and lengths of RG -11 /U as half -wave length baluns. The coaxial transmission line
is DD-9 /U (50 ohms).
30.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
The antenna may be tested by aiming it 220 MHz, however, is out of the question
at a linearly polarized signal (such as from because of the relatively large dimensions
a repeater). Rotating the array on its axis needed for a waveguide operating at these
should produce no more than 1 dB signal low frequencies.
variation if the phasing is correct. Power A modified type of horn antenna may still
gain of the array is approximately 8 dB. be used on these frequencies, since only one
particular plane of polarization is of interest
30 -5 The Corner - Reflector to the amateur. In this case, the horn an-
tenna can be simplified to two triangular
and Horn -Type Antennas sides of the pyramidal horn. When these
The corner- reflector antenna is a good two sides are insulated from each other,
directional radiator for the vhf and uhf direct excitation at the apex of the horn by
a two -wire transmission line is possible.
region. The antenna may be used with the
radiating element vertical, in which case the
directivity is in the horizontal or azimuth
plane, or the system may be used with the
driven element horizontal, in which case
the radiation is horizontally polarized, and
OA UHF HORN ANTENNA
most of the directivity is in the vertical
plane. With the antenna used as a hori-
zontally polarized radiating system the array
is a very good low -angle beam array al-
though the nose of the horizontal pattern is 50 -OHM LINE
still quite sharp. When the radiator is ori-
ented vertically the corner reflector operates
very satisfactorily as a direction -finding an-
tenna. OB VHF HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED HORN
Design data for the corner- reflector an-
tenna is given in figure 21 and in Table 3, Figure 22
Corner- Reflector Design Data. The planes
TWO TYPES OF HORN ANTENNAS
which make up the reflecting corner may
be made of solid sheets of copper or alu- The 'two-sided horn" of illustration 8 may be
minum for the uhf bands, although spaced fed by means of an open wire transmission line.
wires with the ends soldered together at
top and bottom may be used as the reflector In a normal pyramidal horn, all four
on the lower frequencies. Copper screen may triangular sides are covered with conducting
also be used for the reflecting planes. material, but when horizontal polarization
The values of spacing given in the corner - alone is of interest (as in amateur work)
reflector chart have been chosen such that only the vertical areas of the horn need be
the center impedance of the driven element used. If vertical polarization is required,
would be approximately 75 ohms. This means only the horizontal areas of the horn are
that the element may be fed directly with employed. In either case, the system is uni-
75 -ohm coaxial line, or a quarter -wave directional, away from the apex of the
matching transformer such as a Q- section horn. A typical horn of this type is shown
may be used to provide an impedance match in figure 22B. The two metallic sides of the
between the center impedance of the element horn are insulated from each other, and
and a 460 -ohm line constructed of No. 12 the sides of the horn are made of small
wire spaced 2 inches (5 cm) . mesh "chicken wire" or copper window
In many uhf antenna systems, waveguide screening.
transmission lines are terminated by pyra- A pyramidal horn is essentially a high -
midal horn antennas. These horn antennas pass device whose low- frequency cutoff is
(figure 22A) will transmit and receive reached when a side of the horn is IA wave-
either horizontally or vertically polarized length. It will work up to infinitely high
waves. The use of waveguides at 144 and frequencies, the gain of the horn increasing
30.22 RADIO HANDBOOK
by 6 dB every time the operating frequency discussed in a previous chapter of this Hand-
is doubled. The power gain of such a horn book, and the information contained in that
compared to a half -wave dipole at frequen- chapter applies in general to the vhf beam
cies higher than cutoff is: antennas discussed herewith.
Power gain (dB) - 8.4 A2
A2
where A is the frontal area of the mouth of Element Lengths Optimum length for par-
the horn. For the 60- degree horn shown in asitic elements in vhf ar-
figure 23 the formula simplifies to: rays is a function of element spacing and
the diameter of the element. To hold a
Power gain (dB) = 8.4 D2, when D is satisfactory length /diameter ratio, the diam-
expressed in terms of wavelength. eter of the element must decrease as the
When D is equal to one wavelength, the frequency of operation is raised. At very-
power gain of the horn is approximately 9 high frequencies, element length is so short
dB. that the diameter of a self -supporting ele-
ment becomes a large fraction of the length.
Short, large- diameter elements have low Q
and are not practical in parasitic arrays.
A
Thus the yagi array becomes critical in ad-
450-OHM TV LINE justment and marginal in operation in the
upper reaches of the vhf spectrum. Yagi
ANGLE BETWEEN antennas can be made to work at 432 MHz
SIDES OF MORN =BO'
and higher, but their adjustment is tedious,
and preference is given to broadside arrays
o ZA-A GAIN (De)
400 3
having relatively large spacings between
A 20 9 TWO SIDES MADE elements and high impedance. The yagi an-
OF WIRE MESH
2A 390 13 tenna, however, remains "the antenna to
beat" for the 50 -, 144 -, and 220 -MHz ama-
Figure 23 teur bands.
THE 60° HORN ANTENNA FOR USE ON The yagi antennas shown in this section
FREQUENCIES ABOVE 144 MHz are of all -metal construction with the ele-
ments directly grounded to the boom. Either
a gamma -match system, T match, or folded -
30 -6 VHF Yagi Beam dipole element may be used on the arrays.
Antennas For short lengths of transmission line, S0-
ohm low -loss coaxial cable is recommended
The multielement rotary beam is undoubt- for use with a gamma match, or with folded
edly the most popular type vhf antenna in dipole or T match and a coaxial balun.
use. In general, the design, assembly and tun- Longer line lengths should be made up of
ing of these antennas follows a pattern sim- 300 -ohm TV -type "ribbon" line or open -
ilar to that used for the larger rotary arrays wire TV -type transmission line. Care should
used on the lower- frequency amateur bands. be taken to keep the ribbon or open -wire
The characteristics of the latter antennas are lines clear of nearby metallic objects.
(MHz) ANGLE in cm in cm in cm in cm in cm
50 60° 279.4
110 115 292 140 355.6 230 584.2 230 584
144 60° 38 96.5 40 101.6 48 121.9 100 254 100 254
220 60° 24.5 62.2 25 63.5 30 76.2 72 183 72 183
420 60° 13 33.0 14 35.6 18 45.7 36 91.5 36 91.5
(1)- DIMENSION G IS 18" (45 7 cm) FOR 50 MHz, 3" (76 cm) FOR 144 -220 MHz AND MESH SCREEN
FOR 420 MHz
(2)- ANTENNA GAIN ON ALL BANDS IS 12 dB
(3)- FEEDPOINT IMPEDANCE IS ABOUT 75 OHMS
VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS 30.23
r
eral 6 -meter operation, and up to ten ele- RADIUS TO
FIT ROOM
- I,
ments are often used for DX work on this ELEMENT CLAMP MATCHING ROD CLAMP
band. The four -element array is often used MAKE ! MAKE 1 OR 2
on 2 meters, either horizontally or ver-
tically polarized, and arrays having as many Figure 25
as twelve to fifteen elements are used for SIX -METER BEAM ASSEMBLY
meteor -scatter and over- horizon work on
Element clamps are fabricated from soft alumi-
144 MHz. num strip. All joints should be cleaned and cov-
Shown in figures 24 and 25 is a simple ered with Penetrox paste to prevent corrosion.
three- element array for the 6 -meter band. Elements may be made of sections of telescop-
The design frequency is 50.5 MHz, and the ing tubing. Diameters between one inch and
one -half inch are recommended.
beam is capable of operation over the 50-
to 51 -MHz frequency span. The antenna
may be fed from a 50 -ohm coaxial line with A four -element array for the 2 -meter
a half -wave balun and T match as shown band shown in figures 26 and 27. Dimen-
is
in the illustration. The supporting boom is sions are given for a center frequency of
made of a length of 1'/8-inch diameter 146 MHz. The antenna provides a power
aluminum TV mast section, and the ele- gain of about 9 decibels over a dipole and
ments are made of Va -inch diameter alum- is capable of good operation over the com-
inum tubing. The elements arc mounted in plete 2 -meter band. For optimum operation
position by drilling the boom to pass the at the low end of the band, all element
element and then clamping the point as lengths should be increased by one -half inch.
shown in the drawing. Antenna construction is similar to the
The T -match system must be properly 6 -meter array in that an aluminum section
resonated at the center frequency of antenna of tubing is used for the boom and the ele-
operation. To do this, the antenna is tem- ments are passed through holes drilled in
porarily mounted atop a step ladder, in the the boom. One -quarter inch aluminum
30.24 RADIO HANDBOOK
tubing is used for the elements. The T match ment rotary beam for 144 -MHz use. This
and coaxial balun are used to match the array can be tilted to obtain either horizon-
antenna to a 50-ohm coaxial transmission tal or vertical polarization. It is necessary
line. that the transmitting and receiving stations
use the same polarization for the ground -
wave signal propagation which is character-
istic of this frequency range. Although pol-
arization has been loosely standardized in
various areas of the country, exceptions are
frequent enough so that it is desirable that
the polarization of antenna radiation be
easily changeable from horizontal to vertical.
The antenna illustrated has shown a signal
gain of about 11 dB, representing a power
gain of about 13. Although the signal gain
of the antenna is the same whether it is
oriented for vertical or horizontal polariza-
tion, the horizontal beam width is smaller
Figure 26 when the antenna is oriented for vertical
FOUR- ELEMENT VAGI BEAM polarization. Conversely, the vertical pattern
FOR TWO METERS is sharper when the antenna system is ori-
ented for horizontal polarization.
Light aluminum is employed for easy-to -build The changeover from one polarization to
two meter beam. Reynolds "Do It Yourself"
aluminum, available at many hardware and the other is accomplished simply by pulling
building supply stores may be used. Construc- on the appropriate cord. Hence, the operation
tion is similar to six -meter array. If boom dia-
meter is about one inch, the boom may be is based on the offset head sketched in
drilled for the elements, which are then held figure 28. Although a wood mast has been
in place by a sheet -metal screw through boom used, the same system may be used with a
and element.
pipe mast.
DRIVEN
REFLECTOR ELEMENT DIRECTOR DIRECTOR
The 40 -inch lengths of RG -59 /U cable
L =10 L =)S L =36 L. 311. FEED SYSTEM ( electrical 3/4 -wavelength) running from
15 - *_
the center of each folded dipole driven ele-
]0 PF ment to the coaxial T- junction allow enough
slack to permit free movement of the main
BOOM, 300 OHM LINE OR 50 OHM
LINE PLUS HALF WAVE boom when changing polarity. Type RG-
BALUN
8/U cable is run from the T- junction to
HALF WAVE BALUN the operating position. Measured standing -
SOLDER wave ratio was less than 2:1 over the 144 -
OUTER
2ND
r DIRECTOR
35.5"
1ST DIRECTOR
RADIATOR 36"
36"
REFLECTOR
40"
I S.
