Series Solution Lecture Material

CHAPTER 7
Series Solutions of Linear Second

Equations
IN THIS CHAPTER we study a class of second order differential equations that occur in many applica-
tions, but can’t be solved in closed form in terms of elementary functions. Here are some examples:
(1) Bessel’s equation
x 2 y 00 C xy 0 C .x 2 2 /y D 0;
which occurs in problems displaying cylindrical symmetry, such as diffraction of light through a circular
aperture, propagation of electromagnetic radiation through a coaxial cable, and vibrations of a circular
drum head.
(2) Airy’s equation,
y 00 xy D 0;
which occurs in astronomy and quantum physics.
(3) Legendre’s equation
.1 x 2 /y 00 2xy 0 C ˛.˛ C 1/y D 0;
which occurs in problems displaying spherical symmetry, particularly in electromagnetism.
These equations and others considered in this chapter can be written in the form
P0 .x/y 00 C P1 .x/y 0 C P2 .x/y D 0; (A)
where P0 , P1 , and P2 are polynomials with no common factor. For most equations that occur in appli-
cations, these polynomials are of degree two or less. We’ll impose this restriction, although the methods
that we’ll develop can be extended to the case where the coefficient functions are polynomials of arbitrary
degree, or even power series that converge in some circle around the origin in the complex plane.
Since (A) does not in general have closed form solutions, we seek series representations for solutions.
We’ll see that if P0 .0/ ¤ 0 then solutions of (A) can be written as power series
1
X
yD an x n
nD0
that converge in an open interval centered at x D 0.

305
306 Chapter 6 Applications of Linear Second Order Equations
SECTION 7.1 reviews the properties of power series.

SECTIONS 7.2 AND 7.3 are devoted to finding power series solutions of (A) in the case where P0 .0/ ¤ 0.
The situation is more complicated if P0 .0/ D 0; however, if P1 and P2 satisfy assumptions that apply to
most equations of interest, then we’re able to use a modified series method to obtain solutions of (A).
SECTION 7.4 introduces the appropriate assumptions on P1 and P2 in the case where P0 .0/ D 0, and
deals with Euler’s equation
ax 2 y 00 C bxy 0 C cy D 0;
where a, b, and c are constants. This is the simplest equation that satisfies these assumptions.
SECTIONS 7.5 –7.7 deal with three distinct cases satisfying the assumptions introduced in Section 7.4.
In all three cases, (A) has at least one solution of the form
1
X
r
y1 D x an x n ;
nD0
where r need not be an integer. The problem is that there are three possibilities – each requiring a
different approach – for the form of a second solution y2 such that fy1 ; y2 g is a fundamental pair of
solutions of (A).
Section 7.1 Review of Power Series 307
7.1 REVIEW OF POWER SERIES
Many applications give rise to differential equations with solutions that can’t be expressed in terms of
elementary functions such as polynomials, rational functions, exponential and logarithmic functions, and
trigonometric functions. The solutions of some of the most important of these equations can be expressed
in terms of power series. We’ll study such equations in this chapter. In this section we review relevant
properties of power series. We’ll omit proofs, which can be found in any standard calculus text.
Definition 7.1.1 An infinite series of the form

1
X
an .x x0 /n ; (7.1.1)
nD0
where x0 and a0 , a1 ; . . . , an ; . . . are constants; is called a power series in x x0 : We say that the power
series (7.1.1) converges for a given x if the limit
N
X
lim an .x x0 /n
N !1
nD0
existsI otherwise, we say that the power series diverges for the given x:
A power series in x x0 must converge if x D x0 , since the positive powers of x x0 are all zero
in this case. This may be the only value of x for which the power series converges. However, the next
theorem shows that if the power series converges for some x ¤ x0 then the set of all values of x for
which it converges forms an interval.
Theorem 7.1.2 For any power series

1
X
an .x x0 /n ;
nD0
exactly one of the these statements is trueW

(i) The power series converges only for x D x0 :
(ii) The power series converges for all values of x:
(iii) There’s a positive number R such that the power series converges if jx x0 j < R and diverges if
jx x0 j > R:
In case (iii) we say that R is the radius of convergence of the power series. For convenience, we include
P by defining RnD 0 in case (i) and R D 1 in case (ii). We define the
the other two cases in this definition
open interval of convergence of 1 nD0 an .x x0 / to be
.x0 R; x0 C R/ if 0 < R < 1; or . 1; 1/ if R D 1:
If R is finite, no general statement can be made concerning convergence at the endpoints x D x0 ˙ R of

the open interval of convergence; the series may converge
P1 at one or both points, or diverge at both.
Recall from calculus that a series of constants nD0 ˛ n is said to convergePabsolutely if the series of
absolute values 1 1
x0 /n with a
P
nD0 j˛n j converges. It can be shown that a power series nD0 an .x
positive radius of convergence R converges absolutely in its open interval of convergence; that is, the
series
X1
jan jjx x0jn
nD0
308 Chapter 7 Series Solutions of Linear Second Equations
of absolute values converges if jx x0 j < R. However, if R < 1, the series may fail to converge
absolutely at an endpoint x0 ˙ R, even if it converges there.
The next theorem provides a useful method for determining the radius of convergence of a power
series. It’s derived in calculus by applying the ratio test to the corresponding series of absolute values.
For related theorems see Exercises 2 and 4.
Theorem 7.1.3 Suppose there’s an integer N such that an ¤ 0 if n N and

ˇ ˇ
ˇ anC1 ˇ
lim ˇ ˇ D L;
n!1 ˇ an ˇ
where 0 L 1: Then the radius of convergence of 1 x0 /n is R D 1=L; which should be

P
nD0 an .x
interpreted to mean that R D 0 if L D 1; or R D 1 if L D 0:
Example 7.1.1 Find the radius of convergence of the series:

1 1 1
X X xn X
(a) nŠx n (b) . 1/n (c) 2n n2 .x 1/n :
nŠ
nD0 nD10 nD0
S OLUTION (a) Here an D nŠ, so

ˇ ˇ
ˇ D lim .n C 1/Š D lim .n C 1/ D 1:
ˇ anC1 ˇ
lim ˇˇ
n!1 an ˇ n!1 nŠ n!1
Hence, R D 0.
S OLUTION (b) Here an D .1/n =nŠ for n N D 10, so

ˇ ˇ
ˇ anC1 ˇ nŠ 1
lim ˇˇ ˇ D lim D lim D 0:
n!1 an ˇ n!1 .n C 1/Š n!1 n C 1
Hence, R D 1.
S OLUTION (c) Here an D 2n n2 , so

nC1
.n C 1/2 1 2
ˇ ˇ
ˇ anC1 ˇ
lim ˇˇ ˇ D lim 2 D 2 lim 1 C D 2:
n!1 an ˇ n!1 2n n2 n!1 n
Hence, R D 1=2.
Taylor Series
If a function f has derivatives of all orders at a point x D x0 , then the Taylor series of f about x0 is
defined by
1
X f .n/ .x0 /
.x x0 /n :
nD0
nŠ
In the special case where x0 D 0, this series is also called the Maclaurin series of f .
Taylor series for most of the common elementary functions converge to the functions on their open
intervals of convergence. For example, you are probably familiar with the following Maclaurin series:
1
X xn
ex D ; 1 < x < 1; (7.1.2)
nD0
nŠ
1
X x 2nC1
sin x D . 1/n ; 1 < x < 1; (7.1.3)
nD0
.2n C 1/Š
1
X x 2n
cos x D . 1/n ; 1 < x < 1; (7.1.4)
nD0
.2n/Š
1
1 X
D x n; 1 < x < 1: (7.1.5)
1 x nD0
Differentiation of Power Series

A power series with a positive radius of convergence defines a function
1
X
f .x/ D an .x x0 /n
nD0
on its open interval of convergence. We say that the series represents f on the open interval of con-
vergence. A function f represented by a power series may be a familiar elementary function as in
(7.1.2)–(7.1.5); however, it often happens that f isn’t a familiar function, so the series actually defines f .
The next theorem shows that a function represented by a power series has derivatives of all orders on
the open interval of convergence of the power series, and provides power series representations of the
derivatives.
Theorem 7.1.4 A power series

1
X
f .x/ D an .x x0 /n
nD0
with positive radius of convergence R has derivatives of all orders in its open interval of convergence;
and successive derivatives can be obtained by repeatedly differentiating term by termI that is,
1
X
f 0 .x/ D nan .x x0 /n 1
; (7.1.6)
nD1
1
X
f 00 .x/ D n.n 1/an .x x0 /n 2
; (7.1.7)
nD2
::
:
1
X
f .k/ .x/ D n.n 1/ .n k C 1/an .x x0 /n k
: (7.1.8)
nDk
Moreover; all of these series have the same radius of convergence R:

Example 7.1.2 Let f .x/ D sin x. From (7.1.3),

1
X x 2nC1
f .x/ D . 1/n :
.2n C 1/Š
nD0
From (7.1.6),
1 1
x 2nC1 x 2n
X
X d
f 0 .x/ D . 1/n D . 1/n ;
nD0
dx .2n C 1/Š nD0
.2n/Š
which is the series (7.1.4) for cos x.
Uniqueness of Power Series

The next theorem shows that if f is defined by a power series in x x0 with a positive radius of conver-
gence, then the power series is the Taylor series of f about x0.
Theorem 7.1.5 If the power series

1
X
f .x/ D an .x x0 /n
nD0
has a positive radius of convergence, then
f .n/ .x0 /
an D I (7.1.9)
nŠ
P1
that is, nD0 an .x x0 /n is the Taylor series of f about x0 .
This result can be obtained by setting x D x0 in (7.1.8), which yields
f .k/ .x0 / D k.k 1/ 1 ak D kŠak :
This implies that

f .k/ .x0 /
ak D :
kŠ
Except for notation, this is the same as (7.1.9).
The next theorem lists two important properties of power series that follow from Theorem 7.1.5.
Theorem 7.1.6
(a) If
1
X 1
X
an .x x0 /n D bn .x x0/n
nD0 nD0
for all x in an open interval that contains x0 ; then an D bn for n D 0, 1, 2, . . . .

(b) If
1
X
an .x x0 /n D 0
nD0
for all x in an open interval that contains x0 ; then an D 0 for n D 0, 1, 2, . . . .

To obtain (a) we observe that the two series represent the same function f on the open interval; hence,
Theorem 7.1.5 implies that
f .n/ .x0 /
an D bn D ; n D 0; 1; 2; : : : :
nŠ
(b) can be obtained from (a) by taking bn D 0 for n D 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Taylor Polynomials
If f has N derivatives at a point x0, we say that
N
X f .n/ .x0 /
TN .x/ D .x x0 /n
nD0
nŠ
is the N -th Taylor polynomial of f about x0 . This definition and Theorem 7.1.5 imply that if
1
X
f .x/ D an .x x0 /n ;
nD0
where the power series has a positive radius of convergence; then the Taylor polynomials of f about x0
are given by
XN
TN .x/ D an .x x0/n :
nD0
In numerical applications, we use the Taylor polynomials to approximate f on subintervals of the open
interval of convergence of the power series. For example, (7.1.2) implies that the Taylor polynomial TN
of f .x/ D e x is
N
X xn
TN .x/ D :
nD0
nŠ
The solid curve in Figure 7.1.1 is the graph of y D e x on the interval Œ0; 5. The dotted curves in
Figure 7.1.1 are the graphs of the Taylor polynomials T1 , . . . , T6 of y D e x about x0 D 0. From this
figure, we conclude that the accuracy of the approximation of y D e x by its Taylor polynomial TN
improves as N increases.
Shifting the Summation Index
In Definition 7.1.1 of a power series in x x0 , the n-th term is a constant multiple of .x x0 /n . This
isn’t true in (7.1.6), (7.1.7), and (7.1.8), where the general terms are constant multiples of .x x0 /n 1 ,
.x x0 /n 2 , and .x x0 /n k , respectively. However, these series can all be rewritten so that their n-th
terms are constant multiples of .x x0 /n . For example, letting n D k C 1 in the series in (7.1.6) yields
1
X
f 0 .x/ D .k C 1/akC1 .x x0/k ; (7.1.10)
kD0
where we start the new summation index k from zero so that the first term in (7.1.10) (obtained by setting
k D 0) is the same as the first term in (7.1.6) (obtained by setting n D 1). However, the sum of a series
is independent of the symbol used to denote the summation index, just as the value of a definite integral
is independent of the symbol used to denote the variable of integration. Therefore we can replace k by n
in (7.1.10) to obtain
X1
f 0 .x/ D .n C 1/anC1 .x x0 /n ; (7.1.11)
nD0
y
N=6
N=5
N=4
N=3
N=2
N=1
x
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 7.1.1 Approximation of y D e x by Taylor polynomials about x D 0
where the general term is a constant multiple of .x x0 /n .

