GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Pakistan

3.1 Introduction
• The transistor was invented by a team of three men at Bell
Laboratories in 1947.
• This first transistor was not a bipolar junction device but it
paved a way for the technological revolution.
• There are two basic types of transistors
1. BJT (used as a linear amplifier and as an electronic switch)
2. FET ( used as a small signal amplifier and are preferred
over BJTs in some applications due to their high input
resistance and other characteristics)

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3.1 Introduction

The 1st Transistor

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3.2 Transistor Construction

• transistor is a 3-layer semiconductor device
(two n- and one p-type or vice-versa)
and hence npn and pnp transistor.
• transistor dc-biasing is required to operate the
the device.
• the emitter is heavily doped, the collector is
moderately doped and the base is lightly doped.
• the ratio of the total width to that of the center
layer is 150:1.
• the doping of the base (sandwiched layer) is
1:10 or less and hence offers low conductivity (high resistance)
• the terminasl are indicated by E (emitter), C
(collector) and B (base).
• BJT (bipolar junction transistor): bipolar signifies the fact that electrons
and holes both participate in the injection process)
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3.3 Transistor operation

One pn junction is forward biased and the other is
reverse biased one by one.
pnp transistor

Both the junctions are biased

simultaneously
By KCL
IE = IB+IC
IC= ICmajority + ICOminority
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3.4 Common base

configuration
• The common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the
base is common to both the input and output sides of the
configuration in both npn and pnp transistors.
• the base terminal is usually at ground potential.

The arrow in the graphic symbol defines

the direction of emitter current (convent-
ional flow) through the device.

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3.4 Common base

configuration
• A 3-terminal device (common base amplifiers) needs two sets
of characteristics to understand its full behavior.
1) Driving point or input parameters 2) output parameters

1) Input parameters: it relates an input current (IE) to an input

voltage (VBE) for various levels of output voltage (VCB)

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3.4 Common base

configuration
2) output parameters: it relates an output current (IC) to an output
voltage (VCB) for various levels of input current (IE).

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3.4 Common base

configuration
The output or collector set of characteristics has three basic
regions.
The active, cutoff and saturation.

In the active region the base-emitter junction is forward biased,

whereas the collector-base junction is reverse biased.
• At the lower end of the active region
the emitter current IE is zero. The collector
current is simply due to the reverse-saturation
current ICO.
• As the emitter current increases above zero, the
increase in collector current is almost same as that
of emitter current. (IC ≈ IE )
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3.4 Common base

configuration
In the cutoff region the base-emitter and collector-base junctions
of a transistor are both reverse biased.

In the saturation region the base emitter and collector-base

junctions are forward biased.

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3.4 Common base

configuration
Alpha (α) : In the dc mode IC and IE are related by a quantity
called alpha.
IC
α dc = {α = 1; for practical devices it extends from 0.9 to 0.988}
IE
I C = αI E + I CBO

For ac simulations where the point of operation moves on the

characteristics curve, an ac alpha is:
ΔI C
α ac = VCB = cons tan t
ΔI E

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3.4 Common base

configuration
Biasing : the proper biasing of the common base configuration in
the active region can be determined using the approximation IC≈IE
and assuming for the moment IB≈0 µA.

npn not pointing in

pnp pointing in
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3.5 Transistor amplifying

action
• For the common-base configuration, the ac input resistance is
quite small and typically varies from 10 ohms to 100 ohms.
• the output resistance is quite high and typically varies from 50 k
ohms to 1 M ohms.
• The difference in resistance is due to the forward biased junction
at the input and reverse biased junction at the output.

Ii=Vi/Ri=200m/20=10 mA
αac=1 (Ic=Ie)

IL=Ii=10 mA
VL=ILR=10m x 5k=50 V
Bipolar Junction Transistors
The voltage amplification,
Av= VL/Vi=50/200m=250
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3.5 Transistor amplifying

action
• Typical values of voltage amplification for the common base
configuration vary from 50 to 300.
• The current amplification (Ic/Ie) is always less than 1 for the
common base configuration as alpha is less than 1. (Ic = α Ie)

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3.6 Common-emitter
configuration

¾ Emitter is common to both the

Bipolar Junction Transistors
input and output terminals (base
and collector) .
¾ two sets of characteristics are
necessary to describe fully the
behavior of this configuration:
¾ one for the input or base-
emitter ckt and one for the
output or collector-emitter ckt.
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3.6 Common-emitter
configuration

In the active region of a common emitter amplifier, the base-

emitter junction is forward biased, whereas the collector-base
junction is reverse biased.
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3.6 Common-emitter
configuration
• the active region of the common-emitter configuration can be
employed for voltage, current or power amplification.
• the cutoff region for the common emitter configuration is not as
well defined as for the common base configuration (IC is not zero
when IB is zero). I = αI + I
C E CBO
IC = α(IC+IB) + ICBO
IC = αIB/(1-α) + ICBO/(1-α)
For IB=0, α=0.996
IC = ICBO/(1-0.996)=ICBO/0.004
IC = 250ICBO
ICEO=
ICBO=1µA, IB=0 A,IC=0.25 mA ICBO/(1-α)|IB=0 µA
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3.6 Common-emitter
configuration
For a transistor to be on or in the active region the base-to-
emitter voltage is 0.7 V. The voltage is fixed for any level of base
current.

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3.6 Common-emitter
configuration
Beta (β): In the dc mode the levels of IC and IB are related by a
quantity called beta
βdc=IC/IB
For ac simulations an ac beta is defined as
βac=ΔIC/ΔIB|VCE=constant

βac=ΔIC/ΔIB|VCE=constant
= (IC2 –IC1)/(IB2 – IB1)
= (3.2 mA – 2.2 mA)/30µA - 20 µA)
= 100
βdc =IC/IB =2.7 mA/25 µA= 108

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3.6 Common-emitter
configuration

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3.6 Common-emitter
configuration

βdc= (8mA/40 µA)

= 200

βac= (9m -7m)/(45µ - 35µ)

= 200
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3.6 Common-emitter
configuration
Relationship b/w β and α:
β=IC/IB
α=IC/IE
IE = IC + IB
IC/α = IC + IC/ β which gives 1/ α=1+ (1/ β)

α = β/(β+1)

β = α/(1- α)
In addition, ICEO = ICBO/(1- α)
ICEO = (β+1)ICBO

ICEO ≈ βICBO
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3.6 Common-emitter
configuration
IC = β IB

IE = IC + IB
= βIB + IB

IE= (β+1)IB

Biasing:

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3.7 Common-collector
configuration
• The output
characteristics of the
common-collector
configuration are the
same as for the common-
emitter configuration.

• output characteristics
(IE versus VCE).

• IC ≈ IE (IC = α IE and
α≈1)
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3.7 Limits of Operation

• Each transistor has a region of operation on the
characteristics that ensures that maximum ratings are not
exceeded and the output signal exhibits minimum distortion.

1. Maximum collector current = (ICmax)

2. Maximum collector to emitter voltage = (VCEmax)
3. Maximum collector dissipation power = (PCmax = VCEIC)

PCmax = VCEIC=300 mW

a. If ICmax = 50 mA, VCE = (300 mW)/(50 mA) = 6 V

b. If VCmax = 20, IC = (300 mW)/20= 15 mA
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3.7 Limits of Operation

ICEO ≤ IC ≤ ICmax

VCEsat ≤ VCE ≤ VCEmax

VCEIC ≤ PCmax

The curve shows

that this particular
transistor cannot be
operated in the
shaded portion of
the graph.
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