60 BOOM
ENDS OD EN-
WOOD DOWWELLS IN-
SIDE FOR STRENGTH
!S
TERMINALS
I AS SHOWN,ANTENNA IS
HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED
CONTROL CORDS
RADIAL BEARING
Figure 28
Short lengths of wood dowel are used dowel into the short connecting lengths of
freely in the construction of the array. The aluminum tubing. Then drill down the cen-
ends of the small elements are plugged with ter of the dowel with a clearance hole for the
an inch or so of dowel, and the ends of the connecting screw. Then shape the ends of
antenna booms are similarly treated with the connecting pieces to fit the sides of the
larger discs pressed into place. element ends. After assembly the junctions
The ends of the folded dipoles are made may be dressed with a file and sandpaper
in the following manner: Drive a length of until a smooth fit is obtained.
30.26 RADIO HANDBOOK
The mast used for supporting the array is mounted at the balance center and not nec-
a 30 -foot spliced "2 X 2 ". A large discarded essarily at the physical center.
ball bearing is used as the radial load bearing In connecting the phasing sections be-
and guy -wire termination. Enough of the tween the T- junction and the centers of the
upper -mast corners were removed with a folded dipoles, it is important that the cen-
drawknife to permit sliding the ball bearing ter conductors of the phasing sections be
down about 9 feet from the top of the connected to the same side of the driven
mast. The bearing then was encircled by an elements of the antennas. In other words,
assembly of three pieces of dural ribbon to when the antenna is oriented for horizontal
form a clamp, with ears for tightening polarization and the center of the coaxial
screws and attachment of the guy wires. section goes to the left side of the top an-
The bearing then was greased and covered tenna, the center conductor of the other
with a piece of auto inner tube to serve as coaxial phasing section should go to the left
protection from the weather. Another junk - side of the bottom antenna.
box bearing was used at the bottom of the
mast as a thrust bearing. Long Yogi For a given power gain, the
The main booms were made from 3/4-inch Antennas Yagi antenna can be built light-
aluminum electrical conduit. Any size of er, more compact, and with less
small tubing will serve for making the wind resistance than any other type. On the
elements. Note that the main boom is other hand, if a Yagi array of the same
Dio DII
De
D7
Ds
DS
D1D n3 04
LENGTH SPACING
ELEMENT FROM
(D /4M. I /e ") 144 MHI 145 MB, 14BMI0 147 Mu DIPOLE
¡L-
BOOM
-
DRIVEN ELEMENT
- 3e.5 -
FOR
-
ACE
N
CLEARBOLT HOLE I
03' 22"
04= 3e'
D5= 70"
De' 102'
D7= +34
u De= lee-
6 WIRE FOR 300 0 INSULATING FLATTEN
MATCH. PLATE TUBING D9 =196'
*10WIRE FOR 4500 AT ENDS.
MATCH DIO =230"
D+1' 242"
Figure 29
LONG VAGI BEAM ANTENNA FOR 2 METERS
This design provides 16 dB gain over a dipole and covers about 1 MHz at 144 MHz. Dimensions are
provided for four frequencies in the 2 -meter band Multiply dimensions by 2.54 to obtain element
lengths and spacings in centimeters. Antenna may be fed by 50 -ohm coaxial line and half -wave balun.
If elements are mounted atop the boom, they should all be shortened by about 3/4 -inch.
VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS 30.27
approximate size and weight as another gain beam antennas. By spacing the beams so
antenna type is built, it will provide a higher that their apertures just "touch," power gain
order of power gain and directivity than will increase directly as the number of an-
that of the other antenna. tennas used.
The power gain of a Yagi antenna in- The beamwidth of the stacked array will
creases directly with the physical length of change according to the direction of the
the array. The maximum practical length is
entirely a mechanical problem of physically
supporting the long series of director ele-
ments, although when the array exceeds a
few wavelengths in length the element
lengths, spacings, and Q's becomes more and
more critical. The effectiveness of the array
depends on a proper combination of the
mutual coupling loops between adjacent di-
rectors and between the first director and
the driven element.
Practically all work on Yagi antennas
with more than three or four elements has
been on an experimental, cut- and -try basis.
Figure 29 provides dimensions for a typical Figure 30
long Yagi antenna for the 2 -meter vhf
band. Note that all directors have the same TWO -METER LONG VAGI ARRAY
physical length. If the long Yagi is designed Elements are mounted atop boom by means of
so that the directors gradually decrease in small clamps made of soft aluminum strap.
Either folded dipole or T-matching device may
length as they progress from the dipole, be used with antenna. Eight- element beam
bandwidth will be increased, and both side similar in construction is manufactured and
sold in kit form.
lobes and forward gain will be reduced.
One advantage gained from staggered di- stacking. If the array is made four antennas
rector length is that the array can be short- wide, the beamwidth in the horizontal plane
ened and lengthened by adding or taking will be one -fourth of the beamwidth of one
away directors without the need for re- antenna. If the array is made two antennas
tuning the remaining group of parasitic high, the vertical beamwidth will be one -half
elements. When all directors are the same that of one antenna alone.
length, they must be all shortened en masse As a simple rule of thumb in stacking ex-
as the array is lengthened, and vice versa tended Yagi antennas, or other arrays having
when the array is shortened. high gain, it is suggested that stacking dis-
tance be equal to 3/4 of the length of the
antenna. This figure will be quite close to
30 -7 Stacking Vhf the aperture size of a single antenna. Exam-
Antennas ples of good stacking technique are shown
in figures 31 and 32.
By stacking, it is meant that two or more
single antennas of any type form a broadside
array, so that antennas can be stacked hori- The Manifold Most high gain vhf antennas
zontally as well as vertically. Any number Feed System used for moonbounce or me-
of antennas, within reason, may be stacked teor scatter work, are made up
and coupled together to provide enhanced of many antennas arranged into a large ar-
gain and directivity. A simple example of ray. The power applied to the array must be
stacking is the eight- element "tiltable" array divided equally among the antennas and be
shown in the previous section. in the proper phase to permit the individual
The optimum stacking distance for two fields to add vectorially. A manifold feed sys-
dipoles is 0.67 wavelength for maximum lem, such as shown in figure 33 may be used
gain, but this is not generally true for high- to feed a large number of antennas. The
30.28 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 31 Figure 32
12 ELEMENT, 144 MHz ARRAY OF W3OLV 160 -ELEMENT, 144 -MHz ARRAY OF K8111
Eight nine -element, log- periodic Vagi antennas Thirty two, five- element, extended -expanded ar-
are stacked four high and two wide in this rays are stacked eight high and four wide in
impressive array. Antenna structure can be tilted this rugged installation. Each individual beam
from vertical for tracking the moon or for me- is a "lazy -H ", expanded configuration, backed
teor scatter work. Antenna provides over 21 dB up by two reflectors and a single director.
power gain as compared to a dipole. Beams are Array may be tilted for moonbounce or meteor
fed with a coaxial manifold harness so that scatter work. Power gain is better than 22 dB
length of feedline to each beam is of equal over a dipole.
length from common feed point at center of
array.
manifold harness may use open wire line, or tion ratio. Each element is equipped with a
coaxial cable. The antennas must be identical half -wave balun to provide a 50 -ohm ter-
and well matched to the impedance of the mination for the coaxial phasing line. The
interconnecting phasing line. In this exam- length of the lines is unimportant, as long as
ple, each driven element is adjusted to pro- they are equal. At the junction point (A),
vide a 200 -ohm feedpoint. Typically, this the lines are connected in parallel to provide
may be done with a gamma match or a a nominal impedance of 25 ohms. Two 50-
folded dipole having the proper transforma- ohm quarter -wave transformers change this
VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS 30.29
2000 2000
ANTENNA ANTENNA
2
500 500
COAXIAL PLUGS
(TYPICAL)
T CONNECTOR
A
- TCONNECTOR
A
j
SPLICE ADAPTERS
, 1
I
I
I
1
'\
..-
Al2 BALUN
Al2 BALUN L2
k 500 500
50 0 500
I LENGTH
N ANY INTEGRAL
ODD NUMBER
2000 2000
ANTENNA ANTENNA
Figure 33
48" 4S'
1121.9cm1-
-1 I- 1121.9cm1-
Figure 34
412 WIRE
TEFLON ROD
60'
1152, 4cml
METAL SPACER
4-40 HDWE.
(TYPICAL)
SUPPORT ROD
O
TOP VIEW OF BEAM FEED SYSTEM
TYPICAL DIPOLE
DIRECTOR 42,
1107 can COAX LINE
RG -B(1.1
Figure 35
impedance level to 100 ohms in each case, and the director element is longer than usual.
and the 100 -ohm points are connected in The array is fed with a half -wavelength,
parallel at (B) to provide a 50 -ohm termina- shorted stub and coaxial balun, and may be
tion for the coaxial transmission line to the mounted in either a horizontal or vertical
station. position. Horizontal polarization is shown in
the illustration. The collinear dipoles are
physically connected by a short length of
30 -8 Extended, Expanded teflon rod slipped inside the ends of the tub-
vhf Arrays ing. The dipole pair is then supported from
a horizontal support rod by means of 4 -40
Two collinear elements 0.64 wavelength hardware and metal spacers affixed at the
long make a simple array that provides about center of the rod. The elements are made of
3 dB power gain over the dipole. This is
1/2" (1.2 cm) diameter tubing, as is the sup-
known as an extended double Zepp antenna port rod. The interconnecting phasing line is
among old -timers. The directional pattern of made of #12 wire and is fed at the midpoint
this simple antenna resembles a dipole, ex- by a half- wavelength matching stub, coaxial
cept that it is somewhat sharper and has balun and 50 -ohm line (illustration C).
minor lobes at an acute angle to the line of Only two directors are required for the
the antennas. array, centered between the collinear ele-
A simple manifold feed system designed ments (illustration B). The directors are
by ex -W6GD is shown in figure 34. Four ! %" tubing mounted to the support rod with
Yagi antennas, stacked 2 above 2 may be a small clamp.
driven by this easily built harness. Each The antenna is adjusted to the design fre-
driven element is extended in length to about quency with the coaxial balun and transmis-
3s- wavelength, which places the horizontal sion line removed. The wire stub is coupled
Yagi beams about 3/4- wavelength apart when to a dip oscillator and the short adjusted to
the driven elements are placed tip -to -tip. The provide resonance. The balun and line are
spacing is a little less than optimum. but then attached near the shorting bar and
gain and antenna pattern are not seriously power applied to the array. The tap position
affected. Vertical stacking is about 3/4-wave- of the balun and the shorting bar are then
length. Dimensions for the 144 MHz band adjusted to provide the lowest value of SWR
are given in the drawing. on the transmission line. The coaxial line and
Four of these collinear arrays may be fed balun are brought back to the mast and the
from a single transmission line, as shown in line is run down the mast to make sure
figure 34 to provide a simple driving clement it does not enter the active field of the
for more complex arrays. Because of the gain antenna.
of the collinear elements, a stack of four pro- A 24- Element The extended, expanded con-
vides a power gain of about 6 dB over a Expanded cept developed by ex -W6GD
dipole. Yogi Array works well with Yagi beams,
The extended, expanded antenna stack may for 220 MHz as illustrated by this "four -
may be used in Yagi arrays or in broadside over- four" array for 220
arrays. Shown in this section are representa- MHz. The antenna provides about 14 dB
tive antennas for the 144, 220, and 420 MHz gain over a dipole and performs well plus or
bands that make use of this principle. minus 1 MHz of the design frequency.