It isn’t really necessary to introduce the intermediate summation index k. We can obtain (7.1.11)
directly from (7.1.6) by replacing n by n C 1 in the general term of (7.1.6) and subtracting 1 from the
lower limit of (7.1.6). More generally, we use the following procedure for shifting indices.
Shifting the Summation Index in a Power Series

For any integer k, the power series
1
X
bn .x x0/n k
nDn0
can be rewritten as
1
X
bnCk .x x0/n I
nDn0 k
that is, replacing n by n C k in the general term and subtracting k from the lower limit of summation
leaves the series unchanged.
Example 7.1.3 Rewrite the following power series from (7.1.7) and (7.1.8) so that the general term in
each is a constant multiple of .x x0 /n :

1
X 1
X
(a) n.n 1/an .x x0 /n 2
(b) n.n 1/ .n k C 1/an .x x0 /n k
:
nD2 nDk
S OLUTION (a) Replacing n by n C 2 in the general term and subtracting 2 from the lower limit of
summation yields
1
X 1
X
n.n 1/an .x x0 /n 2
D .n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 .x x0 /n :
nD2 nD0
S OLUTION (b) Replacing n by n C k in the general term and subtracting k from the lower limit of
summation yields
1
X 1
X
n.n 1/ .n k C 1/an .x x0 /n k
D .n C k/.n C k 1/ .n C 1/anCk .x x0 /n :
nDk nD0
Example 7.1.4 Given that

1
X
f .x/ D an x n ;
nD0
write the function xf as a power series in which the general term is a constant multiple of x n .
00
Solution From Theorem 7.1.4 with x0 D 0,

1
X
f 00 .x/ D n.n 1/an x n 2
:
nD2
Therefore
1
X
xf 00 .x/ D n.n 1/an x n 1
:
nD2
Replacing n by n C 1 in the general term and subtracting 1 from the lower limit of summation yields
1
X
xf 00 .x/ D .n C 1/nanC1 x n :
nD1
We can also write this as

1
X
xf 00 .x/ D .n C 1/nanC1 x n ;
nD0
since the first term in this last series is zero. (We’ll see later that sometimes it’s useful to include zero
terms at the beginning of a series.)
Linear Combinations of Power Series
If a power series is multiplied by a constant, then the constant can be placed inside the summation; that
is,
1
X 1
X
c an .x x0/n D can .x x0 /n :
nD0 nD0
Two power series

1
X 1
X
f .x/ D an .x x0 /n and g.x/ D bn .x x0/n
nD0 nD0
with positive radii of convergence can be added term by term at points common to their open intervals of
convergence; thus, if the first series converges for jx x0j < R1 and the second converges for jx x0 j <
R2 , then
X1
f .x/ C g.x/ D .an C bn /.x x0 /n
nD0
for jx x0 j < R, where R is the smaller of R1 and R2 . More generally, linear combinations of power
series can be formed term by term; for example,
1
X
c1 f .x/ C c2 f .x/ D .c1 an C c2 bn /.x x0/n :
nD0
Example 7.1.5 Find the Maclaurin series for cosh x as a linear combination of the Maclaurin series for
e x and e x .
Solution By definition,
1 x 1 x
cosh x D e C e :
2 2
Since
1 1
X xn X xn
ex D and e x
D . 1/n ;
nD0
nŠ nD0
nŠ
it follows that
1
X 1 xn
cosh x D Œ1 C . 1/n : (7.1.12)
nD0
2 nŠ
Since
1 1 if n D 2m; an even integer;
Œ1 C . 1/n D
2 0 if n D 2m C 1; an odd integer;
we can rewrite (7.1.12) more simply as
1
X x 2m
cosh x D :
mD0
.2m/Š
This result is valid on . 1; 1/, since this is the open interval of convergence of the Maclaurin series for
e x and e x .
Example 7.1.6 Suppose

1
X
yD an x n
nD0
on an open interval I that contains the origin.
(a) Express
.2 x/y 00 C 2y
as a power series in x on I .
(b) Use the result of (a) to find necessary and sufficient conditions on the coefficients fan g for y to be
a solution of the homogeneous equation
.2 x/y 00 C 2y D 0 (7.1.13)
on I .
S OLUTION (a) From (7.1.7) with x0 D 0,

1
X
y 00 D n.n 1/an x n 2
:
nD2
Therefore
.2 x/y 00 C 2y D 2y 00 xy 0 C 2y
1 1 1
X X X (7.1.14)
D 2n.n 1/an x n 2
n.n 1/an x n 1
C 2an x n :
nD2 nD2 nD0
To combine the three series we shift indices in the first two to make their general terms constant multiples
of x n ; thus,
X1 X1
2n.n 1/an x n 2 D 2.n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 x n (7.1.15)
nD2 nD0
and
1
X 1
X 1
X
n.n 1/an x n 1
D .n C 1/nanC1 x n D .n C 1/nanC1 x n ; (7.1.16)
nD2 nD1 nD0
where we added a zero term in the last series so that when we substitute from (7.1.15) and (7.1.16) into
(7.1.14) all three series will start with n D 0; thus,
1
X
.2 x/y 00 C 2y D Œ2.n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 .n C 1/nanC1 C 2an x n : (7.1.17)
nD0
S OLUTION (b) From (7.1.17) we see that y satisfies (7.1.13) on I if
2.n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 .n C 1/nanC1 C 2an D 0; n D 0; 1; 2; : : : : (7.1.18)

P1
Conversely, Theorem 7.1.6 (b) implies that if y D nD0 an x n satisfies (7.1.13) on I , then (7.1.18) holds.
Example 7.1.7 Suppose

1
X
yD an .x 1/n
nD0
on an open interval I that contains x0 D 1. Express the function
.1 C x/y 00 C 2.x 1/2 y 0 C 3y (7.1.19)
as a power series in x 1 on I .
Solution Since we want a power series in x 1, we rewrite the coefficient of y 00 in (7.1.19) as 1 C x D

2 C .x 1/, so (7.1.19) becomes
2y 00 C .x 1/y 00 C 2.x 1/2 y 0 C 3y:
From (7.1.6) and (7.1.7) with x0 D 1,
1
X 1
X
y0 D nan .x 1/n 1
and y 00 D n.n 1/an .x 1/n 2
:
nD1 nD2
Therefore
1
X
2y 00 D 2n.n 1/an .x 1/n 2
;
nD2
X1
.x 1/y 00 D n.n 1/an .x 1/n 1
;
nD2
X1
2.x 1/2 y 0 D 2nan .x 1/nC1 ;
nD1
X1
3y D 3an .x 1/n :
nD0
Before adding these four series we shift indices in the first three so that their general terms become
constant multiples of .x 1/n . This yields
1
X
2y 00
D 2.n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 .x 1/n ; (7.1.20)
nD0
X1
.x 1/y 00 D .n C 1/nanC1 .x 1/n ; (7.1.21)
nD0
X1
2.x 1/2 y 0 D 2.n 1/an 1 .x 1/n ; (7.1.22)
nD1
X1
3y D 3an .x 1/n ; (7.1.23)
nD0
where we added initial zero terms to the series in (7.1.21) and (7.1.22). Adding (7.1.20)–(7.1.23) yields
.1 C x/y 00 C 2.x 1/2 y 0 C 3y D 2y 00 C .x 1/y 00 C 2.x 1/2 y 0 C 3y
1
X
D bn .x 1/n ;
nD0
where
b0 D 4a2 C 3a0 ; (7.1.24)
bn D 2.n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 C .n C 1/nanC1 C 2.n 1/an 1 C 3an ; n 1: (7.1.25)
The formula (7.1.24) for b0 can’t be obtained by setting n D 0 in (7.1.25), since the summation in (7.1.22)
begins with n D 1, while those in (7.1.20), (7.1.21), and (7.1.23) begin with n D 0.
7.1 Exercises
1. For each power series use Theorem 7.1.3 to find the radius of convergence R. If R > 0, find the
open interval of convergence.
1 1
X . 1/n n
X
(a) .x 1/ (b) 2n n.x 2/n
2n n
nD0 nD0
1 1
X nŠ n X n.n C 1/
(c) n
x (d) n
.x 2/n
nD0
9 nD0
16
1 n 1
X
n7 n
X 3n
(e) . 1/ x (f) nC1 2
.x C 7/n
nD0
nŠ nD0
4 .n C 1/
2. Suppose there’s an integer M such that bm ¤ 0 for m M , and
ˇ ˇ
ˇ bmC1 ˇ
lim ˇˇ ˇ D L;
m!1 bm ˇ
where 0 L 1. Show that the radius of convergence of

1
X
bm .x x0 /2m
mD0
p
is R D 1= L, which is interpretedPto mean that R D 0 if L D 1 or R D 1 if L D 0. H INT:
Apply Theorem 7.1.3 to the series 1
mD0 b m ´m
and then let ´ D .x x0 /2 .
3. For each power series, use the result of Exercise 2 to find the radius of convergence R. If R > 0,
find the open interval of convergence.
1 1
X X m.2m C 1/
(a) . 1/m .3m C 1/.x 1/2mC1 (b) . 1/m m
.x C 2/2m
mD0 mD0
2
1 1
X mŠ 2m
X mŠ
(c) .x 1/ (d) . 1/m m .x C 8/2m
.2m/Š 9
mD0 mD0
1 1
m .2m 1/ 2mC1
X X
(e) . 1/ m
x (f) .x 1/2m
mD0
3 mD0
4. Suppose there’s an integer M such that bm ¤ 0 for m M , and
ˇ ˇ
ˇ bmC1 ˇ
lim ˇˇ ˇ D L;
m!1 bm ˇ
where 0 L 1. Let k be a positive integer. Show that the radius of convergence of

1
X
bm .x x0 /km
mD0
p
k
is R D 1= L, which is interpretedP to mean that R D 0 if L D 1 or R D 1 if L D 0. H INT:
Apply Theorem 7.1.3 to the series 1
mD0 b m ´m
and then let ´ D .x x0 /k .
5. For each power series use the result of Exercise 4 to find the radius of convergence R. If R > 0,
find the open interval of convergence.
1 1
X . 1/m 3mC2
X x 7mC6
(a) m
.x 3/ (b)
.27/ m
mD0 mD0
1 m 1
X 9 .m C 1/ X 2m
(c) .x 3/4mC2 (d) . 1/m x 4mC3
.m C 2/ mŠ
mD0 mD0
1 1
X mŠ X . 1/m
(e) m
.x C 1/4mC3 (f) m
.x 1/3mC1
mD0
.26/ mD0
8 m.m C 1/
6. L Graph y D sin x and the Taylor polynomial
M
X . 1/n x 2nC1
T2M C1 .x/ D
nD0
.2n C 1/Š
on the interval . 2; 2 / for M D 1, 2, 3, . . . , until you find a value of M for which there’s no
perceptible difference between the two graphs.
7. L Graph y D cos x and the Taylor polynomial
M
X . 1/n x 2n
T2M .x/ D
nD0
.2n/Š
on the interval . 2; 2 / for M D 1, 2, 3, . . . , until you find a value of M for which there’s no
8. L Graph y D 1=.1 x/ and the Taylor polynomial
N
X
TN .x/ D xn
nD0
on the interval Œ0; :95 for N D 1, 2, 3, . . . , until you find a value of N for which there’s no
perceptible difference between the two graphs. Choose the scale on the y-axis so that 0 y 20.
9. L Graph y D cosh x and the Taylor polynomial
M
X x 2n
T2M .x/ D
nD0
.2n/Š
on the interval . 5; 5/ for M D 1, 2, 3, . . . , until you find a value of M for which there’s no
perceptible difference between the two graphs. Choose the scale on the y-axis so that 0 y 75.
10. L Graph y D sinh x and the Taylor polynomial
M
X x 2nC1
T2M C1 .x/ D
nD0
.2n C 1/Š
on the interval . 5; 5/ for M D 0, 1, 2, . . . , until you find a value of M for which there’s no per-
ceptible difference between the two graphs. Choose the scale on the y-axis so that 75 y 75.
P1
In Exercises 11–15 find a power series solution y.x/ D nD0 an x n .
11. .2 C x/y 00 C xy 0 C 3y 12. .1 C 3x 2 /y 00 C 3x 2y 0 2y
13. .1 C 2x 2 /y 00 C .2 3x/y 0 C 4y 14. .1 C x 2 /y 00 C .2 x/y 0 C 3y

