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access to Journal of Managerial Issues
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JOURNAL OF MANAGERIAL ISSUES
Vol. XIII Number 2 Summer 2001: 212-226
Robert G. Isaac
Instructor of Management
The University of Calgary
Wilfred J. Zerbe
Associate Professor of Management
The University of Calgary
Douglas C. Pitt
Professor of Business
University of Strathcldye
(212)
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Leadersh ip And Motivation 213
leadership
In a following section, we fullyrole outline
are viewed as admin-
the expectancy theory istrators
model (Robinson,
and1999).
at-
tempt to establish its validity In light of such
in distinctions,
the we
mind of the reader. We then break propose that managers use legitimate
the model apart to examine eachpowerof to push employees towards de-
sired ends, whereas leaders use their
its three major components. In each
influence to pull followers towards
case, we identify issues to consider
goals. We all know that a piece of
and address when attempting to cre-
string travels purposefully when
ate an environment followers per-
ceive as highly motivating. Next,pulled
we and not pushed, as noted by
describe leader attitudes requiredMiller
to (1996) in a discussion on em-
establish a climate conducive to the powerment of employees, and we
application of this model with follow-support this principle as it applies to
ers in the workplace. Finally, we sum-leadership and the use of influence.
marize our discussion and outline im- The effective application of influence
plications for the organization. instils a sense of purpose or mission
amongst the workers. The source of
this influence stems from the leader
How Many Leaders Does an and not the organization. The leader
Organization Require? emphasizes doing things with people,
rather than to them (Blanchard,
We argue that every organization 1999), and places extreme impor-
needs a workforce comprised of lead-tance on entering into a relationship
ers, rather than employees. We de-with those who follow (Kouzes and
velop and present our rationale in thePosner, 1993).
discussion that follows.
The push/pull distinction between
Much has been written about the
managers and leaders is not entirely
differences between managers new and by any means. For example, the
leaders. In general, leaders are transformational leader (Bass, 1990)
viewed to take control of situations,
inspires others to follow along a path-
while managers learn to live with way towards a vision, just as surely as
them (Bennis, 1989). Other distinc- a source of light attracts the moth. By
tions include: leaders create vision
contrast, the transactional manager
and strategy while managers imple- adopts a push strategy, engaging in
ment the outcomes (Kotter, 1990a), exchange processes with the em-
leaders cope with change while man- ployee that include the use of rewards
agers cope with complexity (Kotter, and sanctions to secure acceptable
1990a and b), and leaders focus upon levels of performance.
interpersonal aspects of the job, In order to survive the impact of
whereas managers deal with admin- economic, technological, environ-
istrative duties (DuBrin, 1995). Per- mental and other pressures of the
haps, the best known phrase differ- global marketplace, we must entrust
entiating the roles of managers and the fates of our companies to people,
leaders suggests that "managers are at all levels of the hierarchy, capable
people who do things right and lead-of being both managers and leaders
ers are people who do the right simultaneously. We require individu-
thing" (Bennis and Nanus, 1985:21). als who define management and lead-
Frequently, people who avoid the ership the same way and who incor-
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214 Isaac, Zerbe and Pitt
tence,
porate both of these we must into
roles train ourselves
their to view
personal repertoires (Whetten
leadership and
as an employee role,
Cameron, 1998). rather than relegating this concept
Besides eradicating the
solely to thedistinction
domain of managers.
between a manager and But can a anyone become a leader
leader, we
also suggest the need to
and if so, eliminate
how? We suggest that dis-
the
tinctions between leaders and follow- answer is yes and that the secret to
ers. All employees need to be flexibleleadership is the ability to create a
to both lead and follow according to highly motivating work environment
situations encountered regardingthat infects anyone who comes into
their jobs. After all, it is ultimately
contact with it. In the next section, we
will discuss how to do this.
their effective efforts that collectively
make it possible for the president or
CEO to accomplish strategic ends
that would otherwise fall by the way-
Expectancy Theory: A Model of
Motivation
side.
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Leadership And Motivation 215
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216 Isaac, Zerbe and Pitt
EFFORT
PERFORMANCE
OUTCOME 4 VALENCE
MOTIVATIONAL STATE
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Leadership And Motivation 217
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218 Isaac, Zerbe and Pitt
lack the confidence to choose stretch- (Brown and Peterson, 1994). Individ-
ing goals. Leaders must recognizeuals wish to feel productive, involved,
this and help followers in their devel- useful and competent. The job pro-
opmental efforts. vides a vehicle for the expression of
A significant role of the leader, inthese needs. Therefore, the leader re-
these regards, involves spending timeinforces these feelings in the follower
encouraging this individual as he or whenever possible in an effort to
she tries to achieve a desired level of
strengthen the E-P linkage by ensur-
performance. Of equal importance ing is that the follower understands the
the expression of appreciation when importance of his or her work in ful-
various successes are encountered
filling the organizational vision. The
along the pathway towards thesatisfactiongoal. of the employee in per-
This strengthens the E-P linkage. In-
forming meaningful work assists in el-
deed, the retention of employees par- overall motivational states.