Four, six -element beams are arranged in a
A Six -Element This compact array pro - square (figure 36). The driven elements of
Broadside Beam vides about 10 dB power each Yagi extend inwards to about Vs-wave-
for 144 MHz gain. Only six elements are length and are fed with a two -wire phasing
used, four in a collinear line. A half -wavelength, shorted stub and
broadside configuration, plus two added di- coaxial balun (as shown in figure 35) are
rectors. A single director for each set of col- connected to the phasing line at point F -F.
linear elements provides more gain than sep- The elements are made of 1/2-inch diameter
arate directors placed in front of each element rod or tubing passed through a wood boom.
(figure 35). Director spacing is quite close The elements are held in position by means
30.32 RADIO HANDBOOK
-1 "12.54 cm)
BEAM ASSEMBLY
TOP VIEW
D1
23 -318" 159.4cm1/
11"
127.9cm)
23-12"159.7cm)
D2
I WOOD SUPPORT
11"
STRUCTURE
127. 9 cm) 23-5/V' 160. 0 cm)
I
o
3
4' I
122 9cm1
I
1
1
I
/ 23-314" 160.3 cm)
\ I
, D4
r' 1
31-114" 179.4 cm) I
115 24 cm)
/
I
F-F
\ I
DE
111'
125.4 cml
26-3)" 167.9cm)
I
38"
196.5 cm)
Figure 36
"FOUR -BY -FOUR" ARRAY FOR 220 MHz
This compact and inexpensive beam provides about 14 dB gain over a 2 -MHz segment of the 220-MHz
band. The array uses the extended, expanded concept for maximum gain and simplicity of feed. The
array is built on a wood framework made of 1" X 1" lumber, well painted to protect it from the
weather.
of a woodscrew passing into the boom and The W6GD Broadside The extended -expanded
pressing against the element. Array for 432 MHz broadside array was de-
The shorting stub is about 26" (66 cm) signed by the late
long and the half -wavelength coaxial balun W6GD of Stanford University and has
is 17%2" (44.5 cm) long. The balun and consistently out- performed larger and more
coaxial transmission line use RG -8A ,U coax- sophisticated antennas at 432 MHz. The
ial line. The balun taps on the stub about 3" W6GD beam is a 16- element beam and
(7.6 cm) from the shorting bar. has been measured to have 12 decibels power
Adjustment is similar to that of the 144 - gain over a dipole. Extended elements are
MHz array. The stub length and tap point used with 34- wavelength spacing. The array
are adjusted for lowest SWR on the coaxial has a sharp front lobe, with nulls at 19°
transmission line. and 42° each side of center and must be
Element lengths are chosen for a wood aimed carefully for best results.
structure and will have to be lengthened if All elements are made of 0.175 -inch diam-
a metal structure is substituted. eter brass rod. The active elements are
19" TYP 19
A
sTUe
11i TO
SHORTING
BAR
SUPPORT REFLECTORS
PIPE 8 NEO'O.
26" 132 LONG
SEE rear
RG-8/U
Figure 37
made of square "U "s bent from four lengths After assembly, the matching stubs are
of rod, each S 1 Ya inches long. The half - silver -soldered to the driven elements and
wavelength reflectors are cut of the same the balun and the interconnecting transmis-
material and are 131/8-inches long. The sion line temporarily connected in place. The
W6GD array is built on a wooden frame- line is tapped up each stub to attain a low
work, so designed as to keep the supporting value of SWR on the coaxial or open -wire
structure in back of the array. The driven transmission line. Placement of the taps is
elemen:s are self -supporting except for four determined by experiment.
insulating blocks placed at low -voltage A complete discussion of vhf antennas is
points. The blocks and spacers are drilled contained in the VHF Handbook, available
and slipped on the brass rods before the from Radio Publications, Inc., Wilton,
assembly is bent into shape (figure 37). Conn. 06897.
CHAPTER THIRTY -ON E
Electronic
Test Equipment
All amateur stations are required by law contemplated. A calibrated signal generator
to have certain items of test equipment is almost a necessity if much receiver work
available within the station. A c -w station is contemplated, although a noise generator
is required to have a frequency standard or will serve in place of the signal generators.
other means, in addition to the transmitter Extensive antenna work invariably requires
frequency control, for ensuring that the the use of some type of standing -wave meter.
transmitted signal is on a frequency within Lastly, if much construction work is to be
one of the frequency bands assigned for done, a simple, solid -state dip meter will be
such use. An SSB station is required in found to be one of the most used items of
addition to have a means of determining test equipment in the station.
that the transmitter is not being modulated Other modern pieces of test equipment
in excess of its modulation capability, and such as digital voltmeters, counters and
in the case of an a -m transmitter, not more frequency synthesizers are becoming com-
than 100 percent. Further, any station oper- mon items of station equipment as the ama-
ating with a dc power input greater than teur operator advances rapidly into today's
900 watts is required to have a means of world of solid -state equipment.
determining the exact input to the final
stage of the transmitter, so as to ensure that
the dc power input to the plate circuit of
the output stage does not exceed 1000 watts. 31 -1 Voltage and
The additional test and measurement Current Measurements
equipment required by a station will be de-
termined by the type of operation contem- The measurement of voltage and current
plated. It is desirable that all stations have in radio circuits is very important in proper
an accurately calibrated voltohmmeter for maintenance of equipment. Vacuum tubes
routine transmitter and receiver checking and transistors of the types used in commu-
and as an assistance in getting new pieces of nications work must be operated within
equipment into operation. An oscilloscope rather narrow limits in regard to filament
and an audio oscillator make a very desir- or collector voltage, and they must be
operated within certain maximum limits in
able adjunct to a station using f -m transmis-
sion, and are recommended items of test regard to the voltage and current on other
equipment if single-sideband operation is electrodes.
31.1
31.2 RADIO HANDBOOK
100 ohms and the high scale from 100 to the iron -vane instrument is often used. For
10,000 ohms. audio frequency alternating current (50-
The calibration scale will depend on the 20,000 Hz), a d'Arsonval instrument having
internal resistance of the particular make of an integral diode rectifier is usually used.
1.5 -mA meter used. The instrument can be Radio - frequency voltage measurements are
calibrated by means of a Wheatstone bridge usually made with some type of vacuum -
or a few resistors of known accuracy. The tube or solid -state voltmeter, while r -f cur-
latter can be series -connected and parallel - rent measurements are usually made with an
connected to give sufficient calibration points. instrument containing a thermocouple to
convert the radio- frequency current into
Measurement of The measurement of al- direct current for the meter movement.
Alternating Current ternating current and Since an alternating- current wave can
and Voltage voltage is complicated have an almost infinite variety of shapes,
by two factors; first, it can easily be seen that the ratios between
the frequency range covered in ordinary the four fundamental quantities of the
communication channels is so great that wave (peak, rms, effective, and average after
calibration of an instrument becomes ex- rectification) can also vary widely. So it
tremely difficult; second, there is no single becomes necessary to know beforehand just
type of instrument which is suitable for all which quality of the wave under measure-
ac measurements -as the d'Arsonval type ment the instrument is going to indicate.
of movement is suitable for dc. The For the purpose of simplicity it is a good
d'Arsonval movement will not operate on idea to list the usual types of alternating -
alternating current since it indicates the current meters along with the characteristic
average value of current flow, and the of an alternating- current wave which they
average value of an ac wave is zero. will indicate:
As a result of the inability of the reliable Iron -vane, thermocouple-rms.
d'Arsonval type of movement to record an
alternating current, either this current must
be rectified and then fed to the movement,
Vacuum -tube or solid -state voltmeter
rms, average, or peak, depending on
-
Rectifier type- average after rectification.
or a special type of movement which will design and calibration of the meter.
operate from the ei9`ective value cf the cur-
rent can be used.
For the usual measurements of power- 31 -2 The Digital
frequency alternating current (25 -60 Hz), Voltmeter DVM I l
OPOT
SWITCH The common d'Arsonval (analog) instru-
ment is available at medium cost with an
1.5 V.
accuracy of ±2 percent of full -scale read-
ing. Laboratory instruments accurate to
±0.5 percent are obtainable at a much
higher price. The new digital meter provides
an accuracy of ±0.5 percent in the less
costly models and as high as ±0.001 percent
Re
LEADS in the laboratory models. Since the digital
Figure 2
meter displays the measurement numerically,
rather than as a pointer movement over a
SCHEMATIC OF A LOW -RANGE graduated scale, it is easier to read and re-
OHMMETER duces operator error.
A description of the operation of this circuit The digital meter is basically an analog -
is given in the text. With the switch in the to- digital converter with a numeric display.
left postion the half -scale reading of the The digital meter is commonly available as a
meter will occur with an external resistance
of 1000 ohms. With the switch in the right posi- digital voltmeter (DVM), digital panel me-
tion, half -scale deflection will be obtained with ter (DPM), or digital multimeter (DMM).
an external resistance equal to the dc resistance
of the milliammeter (20 to 50 ohms depending
The heart of an electronic digital meter
on the make of instrument). is the device which converts analog voltage
31.4 RADIO HANDBOOK
INPUT
COMPARATOR
RANGING
VIN AND STOP
ATTENUATOR PULSE
h0
RAMP
POLARITY OSCILLATOR ,TER
GENERATOR
FE:t..,,I T
START
PULSE
GROUND
COMPARATOR
(ZERO)
SAL PLE
RATE RESET
Figure 3
voltage and zero volts, or vice versa. The repetition rate is proportional to the input
order in which the pulses come from the voltage, the pulses can be counted during a
two comparators indicates the polarity of given time interval to obtain a digital mea-
the unknown voltage. sure of the input voltage.