15. .1 C 3x 2 /y 00 2xy 0 C 4y
Suppose y.x/ D 1 n
P
16. nD0 an .x C 1/ on an open interval that contains x0 D 1. Find a power
series in x C 1 for
xy 00 C .4 C 2x/y 0 C .2 C x/y:
Suppose y.x/ D 1 2/n on an open interval that contains x0 D 2. Find a power series
P
17. nD0 an .x
in x 2 for
x 2 y 00 C 2xy 0 3xy:
18. L Do the following experiment for various choices of real numbers a0 and a1 .
(a) Use differential equations software to solve the initial value problem
.2 x/y 00 C 2y D 0; y.0/ D a0 ; y 0 .0/ D a1 ;
numerically on . 1:95; 1:95/. Choose the most accurate method your software package
provides. (See Section 10.1 for a brief discussion of one such method.)
(b) For N D 2, 3, 4, . . . , compute a2 , . . . , aN from Eqn.(7.1.18) and graph
N
X
TN .x/ D an x n
nD0
and the solution obtained in (a) on the same axes. Continue increasing N until it’s obvious
that there’s no point in continuing. (This sounds vague, but you’ll know when to stop.)
19. L Follow the directions of Exercise 18 for the initial value problem
.1 C x/y 00 C 2.x 1/2 y 0 C 3y D 0; y.1/ D a0 ; y 0 .1/ D a1 ;
on the interval .0; 2/. Use Eqns. (7.1.24) and (7.1.25) to compute fan g.
Suppose the series 1 n
P
20. nD0 an x converges on an open interval . R; R/, let r be an arbitrary real
number, and define
X1 X1
y.x/ D x r an x n D an x nCr
nD0 nD0
on .0; R/. Use Theorem 7.1.4 and the rule for differentiating the product of two functions to show
that
1
X
0
y .x/ D .n C r /an x nCr 1
;
nD0
1
X
00
y .x/ D .n C r /.n C r 1/an x nCr 2
;
nD0
::
:
1
X
y .k/ .x/ D .n C r /.n C r 1/ .n C r k/an x nCr k
nD0
on .0; R/
320 Chapter 7 Series Solutions of Linear Second Order Equations
Exercises 21–26 let y be as defined in Exercise 20, and write the given expression in the form
In P
xr 1 n
nD0 bn x .
21. x 2.1 x/y 00 C x.4 C x/y 0 C .2 x/y

2 00 0
22. x .1 C x/y C x.1 C 2x/y .4 C 6x/y
2
23. x .1 C x/y 00
x.1 6x x /y 0 C .1 C 6x C x 2 /y
2
24. x 2.1 C 3x/y 00 C x.2 C 12x C x 2 /y 0 C 2x.3 C x/y

25. x 2.1 C 2x 2/y 00 C x.4 C 2x 2 /y 0 C 2.1 x 2 /y
26. x 2.2 C x 2 /y 00 C 2x.5 C x 2 /y 0 C 2.3 x 2 /y
7.2 SERIES SOLUTIONS NEAR AN ORDINARY POINT I
Many physical applications give rise to second order homogeneous linear differential equations of the
form
P0 .x/y 00 C P1 .x/y 0 C P2 .x/y D 0; (7.2.1)
where P0 , P1 , and P2 are polynomials. Usually the solutions of these equations can’t be expressed in
terms of familiar elementary functions. Therefore we’ll consider the problem of representing solutions of
(7.2.1) with series.
We assume throughout that P0 , P1 and P2 have no common factors. Then we say that x0 is an ordinary
point of (7.2.1) if P0 .x0 / ¤ 0, or a singular point if P0 .x0 / D 0. For Legendre’s equation,
.1 x 2 /y 00 2xy 0 C ˛.˛ C 1/y D 0; (7.2.2)
x0 D 1 and x0 D 1 are singular points and all other points are ordinary points. For Bessel’s equation,
x 2 y 00 C xy 0 C .x 2 2 /y D 0;
x0 D 0 is a singular point and all other points are ordinary points. If P0 is a nonzero constant as in Airy’s
equation,
y 00 xy D 0; (7.2.3)
then every point is an ordinary point.
Since polynomials are continuous everywhere, P1 =P0 and P2 =P0 are continuous at any point x0 that
isn’t a zero of P0 . Therefore, if x0 is an ordinary point of (7.2.1) and a0 and a1 are arbitrary real numbers,
then the initial value problem
P0 .x/y 00 C P1 .x/y 0 C P2 .x/y D 0; y.x0 / D a0 ; y 0 .x0 / D a1 (7.2.4)
has a unique solution on the largest open interval that contains x0 and does not contain any zeros of P0 .
To see this, we rewrite the differential equation in (7.2.4) as
P1 .x/ 0 P2 .x/
y 00 C y C yD0
P0 .x/ P0 .x/
and apply Theorem 5.1.1 with p D P1 =P0 and q D P2 =P0 . In this section and the next we consider
the problem of representing solutions of (7.2.1) by power series that converge for values of x near an
ordinary point x0 .
We state the next theorem without proof.
Section 7.2 Series Solutions Near an Ordinary Point I 321
Theorem 7.2.1 Suppose P0 , P1 , and P2 are polynomials with no common factor and P0 isn’t identically
zero: Let x0 be a point such that P0 .x0 / ¤ 0; and let be the distance from x0 to the nearest zero of P0
in the complex plane. .If P0 is constant, then D 1./ Then every solution of
P0 .x/y 00 C P1 .x/y 0 C P2 .x/y D 0 (7.2.5)
can be represented by a power series
1
X
yD an .x x0 /n (7.2.6)
nD0
that converges at least on the open interval .x0 ; x0 C/. . If P0 is nonconstant; so that is necessarily
finite; then the open interval of convergence of (7.2.6) may be larger than .x0 ; x0 C/: If P0 is constant
then D 1 and .x0 ; x0 C / D . 1; 1/./
We call (7.2.6) a power series solution in x x0 of (7.2.5). We’ll now develop a method for finding
power series solutions of (7.2.5). For this purpose we write (7.2.5) as Ly D 0, where
Ly D P0 y 00 C P1 y 0 C P2 y: (7.2.7)
Theorem 7.2.1 implies that every solution of Ly D 0 on .x0 ; x0 C / can be written as
1
X
yD an .x x0 /n :
nD0
Setting x D x0 in this series and in the series

1
X
y0 D nan .x x0 /n 1
nD1
0
shows that y.x0 / D a0 and y .x0 / D a1 . Since every initial value problem (7.2.4) has a unique solution,
this means that a0 and a1 can be chosen arbitrarily, and a2 , a3 , . . . are uniquely determined by them.
To find a2 , a3 , . . . , we write P0 , P1 , and P2 in powers of x x0 , substitute
1
X
yD an .x x0/n ;
nD0
1
X
y0 D nan .x x0 /n 1
;
nD1
1
X
y 00 D n.n 1/an .x x0 /n 2
nD2
into (7.2.7), and collect the coefficients of like powers of x x0. This yields
1
X
Ly D bn .x x0 /n ; (7.2.8)
nD0
where fb0 ; b1; : : : ; bn ; : : : g are expressed in terms of fa0 ; a1 ; : : : ; an ; : : : g and the coefficients of P0 , P1 ,
and P2 , written in powers of x x0. Since (7.2.8) and (a) of Theorem 7.1.6 imply that Ly D 0 if and
only if bn D 0 for n 0, all power series solutions in x x0 of Ly D 0 can be obtained by choosing
a0 and a1 arbitrarily and computing a2 , a3 , . . . , successively so that bn D 0 for n 0. For simplicity,
we call the power series obtained this way the power series in x x0 for the general solution of Ly D 0,
without explicitly identifying the open interval of convergence of the series.
Example 7.2.1 Let x0 be an arbitrary real number. Find the power series in x x0 for the general solution
of
y 00 C y D 0: (7.2.9)
Solution Here
Ly D y 00 C y:
If
1
X
yD an .x x0/n ;
nD0
then
1
X
y 00 D n.n 1/an .x x0/n 2
;
nD2
so
1
X 1
X
Ly D n.n 1/an .x x0 /n 2
C an .x x0/n :
nD2 nD0
To collect coefficients of like powers of x x0 , we shift the summation index in the first sum. This yields
1
X 1
X 1
X
Ly D .n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 .x x0 /n C an .x x0 /n D bn .x x0/n ;
nD0 nD0 nD0
with
bn D .n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 C an :
Therefore Ly D 0 if and only if
an
anC2 D ; n 0; (7.2.10)
.n C 2/.n C 1/
where a0 and a1 are arbitrary. Since the indices on the left and right sides of (7.2.10) differ by two, we
write (7.2.10) separately for n even .n D 2m/ and n odd .n D 2m C 1/. This yields
a2m
a2mC2 D ; m 0; (7.2.11)
.2m C 2/.2m C 1/
and
a2mC1
a2mC3 D ; m 0: (7.2.12)
.2m C 3/.2m C 2/
Computing the coefficients of the even powers of x x0 from (7.2.11) yields
a0
a2 D
21
a2 1 a0 a0
a4 D D D ;
43 43 21 4321
a4 1 a0 a0
a6 D D D ;
65 65 4321 654321
and, in general,
a0
a2m D . 1/m ; m 0: (7.2.13)
.2m/Š
Computing the coefficients of the odd powers of x x0 from (7.2.12) yields

a1
a3 D
32
a3 1 a1 a1
a5 D D D ;
54 54 32 5432
a5 1 a1 a1
a7 D D D ;
76 76 5432 765432
and, in general,
. 1/m a1
a2mC1 D m 0: (7.2.14)
.2m C 1/Š
Thus, the general solution of (7.2.9) can be written as
1
X 1
X
yD a2m .x x0/2m C a2mC1 .x x0 /2mC1 ;
mD0 mD0
or, from (7.2.13) and (7.2.14), as

1 1
X .x x0/2m X .x x0 /2mC1
y D a0 . 1/m C a1 . 1/m : (7.2.15)
.2m/Š .2m C 1/Š
mD0 mD0
If we recall from calculus that

1 1
X .x x0 /2m X .x x0 /2mC1
. 1/m D cos.x x0 / and . 1/m D sin.x x0 /;
.2m/Š .2m C 1/Š
mD0 mD0
then (7.2.15) becomes

y D a0 cos.x x0 / C a1 sin.x x0 /;
which should look familiar.
Equations like (7.2.10), (7.2.11), and (7.2.12), which define a given coefficient in the sequence fan g
in terms of one or more coefficients with lesser indices are called recurrence relations. When we use a
recurrence relation to compute terms of a sequence we’re computing recursively.
In the remainder of this section we consider the problem of finding power series solutions in x x0 for
equations of the form
1 C ˛.x x0 /2 y 00 C ˇ.x x0 /y 0 C y D 0:

(7.2.16)
Many important equations that arise in applications are of this form with x0 D 0, including Legendre’s
equation (7.2.2), Airy’s equation (7.2.3), Chebyshev’s equation,
.1 x 2 /y 00 xy 0 C ˛ 2 y D 0;
and Hermite’s equation,

y 00 2xy 0 C 2˛y D 0:
Since
P0 .x/ D 1 C ˛.x x0/2
in (7.2.16), the point x0 is an ordinary point of (7.2.16), and Theorem 7.2.1 implies p
that the solutions
p of
(7.2.16) can be written as power series in x x0 that converge on the interval .x0 1= j˛j; x0 C1= j˛j/
if ˛ ¤ 0, or on . 1; 1/ if ˛ D 0. We’ll see that the coefficients in these power series can be obtained
by methods similar to the one used in Example 7.2.1.
To simplify finding the coefficients, we introduce some notation for products:
s
Y
bj D br br C1 bs if s r:
j Dr
Thus,
7
Y
bj D b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 ;
j D2
4
Y
.2j C 1/ D .1/.3/.5/.7/.9/ D 945;
j D0
and
2
Y
j 2 D 22 D 4:
j D2
We define
s
Y
bj D 1 if s < r;
j Dr
no matter what the form of bj .
Example 7.2.2 Find the power series in x for the general solution of
.1 C 2x 2 /y 00 C 6xy 0 C 2y D 0: (7.2.17)
Solution Here
Ly D .1 C 2x 2 /y 00 C 6xy 0 C 2y:
If
1
X
yD an x n
nD0
then
1
X 1
X
y0 D nan x n 1
and y 00 D n.n 1/an x n 2
;
nD1 nD2
so
1
X 1
X 1
X
Ly D .1 C 2x 2/ n.n 1/an x n 2
C 6x nan x n 1
C2 an x n
nD2 nD1 nD0
1
X 1
X
D n.n 1/an x n 2
C Œ2n.n 1/ C 6n C 2 an x n
nD2 nD0
1
X 1
X
D n.n 1/an x n 2
C2 .n C 1/2 an x n :
nD2 nD0
To collect coefficients of x n , we shift the summation index in the first sum. This yields
1
X 1
X 1
X
Ly D .n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 x n C 2 .n C 1/2 an x n D bn x n ;
nD0 nD0 nD0
with
bn D .n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 C 2.n C 1/2 an ; n 0:
To obtain solutions of (7.2.17), we set bn D 0 for n 0. This is equivalent to the recurrence relation
nC1
anC2 D 2 an ; n 0: (7.2.18)
nC2
Since the indices on the left and right differ by two, we write (7.2.18) separately for n D 2m and
n D 2m C 1, as in Example 7.2.1. This yields
2m C 1 2m C 1
a2mC2 D 2 a2m D a2m ; m 0; (7.2.19)
2m C 2 mC1
and
2m C 2 mC1
a2mC3 D 2 a2mC1 D 4 a2mC1 ; m 0: (7.2.20)
2m C 3 2m C 3
Computing the coefficients of even powers of x from (7.2.19) yields
1
a2 D a0 ;
1

3 3 1 13
a4 D a2 D a0 D a0 ;
2 2 1 12

5 5 13 135
a6 D a4 D a0 D a0 ;
3 3 12 123

7 7 135 1357
a8 D a6 D a0 D a0 :
4 4 123 1234
In general, Qm
m j D1 .2j 1/
a2m D . 1/ a0 ; m 0: (7.2.21)
mŠ
Q0
(Note that (7.2.21) is correct for m D 0 because we defined j D1 bj D 1 for any bj .)
Computing the coefficients of odd powers of x from (7.2.20) yields
1
a3 D 4 a1 ;
3
12