evating
tially depends upon recognition
given by supervisors for follower
The Performance-Outcome (P-O)
achievements and efforts (Ramsey,
1998). Linkage
The leader also ought to be there
The strength of the P-O linkage de-
to provide encouragement when
there are setbacks and to ensure for- pends upon three beliefs in the fol-
lower's mind. First, the follower must
giveness whenever honest mistakes
trust that the leader will be able to "deliver
occur in the follower's earnest at-
tempts to accomplish results (Rigs- the goods" as promised. The outcome,
bee, 1996). The leader coaches the given that it represents a salient re-
ward in the follower's mind, drives
follower and, in so doing, establishes
conditions whereby the follower is the motivational state. Thus, leaders
more likely to assess his or her abili- must consistently ensure that prom-
ties in a favorable light, building both ises made are fulfilled (Daly and Klei-
personal esteem and confidence. ner, 1995). They cannot afford to
make excuses such as "conditions
Fourth, the leader must ensure that both
parties clearly determine exactly what out- have changed since I said that" or "I
comes constitute acceptable performance really thought I could get you that
and those results which do not (Katzen- raise but you know the constraints we
bach, 1996). Together, they must set are under due to the economy." In
forth mutually agreed upon perform- such cases, the P-O linkage will be sig-
ance measures that represent success- nificantly weakened in the follower's
ful behavior in both their minds. The mind as trust in the leader dissipates
follower must fully understand the(Karathanos et al, 1994). Leaders
expectations established in order tocannot afford a loss of credibility in
accurately assess the strength or weak-the eyes of their followers. Above all,
they should never lie, even in rare in-
ness of the E-P linkage. These per-
formance measures must therefore stances where they are unable to fol-
be expressed in concrete terms. low through on their assurances.
Fifth, and finally, the leader must They
un- must honestly confront such sit-
derstand that for many followers, theuations
ex- with followers. The followers
penditure of effort on the part of the must
fol- feel reasonably sure that the
lower leads to satisfaction on the outcome
job promised will result from
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Leadership And Motivation 219
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220 Isaac, Zerbe and Pitt
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Leadership And Motivation 221
The Valence 1 . Are the goals of the follower congruent with those of
the organization? Does the follower perceive this?
What can I do to engineer a greater degree of
alignment in these regards?
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222 Isaac, Zerbe and Pitt
view.
supervisors is getting to When
know a follower
each ofhighly values
their employees. Thisreward, advice applies
the probability of triggerin
to leaders as well. Leaders need
self-motivational to pay
processes grows con-
attention to detailssiderably.
regarding Determiningtheir the salien
followers, asking theof various rewards to followers
following consti-
kinds
of questions: tutes a primary responsibility for the
leader.
• What level of ability does this
Effective leaders differentiate be-
person display?
tween extrinsic and intrinsic rewards.
• What education and experien-
tial background does he or she pos- Leaders may only give their followers
sess? extrinsic rewards, such as praise, rec-
• What are this person's interests, ognition from others, and money,
goals, values and beliefs? and may not bestow intrinsic rewards.
• What motivates this individual? Intrinsic rewards arise exclusively and
Effective leaders enter into mean- naturally within the follower's psy-
chological domain whenever a job
ingful discussions with followers to
has been completed. Satisfaction re-
mutually establish training needs,
sults when the effort expended
work assignments, developmental (Brown and Peterson, 1994) has
pathways, valued outcomes for per-
proven personally worthwhile and
formance, and other issues of impor-
fulfilling. Followers experience a
tance for the latter. The leader must
sense of personal accomplishment
display sensitivity, ingenuity, and
when they perceive the outcomes of
judgement in marrying corporate
their performance as satisfactory.
and personal follower objectives While leaders have little or no di-
throughout the process of commu- rect control over intrinsic motiva-
nication. Special attention must be
tional states experienced by follow-
paid to those areas in which the fol-
lower lacks self-confidence or the ca- ers, they may enhance the probability
that such feelings and emotions will
pability (Daly and Kleiner, 1995) to
achieve results. These constitute weak arise by:
links in the chain and they must be • Spending time with the follower
strengthened through appropriate and enhancing, rather than under-
reinforcement and training. mining, self-confidence.
Third, successful leaders under- • Increasing follower knowledge,
skills and abilities through exposure
stand that they are unable to directly mo-
tivate followers. Given the nature andto various educational and training
programs, as well as experiences.
purpose of our article, this admission
may appear somewhat surprising.These activities enhance both fol-
lower capability and self-confidence
Nevertheless, the only reasonable un-
dertaking for any leader is to establish • Establishing realistic, meaning
conditions that offer the highest ful and attainable goals with the fol
probability of encouraging the fol-lower satisfactory to both parties.
lower to become self-motivated • Creating a climate of mutual re-
(McConnell, 1998). Perhaps the most
spect.
important consideration relates to
• Showing appreciation when the
the significance of organizational follower
re- meets or exceeds expecta
wards from the follower's point tions,ofor addressing problematic is-
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Leadership And Motivation 223
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224 Isaac, Zerbe and Pitt
of expectancy theory
a personalprinciples,
basis, according to the
thereby consciously choosing
principles a of
of the model pull,
expectancy
theory. But ifAny
rather than push, strategy. we are unwilling
organ- to ex-
ization employing a this
pend workforce of
effort, we are really denying
leaders, rather than those around us the benefits
managers, super- of po-
visors, and workers, will
tential likely
contributions realize
arising from our
enormous gains as use of influence to achieve
individuals the out-
collec-
tively attempt to mutually comes of the vision,ease andonein the long
another's journey towards run, we are the choosing to forego our
vision
shared by all. own opportunities to grow. In so do-
Leadership is hard work because it ing, we sadly short-change ourselves
means stepping forward and taking and all others we work with, by failing
the time to motivate each follower on to create the future everyone seeks.
References
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Leadership And Motivation 225
103-111.
Kouzes, J.M. and B.Z. Posner. 1993. Credibility: How Leaders Gain and Lose It, Why
People Demand It. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Lawler, E.E. 1981. Pay and Organization Development. Reading, MA: Addison-Wes-
ley.
Leonard, N.H., L.L. Beauvais and R.W. Scholl. 1999. "Work Motivation: The
Incorporation of Self-Concept-Based Processes." Human Relations 52(8): 969-
998.
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226 Isaac, Zerbe and Pitt
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