Integrating (Voltage to Frequency Con- A variation of the voltage -to- frequency
version) -This device measures the true conversion technique is the dual -slope instru-
average of the input voltage over a fixed en- ment that makes a two -step measurement
coding time instead of measuring the voltage that combines integration in the first step
at the end of the encoding time as do ramp - wih automatic comparison of its internal
type instruments. Conversion of a voltage standard in the second. This technique rejects
to a frequency is accomplished in the man- noise because of integration and achieves
ner shown in figure 4. The circuit functions good stability from comparison with the
as a feedback control system which governs standard. Direct numerical readout is ac-
the rate of pulse generation, making the complished with numerical display tubes or
average voltage of the rectangular pulse solid -state light- emitting devices.
train equal to the dc input voltage. A form of the dual -slope digital volt-
A positive unknown voltage results in a meter is the fleathkit Digital Multimeter
negative -going ramp voltage at the output 1M-102. This instrument measures ac and dc
of the integrator which continues until volts, ac and dc current, and resistance. All
it reaches a voltage level that triggers the of the inputs are scaled to, or converted to,
level detector, which in turn, triggers the the basic measuring ranges of 200 millivolts
pulse generator. The pulse from that device or 2 volts, depending on the setting of the
tends to discharge capacitor C to bring the range switch. The measuring circuit is
input of the integrator back to the starting a high -impedance bipolar analog -to- digital
level. The entire cycle then repeats. Since the converter. Resistance is measured by passing
ramp slope is proportional to the input volt- a scaled constant current through the un-
age, a steeper slope causes the ramp to have known resistor and measuring the voltage
a shorter time duration and the pulse repeti- drop across it. Alternating voltages are con-
tion rate is consequently higher. As the verted to dc by an average -sensing, rms-
r
INTEGRATOR
w\
RAMP VOLTAGE
ZERO-LEVEL TRIGGER
PULSE
DC VOLTS TRIGGER OUT
IN
w\
Figure 4
-
_1
-\ ,
stepping switches, stroboscopic devices, or
analog servo systems.
The electronic DM, in addition to offering
a high order of accuracy, also can provide
auto polarity, whereby the correct polarity
(either negative or positive) is automatically
indicated on the display, for a measured
quantity. Some instruments also feature
+Fi autoranging, which provides switching from
` range to range automatically and autozero,
`" a' `
.011. whereby all zeros are displayed when no
measurement is being made.
., 1E , Other features include overranging, a
1
feature wherein some indication (usually a
1. blinking light or flashing display) that the
:- quantity being measured is too high in value
I.
for the range selected and lead-compensated
ri
_ resistance, wherein the resistance of the mea-
'1 ': surement leads is nulled out with a front
panel control.
31 -3 Electronic
Voltmeters
An electronic voltmeter is essentially a
detector in which a change in the input
signal will produce a change in the indicat-
ing instrument (usually a d'Arsonval meter)
placed in the output circuit. A vacuum -
tube voltmeter (v.t.v.m.) may use a diode
rectifier and several amplifying tubes,
whereas a solid -state voltmeter makes use of
transistors or ICs for the measurement of
alternating or direct current.
When an electronic voltmeter is used in
dc measurement it is used primarily because
of the very great input resistance of the
device. Thus, the electronic voltmeter may
be used for the measurement of agc, afc, and
discriminator output voltages where no
loading of the circuits can be tolerated.
The electronic voltmeter requires a closed
dc path for proper operation and -like the
simple meter -can be overloaded and, thus,
Figure 5
is limited in the amplitude of the voltage readings. The zero adjust control, moreover,
the input circuit can handle. Modern elec- varies the gate bias on Ql by introducing a
tronic voltmeters have an input resistance positive voltage in series with the source
of 10 megohms, or more and usually in- which is returned to a "floating" negative
corporate a series resistance of 1 megohm, return bus.
or more, to isolate the electronic voltmeter
circuit from the circuit under test.
31 -4 Power
The Solid-State The circuit of a solid -state Measurements
Voltmeter voltmeter is shown in fig-
ure S. The three input cir- Audio- frequency or radio -frequency power
cuits (AC Volts, DC Volts, and Ohms) are in a resistive circuit is most commonly and
shown on the left -hand side of the schematic. most easily determined by the indirect
These circuits perform the switching at- method, i.e., through the use of one of the
tenuation and rectification required to sup- following formulas:
ply the correct voltage to the detecting and P = El, P = E2 /R, P =-12R
indicating circuits at the right -hand side of
the schematic. Approximately 0.5 volt is These three formulas mean that if any two
required at the gate of FET input transistor of the three factors determining power are
Q, for full -scale deflection of the meter. known (resistance, current, voltage) the
Voltages greater than 0.5 are attenuated in power being dissipated may be determined.
the inout circuits. In an ordinary 120 -volt ac line circuit the
Input transistor Q, has a very high im- above formulas are not strictly true since
pedance gate circuit which keeps it from the power factor of the load must be mul-
loading the input switching and attenuating tiplied into the result -or a direct method of
circuits. A constant current source (Q,), determining power such as a wattmeter may
is used in place of a resistor in the source be used. But in a resistive a -f circuit and in
circuit of the FET. Bias adjust and zero a resonant r -f circuit the power factor of
adjust controls are provided to set the meter the load is taken as being unity.
pointer to zero when no signal voltage is For accurate measurement of a -f and r-f
passed through the input circuits. power, a thermogalvanometer or thermocou-
Transistors Q2 and Q3, together with a ple ammeter in series with a noninductive
3.3- megohm series input resistor are used to resistor of known resistance can be used.
protect the input FET from accidental The meter should have good accuracy, and
overload. The reverse -connected transistors the exact value of resistance should be
perform like a 9 -volt zener diode, short known with accuracy. Suitable dummy -load
circuiting higher input voltages by virtue resistors are available in various resistances in
of the drop across the series input resistor. ratings up to thousands of kilowatts. These
The meter movement is driven by the are virtually noninductive, and may be con-
voltage applied to the output circuit by Ql. sidered as a pure resistance up to 150 MHz
The source of Q, is directly coupled to the depending on the design.
base of Q5. Transistors Q5 and Q6 are used as Sine -wave power measurements (r -f or
emitter followers to provide the power to single-frequency audio) may also be made
drive the meter. When the circuit is proper- through the use of a high impedance volt-
ly adjusted, no current flows through the meter and a resistor of known value. In fact
meter without a signal being applied to Q,. a solid -state voltmeter of the type shown in
Since the source current of Q, is con- figure 5 is particularly suited to this work.
stant and Q5 is a direct -coupled emitter The formula P = E2 /R is used in this case.
follower, voltage variations at the input of However, it must be noted that some de-
Q, are transferred to the meter circuit; a vices indicate the peak value of the ac wave.
negative going input signal causing the This reading must be converted to the rms
meter pointer to move backwards. Meter or heating value of the wave by multiplying
polarity may be reversed so that negative it by 0.707 before substituting the voltage
going input voltages cause forward meter value in the formula. (Note: Some solid -state
31.8 RADIO HANDBOOK
multimeters are peak reading but are cali- the rear of the assembly. Connection to the
brated rms on the meter scale). coaxial receptacle is made via copper strap.
Power may also be measured through the The power meter is calibrated using
use of a calorimeter, by actually measuring solid -state voltmeter and r -f probe. Power is
the amount of heat being dissipated. Through applied to the load at 3.5 MHz and the level
the use of a water- cooled dummy -load re- is adjusted to provide 17.6 volts at "Calibra-
sistor this method of power output deter- tion point." With the Watts Switch in the
mination is being used by some of the most 200 -watt position, the potentiometer is ad-
modern broadcast stations. justed to provide a reading of 100 watts on
Power may also be determined photometri- the meter. In the 2000 -watt position, the
cally through the use of a voltmeter, am-
meter, incandescent lamp used as a load
resistor, and a photographic exposure meter.
With this method the exposure meter is
used to determine the relative visual output
of the lamp running as a dummy -load re-
sistor and of the lamp running from the
120 -volt ac line. A rheostat in series with
the lead from the ac line to the lamp is used
to vary its light intensity to the same value
(as indicated by the exposure meter) as
achieved as a dummy load. The ac voltmeter
in parallel with the lamp and ammeter in
series with it is then used to determine lamp
power input by: P = EI. This method of
power determination is satisfactory for audio
and low- frequency r -f but is not satisfactory Figure 6
for vhf work because of variations in lamp 2- KILOWATT DUMMY LOAD
efficiency due to uneven heating of the fila- FOR 3 -30 MHz
ment. Load is built in case measuring 22" deep, 11"
Finally, r -f power may be measured by wide and 5" high. Meter is calibrated in watts
against microampere scale as follows: (1) 22.3 A.
means of a directional coupler, as discussed (5), 50 MA. (10), 70.5 A. (15), 86.5 MA. (20),
later in this chapter. 100 A. Scale may be marked off as shown in
photograph. Calibration technique is discussed
in text. Alternatively, a standing -wave bridge
(calibrated in watts) may be used to determine
power input to load.
The Dummy Load A suitable r -f load for Vents in top of case, and Va -inch holes in
power up to a few watts chassis permit circulation of air about resistors.
Unit should be fan- cooled for continuous dis-
may be made by paralleling 2 -watt compo- sipation.
sition resistors of suitable value to make a
50 -ohm resistor of adequate dissipation.
A 2 -kW dummy load having an SWR of
less than 1.05 to 1 at 30 MHz is shown in
figures 6, 7, and 8. The load consists of
twelve 600 -ohm, 120 -watt Globar type CX
noninductive resistors connected in parallel.
A frequency- compensation circuit is used
to balance out the slight capacitive react-
ance of the resistors. The compensation cir- 1 5
ERIE ISST
-/ CT.ASSIS
cuit is mounted in an aluminum tube 1" NOTE FIXED RESISTORS ARE O"Ar /TE -L
COMROSITION UNITS.