2 2 1
a5 D 4 a3 D 4 4 a1 D 42 a1 ;
5 5 3 35

3 3 21 2 123
a7 D 4 a5 D 4 4 a1 D 43 a1 ;
7 7 35 357

4 4 31 2 3 1234
a9 D 4 a7 D 4 4 a1 D 44 a1 :
9 9 357 3579
In general,
. 1/m 4m mŠ
a2mC1 D Qm a1 ; m 0: (7.2.22)
j D1 .2j C 1/
From (7.2.21) and (7.2.22),
1 Qm 1
X
m j D1 .2j 1/ X 4m mŠ
y D a0 . 1/ x 2m C a1 . 1/m Qm x 2mC1 :
mD0
mŠ mD0 j D1 .2j C 1/
is the power series in x for the general solution of (7.2.17). Since P0 .x/ D 1 C 2x 2 has no real ze-
ros, Theorem
p 5.1.1 implies that every solution of (7.2.17) is defined on . 1; 1/. However,
p p since
P0 .˙i= 2/ D 0, Theorem 7.2.1 implies only that the power series converges in . 1= 2; 1= 2/ for
any choice of a0 and a1 .
The results in Examples 7.2.1 and 7.2.2 are consequences of the following general theorem.
Theorem 7.2.2 The coefficients fan g in any solution y D 1 x0 /n of
P
nD0 an .x
1 C ˛.x x0 /2 y 00 C ˇ.x x0/y 0 C y D 0

(7.2.23)
satisfy the recurrence relation
p.n/
anC2 D an ; n 0; (7.2.24)
.n C 2/.n C 1/
where
p.n/ D ˛ n.n 1/ C ˇn C : (7.2.25)
Moreover; the coefficients of the even and odd powers of x x0 can be computed separately as
p.2m/
a2mC2 D a2m ; m0 (7.2.26)
.2m C 2/.2m C 1/
and
p.2m C 1/
a2mC3 D a2mC1 ; m 0; (7.2.27)
.2m C 3/.2m C 2/
where a0 and a1 are arbitrary.
Proof Here
Ly D .1 C ˛.x x0 /2 /y 00 C ˇ.x x0 /y 0 C y:
If
1
X
yD an .x x0/n ;
nD0
then
1
X 1
X
n 1
0
y D nan .x x0 / and 00
y D n.n 1/an .x x0 /n 2
:
nD1 nD2
Hence,
1
X 1
X
n 2
Ly D n.n 1/an .x x0 / C Œ˛ n.n 1/ C ˇn C an .x x0 /n
nD2 nD0
X1 X1
n 2
D n.n 1/an .x x0 / C p.n/an .x x0 /n ;
nD2 nD0
from (7.2.25). To collect coefficients of powers of x x0 , we shift the summation index in the first sum.
This yields
X1
Ly D Œ.n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 C p.n/an .x x0 /n :
nD0
Thus, Ly D 0 if and only if
.n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 C p.n/an D 0; n 0;
which is equivalent to (7.2.24). Writing (7.2.24) separately for the cases where n D 2m and n D 2m C 1
yields (7.2.26) and (7.2.27).
Example 7.2.3 Find the power series in x 1 for the general solution of
.2 C 4x 2x 2 /y 00 12.x 1/y 0 12y D 0: (7.2.28)
Solution We must first write the coefficient P0 .x/ D 2 C 4x x 2 in powers of x 1. To do this, we

write x D .x 1/ C 1 in P0 .x/ and then expand the terms, collecting powers of x 1; thus,
2 C 4x 2x 2 D 2 C 4Œ.x 1/ C 1 2Œ.x 1/ C 12

D 4 2.x 1/2 :
Therefore we can rewrite (7.2.28) as
1/2 y 00 1/y 0

4 2.x 12.x 12y D 0;
or, equivalently,
1 2
1 .x 1/ y 00 3.x 1/y 0 3y D 0:
2
This is of the form (7.2.23) with ˛ D 1=2, ˇ D 3, and D 3. Therefore, from (7.2.25)
n.n 1/ .n C 2/.n C 3/
p.n/ D 3n 3D :
2 2
Hence, Theorem 7.2.2 implies that
p.2m/
a2mC2 D a2m
.2m C 2/.2m C 1/
.2m C 2/.2m C 3/ 2m C 3
D a2m D a2m ; m0
2.2m C 2/.2m C 1/ 2.2m C 1/
and
p.2m C 1/
a2mC3 D a2mC1
.2m C 3/.2m C 2/
.2m C 3/.2m C 4/ mC2
D a2mC1 D a2mC1 ; m 0:
2.2m C 3/.2m C 2/ 2.m C 1/
We leave it to you to show that
2m C 1 mC1
a2m D a0 and a2mC1 D a1 ; m 0;
2m 2m
which implies that the power series in x 1 for the general solution of (7.2.28) is
1 1
X 2m C 1 X mC1
y D a0 .x 1/2m C a1 .x 1/2mC1 :
2m 2m
mD0 mD0
In the examples considered so far we were able to obtain closed formulas for coefficients in the power
series solutions. In some cases this is impossible, and we must settle for computing a finite number of
terms in the series. The next example illustrates this with an initial value problem.
P1 n
Example 7.2.4 Compute a0 , a1 , . . . , a7 in the series solution y D nD0 an x of the initial value
problem
.1 C 2x 2 /y 00 C 10xy 0 C 8y D 0; y.0/ D 2; y 0 .0/ D 3: (7.2.29)
Solution Since ˛ D 2, ˇ D 10, and D 8 in (7.2.29),

p.n/ D 2n.n 1/ C 10n C 8 D 2.n C 2/2 :
Therefore
.n C 2/2 nC2
anC2 D 2 an D 2 an ; n 0:
.n C 2/.n C 1/ nC1
Writing this equation separately for n D 2m and n D 2m C 1 yields
.2m C 2/ mC1
a2mC2 D 2 a2m D 4 a2m ; m0 (7.2.30)
2m C 1 2m C 1
and
2m C 3 2m C 3
a2mC3 D 2 a2mC1 D a2mC1 ; m 0: (7.2.31)
2m C 2 mC1
Starting with a0 D y.0/ D 2, we compute a2 ; a4, and a6 from (7.2.30):
1
a2 D 4 2 D 8;
1
2 64
a4 D 4 . 8/ D ;
3 3

3 64 256
a6 D 4 D :
5 3 5
Starting with a1 D y 0 .0/ D 3, we compute a3 ; a5 and a7 from (7.2.31):
3
a3 D . 3/ D 9;
1
5 45
a5 D 9D ;
2 2

7 45 105
a7 D D :
3 2 2
Therefore the solution of (7.2.29) is
64 4 45 5 256 6 105 7
yD2 3x 8x 2 C 9x 3 C x x x C x C :
3 2 5 2
USING TECHNOLOGY
Computing coefficients recursively as in Example 7.2.4 is tedious. We recommend that you do this
kind of computation by writing a short program to implement the appropriate recurrence relation on a
calculator or computer. You may wish to do this in verifying examples and doing exercises (identified by
the symbol C ) in this chapter that call for numerical computation of the coefficients in series solutions.
We obtained the answers to these exercises by using software that can produce answers in the form of
rational numbers. However, it’s perfectly acceptable - and more practical - to get your answers in decimal
form. You can always check them by converting our fractions to decimals.
If you’re interested in actually using series to compute numerical approximations to solutions of a
differential equation, then whether or not there’s a simple closed form for the coefficents is essentially
irrelevant. For computational purposes it’s usually more efficient to start with the given coefficients
a0 D y.x0 / and a1 D y 0 .x0 /, compute a2 , . . . , aN recursively, and then compute approximate values of
the solution from the Taylor polynomial
N
X
TN .x/ D an .x x0/n :
nD0
The trick is to decide how to choose N so the approximation y.x/ TN .x/ is sufficiently accurate on
the subinterval of the interval of convergence that you’re interested in. In the computational exercises
in this and the next two sections, you will often be asked to obtain the solution of a given problem by
numerical integration with software of your choice (see Section 10.1 for a brief discussion of one such
method), and to compare the solution obtained in this way with the approximations obtained with TN for
various values of N . This is a typical textbook kind of exercise, designed to give you insight into how
the accuracy of the approximation y.x/ TN .x/ behaves as a function of N and the interval that you’re
working on. In real life, you would choose one or the other of the two methods (numerical integration or
series solution). If you choose the method of series solution, then a practical procedure for determining
a suitable value of N is to continue increasing N until the maximum of jTN TN 1 j on the interval of
interest is within the margin of error that you’re willing to accept.
In doing computational problems that call for numerical solution of differential equations you should
choose the most accurate numerical integration procedure your software supports, and experiment with
the step size until you’re confident that the numerical results are sufficiently accurate for the problem at
hand.
7.2 Exercises
In Exercises 1 –8 find the power series in x for the general solution.
1. .1 C x 2 /y 00 C 6xy 0 C 6y D 0 2. .1 C x 2 /y 00 C 2xy 0 2y D 0
3. .1 C x 2 /y 00 8xy 0 C 20y D 0 4. .1 x 2 /y 00 8xy 0 12y D 0
5. .1 C 2x 2 /y 00 C 7xy 0 C 2y D 0 1
6. .1 C x 2 /y 00 C 2xy 0 C y D 0
4
7. .1 x 2 /y 00 5xy 0 4y D 0 8. .1 C x 2 /y 00 10xy 0 C 28y D 0
9. L
(a) Find the power series in x for the general solution of y 00 C xy 0 C 2y D 0.
(b) For several choices of a0 and a1 , use differential equations software to solve the initial value
problem
y 00 C xy 0 C 2y D 0; y.0/ D a0 ; y 0 .0/ D a1 ; .A/
numerically on . 5; 5/.
(c) For fixed r in f1; 2; 3; 4; 5g graph
N
X
TN .x/ D an x n
nD0
and the solution obtained in (a) on . r; r /. Continue increasing N until there’s no perceptible
difference between the two graphs.
10. L Follow the directions of Exercise 9 for the differential equation
y 00 C 2xy 0 C 3y D 0:
P1
In Exercises 11 –13 find a0 , . . . , aN for N at least 7 in the power series solution y D nD0 an x n of the
initial value problem.
11. C .1 C x 2 /y 00 C xy 0 C y D 0; y.0/ D 2; y 0 .0/ D 1

12. C .1 C 2x 2 /y 00 9xy 0 6y D 0; y.0/ D 1; y 0 .0/ D 1
13. C .1 C 8x 2 /y 00 C 2y D 0; y.0/ D 2; y 0 .0/ D 1
p
14. L Do the next experiment for various choices of real numbers a0 , a1 , and r , with 0 < r < 1= 2.
.1 2x 2/y 00 xy 0 C 3y D 0; y.0/ D a0 ; y 0 .0/ D a1 ; .A/
numerically on . r; r /.
(b) For N D 2, 3, 4, . . . , compute a2 , . . . , aN in the power series solution y D 1 n
P
nD0 an x of
(A), and graph
N
X
TN .x/ D an x n
nD0
15. L Do (a) and (b) for several values of r in .0; 1/:
.1 C x 2 /y 00 C 10xy 0 C 14y D 0; y.0/ D 5; y 0 .0/ D 1; .A/
P
nD0 an x of
(A) , and graph
N
X
TN .x/ D an x n
nD0
and the solution obtained in (a) on . r; r /. Continue increasing N until there’s no percepti-
ble difference between the two graphs. What happens to the required N as r ! 1?
(c) Try (a) and (b) with r D 1:2. Explain your results.
In Exercises 16 –20 find the power series in x x0 for the general solution.
16. y 00 y D 0I x0 D 3 17. y 00 .x 3/y 0 y D 0I x0 D 3

2 00 0
18. .1 4x C 2x /y C 10.x 1/y C 6y D 0I x0 D 1
2 00 0
19. .11 8x C 2x /y 16.x 2/y C 36y D 0I x0 D 2
2 00 0
20. .5 C 6x C 3x /y C 9.x C 1/y C 3y D 0I x0 D 1
In Exercises 21 –26 find a0 , . . . , aN for N at least 7 in the power series y D 1 x0 /n for the
P
nD0 an .x
solution of the initial value problem. Take x0 to be the point where the initial conditions are imposed.
21. C .x 2 4/y 00 xy 0 3y D 0; y.0/ D 1; y 0 .0/ D 2

22. C y 00 C .x 3/y 0 C 3y D 0; y.3/ D 2; y 0 .3/ D 3
23. C .5 6x C 3x 2 /y 00 C .x 1/y 0 C 12y D 0; y.1/ D 1; y 0 .1/ D 1
24. C .4x 2 24x C 37/y 00 C y D 0; y.3/ D 4; y 0 .3/ D 6
25. C .x 2 8x C 14/y 00 8.x 4/y 0 C 20y D 0; y.4/ D 3; y 0 .4/ D 4
26. C .2x 2 C 4x C 5/y 00 20.x C 1/y 0 C 60y D 0; y. 1/ D 3; y 0 . 1/ D 3
27. (a) Find a power series in x for the general solution of
.1 C x 2 /y 00 C 4xy 0 C 2y D 0: .A/
(b) Use (a) and the formula

1
D 1 C r C r2 C C rn C . 1 < r < 1/
1 r
for the sum of a geometric series to find a closed form expression for the general solution of
(A) on . 1; 1/.
(c) Show that the expression obtained in (b) is actually the general solution of of (A) on . 1; 1/.
28. Use Theorem 7.2.2 to show that the power series in x for the general solution of
.1 C ˛x 2/y 00 C ˇxy 0 C y D 0
is
2 3 2 3
1 m
Y1 2m 1 mY1
X x X x 2mC1
y D a0 . 1/m 4 p.2j /5 C a1 . 1/m 4 p.2j C 1/5 :
.2m/Š .2m C 1/Š
mD0 j D0 mD0 j D0
29. Use Exercise 28 to show that all solutions of
.1 C ˛x 2/y 00 C ˇxy 0 C y D 0
are polynomials if and only if
˛ n.n 1/ C ˇn C D ˛.n 2r /.n 2s 1/;
where r and s are nonnegative integers.

30. (a) Use Exercise 28 to show that the power series in x for the general solution of
.1 x 2/y 00 2bxy 0 C ˛.˛ C 2b 1/y D 0
is y D a0 y1 C a1 y2 , where
2 3
1 m
Y1
X x 2m
y1 D 4 .2j ˛/.2j C ˛ C 2b 1/5
mD0
.2m/Š
j D0
and
2 3
1 m
Y1
X x 2mC1
y2 D 4 .2j C 1 ˛/.2j C ˛ C 2b/5 :
.2m C 1/Š
mD0 j D0
(b) Suppose 2b isn’t a negative odd integer and k is a nonnegative integer. Show that y1 is a
polynomial of degree 2k such that y1 . x/ D y1 .x/ if ˛ D 2k, while y2 is a polynomial of
degree 2k C 1 such that y2 . x/ D y2 . x/ if ˛ D 2k C 1. Conclude that if n is a non-
negative integer, then there’s a polynomial Pn of degree n such that Pn . x/ D . 1/n Pn .x/
and
.1 x 2/Pn00 2bxPn0 C n.n C 2b 1/Pn D 0: .A/
(c) Show that (A) implies that
Œ.1 x 2 /b Pn0 0 D n.n C 2b 1/.1 x 2/b 1

Pn ;
and use this to show that if m and n are nonnegative integers, then
Œ.1 x 2 /b Pn0 0 Pm Œ.1 x 2 /b Pm0 0 Pn D

.B/
Œm.m C 2b 1/ n.n C 2b 1/ .1 x 2 /b 1
Pm Pn :
(d) Now suppose b > 0. Use (B) and integration by parts to show that if m ¤ n, then
Z 1
.1 x 2 /b 1 Pm .x/Pn .x/ dx D 0:
1
(We say that Pm and Pn are orthogonal on . 1; 1/ with respect to the weighting function
.1 x 2 /b 1 .)
31. (a) Use Exercise 28 to show that the power series in x for the general solution of Hermite’s
equation
y 00 2xy 0 C 2˛y D 0
is y D a0 y1 C a1 y1 , where
2 3
1 m
Y1 m 2m
X 2 x
y1 D 4 .2j ˛/5
.2m/Š
mD0 j D0
and
2 3
1 m
Y1
X 2m x 2mC1
y2 D 4 .2j C 1 ˛/5 :
mD0
.2m C 1/Š
j D0
(b) Suppose k is a nonnegative integer. Show that y1 is a polynomial of degree 2k such that
y1 . x/ D y1 .x/ if ˛ D 2k, while y2 is a polynomial of degree 2k C 1 such that y2 . x/ D
y2 . x/ if ˛ D 2k C1. Conclude that if n is a nonnegative integer then there’s a polynomial
Pn of degree n such that Pn . x/ D . 1/n Pn .x/ and
Pn00 2xPn0 C 2nPn D 0: .A/
(c) Show that (A) implies that

x2 x2
Œe Pn0 0 D 2ne Pn ;
and use this to show that if m and n are nonnegative integers, then
x2 x2 x2
Œe Pn0 0 Pm Œe Pm0 0 Pn D 2.m n/e Pm Pn : .B/
(d) Use (B) and integration by parts to show that if m ¤ n, then

Z 1
2
e x Pm .x/Pn .x/ dx D 0:
1
(We say that Pm and Pn are orthogonal on . 1; 1/ with respect to the weighting function
2
e x .)
32. Consider the equation
1 C ˛x 3 y 00 C ˇx 2y 0 C xy D 0;

.A/
and let p.n/ D ˛ n.n 1/ C ˇn C . (The special case y 00 xy D 0 of (A) is Airy’s equation.)
(a) Modify the argument used to prove Theorem 7.2.2 to show that
1
X
yD an x n
nD0
is a solution of (A) if and only if a2 D 0 and

p.n/
anC3 D an ; n 0:
.n C 3/.n C 2/
(b) Show from (a) that an D 0 unless n D 3m or n D 3m C 1 for some nonnegative integer m,
and that
p.3m/
a3mC3 D a3m ; m 0;
.3m C 3/.3m C 2/
and
p.3m C 1/
a3mC4 D a3mC1 ; m 0;
.3m C 4/.3m C 3/
where a0 and a1 may be specified arbitrarily.
(c) Conclude from (b) that the power series in x for the general solution of (A) is
2 3
1 mY1 p.3j / 3m
5 x
X
y D a0 . 1/m 4 m
mD0
3j C 2 3 mŠ
j D0
2 3
X1 m
Y1 p.3j C 1/ x 3mC1
Ca1 . 1/m 4 5 :
mD0
3j C 4 3m mŠ
j D0
In Exercises 33 –37 use the method of Exercise 32 to find the power series in x for the general solution.
33. y 00 xy D 0 34. .1 2x 3 /y 00 10x 2y 0 8xy D 0

3 2 0
35. 00
.1 C x /y C 7x y C 9xy D 0 36. .1 2x /y 00 C 6x 2 y 0 C 24xy D 0
3
37. .1 x 3 /y 00 C 15x 2y 0 63xy D 0

38. Consider the equation

1 C ˛x kC2 y 00 C ˇx kC1 y 0 C x k y D 0; .A/
where k is a positive integer, and let p.n/ D ˛ n.n 1/ C ˇn C .

(a) Modify the argument used to prove Theorem 7.2.2 to show that
1
X
yD an x n
nD0
is a solution of (A) if and only if an D 0 for 2 n k C 1 and

p.n/
anCkC2 D an ; n 0:
.n C k C 2/.n C k C 1/
(b) Show from (a) that an D 0 unless n D .k C 2/m or n D .k C 2/m C 1 for some nonnegative
integer m, and that
p ..k C 2/m/
a.kC2/.mC1/ D a.kC2/m ; m 0;
.k C 2/.m C 1/Œ.k C 2/.m C 1/ 1
and
p ..k C 2/m C 1/
a.kC2/.mC1/C1 D a.kC2/mC1 ; m 0;
Œ.k C 2/.m C 1/ C 1.k C 2/.m C 1/
where a0 and a1 may be specified arbitrarily.
(c) Conclude from (b) that the power series in x for the general solution of (A) is
2 3
1 m
Y1
X p ..k C 2/j / x .kC2/m
y D a0 . 1/m 4 5
mD0
.k C 2/.j C 1/ 1 .k C 2/m mŠ
j D0
2 3
1 m
Y1 p ..k C 2/j C 1/ .kC2/mC1
5 x
X
Ca1 . 1/m 4 :
.k C 2/.j C 1/ C 1 .k C 2/m mŠ
mD0 j D0
In Exercises 39 –44 use the method of Exercise 38 to find the power series in x for the general solution.
39. .1 C 2x 5 /y 00 C 14x 4y 0 C 10x 3y D 0

40. y 00 C x 2 y D 0 41. y 00 C x 6 y 0 C 7x 5 y D 0
42. .1 C x 8 /y 00 16x 7y 0 C 72x 6y D 0
43. .1 x 6 /y 00 12x 5 y 0 30x 4 y D 0
44. y 00 C x 5 y 0 C 6x 4 y D 0
Section 7.3 Series Solutions Near an Ordinary Point II 335
7.3 SERIES SOLUTIONS NEAR AN ORDINARY POINT II
In this section we continue to find series solutions

1
X
yD an .x x0 /n
nD0
of initial value problems
P0 .x/y 00 C P1 .x/y 0 C P2 .x/y D 0; y.x0 / D a0 ; y 0 .x0 / D a1 ; (7.3.1)
where P0 ; P1, and P2 are polynomials and P0 .x0 / ¤ 0, so x0 is an ordinary point of (7.3.1). However,
here we consider cases where the differential equation in (7.3.1) is not of the form
1 C ˛.x x0/2 y 00 C ˇ.x x0 /y 0 C y D 0;

so Theorem 7.2.2 does not apply, and the computation of the coefficients fan g is more complicated. For
the equations considered here it’s difficult or impossible to obtain an explicit formula for an in terms of n.
Nevertheless, we can calculate as many coefficients as we wish. The next three examples illustrate this.
Example 7.3.1 Find the coefficients a0 , . . . , a7 in the series solution y D 1 n

P
nD0 an x of the initial value
problem
.1 C x C 2x 2/y 00 C .1 C 7x/y 0 C 2y D 0; y.0/ D 1; y 0 .0/ D 2: (7.3.2)
Solution Here
Ly D .1 C x C 2x 2 /y 00 C .1 C 7x/y 0 C 2y:
p p
The zeros . 1 ˙ i 7/=4 of P0 .x/ D 1 C x C 2x 2 have absolute value p 1=p 2, so Theorem 7.2.2 implies
that the series solution converges to the solution of (7.3.2) on . 1= 2; 1= 2/. Since
1
X 1
X 1
X
yD an x n ; y0 D nan x n 1
and y 00 D n.n 1/an x n 2
;
nD0 nD1 nD2
1
X 1
X 1
X
Ly D n.n 1/an x n 2
C n.n 1/an x n 1
C2 n.n 1/an x n
nD2 nD2 nD2
1
X 1
X 1
X
C nan x n 1
C7 nan x n C 2 an x n :
nD1 nD1 nD0
Shifting indices so the general term in each series is a constant multiple of x n yields
1
X 1
X 1
X
Ly D .n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 x n C .n C 1/nanC1 x n C 2 n.n 1/an x n
nD0 nD0 nD0
1
X 1
X 1
X 1
X
C .n C 1/anC1 x n C 7 nan x n C 2 an x n D bn x n ;
nD0 nD0 nD0 nD0
where
bn D .n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 C .n C 1/2 anC1 C .n C 2/.2n C 1/an :
P1
Therefore y D nD0 an x n is a solution of Ly D 0 if and only if
nC1 2n C 1
anC2 D anC1 an ; n 0: (7.3.3)
nC2 nC1
From the initial conditions in (7.3.2), a0 D y.0/ D 1 and a1 D y 0 .0/ D 2. Setting n D 0 in (7.3.3)
yields
1 1
a2 D a1 a0 D . 2/ . 1/ D 2:
2 2
Setting n D 1 in (7.3.3) yields
2 3 2 3 5
a3 D a2 a1 D .2/ . 2/ D :
3 2 3 2 3
We leave it to you to compute a4 ; a5 ; a6; a7 from (7.3.3) and show that
5 55 4 3 5 61 6 443 7
yD 1 2x C 2x 2 C x 3 x C x C x x C :
3 12 4 8 56
We also leave it to you (Exercise 13) to verify numerically
PN n
p pthat the Taylor polynomials TN .x/ D
nD0 na x converge to the solution of (7.3.2) on . 1= 2; 1= 2/.
Example 7.3.2 Find the coefficients a0 , . . . , a5 in the series solution

1
X
yD an .x C 1/n
nD0
of the initial value problem
.3 C x/y 00 C .1 C 2x/y 0 .2 x/y D 0; y. 1/ D 2; y 0 . 1/ D 3: (7.3.4)
Solution Since the desired series is in powers of x C 1 we rewrite the differential equation in (7.3.4) as
Ly D 0, with
Ly D .2 C .x C 1// y 00 .1 2.x C 1// y 0 .3 .x C 1// y:
Since
1
X 1
X 1
X
yD an .x C 1/n ; y0 D nan .x C 1/n 1
and y 00 D n.n 1/an .x C 1/n 2
;
nD0 nD1 nD2
1
X 1
X
n 2
Ly D 2 n.n 1/an .x C 1/ C n.n 1/an .x C 1/n 1
nD2 nD2
1
X 1
X
nan .x C 1/n 1
C2 nan .x C 1/n
nD1 nD1
1
X 1
X
3 an .x C 1/n C an .x C 1/nC1 :
nD0 nD0
Shifting indices so that the general term in each series is a constant multiple of .x C 1/n yields
1
X 1
X
Ly D 2 .n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 .x C 1/n C .n C 1/nanC1 .x C 1/n
nD0 nD0
1
X 1
X 1
X
.n C 1/anC1 .x C 1/n C .2n 3/an .x C 1/n C an 1 .x C 1/n
nD0 nD0 nD1
1
X
D bn .x C 1/n ;
nD0
where
b0 D 4a2 a1 3a0
and
bn D 2.n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 C .n2 1/anC1 C .2n 3/an C an 1; n 1:
Therefore y D 1 n
P
nD0 an .x C 1/ is a solution of Ly D 0 if and only if
1
a2 D .a1 C 3a0 / (7.3.5)
4
and
1 2
anC2 D .n 1/anC1 C .2n 3/an C an 1 ; n 1: (7.3.6)
2.n C 2/.n C 1/
From the initial conditions in (7.3.4), a0 D y. 1/ D 2 and a1 D y 0 . 1/ D 3. We leave it to you to
compute a2 , . . . , a5 with (7.3.5) and (7.3.6) and show that the solution of (7.3.4) is
3 5 7 1
yD 2 3.x C 1/ C .x C 1/2 .x C 1/3 C .x C 1/4 .x C 1/5 C :
4 12 48 60
We also leave it to you (Exercise 14) to verify numerically that the Taylor polynomials TN .x/ D
PN n
nD0 an x converge to the solution of (7.3.4) on the interval of convergence of the power series so-
lution.
Example 7.3.3 Find the coefficients a0 , . . . , a5 in the series solution y D 1 n