/TILE DEY /L-
in diameter and 25/8" long. The tube is
plugged at the ends by metal discs, and is
mounted to the front panel of the box. Figure 7
The resistors are mounted on aluminum SCHEMATIC, KILOWATT DUMMY
T -bar stock and are grounded to the case at LOAD
ELECTRONIC TEST EQUIPMENT 31.9
4tr2f,2 (C, + C)
the impedance of the component being
measured. After the meter has been cali- The determination of an unknown capaci-
brated it will be possible to obtain the ap- tance is somewhat less complicated than the
proximate value of the impedance directly above. A tuned circuit including a coil, the
from the scale of the meter. If the compon- unknown capacitor and the standard ca-
ent is a capacitor, the value of impedance pacitor, all in parallel, is resonated to some
may be taken as its reactance at the meas- convenient frequency. The capacitance of
urement frequency and the capacitance the standard capacitor is noted. Then the
determined accordingly. But the dc re- unknown capacitor is removed and the cir-
sistance of an inductor must also be taken cuit re- resonated by means of the standard
into consideration in determining its in- capacitor. The difference between the two
ductance. After the dc resistance and the readings of the standard capacitor is then
impedance have been determined, the re- equal to the capacitance of the unknown
actance may be determined from the for-
capacitor.
mula: X1, = \/Z= -R
. Then the induct-
ance may be determined from: L equals
X1, 31 -6 Measurements
With a Bridge
The Substitution The substitution method is The Wheatstone Experience has shown that
Method a satisfactory system for Bridge one of the most satisfac-
obtaining the inductance or tory methods for measur-
capacitance of high- frequency components. ing circuit constants (resistance, capacitance.
A large variable capacitor with a good dial and inductance) at audio frequencies is by
31.10 RADIO HANDBOOK
Figure 8
DUMMY -LOAD
ASSEMBLY
Twelve Globar resistors
(surplus) are mounted to
aluminum "Tee" stock
six to a side, in fuse
clips. Right end is sup-
ported by ceramic pil-
lars from front panel.
Probe, meter, and po-
tentiometers are at rig)it.
Figure l0A shows a simple type of ac of the type shown in figure 10B will be
bridge for the measurement of capacitance found satisfactory. The ratio arms R. and
and inductance. It can also, if desired, be RD should be of the same value within 1
used for the measurement of resistance. It percent; any value between 2500 and
is necessary with this type of bridge to use 10,000 ohms for both will be satisfactory.
a standard which presents the same type of The two resistors Rc and RD should be
impedance as the unknown being measured: 1000 -ohm wirewound potentiometers. Cs
resistance standard for a resistance measure- should be a straight -line capacitance ca-
ment, capacitance standard for capacitance, pacitor with an accurate vernier dial; 500
and inductance standard for inductance to 1000 pF will be satisfactory. Cc can be
a two- or three -gang broadcast capacitor
determination.
from 700 to 1000 pF maximum capacitance.
The procedure for making a measurement
is as follows: The unknown capacitor Cx is
placed in parallel with the standard capaci-
tor Cs. The Wagner ground (RD) is varied
back and forth a small amount from the
center of its range until no signal is heard
in the phones with the switch (S) in the
center position. Then the switch (S) is
RA RA placed in either of the two outside posi-
ZsmRs
e
Is XA= Xs Rx= Rs
tions, Cc is adjusted to a capacitance some-
Zs= IMPEDANCE ACING MEASURED. Rs =RESISTANCE COMMENT CO Zs what greater than the assumed value of the
Zs. IMPEDANCE OP STANDARD. X A * REACTANCE COMPONENT OF Zs unknown Cx, and the bridge is brought into
RA: RESISTANCE COMPONENT or Z,. XS= REACTANCE COMPONENT OF Zs balance by variation of the standard capac-
itor (C,). It may be necessary to cut some
resistance in at Re and to switch to the
other outside position of S before an exact
balance can be obtained. The setting of Cs
is then noted, Cx is removed from the cir-
cuit (but the leads which went to it are
not changed in any way which would alter
their mutual capacitance), and Cs is read-
justed until balance is again obtained. The
difference in the two settings of Cs is equal
to the capacitance of the unknown capaci-
tor Cx.
Figure 10
TWO AC BRIDGE CIRCUITS
The operation of these bridges is essentially the
31 -7 The R -F Bridge
same as those of figure 9 except that ac is fed
into the bridge instead of dc and a pair of The basic bridge circuits are applicable
phones is used as the indicator instead of the to measurements at frequencies well up into
galvanometer. The bridge shown at A can be the uhf band. While most of the null cir-
used for the measurement of resistance, but it
is usually used for the measurement of the im- cuits used from dc to about 100 MHz are
pedance and reactance of coils and capacitors adaptations of the fundamental Wheatstone
at frequencies from 200 to 1000 Hz. The bridge Bridge circuit, many other types of networks
shown at B is used for the measurement of
small values of capacitance by the substitution that can be adjusted to give zero transmis-
method. Full description of the operation of both sion are employed at higher frequencies.
bridges is given in the accompanying text.
At very-high frequencies, where imped-
ances can no longer be treated as lumped
The Wagner For measurement of capaci- elements, null circuits based on coaxial lime
Ground tances from a few picofarads techniques are used. The upper frequency
to about 0.001 ,NF, a Wag - limit of conventional bridge circuits using
ner- grounded substitution capacitance bridge lumped parameters is determined by the mag-
31.12 RADIO HANDBOOK
nitude of the residual impedance of the ele- types of r-f instruments provide an answer in
ments and the leads. The corrections for terms of an equivalent parallel combination
these usually become unmanageable at fre- of resistance and reactance or conductance
quencies higher than 100 MHz or so. and susceptance. The numerical results be-
tween equivalent series and parallel measure-
ments will not be the same although the
equivalent series impedance can be mathe-
The "General An r -f bridge suitable for
Radio" Bridge matically converted into the equivalent par-
use up to about 60 MHz is
allel impedance (or admittance) and vice
shown in figure 11. The versa.
bridge can measure resistances up to 1000
A vhf variation of the r -f bridge pro-
ohms and reactances over the range of plus
vides direct measurements up to 500 MHz
or minus 5000 ohms at 1 MHz. The react-
by sampling the electric and magnetic fields
ance range varies inversely as the frequency
in a transmission line. Two attenuators are
in MHz. Measurements are made by a series -
substitution method in which the bridge is controlled simultaneously; one receives en-
ergy proportional to the electric field in the
first balanced by means of capacitors Cp and
line, and the other receives energy propor-
CA with a short -circuit across the unknown
tional to the magnetic field. The magnitude
terminals. The short is then removed, the
of the unknown impedance is determined by
unknown impedance connected in its place, adjusting this combination for equal output
and the bridge rebalanced. The unknown
from each attenuator. The two equal signals
resistance and reactance values are then read may also be applied to opposite ends of an-
other transmission line, and phase angle
can be determined from their point of
cancellation.
Above 500 MHz, impedance measurements
are normally determined by inserting a de-
tector probe in a slotted section of transmis-
NULL sion line, as discussed in the next section of
DETECTOR
this chapter.
R -F CR
GENERATOR (REACTANCE)
= 1 + R
I - R Figure 12
A R -F
LOAD
ing to about fifty times the reactance of the
SOURCE
820 -pF capacitor. The power -handling capa-
bility of the bridge is limited by the dissipa-
tion capability of the 1 -ohm resistor.
Circuit B incorporates a differential ca-
pacitor to obtain an adjustable bridge ratio.
The capacitor may be calibrated in terms of
the unknown load and may be used to in-
dicate resistive loads in the range of 10 to
500 ohms. The bridge has an advantage
over the circuits of illustrations A and C
8 R-r LOAD in that it may be used in the manner of a
SOURC
simple impedance bridge to determine the
radiation resistance of a resonant antenna.
The bridge is placed at the antenna termi-
nals, and the frequency of the driving source
and the setting of the differential capacitor
are varied to produce a null indication on
the meter. The null occurs at the resonant
frequency of the antenna, and the radiation
resistance at that frequency may be read
C R -r
SOURCE
LOAD
from the instrument.
A less -expensive variation of the variable
r -f bridge is shown in illustrations C and D
and is called the Antennascope. The An-
tennascope is a variable bridge making use
of a (relatively) noninductive potentiometer
in one leg. These simple instruments are
useful in antenna adjustment as they indicate
R -r
the resonant frequency of the antenna and
LOAD
SOURCE the approximate radiation resistance of the
driven element at this frequency. At other
than the resonant frequency, the antenna
exhibits a reactive component and the null
of the instrument will not be complete.
Even so, at the low values of impedance en-
countered in most amateur beam antennas,
the readings obtained at frequencies off
Figure 15 resonance approximate the resistive compo-
nent of the radiation resistance of the an-
SWR BRIDGES tenna.
A- Micromatch bridge. Construction information for a practical
B-Capacitance ratio bridge. Antennascope and other SWR instruments
C-Anten nascope. will be described in the following section of
D- Antennascope with calibrating resistor in ac-
tive leg of bridge. this Handbook.
Note: Meter M may be 0.500 dc microam-
meter.
needed for construction and calibration may The two 200 -ohm, %2 -watt resistors should
be accomplished with the aid of a handful of be matched on an ohmmeter, and a number
1 -watt composition resistors of known d -c of the 500 -pF capacitors should be checked
value resistance. on a bridge to find two units of equal ca-
pacitance. The exact value of resistance and
The Antennacscope The Antennascope is a capacitance in either case is not critical, it
modified SWR bridge in is only necessary that the companion units
which one leg of the bridge is composed of a be equal in value. Care should be taken when
noninductive variable resistor (figure 15D). soldering the small resistors in the circuit to
This resistor is calibrated in ohms, and when see that they do not become overheated,
its setting is equal to the radiation resistance causing the resistance value to permanently
of a resonant antenna under test, the bridge change. In like manner, the germanium di-
is in a balanced state. If a sensitive volt- ode should be soldered in the circuit using
meter is connected across the bridge, it will a pair of long -nose pliers as a heat sink to
indicate a voltage null at bridge balance. remove the soldering heat from the unit as
The radiation resistance of the antenna may rapidly as possible.
then be read directly from the calibrated
dial of the instrument.
When the test antenna is nonresonant,
the null indication on the Antennascope
will be incomplete. The frequency of the
exciting signal must then be altered to the
resonant frequency of the antenna to obtain
accurate readings of radiation resistance. The
resonant frequency of the antenna, of course,
is also determined by this exercise.
The circuit of the Antennascope is shown
in figure 17. A 100 -ohm noninductive po-
tentiometer (R1) serves as the variable leg
of the bridge. The other legs are composed of
the 200 -ohm composition resistors and the
radiation resistance of the antenna. If the
radiation resistance of the antenna or ex-
ternal load under test is 50 ohms, and the
potentiometer is set at midscale, the bridge
is balanced and the diode voltmeter will read
zero. If the radiation resistance of the anten-
na is any other value between about 10 and
100 ohms, the bridge may be balanced to this Figure 16
new value by varying the setting on the
potentiometer, which is calibrated in ohms. THE ANTENNASCOPE
Building the Antennascope -The Anten- The antennascope may be used to measure the
nascope is constructed within an aluminum resonant radiation resistance of antennas at
box chassis measuring about 4" X 2" X frequencies up to 150 MHz. Griddip oscillator
is coupled to input loop of antennascope and
I ! ", and placement of the major compo- antenna under test is connected to output
nents may he seen in the photographs. A terminals with short, heavy leads.
iI á -inch diameter hole is drilled in the lower
portion of the panel and the variable poten- As shown in the photographs, copper strap
tiometer is mounted in this hole on a thin cut from flashing stock is used for wiring
piece of insulating material such as micarta the important r -f leads. The output leads
er bakelite. The terminals of the potenti- terminate in an insulated terminal strip on
ometer and the case are at r -f potential, so it one side of the box and the input coupling
is essential for proper bridge operation to loop is made of section of brass rod,
a
have a minimum of capacitance between which is tapped at each end for 6 -32
the potentiometer and ground. machine nuts. The loop is bent and posi-
31.18 RADIO HANDBOOK
.001
TO
v iCpuv ANTCNNA
LOOP FlCDFOINT
Figure 17
SCHEMATIC, ANTENNASCOPE
R,- 100 -ohm composition potentiometer. Ohmite
AB or Allen- Bradley type J linear taper
1~-2 turns brass wire to fit dip -oscillator coil.
See photos
M-0 200 ua dc meter
beam antenna. It is also possible to make is adjusted to the balance point, the bridge
remote measurements on an antenna with is calibrated and ready for use. The selector
the use of an electrical half -wavelength of switch permits reading forward or reverse
transmission line placed between the An- power in the coaxial line and an SWR of
tennascope and the antenna terminals. unity is indicated by a null reading on the
meter of the instrument.
The Monimatch The Monimatch is a dual The special coaxial pickup loop is easily
reflectometer constructed made. A 14 -inch length of RG -8A /U cable
from a length of flexible coaxial transmis- is trimmed square at the ends and the outer
sion line (figure 19). The heart of the vinyl jacket is carefully removed. Two
Monimatch is a pickup line made from a holes to pass the pickup wire are carefully
14 -inch length of RG -8A /U coaxial cable. made in the outer braid of the section with
The coupling loop of this special section is the aid of an awl or needle. Be careful not
a piece of No. 22 enamel or formvar cov- to break the fine wires of the braid. The
ered wire slid under the flexible outer shield holes are made 8 inches apart, and centered
of the coaxial line for a distance of about on the section. The outer shield is next
eight inches. The coaxial pickup line is then bunched up a bit to loosen it and a length
conveniently wound around the inside walls of No. 22 wire is threaded under the braid, in
of the mounting box so that the protruding and out of the holes. A stiff copper wire may
ends of the coupling loop fall adjacent to be threaded through the holes and used as a
the simple switching circuit. The coupling needle to pass the flexible copper wire under
Icop and center conductor of the coaxial the braid. Finally, the braid is smoothed out
line form a simple reflectometer terminated to its original length and the pickup wire
at either end by a noninductive potenti- checked with an ohmmeter to make sure
ometer. Choice of termination is determined that no short exists between the braid and
by the panel switch. When the potentiometer the wire. The braid is then wrapped with
vinyl tape at the two holes. The last step is
TO TO
TO TRANSMITTER ANTENNA to solder connector hoods and coaxial re-
COAXIAL RECEPTACLES ceptacles on each end of the line, making
the assembly "r -f tight."
CONNECTOR HOODS
The special line may now be mounted in
the instrument case, along with the various
other components, as shown in the illustra-
tion. The calibrating potentiometer is
mounted on an insulating plate in the center
of a one -inch hole to reduce the capacity
of the unit to ground. The coaxial line
GROUND
_ TO CASE I
should be grounded only at the coaxial
CAL. IN270 receptacles, and should otherwise be wrapped
with vinyl tape to prevent it from shorting
to the case or other components.
A noninductive 50 -ohm dummy load is
attached to the output of the Monimatch
and it is driven from an r -f source. Place
RGSA/U the panel switch in the Calibrate position
and adjust the sensi/ir i/y control for a half -
scale reading of the meter. Now switch to
the Read position and adjust the sensitivity
Figure 19 control for full -scale reading. Adjust the
Calibrate potentiometer in the back of the
MONIMATCH Monimatch for a null in the meter reading
R1-100-ohm composition potentiometer. Ohmite -it should be very close to zero on the
AB, or Allen Bradley type J, linear taper scale. Switch back to Calibrate again and
SI -Dpdt rotary switch. Centralab 1462
Case -6n x 7" X 2" chassis with back plate.
once again adjust the sensitivity control for
31.20 RADIO HANDBOOK
sures that the coupling between the primary transmitted from the National Bureau of
of T, (the inner conductor of the coaxial Standards. Several time scales are used for
line) and the secondary (the winding on the time measurement: ( ).- Universal Time
1
ferrite core) is inductive and not capacitive. (UT). Universal time, or Greenwich Mean
One end of the shield is carefully soldered Time (GMT), is a system of mean solar time
to the outer braid of the coaxial line and based on the rotation of the earth about
the other end is left free. its axis relative to the position of the sun.
The ferrite core is now wrapped with Several UT scales are used: uncorrected
vinyl tape and 40 turns of No. 28 insulated astronomical observations are denoted U9;
wire are evenly wrapped around the core. the UT time scale corrected for the earth's
The core is then slipped over the cable sec- polar variation is denoted UT1 the UT1
tion and positioned directly above capacitor scale corrected for annual variation in the
C,. The reflectometer section is then com- rotation of the earth is denoted UT2. Time
pleted by forming a copper shield around signals tansmitted by standard stations
the toroid assembly. In this case, the shield are generally based on the UT2 time scale.
is made up of two copper discs soldered to Although UT is in common use, it is non-
the cable braid, over which is slipped a cop - uniform because of changes in the earth's
per cylinder made of thin shim stock. The speed of rotation. (2 )- Ephemeris Time
cylinder and end rings are soldered into an (ET). Scientific measurements of precise
inclusive shield, as shown in the photograph, time intervals require a uniform time scale.
with the three pickup leads passing through The fundamental standard of constant time
small holes placed in the cylindrical end sec- is defined by the orbital motion of the earth
tions. about the sun and is called Ephemeris time,
The reflectometer and associated compo- and is determined from lunar observations.
nents are placed in an aluminum box (figure (3) -Atomic Time (AT) Molecular and
.
21) having a terminal strip attached for atomic resonance characteristics can be
connection to an external reversal switch used to provide time scales which are ap-
and meter. Final adjustment is accomplished parently constant and nearly equivalent to
by feeding power through the reflectometer ET. The designation A.1 has been given to
into a dummy load having a low value of the time scale derived from the zero -field
SWR and adjusting capacitor C2 for mini- resonance of cesium. The U. S. Frequency
mum meter indication when the instrument Standard at Boulder, Colorado, is maintained
is set for a reflected -power reading. by reference to the A.1 time scale.
Figure 21
INTERIOR VIEW OF
REFLECTOMETER
Complete assembly including accessory
components is placed in cast aluminum
box, 4 x 21/2" x 1'/2" (Pomona Elec-
tronic #2904). Calibrating capacitor is
adjustable through small hole drilled in
box.
31.22 RADIO HANDBOOK
LEAD
upon time scale, Coordinated Universal
FROM CI TIN WIRES
FORM CI
TO OUTER BRAID Time (UTC). WWV broadcasts on 2.5, f,
10, 15, 20, and 25 MHz; while WWVH
COAX LINE broadcasts on all these frequencies except
25 MHz. Transmissions are continuous.
INNER CONDUCTOR- WWVB broadcasts Stepped Atomic Time
(SAT) on the standard frequency of 60
kHz and WWVL on 20 kHz. These two
CYLINDRICAL SHIELD stations broadcast continuously except for
CAN
scheduled maintenance periods. WWVL also
transmits experimental, multiple frequencies,
lILUL o on occasion, at 19.9, 20.0 and 20.9 kHz.
COAX LINE Frequency accuracy, offset and effects of
the propagation medium are covered in a
technical bulletin NBS Frequency and Time
FARADAY SHIELD
Broadcast Services, NBS Special Publication
-TOROID Ti 236, available for 25e from the Superin-
tendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.
Figure 22 Standard audio frequencies of 440 Hz,
500 Hz and 600 Hz are broadcast by WWV
ASSEMBLY DETAILS and WWVH as well as one second markers.
OF THE REFLECTOMETER In addition, short term forecasts of radio
A- Assembly of coaxial capacitor C,. propagation along paths in the North At-
B- Assembly of capacitor, Faraday shield and lantic area, such as Washington, D.C. to
toroid transformer TI. Leads A, B, and C
connect as shown in figure 20. London or New York to Berlin are broad-
cast in voice during part of every 15th min-
tions WWV, WWVB, and WWVL (located ute of each hour from WWV. Geophysical
near Fort Collins, Colorado) and WWVH alerts are broadcast in voice during the
(located near Kekaha, Kaui, Hawaii). The 19th minute of each hour from WWV and
broadcasts of WWV may also be heard by during the 46th minute of each hour from
telephone by dialing (303) 499 -7111, WWVH. These broadcasts tell of geophysi-
Boulder, Colorado. cal and solar events affecting radio propaga-
Stations WWV, WWVH, and WWVL tion.
broadcast nominal frequencies and time In addition to these broadcasts, storm
consistent with the internationally agreed warning broadcasts for the North Atlantic
Figure 23
ASSEMBLY SEQUENCE OF
REFLECTOMETER UNIT
LefttoRight-Toroidcore transformer T,,
Coaxial capacitor assembly, Faraday
shield, completed unit, outer shield, trans-
former with attached leads.
ELECTRONIC TEST EQUIPMENT 31.23
and North Pacific areas prepared by the MHz, 500 kHz, 100 kHz, 50 kHz, and 25
National Weather Bureau are broadcast over kHz. The IC (U_) is configured as a divide -
WWV and WWVH. A summary of WWV by -two and a divide -by -five combination to
WWVH broadcasts is shown in figure 24A -B. provide the 500-kHz and 100 -kHz markers.
In addition to the NBS broadcasts, the A dual -voltage, regulated power supply pro-
Dominion Observatory of Canada transmits vides plus fourteen and plus five volts with
time ticks and voice announcements in very low ripple and good regulation.