P
nD0 an x of the initial value
problem
y 00 C 3xy 0 C .4 C 2x 2 /y D 0; y.0/ D 2; y 0 .0/ D 3: (7.3.7)
Solution Here
Ly D y 00 C 3xy 0 C .4 C 2x 2 /y:
Since
1
X 1
X 1
X
yD an x n ; y0 D nan x n 1
; and y 00 D n.n 1/an x n 2
;
nD0 nD1 nD2
1
X 1
X 1
X 1
X
Ly D n.n 1/an x n 2
C3 nan x n C 4 an x n C 2 an x nC2 :
nD2 nD1 nD0 nD0
Shifting indices so that the general term in each series is a constant multiple of x n yields
1
X 1
X 1
X 1
X
Ly D .n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 x n C .3n C 4/an x n C 2 an 2x
n
D bn x n
nD0 nD0 nD2 nD0
where
b0 D 2a2 C 4a0; b1 D 6a3 C 7a1 ;
and
bn D .n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 C .3n C 4/an C 2an 2; n 2:
P1 n
Therefore y D nD0 an x is a solution of Ly D 0 if and only if
7
a2 D 2a0; a3 D a1 ; (7.3.8)
6
and
1
anC2 D Œ.3n C 4/an C 2an 2 ; n 2: (7.3.9)
.n C 2/.n C 1/
From the initial conditions in (7.3.7), a0 D y.0/ D 2 and a1 D y 0 .0/ D 3. We leave it to you to
compute a2 , . . . , a5 with (7.3.8) and (7.3.9) and show that the solution of (7.3.7) is
7 79 5
yD2 3x 4x 2 C x 3 C 3x 4 x C :
2 40
We also leave it to you (Exercise 15) to verify numerically that the Taylor polynomials TN .x/ D
PN n
nD0 an x converge to the solution of (7.3.9) on the interval of convergence of the power series so-
lution.
7.3 Exercises
P1
In Exercises 1–12 find the coefficients a0 ,. . . , aN for N at least 7 in the series solution y D nD0 an x n
of the initial value problem.
1. C .1 C 3x/y 00 C xy 0 C 2y D 0; y.0/ D 2; y 0 .0/ D 3

2. C .1 C x C 2x 2 /y 00 C .2 C 8x/y 0 C 4y D 0; y.0/ D 1; y 0 .0/ D 2
3. C .1 2x 2/y 00 C .2 6x/y 0 2y D 0; y.0/ D 1; y 0 .0/ D 0
4. C .1 C x C 3x 2 /y 00 C .2 C 15x/y 0 C 12y D 0; y.0/ D 0; y 0 .0/ D 1
5. C .2 C x/y 00 C .1 C x/y 0 C 3y D 0; y.0/ D 4; y 0 .0/ D 3
6. C .3 C 3x C x 2 /y 00 C .6 C 4x/y 0 C 2y D 0; y.0/ D 7; y 0 .0/ D 3
7. C .4 C x/y 00 C .2 C x/y 0 C 2y D 0; y.0/ D 2; y 0 .0/ D 5
8. C .2 3x C 2x 2 /y 00 .4 6x/y 0 C 2y D 0; y.1/ D 1; y 0 .1/ D 1
9. C .3x C 2x 2 /y 00 C 10.1 C x/y 0 C 8y D 0; y. 1/ D 1; y 0 . 1/ D 1
10. C .1 x C x 2 /y 00 .1 4x/y 0 C 2y D 0; y.1/ D 2; y 0 .1/ D 1
11. C .2 C x/y 00 C .2 C x/y 0 C y D 0; y. 1/ D 2; y 0 . 1/ D 3
12. C x 2 y 00 .6 7x/y 0 C 8y D 0; y.1/ D 1; y 0 .1/ D 2

13. L Do the following experiment for various choices of real numbers a0 , a1 , and r , with 0 < r <
p
1= 2.
.1 C x C 2x 2/y 00 C .1 C 7x/y 0 C 2y D 0; y.0/ D a0 ; y 0 .0/ D a1 ; .A/
numerically on . r; r /. (See Example 7.3.1.)

P
nD0 an x of
(A), and graph
N
X
TN .x/ D an x n
nD0
14. L Do the following experiment for various choices of real numbers a0 , a1 , and r , with 0 < r < 2.
.3 C x/y 00 C .1 C 2x/y 0 .2 x/y D 0; y. 1/ D a0 ; y 0 . 1/ D a1 ; .A/
numerically on . 1 r; 1 C r /. (See Example 7.3.2. Why this interval?)

(b) For N D 2, 3, 4, . . . , compute a2 ; : : : ; aN in the power series solution
1
X
yD an .x C 1/n
nD0
of (A), and graph

N
X
TN .x/ D an .x C 1/n
nD0
and the solution obtained in (a) on . 1 r; 1 C r /. Continue increasing N until there’s no

15. L Do the following experiment for several choices of a0 , a1 , and r , with r > 0.
y 00 C 3xy 0 C .4 C 2x 2/y D 0; y.0/ D a0 ; y 0 .0/ D a1 ; .A/
numerically on . r; r /. (See Example 7.3.3.)

(b) Find the coefficients a0 , a1 , . . . , aN in the power series solution y D 1 n
P
nD0 an x of (A),
and graph
N
X
TN .x/ D an x n
nD0
16. L Do the following experiment for several choices of a0 and a1 .

.1 x/y 00 .2 x/y 0 C y D 0; y.0/ D a0 ; y 0 .0/ D a1 ; .A/
(b) Find the coefficients a0 , a1 , . . . , aN in the power series solution y D N n
P
nD0 an x of (A),
and graph
N
X
TN .x/ D an x n
nD0
difference between the two graphs. What happens as you let r ! 1?
.1 C x/y 00 C 3y 0 C 32y D 0; y.0/ D a0 ; y 0 .0/ D a1 :
.1 C x 2 /y 00 C y 0 C 2y D 0; y.0/ D a0 ; y 0 .0/ D a1 :
In Exercises 19–28 find the coefficients a0 , . . . , aN for N at least 7 in the series solution
1
X
yD an .x x0 /n
nD0
of the initial value problem. Take x0 to be the point where the initial conditions are imposed.
19. C .2 C 4x/y 00 4y 0 .6 C 4x/y D 0; y.0/ D 2; y 0 .0/ D 7

20. C .1 C 2x/y 00 .1 2x/y 0 .3 2x/y D 0; y.1/ D 1; y 0 .1/ D 2
21. C .5 C 2x/y 00 y 0 C .5 C x/y D 0; y. 2/ D 2; y 0 . 2/ D 1
22. C .4 C x/y 00 .4 C 2x/y 0 C .6 C x/y D 0; y. 3/ D 2; y 0 . 3/ D 2
23. C .2 C 3x/y 00 xy 0 C 2xy D 0; y.0/ D 1; y 0 .0/ D 2
24. C .3 C 2x/y 00 C 3y 0 xy D 0; y. 1/ D 2; y 0 . 1/ D 3
25. C .3 C 2x/y 00 3y 0 .2 C x/y D 0; y. 2/ D 2; y 0 . 2/ D 3
26. C .10 2x/y 00 C .1 C x/y D 0; y.2/ D 2; y 0 .2/ D 4
27. C .7 C x/y 00 C .8 C 2x/y 0 C .5 C x/y D 0; y. 4/ D 1; y 0 . 4/ D 2
28. C .6 C 4x/y 00 C .1 C 2x/y D 0; y. 1/ D 1; y 0 . 1/ D 2
29. Show that the coefficients in the power series in x for the general solution of
.1 C ˛x C ˇx 2 /y 00 C . C ıx/y 0 C y D 0
satisfy the recurrrence relation
C ˛n ˇn.n 1/ C ın C
anC2 D anC1 an :
nC2 .n C 2/.n C 1/
P1
30. (a) Let ˛ and ˇ be constants, with ˇ ¤ 0. Show that y D nD0 an x n is a solution of
.1 C ˛x C ˇx 2 /y 00 C .2˛ C 4ˇx/y 0 C 2ˇy D 0 .A/
if and only if
anC2 C ˛anC1 C ˇan D 0; n 0: .B/
An equation of this form is called a second order homogeneous linear difference equation.
The polynomial p.r / D r 2 C ˛r C ˇ is called the characteristic polynomial of (B). If r1 and
r2 are the zeros of p, then 1=r1 and 1=r2 are the zeros of
P0 .x/ D 1 C ˛x C ˇx 2:
(b) Suppose p.r / D .r r1 /.r r2 / where r1 and r2 are real and distinct, and let be the
smaller of the two numbers f1=jr1j; 1=jr2jg. Show that if c1 and c2 are constants then the
sequence
an D c1 r1n C c2 r2n ; n 0
satisfies (B). Conclude from this that any function of the form
1
X
yD .c1 r1n C c2r2n /x n
nD0
is a solution of (A) on . ; /.

(c) Use (b) and the formula for the sum of a geometric series to show that the functions
1 1
y1 D and y2 D
1 r1 x 1 r2 x
form a fundamental set of solutions of (A) on . ; /.
(d) Show that fy1 ; y2g is a fundamental set of solutions of (A) on any interval that does’nt contain
either 1=r1 or 1=r2 .
(e) Suppose p.r / D .r r1/2 , and let D 1=jr1 j. Show that if c1 and c2 are constants then the
sequence
an D .c1 C c2n/r1n ; n 0
satisfies (B). Conclude from this that any function of the form
1
X
yD .c1 C c2n/r1n x n
nD0
is a solution of (A) on . ; /.

(f) Use (e) and the formula for the sum of a geometric series to show that the functions
1 x
y1 D and y2 D
1 r1 x .1 r1 x/2
form a fundamental set of solutions of (A) on . ; /.

(g) Show that fy1 ; y2 g is a fundamental set of solutions of (A) on any interval that does not
contain 1=r1 .
31. Use the results of Exercise 30 to find the general solution of the given equation on any interval on
which polynomial multiplying y 00 has no zeros.
(a) .1 C 3x C 2x 2 /y 00 C .6 C 8x/y 0 C 4y D 0
(b) .1 5x C 6x 2 /y 00 .10 24x/y 0 C 12y D 0
(c) .1 4x C 4x 2 /y 00 .8 16x/y 0 C 8y D 0
(d) .4 C 4x C x 2/y 00 C .8 C 4x/y 0 C 2y D 0
(e) .4 C 8x C 3x 2 /y 00 C .16 C 12x/y 0 C 6y D 0
P1
In Exercises 32–38 find the coefficients a0 , . . . , aN for N at least 7 in the series solution y D nD0 an x n
of the initial value problem.
32. C y 00 C 2xy 0 C .3 C 2x 2/y D 0; y.0/ D 1; y 0 .0/ D 2

33. C y 00 3xy 0 C .5 C 2x 2 /y D 0; y.0/ D 1; y 0 .0/ D 2
34. C y 00 C 5xy 0 .3 x 2 /y D 0; y.0/ D 6; y 0 .0/ D 2
00 0 2 0
35. C y 2xy .2 C 3x /y D 0; y.0/ D 2; y .0/ D 5
36. C y 00 3xy 0 C .2 C 4x 2/y D 0; y.0/ D 3; y 0 .0/ D 6
37. C 2y 00 C 5xy 0 C .4 C 2x 2 /y D 0; y.0/ D 3; y 0 .0/ D 2
38. C 3y 00 C 2xy 0 C .4 x 2 /y D 0; y.0/ D 2; y 0 .0/ D 3
39. Find power series in x for the solutions y1 and y2 of
y 00 C 4xy 0 C .2 C 4x 2/y D 0
such that y1 .0/ D 1, y10 .0/ D 0, y2 .0/ D 0, y20 .0/ D 1, and identify y1 and y2 in terms of
familiar elementary functions.
In Exercises 40–49 find the coefficients a0 , . . . , aN for N at least 7 in the series solution
1
X
yD an .x x0 /n
nD0
of the initial value problem. Take x0 to be the point where the initial conditions are imposed.
40. C .1 C x/y 00 C x 2y 0 C .1 C 2x/y D 0; y.0/ 2; y 0 .0/ D 3