English and French on 3.330, 7.335, and Frequency of the 1 -MHz crystal is set
14.670 MHz. Many other countries of the by adjusting capacitor C, while zero -beating
world also transmit standard frequency and one of the 1 -MHz harmonics with a trans-
time signals, particularly on 5, 10, and 15 mission of WWV, or the frequency may be
MHz. set with the aid of a frequency counter con-
The standard -frequency transmissions nected to the 1 -MHz output.
may be used for accurately determining the For receiver calibration, a 5 -pF capacitor
limits of the various amateur bands with at the receiver end of a short length of low
the aid of the station receiver and a secon- capacitance coaxial cable (93 ohm) will per-
dary frequency standard which utilizes an mit maximum harmonic signal to be de-
accurate low- frequency crystal oscillator. livered at the antenna terminals.
The crystal is zero-beat with WWV by
means of its harmonics and then left with -12 A Silicon Diode
31
only an occasional check to see that the
frequency has not drifted off with time. Noise Generator
Accurate signals at smaller frequency inter- The limiting factor in signal reception
vals may be derived from the secondary fre- above 25 MHz is usually the thermal noise
quency standard by the use of multivibra- generated in the receiver. At any frequency,
tor or divider circuits to produce markers however, the tuned circuits of the receiver
at intervals of 25, 10, 5, or 1 kHz. In addi- must be accurately aligned for best signal -
tion, a variable- frequency interpolation os- to -noise ratio. Circuit changes ( and even
cillator may be used in conjunction with the alignment changes) in the r -f stages of a
secondary standard to measure frequencies receiver may do much to either enhance or
at any point in the radio spectrum. degrade the noise figure of the receiver. It
Shown in figure 25 is a simple 1 MHz is exceedingly hard to determine whether
calibration oscillator which provides marker changes of either alignment or circuitry are
signals up to 150 MHz or so. really providing a boost in signal -to -noise
ratio of the receiver, or are merely increas-
31 -11 A Precision ing the gain (and noise) of th1: unit.
Crystal Calibrator A simple means of determining the degree
of actual sensitivity of a receiver is to inject
a minute signal in the input circuit and
Modern direct- reading h -f receivers re-
quire a high order of calibrator accuracy. then measure the amount of this signal that
Shown in this section is a versatile crystal - is needed to overcome the inherent receiver
controlled secondary frequency standard uti- noise. The less injected signal needed to
lizing a 1 MHz AT -cut crystal of excellent override the receiver noise by a certain,
temperature stability. The circuit of this fixed amount, the more sensitive the receiver
instrument is shown in figure 26. is.
The crystal is used in an FET oscillator simple source of minute signal may be
A
obtained from a silicon crystal diode. If a
(Q1) having a high input impedance coupled
to an amplifier (Q.:), followed by an small dc current is passed through a silicon
impedance transformer (Q,) to the logic crystal in the direction of higher resistance,
circuit level. Integrated circuit U, is a a small but constant r -f noise (or hiss) is
quadruple TTL -type gate used as a Schmitt generated. The voltage necessary to generate
trigger to provide fast rise and fall time this noise may be obtained from a few flash-
for the decade divider (U2) and the dual light cells. The noise generator is a broad-
flip -flop (U3). The available outputs are: 1
band device and requires no tuning. If built
31.24 RADIO HANDBOOK
DEPARTMENT Of COMMERCE
WWV BROADCAST FORMAT U S
`
VIA TELEPHONE 13031 499 -7111
NOT A TOLL -FREE NUMBER) STATION ID
440 H/ rHOUR MARK
'
NBS RESERVED
\`\1
pft otu
II
+oaM
/j/ / STORM INFORMATION
X01
0
4 40'O
2000
. 1
O
wcuioN
N r0!Ol
COUNTY 000
w
`
ION D011ONA1 o110NMA1111N CONIACI /
00,
U S 01rAN1MIN1 UI COMMINCI `9kRßh
Ú
MA110N1 0U111 01 +1ANUANU+
rM AND NIOUN
%
\INViCIS SC110N
owmN cowADUolo! GEO ALERTS
/\/
P
,
ODO
N PP
: /oN
BEGINNING OF EACH HOUR IS IDENTIFIED BY
0 8 SECOND LONG. 1500 II/ TONE
r.
BEGINNING OF EACH MINUTE IS IDENTIFIED BY
STATION IO 0 8 SECOND LONG. 1000.Hz TONE
MINUT CIS
THE 29th & 59th SECOND PULSE OF EACH MINUTE IS OMITTED
Figure 24A
HOURLY BROADCAST SCHEDULE OF WWV
with short leads, it may be employed for cached to the generator) is a 1 -watt carbon
receiver measurements well above 150 MHz. resistor whose resistance is equal to the im-
The noise generator should be used for com- pedance level at which measurements are to
parative measurements only, since calibra- be made. This will usually be either 50 or
tions against a high -quality commercial noise 300 ohms. If the noise generator is to be
generator is necessary for absolute measure- used at one impedance level only, this resis-
ments. tor may be mounted permanently inside of
the case.
A Practical Described in this section is
Noise Generator a simple silicon crystal noise thing the The test setup for use of
generator. The schematic Noise Generator the noise generator is shown
of this unit is illustrated in figure 27. The in figure 28. The noise gen-
1N21 crystal and .001- p.F ceramic capaci- erator is connected to the antenna terminals
tor are connected in series directly across of the receiver under test. The receiver is
the output terminals of the instrument. turned on, the avc turned off, and the r -f
Three small flashlight batteries are wired in gain control is placed full on. The audio vol-
series and mounted inside the case, along ume control is adjusted until the output
with the 0 -2 dc milliammeter and the meter advances to one -quarter scale. This
noise -level potentiometer. reading is the basic receiver noise. The noise
To prevent heat damage to the 1N21 generator is turned on, and the noise -level
crystal during the soldering process, the potentiometer adjusted until the noise out-
crystal should be held with a damp rag, and put voltage of the receiver is doubled. The
the connections soldered to it quickly with more resistance in the diode circuit, the bet-
a very hot iron. Across the terminals (and ter is the signal -to -noise ratio of the receiver
in parallel with the equipment to be at- under test. The r -f circuit of the receive,
ELECTRONIC TEST EQUIPMENT 31.25
WWVH BROADCAST FORMAT VIA TELEPHONE ISOBI 335-4363 INDT A TOLL -FREE NUMBER)
STORM INFORMATION
l 1Iflr
"
lOoka
LOCTION \ NO AUDIO TONE
GEO ALERTS
MON
111
f/ANOARO SROaOCAfl1RIOUfNCls
I
bOMN
aD RaDIat/D rOWIS
b A11.
UT
10 ION
]OMN
MENT Of COMMERCE
}bYW
CORRECTIONS
IO M H
IbMw
O
CONTCT
LW
Iw -
4.0
Mae 417
NO
AUDIO
NATIONAL SUREAU Of STANDARDS
TIME AND FSEOUINCY SERVICES SECTION TONE
4
BEGINNING
0 8 SECOND LONG. 1500 Hz TONE
Figure 24B
HOURLY BROADCAST SCHEDULE OF WWVH
2N5191
.0 V.
Figure 26
Figure 29
SPKR V
surement of an antenna at the resonant noise ", especially at the upper frequency lim-
frequency. its of the bridge. The transistors listed pro-
The second design is the modified noise vide good results above 30 MHz.
bridge shown in figure 30. This unit makes The choice of zener diode is not critical
it possible to measure both resistive and re- so long as breakdown voltage is between 3.6
active impedance. When the 140 -pF variable and 6.8 volts. The bypass and coupling ca-
capacitor, Cy, is set at half -value, or 70 pF, pacitors in the noise amplifier are .01 -p.F
the bridge is balanced for reactance. This ceramic disc types. Coupling transformer T1
allows the user to increase the capacitance is quadrifilar -wound on a ferrite toroid. The
for nulling an antenna that has a net par- e8 -pF bridge capacitor should be a silver
allel capacitive reactance, and to decrease the mica unit and potentiometer Rx is a low -
CAPACITANCE
inductance, composition type.
AMPLIFIER DIAL
RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
DIAL DIAL
DETECTOR CAPACITANCE
'¡)NOISE DIAL
1 DIODE
f PARALLEL
ANTENNA
M PE DANCE SERA,
ANTENNA,
IMPEDANCE
Figure 30
Figure 31
NOISE BRIDGE WITH
PARALLEL CAPACITANCE RANGE NOISE BRIDGE WITH SERIES
Addition of a capacitance dial permits noise CAPACITANCE RANGE
bridge to measure both resistive and reactive
impedance in antenna. Inductive and capacitive reactance of antenna
under test are read as a series impedance in
the form of R + jX.
capacitance for nulling an antenna having
a net inductive reactance. In either case, the
Noise Bridge Construction of the noise bridge
capacitor dial reads out equivalent parallel Construction is shown in figures 33 and 34.
capacitance in picofarads. When the antenna
exhibits an inductive reactance, the equiva- The unit is built within a cast
lent negative capacitance is that value which aluminum box measuring 41/2" X 31/2" X
would cause a coil of that reactance to reso- ". The receiver and unknown (antenna)
21/4".
nate at the frequency of measurement. To coaxial receptacles are mounted between the
obtain the equivalent series R + jX values of two panel controls. All components are
the antenna, the operator must go through mounted on a piece of copper- plated circuit
a mathematical parallel -to- series conversion.
board which is bolted inside the lid of the
The r-f noise bridge described in this sec- box. The stator of the variable capacitor is
tion uses the bridge configuration shown in grounded to the board surface with a short,
figure 31. Note the similarity to figure 30, wide length of copper strap. The various
except that the capacitors in this design are components are mounted by their leads to
in series, rather than in parallel, with the re- insulated tie points soldered to the copper
sistance potentiometer and the antenna ter- plane as shown in the rear view photograph.
minals. This allows (as before) inductive or Placement of parts is not critical, provided
capacitive reactance to be observed. The dif- attention is paid to lead length. The trans-
ference is that the reading of the two dials former is wound by winding four wires in
at null is R + jX directly. parallel on the core. The indicated dots on
the schematic of T, in figure 32 represent
the same end of all windings.