41. C y 00 C .1 C 2x C x 2 /y 0 C 2y D 0; y.0/ D 2; y 0 .0/ D 3
42. C .1 C x 2 /y 00 C .2 C x 2 /y 0 C xy D 0; y.0/ D 3; y 0 .0/ D 5
43. C .1 C x/y 00 C .1 3x C 2x 2 /y 0 .x 4/y D 0; y.1/ D 2; y 0 .1/ D 3
44. C y 00 C .13 C 12x C 3x 2 /y 0 C .5 C 2x/; y. 2/ D 2; y 0 . 2/ D 3
45. C .1 C 2x C 3x 2 /y 00 C .2 x 2 /y 0 C .1 C x/y D 0; y.0/ D 1; y 0 .0/ D 2
46. C .3 C 4x C x 2 /y 00 .5 C 4x x 2 /y 0 .2 C x/y D 0; y. 2/ D 2; y 0 . 2/ D 1
47. C .1 C 2x C x 2 /y 00 C .1 x/y D 0; y.0/ D 2; y 0 .0/ D 1
48. C .x 2x 2/y 00 C .1 C 3x x 2 /y 0 C .2 C x/y D 0; y.1/ D 1; y 0 .1/ D 0
49. C .16 11x C 2x 2/y 00 C .10 6x C x 2 /y 0 .2 x/y; y.3/ D 1; y 0 .3/ D 2
Section 7.4 Regular Singular Points: Euler Equations 343
7.4 REGULAR SINGULAR POINTS EULER EQUATIONS
This section sets the stage for Sections 1.5, 1.6, and 1.7. If you’re not interested in those sections, but wish
to learn about Euler equations, omit the introductory paragraphs and start reading at Definition 7.4.2.
In the next three sections we’ll continue to study equations of the form
P0 .x/y 00 C P1 .x/y 0 C P2 .x/y D 0 (7.4.1)
where P0 , P1 , and P2 are polynomials, but the emphasis will be different from that of Sections 7.2 and
7.3, where we obtained solutions of (7.4.1) near an ordinary point x0 in the form of power series in
x x0 . If x0 is a singular point of (7.4.1) (that is, if P .x0 / D 0), the solutions can’t in general be
represented by power series in x x0 . Nevertheless, it’s often necessary in physical applications to study
the behavior of solutions of (7.4.1) near a singular point. Although this can be difficult in the absence of
some sort of assumption on the nature of the singular point, equations that satisfy the requirements of the
next definition can be solved by series methods discussed in the next three sections. Fortunately, many
equations arising in applications satisfy these requirements.
Definition 7.4.1 Let P0 , P1 , and P2 be polynomials with no common factor and suppose P0 .x0 / D 0.
Then x0 is a regular singular point of the equation
P0 .x/y 00 C P1 .x/y 0 C P2 .x/y D 0 (7.4.2)
if (7.4.2) can be written as
.x x0 /2 A.x/y 00 C .x x0 /B.x/y 0 C C.x/y D 0 (7.4.3)
where A, B, and C are polynomials and A.x0 / ¤ 0; otherwise, x0 is an irregular singular point of
(7.4.2).
Example 7.4.1 Bessel’s equation,
x 2 y 00 C xy 0 C .x 2 2 /y D 0; (7.4.4)
has the singular point x0 D 0. Since this equation is of the form (7.4.3) with x0 D 0, A.x/ D 1,
B.x/ D 1, and C.x/ D x 2 2 , it follows that x0 D 0 is a regular singular point of (7.4.4).
Example 7.4.2 Legendre’s equation,
.1 x 2 /y 00 2xy 0 C ˛.˛ C 1/y D 0; (7.4.5)
has the singular points x0 D ˙1. Mutiplying through by 1 x yields
.x 1/2 .x C 1/y 00 C 2x.x 1/y 0 ˛.˛ C 1/.x 1/y D 0;
which is of the form (7.4.3) with x0 D 1, A.x/ D x C 1, B.x/ D 2x, and C.x/ D ˛.˛ C 1/.x 1/.
Therefore x0 D 1 is a regular singular point of (7.4.5). We leave it to you to show that x0 D 1 is also a
regular singular point of (7.4.5).
Example 7.4.3 The equation

x 3 y 00 C xy 0 C y D 0
has an irregular singular point at x0 D 0. (Verify.)
For convenience we restrict our attention to the case where x0 D 0 is a regular singular point of (7.4.2).
This isn’t really a restriction, since if x0 ¤ 0 is a regular singular point of (7.4.2) then introducing the
new independent variable t D x x0 and the new unknown Y .t/ D y.t C x0 / leads to a differential
equation with polynomial coefficients that has a regular singular point at t0 D 0. This is illustrated in
Exercise 22 for Legendre’s equation, and in Exercise 23 for the general case.
Euler Equations
The simplest kind of equation with a regular singular point at x0 D 0 is the Euler equation, defined as
follows.
Definition 7.4.2 An Euler equation is an equation that can be written in the form
ax 2 y 00 C bxy 0 C cy D 0; (7.4.6)
where a; b, and c are real constants and a ¤ 0.
Theorem 5.1.1 implies that (7.4.6) has solutions defined on .0; 1/ and . 1; 0/, since (7.4.6) can be
rewritten as
b c
ay 00 C y 0 C 2 y D 0:
x x
For convenience we’ll restrict our attention to the interval .0; 1/. (Exercise 19 deals with solutions of
(7.4.6) on . 1; 0/.) The key to finding solutions on .0; 1/ is that if x > 0 then x r is defined as a
real-valued function on .0; 1/ for all values of r , and substituting y D x r into (7.4.6) produces
ax 2 .x r /00 C bx.x r /0 C cx r D ax 2 r .r 1/x r 2 C bxr x r 1
C cx r
(7.4.7)
D Œar .r 1/ C br C cx r :
The polynomial
p.r / D ar .r 1/ C br C c
is called the indicial polynomial of (7.4.6), and p.r / D 0 is its indicial equation. From (7.4.7) we can see
that y D x r is a solution of (7.4.6) on .0; 1/ if and only if p.r / D 0. Therefore, if the indicial equation
has distinct real roots r1 and r2 then y1 D x r1 and y2 D x r2 form a fundamental set of solutions of
(7.4.6) on .0; 1/, since y2 =y1 D x r2 r1 is nonconstant. In this case
y D c1 x r1 C c2 x r2
is the general solution of (7.4.6) on .0; 1/.
Example 7.4.4 Find the general solution of
x 2 y 00 xy 0 8y D 0 (7.4.8)
on .0; 1/.
Solution The indicial polynomial of (7.4.8) is

p.r / D r .r 1/ r 8 D .r 4/.r C 2/:
Therefore y1 D x 4 and y2 D x 2
are solutions of (7.4.8) on .0; 1/, and its general solution on .0; 1/ is
c2
y D c1 x 4 C 2 :
x
6x 2y 00 C 5xy 0 yD0 (7.4.9)
on .0; 1/.
p.r / D 6r .r 1/ C 5r 1 D .2r 1/.3r C 1/:
Therefore the general solution of (7.4.9) on .0; 1/ is
y D c1x 1=2 C c2 x 1=3

:
If the indicial equation has a repeated root r1 , then y1 D x r1 is a solution of
ax 2 y 00 C bxy 0 C cy D 0; (7.4.10)
on .0; 1/, but (7.4.10) has no other solution of the form y D x r . If the indicial equation has complex
conjugate zeros then (7.4.10) has no real–valued solutions of the form y D x r . Fortunately we can use
the results of Section 5.2 for constant coefficient equations to solve (7.4.10) in any case.
Theorem 7.4.3 Suppose the roots of the indicial equation
ar .r 1/ C br C c D 0 (7.4.11)
are r1 and r2 . Then the general solution of the Euler equation
ax 2 y 00 C bxy 0 C cy D 0 (7.4.12)
on .0; 1/ is
y D c1x r1 C c2 x r2 if r1 and r2 are distinct real numbers I

y D x r1 .c1 C c2 ln x/ if r1 D r2 I
y D x Œc1 cos .! ln x/ C c2 sin .! ln x/ if r1 ; r2 D ˙ i ! with ! > 0:
Proof We first show that y D y.x/ satisfies (7.4.12) on .0; 1/ if and only if Y .t/ D y.e t / satisfies the
constant coefficient equation
d 2Y dY
a 2 C .b a/ C cY D 0 (7.4.13)
dt dt
on . 1; 1/. To do this, it’s convenient to write x D e t , or, equivalently, t D ln x; thus, Y .t/ D y.x/,
where x D e t . From the chain rule,
dY dy dx
D
dt dx dt
and, since
dx
D e t D x;
dt
it follows that
dY dy
Dx : (7.4.14)
dt dx
Differentiating this with respect to t and using the chain rule again yields
d 2Y

d dY d dy
D D x
dt 2 dt dt dt dx
dx dy d 2 y dx
D Cx 2
dt dx dx dt
2
dy 2d y dx
D x Cx since Dx :
dx dx 2 dt
From this and (7.4.14),
d 2y d 2Y dY
x2 2
D 2
:
dx dt dt
Substituting this and (7.4.14) into (7.4.12) yields (7.4.13). Since (7.4.11) is the characteristic equation of
(7.4.13), Theorem 5.2.1 implies that the general solution of (7.4.13) on . 1; 1/ is
Y .t/ D c1 e r1t C c2e r2 t if r1 and r2 are distinct real numbers;

Y .t/ D e r1t .c1 C c2 t/ if r1 D r2 ;
Y .t/ D e t .c1 cos !t C c2 sin !t/ if r1 ; r2 D ˙ i ! with ! ¤ 0:
Since Y .t/ D y.e t /, substituting t D ln x in the last three equations shows that the general solution of
(7.4.12) on .0; 1/ has the form stated in the theorem.
x 2 y 00 5xy 0 C 9y D 0 (7.4.15)
on .0; 1/.
p.r / D r .r 1/ 5r C 9 D .r 3/2 :
Therefore the general solution of (7.4.15) on .0; 1/ is
y D x 3 .c1 C c2 ln x/:
x 2 y 00 C 3xy 0 C 2y D 0 (7.4.16)
on .0; 1/.
p.r / D r .r 1/ C 3r C 2 D .r C 1/2 C 1:
The roots of the indicial equation are r D 1 ˙ i and the general solution of (7.4.16) on .0; 1/ is
1
yD Œc1 cos.ln x/ C c2 sin.ln x/ :
x
7.4 Exercises
In Exercises 1–18 find the general solution of the given Euler equation on .0; 1/.
1. x 2y 00 C 7xy 0 C 8y D 0 2. x 2 y 00 7xy 0 C 7y D 0
3. x 2y 00 xy 0 C y D 0 4. x 2 y 00 C 5xy 0 C 4y D 0
5. x 2y 00 C xy 0 C y D 0 6. x 2 y 00 3xy 0 C 13y D 0
7. x 2y 00 C 3xy 0 3y D 0 8. 12x 2y 00 5xy 00 C 6y D 0
9. 4x 2y 00 C 8xy 0 C y D 0 10. 3x 2 y 00 xy 0 C y D 0
11. 2x 2y 00 3xy 0 C 2y D 0 12. x 2 y 00 C 3xy 0 C 5y D 0
13. 9x 2y 00 C 15xy 0 C y D 0 14. x 2 y 00 xy 0 C 10y D 0
15. x 2y 00 6y D 0 16. 2x 2 y 00 C 3xy 0 y D0
17. x 2y 00 3xy 0 C 4y D 0 18. 2x 2 y 00 C 10xy 0 C 9y D 0

19. (a) Adapt the proof of Theorem 7.4.3 to show that y D y.x/ satisfies the Euler equation
ax 2 y 00 C bxy 0 C cy D 0 (7.4.1)
on . 1; 0/ if and only if Y .t/ D y. e t /
d 2Y dY
a C .b a/ C cY D 0:
dt 2 dt
on . 1; 1/.
(b) Use (a) to show that the general solution of (7.4.1) on . 1; 0/ is
y D c1 jxjr1 C c2jxjr2 if r1 and r2 are distinct real numbers;

y D jxjr1 .c1 C c2 ln jxj/ if r1 D r2 ;
y D jxj Œc1 cos .! ln jxj/ C c2 sin .! ln jxj/ if r1 ; r2 D ˙ i ! with ! > 0:
20. Use reduction of order to show that if
ar .r 1/ C br C c D 0
has a repeated root r1 then y D x r1 .c1 C c2 ln x/ is the general solution of
ax 2 y 00 C bxy 0 C cy D 0
on .0; 1/.
21. A nontrivial solution of

P0 .x/y 00 C P1 .x/y 0 C P2 .x/y D 0
is said to be oscillatory on an interval .a; b/ if it has infinitely many zeros on .a; b/. Otherwise y
is said to be nonoscillatory on .a; b/. Show that the equation
x 2 y 00 C ky D 0 .k D constant/
has oscillatory solutions on .0; 1/ if and only if k > 1=4.