The Noise The complete noise bridge cir-
Bridge Circuitcuit is shown in figure 32. A
zener diode, Z1, is used as a Aligning Calibration of the bridge is sim-
"white noise" source, followed by a broad- the Bridge pie if a capacity meter and ohm-
band noise amplifier (Q1-Q3). It is import- meter are available. The resistance
ant to use devices that have good high -fre- dial for potentiometer R, can be calibrated
quency response to provide adequate "white with the ohmmeter. To calibrate the reac-
31.28 RADIO HANDBOOK
1
ON: OFF
.50
. _ . -,f PP P(,T
1 i40 PF VAN.ABIE
470
Ti Rx Cx
FECEivEN
ZI
IN? 55 l
BB
SM
7ïL' '`/
UNKNOWN
Figure 32
Figure 33
31 -14 A Universal
Crystal Test Unit
This simple test unit will test crystals
ranging in frequency from a few hundred
kHz to over 90 MHz (figure 3 5) . Transis-
tor Q, forms a variation of the Colpitts os-
cillator with feedback adjusted by capacitor
C,. The r -f voltage of the oscillator is rec-
tified by two diodes and the resulting dc
voltage provides forward bias for Q whose
emitter current lights an indicating lamp. If
the crystal fails to oscillate, the lamp remains
dark. Various crystal sockets can be incorpo-
rated in the tester for different styles of Figure 36
holders. The unit is built within a small
aluminum utility box with a self -contained TRANSISTOR CHECKER
battery. An expanded -scale meter provides accurate mea-
surement of transistor parameters in this easily
built instrument. Six dc parameters may be
31 -15 An Inexpensive measured and with the data derived from these
tests, the ac forward -current transfer ratios
Transistor Tester may be computed. Two transistor sockets are
mounted at the left of the tester, with the three
This compact and inexpensive transistor selector switches to the right. Six-position test
switch is mounted to bottom side of box. Tip
checker will measure the dc parameters of jacks are placed in parallel with transistor socket
most common transistors. Either NPN or terminals to permit test of transistors having
unorthodox bases.
PNP transistors may be checked. A six -posi-
31.30 RADIO HANDBOOK
current when emitter junction is reverse - transistor types from mesas to power alloys
biased and collector is open circuited. without switching meter ranges and with-
Using the data derived from these tests, out damage to the meter movement or
the static and ac forward- current transfer transistor.
ratios (hFE and hl, respectively) may be By making the sum of the internal resist-
computed as shown in figure 37. This data ance of the meter plus series resistor R,
may be compared with the information listed equal to about 6K, the meter scale is com-
214
a
PUSH TO READ pressed only one microampere at 20 micro-
amperes. Meter adjust potentiometer R_ is
S2 set to give 10 milliamperes full -scale meter
METER ADJUST
TO
TEST WHEN StJTÓT RESULT
¡co VcB=e v. I READ METER DIRECT
lc le. 20LA 2
Ic IB.1OOLA 3
'CEO VCE=6V. 4
ICES VCE =eV. S
IEO VE0 =eV. a -
CALCULATE:
hFE IB' 20 LA 2 hFE= IC = METER READING
Figure 38
IB 20 LA
CALCULATE,
hiE IB =1001íA 3 hFE- IC _ METER READING
INTERIOR VIEW OF
Ie IOOLA TRANSISTOR CHECKER
CALCULATE: WHERE
h4 I B= 20LA 2 ICI-IC2 ICI =METER Components of meter diode circuit are mounted
h READING
axí.1
to phenolic board attached to meter terminals.
CALCULATE. IC2'METER
_ICI -IC2 READING WITH Other small resistors may be wired directly to
h }4 Iß=100 LA 3 h 14
20 %0s 54 CLOSED switch lugs. The four 11,2 -volt batteries are held
in a small clamp at the rear of the case. Chassis
WITH 13011 RESISTOR LON-
G V. NECTED TO C -E OF TEST is cut out for lever- action switches and opening
BATTERY 4 SOCKET, FULL -SCALE METER is covered with three -position switch plate.
DEFLECTION WILL RESULT
WHEN 53 IS PRESSED.
deflection. The scale may then be calibrated
Figure 37
by comparison with a conventional meter.
SCHEMATIC OF TRANSISTOR CHECKER If the NPN -PNP switch (S_) is in the
S A, B, C- Three -pole 6- position. Centralab 1021 wrong position, the collector and emitter
S,- Centralab type 1400 nonshorting lever junctions will be forward biased during the
S,, S,.
switch
M-0-200 dc microammeter. General Electric or
,
I, and I1:0 tests (switch positions 1 and 6).
Simpson (414") The high resulting current may be used as
a check for open or intermittent connections
in the transistor data sheet to determine the within the transistor.
condition of the transistor under test. The transistor checker also measures h1-
The transistor parameters are read on a with 20 microamperes and 100 microam-
0 -100 dc microammeter placed in a diode peres base current. Depressing the he,. switch
network which provides a nearly linear scale (S,) decreases the base drive about 20 per-
to 20 microamperes, a highly compressed cent, permitting h1,. to be estimated from
scale from 20 microamperes to one milliam- the corresponding change in collector cur-
pere, and a nearly linear scale to full scale rent (formulas 1 and 2) All tests are con-
.
at 10 milliamperes. Transistor parameters ducted with a 330 -ohm resistor limiting the
may be read to within 10 percent on all collector current to about 12 milliamperes
ELECTRONIC TEST EQUIPMENT 31.31
31 -17 A 2 -Tone
Generator for
SSB Testing
To examine linearity of an amplifier by
observation of the output signal some means
must be provided to vary the output signal
level from zero to maximum with a regular
pattern that is easily interpreted. A simple
means is to use two audio tones of equal
amplitude to modulate the SSB transmitter.
This is termed a two -tone test. This pro-
cedure causes the transmitter to emit two
steady signals separated by the frequency dif-
ference of the two audio tones. The resultant,
or beat, between the two r-f signals produces
a pattern which, when observed on an oscil-
loscope has the appearance of a carrier 100 -
INTERIOR VIEW OF
percent modulated by a series of half sine
CAPACITANCE METER
waves.
The smaller components are mounted to phenol- With a two- equal -tone test signal, the fol-
ic terminal strips held in place by angle brack-
ets fastened to the meter bolts. The battery is
lowing equations approximate the relation-
bolted to the rear of the box and connections ships between two -tone meter readings, peak
to the instrument are made via the battery clip envelope power, and average power for class -
in the foreground.
AB or class -B operation:
Meter When the wiring has been com- Dc plate current:
Calibration pleted and checked, the capaci-
2 X ir,,
tance meter may be calibrated 'h = 2
with the aid of capacitors of known value. Tr
Ten -percent tolerance paper or mica capaci- Plate Power Input (watts) :
tors that have been checked on a capacitance
bridge of good accuracy may be used, or a 2 X inn, X Eh
set of one -percent tolerance capacitors may
ELECTRONIC TEST EQUIPMENT 31.33
Average Power Output (watts) : The Two -Tone Shown in figure 42 is the
Generator schematic of a simple two -
J1,RI X ep
tone audio generator which
P° 8 provides a pair of linearly added sine waves.
s
Plate efficiency: The second harmonic and intermodulation
products are reduced at least 35 decibels be-
X e-° low one tone. It is designed for either a sin-
N
°- (4 E,, gle -ended audio input circuit (common to
most SSB exciters) or a balanced line input.
where, The generator operates from an internal 9-
volt battery and contains no transformers so
ip,,, equals peak of the plate current pulse, no power -line frequency associated compo-
ep equals peak value of plate voltage swing,
nents are produced in the two -tone signal.
Eb equals dc plate voltage,
Two bridge -type audio generators and as-
or equals 3.14 sociated buffer stages are contained on a sin-
Finally, peak -envelope -power output under gle IC. One generator is adjusted for 1000
these conditions is twice the average-power Hz and the other one for 670 Hz, although
output. Thus, using a two -tone test signal, other audio tone combinations may be used.
a linear amplifier may be tuned up at a The device is constructed within an alu-
power- output level of half that normally minum utility box measuring 3 1/2" X 2"
achieved at the so- called "two kilowatt X 11/2" (figure 43) . All components are
PEP" input level. Power -input level, on the mounted on a perforated circuit board, as
other hand, of the two -tone test condition shown in the interior photograph (figure
is about two- thirds that of the single -tone 44). The 9 -volt battery is mounted beneath
condition. the board in a small clip.
9V .1145..
EXT.
CONTROL
-
= - J]
I N914'5
OR D24 TLM 4 OUTPUT
7N
5444545 504 (o4
f = 1000 H2 I ION'
54914s
OR LM]24 7
OUTPUT
.015 7N 1N4454,5s Us01
f= a 7 o HZ r
20 +7
LED
Figure 42
where,
Eb equals dc plate voltage,
Ib equals two -tone dc plate current,
lo equals idling plate current with no test
signal.
31 -18 A Variable -
Frequency Audio Generator
Described in this section is a high -quality,
variable- frequency audio generator that cov-
ers the range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz, with a
distortion level of 0.05% or less (figure 45).
Unlike the expensive laboratory oscilla-
tors which require dual (tracking) variable
Figure 43
Figure 45
VARIABLE -FREQUENCY AUDIO
GENERATOR
Figure 44
This compact, solid -state audio generator cov-
INTERIOR OF GENERATOR ers the range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz with a distor-
tion level of 0.05 percent or less. The frequency -
Components are mounted on small sec- control potentiometer is near center, with the
tion of glass -epoxy board. The IC is at frequency -range switch at the right. Unit is
center, mounted in a socket. Terminal built in a small aluminum utility cabinet.
connections are at right, rear.
resistors or capacitors, this compact oscil-
The Two -tone Test -The test oscillator is lator uses a single variable resistor for tun-
connected to the audio system of the SSB ing. The circuit is shown in figure 46.
transmitter which is tuned up into a dummy Three operational IC amplifiers are used.
load with an oscilloscope coupled to the Op -amp U2 functions as an active bandpass
load to show a typical test pattern. The filter, U, serves as a broadband amplifier,
transmitter is adjusted for maximum power and U3 is used as a dual zener diode. The
output without waveform flattopping. Un- feedback loop that sustains oscillation in-
der these conditions, the power input is: volves 180 degrees of phase shift around U,
and 180 degrees of phase shift around U2.
PEP Input (watts) = In X Eb To permit oscillation, sufficient circuit gain
occurs only at the maximum response fre-
(1.57 - 0.57-l o
quency of the active bandpass filter that is
lb designed around U2. The frequency of oscil-
ELECTRONIC TEST EQUIPMENT 31.35
AN'
10K CI MIN. MAX.
CI (LF) FREQ. FREQ.
0.47 1s HZ eo HZ
51
10K 330K 0.10 s0 Hz 060 HZ
Ri
+IS V. 200 K
+15V.
1K Ra 0.022 31110 HZ 1.7 KHZ
44TP
2 - /REO.
ADJUST
0.0047
0.002
1 .7 KHZ
4.4 KHZ
s KHZ
20 KHZ
Uz
s
150
10í1w
117 -.AAP4-1 ISV.
6 5 3
T'