22. In Example 7.4.2 we saw that x0 D 1 and x0 D 1 are regular singular points of Legendre’s
equation
.1 x 2 /y 00 2xy 0 C ˛.˛ C 1/y D 0: .A/
(a) Introduce the new variables t D x 1 and Y .t/ D y.t C 1/, and show that y is a solution of
(A) if and only if Y is a solution of
d 2Y dY
t.2 C t/ 2
C 2.1 C t/ ˛.˛ C 1/Y D 0;
dt dt
which has a regular singular point at t0 D 0.
(b) Introduce the new variables t D x C 1 and Y .t/ D y.t 1/, and show that y is a solution of
(A) if and only if Y is a solution of
d 2Y dY
t.2 t/ C 2.1 t/ C ˛.˛ C 1/Y D 0;
dt 2 dt
which has a regular singular point at t0 D 0.
23. Let P0 ; P1 , and P2 be polynomials with no common factor, and suppose x0 ¤ 0 is a singular point
of
P0 .x/y 00 C P1 .x/y 0 C P2 .x/y D 0: .A/
Let t D x x0 and Y .t/ D y.t C x0 /.
(a) Show that y is a solution of (A) if and only if Y is a solution of
d 2Y dY
R0 .t/ 2
C R1 .t/ C R2 .t/Y D 0: .B/
dt dt
where
Ri .t/ D Pi .t C x0 /; i D 0; 1; 2:
(b) Show that R0 , R1 , and R2 are polynomials in t with no common factors, and R0 .0/ D 0;
thus, t0 D 0 is a singular point of (B).
7.5 THE METHOD OF FROBENIUS I
In this section we begin to study series solutions of a homogeneous linear second order differential equa-
tion with a regular singular point at x0 D 0, so it can be written as
x 2 A.x/y 00 C xB.x/y 0 C C.x/y D 0; (7.5.1)
where A, B, C are polynomials and A.0/ ¤ 0.

Section 7.5 The Method of Frobenius I 349
We’ll see that (7.5.1) always has at least one solution of the form
1
X
r
y Dx an x n
nD0
where a0 ¤ 0 and r is a suitably chosen number. The method we will use to find solutions of this form
and other forms that we’ll encounter in the next two sections is called the method of Frobenius, and we’ll
call them Frobenius solutions.
It can be shown that the power series 1 n
P
nD0 an x in a Frobenius solution of (7.5.1) converges on some
open interval . ; /, where 0 < 1. However, since x r may be complex for negative x or undefined
if x D 0, we’ll consider solutions defined for positive values of x. Easy modifications of our results yield
solutions defined for negative values of x. (Exercise 54).
We’ll restrict our attention to the case where A, B, and C are polynomials of degree not greater than
two, so (7.5.1) becomes
x 2 .˛0 C ˛1 x C ˛2 x 2 /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x C ˇ2 x 2 /y 0 C . 0 C 1 x C 2 x 2 /y D 0; (7.5.2)
where ˛i , ˇi , and i are real constants and ˛0 ¤ 0. Most equations that arise in applications can be
written this way. Some examples are
˛x 2y 00 C ˇxy 0 C y D 0 (Euler’s equation);

2 00 0 2 2
x y C xy C .x /y D 0 (Bessel’s equation);
and
xy 00 C .1 x/y 0 C y D 0; (Laguerre’s equation);
where we would multiply the last equation through by x to put it in the form (7.5.2). However, the
method of Frobenius can be extended to the case where A, B, and C are functions that can be represented
by power series in x on some interval that contains zero, and A0 .0/ ¤ 0 (Exercises 57 and 58).
The next two theorems will enable us to develop systematic methods for finding Frobenius solutions
of (7.5.2).
Theorem 7.5.1 Let
Ly D x 2 .˛0 C ˛1 x C ˛2 x 2 /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x C ˇ2 x 2 /y 0 C . 0 C 1 x C 2 x 2 /y;
and define
p0 .r / D ˛0 r .r 1/ C ˇ0 r C 0 ;
p1 .r / D ˛1 r .r 1/ C ˇ1 r C 1 ;
p2 .r / D ˛2 r .r 1/ C ˇ2 r C 2 :
Suppose the series

1
X
yD an x nCr (7.5.3)
nD0
converges on .0; /. Then

1
X
Ly D bn x nCr (7.5.4)
nD0
on .0; /; where
b0 D p0 .r /a0 ;
b1 D p0 .r C 1/a1 C p1 .r /a0 ; (7.5.5)
bn D p0 .n C r /an C p1 .n C r 1/an 1 C p2 .n C r 2/an 2; n 2:
Proof We begin by showing that if y is given by (7.5.3) and ˛, ˇ, and are constants, then
1
X
˛x 2y 00 C ˇxy 0 C y D p.n C r /an x nCr ; (7.5.6)
nD0
where
p.r / D ˛r .r 1/ C ˇr C :
Differentiating (3) twice yields
1
X
y0 D .n C r /an x nCr 1
(7.5.7)
nD0
and
1
X
y 00 D .n C r /.n C r 1/an x nCr 2
: (7.5.8)
nD0
Multiplying (7.5.7) by x and (7.5.8) by x 2 yields

1
X
xy 0 D .n C r /an x nCr
nD0
and
1
X
x 2 y 00 D .n C r /.n C r 1/an x nCr :
nD0
Therefore
1
X
˛x 2y 00 C ˇxy 0 C y D Œ˛.n C r /.n C r 1/ C ˇ.n C r / C an x nCr
nD0
1
X
D p.n C r /an x nCr ;
nD0
which proves (7.5.6).

Multiplying (7.5.6) by x yields
1
X 1
X
x.˛x 2y 00 C ˇxy 0 C y/ D p.n C r /an x nCr C1 D p.n C r 1/an 1x
nCr
: (7.5.9)
nD0 nD1
Multiplying (7.5.6) by x 2 yields

1
X 1
X
x 2 .˛x 2 y 00 C ˇxy 0 C y/ D p.n C r /an x nCr C2 D p.n C r 2/an 2x
nCr
: (7.5.10)
nD0 nD2
To use these results, we rewrite
Ly D x 2 .˛0 C ˛1x C ˛2 x 2 /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x C ˇ2 x 2 /y 0 C . 0 C 1 x C 2 x 2 /y
as
˛0x 2 y 00 C ˇ0 xy 0 C 0 y C x ˛1 x 2 y 00 C ˇ1 xy 0 C 1 y

Ly D
(7.5.11)
C x 2 ˛2x 2 y 00 C ˇ2 xy 0 C 2 y :

From (7.5.6) with p D p0 ,

1
X
˛0 x 2 y 00 C ˇ0 xy 0 C 0 y D p0 .n C r /an x nCr :
nD0

1
X
x ˛1 x 2 y 00 C ˇ1 xy 0 C 1 y D p1 .n C r 1/an 1x
nCr
:
nD1

1
X
x 2 ˛2 x 2 y 00 C ˇ2 xy 0 C 2 y D p2 .n C r 2/an 2x
nCr
:
nD2
Therefore we can rewrite (7.5.11) as

1
X 1
X
Ly D p0 .n C r /an x nCr C p1 .n C r 1/an 1x
nCr
nD0 nD1
1
X
nCr
C p2 .n C r 2/an 2x ;
nD2
or
Ly D p0 .r /a0 x r C Œp0 .r C 1/a1 C p1 .r /a2 x r C1

1
X
nCr
C Œp0 .n C r /an C p1 .n C r 1/an 1 C p2 .n C r 2/an 2 x ;
nD2
which implies (7.5.4) with fbn g defined as in (7.5.5).
Theorem 7.5.2 Let
Ly D x 2 .˛0 C ˛1 x C ˛2 x 2 /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x C ˇ2 x 2 /y 0 C . 0 C 1 x C 2 x 2 /y;
where ˛0 ¤ 0; and define
p0 .r / D ˛0 r .r 1/ C ˇ0 r C 0 ;
p1 .r / D ˛1 r .r 1/ C ˇ1 r C 1 ;
p2 .r / D ˛2 r .r 1/ C ˇ2 r C 2 :
Suppose r is a real number such that p0 .n C r / is nonzero for all positive integers n: Define
a0 .r / D 1;
p1 .r /
a1 .r / D ;
p0 .r C 1/ (7.5.12)
p1 .n C r 1/an 1 .r / C p2 .n C r 2/an 2 .r /
an .r / D ; n 2:
p0 .n C r /
Then the Frobenius series
1
X
y.x; r / D x r an .r /x n (7.5.13)
nD0
converges and satisfies

Ly.x; r / D p0 .r /x r (7.5.14)
on the interval .0; /; where is the distance from the origin to the nearest zero of A.x/ D ˛0 C ˛1 x C
˛2 x 2 in the complex plane: .If A is constant, then D 1./
If fan .r /g is determined by the recurrence relation (7.5.12) then substituting an D an .r / into (7.5.5)
yields b0 D p0 .r / and bn D 0 for n 1, so (7.5.4) reduces to (7.5.14). We omit the proof that the series
(7.5.13) converges on .0; /.
If ˛i D ˇi D i D 0 for i D 1, 2; then Ly D 0 reduces to the Euler equation
˛0 x 2 y 00 C ˇ0 xy 0 C 0 y D 0:
Theorem 7.4.3 shows that the solutions of this equation are determined by the zeros of the indicial poly-
nomial
p0 .r / D ˛0 r .r 1/ C ˇ0 r C 0 :
Since (7.5.14) implies that this is also true for the solutions of Ly D 0, we’ll also say that p0 is the
indicial polynomial of (7.5.2), and that p0 .r / D 0 is the indicial equation of Ly D 0. We’ll consider
only cases where the indicial equation has real roots r1 and r2 , with r1 r2 .
Theorem 7.5.3 Let L and fan .r /g be as in Theorem 7.5.2; and suppose the indicial equation p0 .r / D 0
of Ly D 0 has real roots r1 and r2 ; where r1 r2 : Then
1
X
y1 .x/ D y.x; r1 / D x r1 an .r1 /x n
nD0
is a Frobenius solution of Ly D 0. Moreover; if r1 r2 isn’t an integer then

1
X
y2 .x/ D y.x; r2 / D x r2 an .r2 /x n
nD0
is also a Frobenius solution of Ly D 0; and fy1 ; y2 g is a fundamental set of solutions.
Proof Since r1 and r2 are roots of p0 .r / D 0, the indicial polynomial can be factored as
p0 .r / D ˛0.r r1 /.r r2 /: (7.5.15)
Therefore
p0 .n C r1 / D n˛0 .n C r1 r2 /;
which is nonzero if n > 0, since r1 r2 0. Therefore the assumptions of Theorem 7.5.2 hold with
r D r1 , and (7.5.14) implies that Ly1 D p0 .r1 /x r1 D 0.
Now suppose r1 r2 isn’t an integer. From (7.5.15),
p0 .n C r2 / D n˛0 .n r1 C r2 / ¤ 0 if n D 1; 2; :
Hence, the assumptions of Theorem 7.5.2 hold with r D r2, and (7.5.14) implies that Ly2 D p0 .r2 /x r2 D
0. We leave the proof that fy1 ; y2g is a fundamental set of solutions as an exercise (Exercise 52).
It isn’t always possible to obtain explicit formulas for the coefficients in Frobenius solutions. However,
we can always set up the recurrence relations and use them to compute as many coefficients as we want.
The next example illustrates this.
Example 7.5.1 Find a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions of
2x 2 .1 C x C x 2 /y 00 C x.9 C 11x C 11x 2 /y 0 C .6 C 10x C 7x 2/y D 0: (7.5.16)
Compute just the first six coefficients a0 ,. . . , a5 in each solution.
Solution For the given equation, the polynomials defined in Theorem 7.5.2 are
p0 .r / D 2r .r 1/ C 9r C 6 D .2r C 3/.r C 2/;
p1 .r / D 2r .r 1/ C 11r C 10 D .2r C 5/.r C 2/;
p2 .r / D 2r .r 1/ C 11r C 7 D .2r C 7/.r C 1/:
The zeros of the indicial polynomial p0 are r1 D 3=2 and r2 D 2, so r1 r2 D 1=2. Therefore
1
X 1
X
3=2
y1 D x an . 3=2/x n and y2 D x 2
an . 2/x n (7.5.17)
nD0 nD0
form a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions of (7.5.16). To find the coefficients in these series, we use
the recurrence relation of Theorem 7.5.2; thus,
a0 .r / D 1;
p1 .r / .2r C 5/.r C 2/ r C2
a1 .r / D D D ;
p0 .r C 1/ .2r C 5/.r C 3/ r C3
p1 .n C r 1/an 1 C p2 .n C r 2/an 2
an .r / D
p0 .n C r /
.n C r C 1/.2n C 2r C 3/an 1 .r / C .n C r 1/.2n C 2r C 3/an 2 .r /
D
.n C r C 2/.2n C 2r C 3/
.n C r C 1/an C .n C r
1 .r / 1/an 2 .r /
D ; n 2:
nCr C2
Setting r D 3=2 in these equations yields
a0 . 3=2/ D 1;
a1 . 3=2/ D 1=3;
(7.5.18)
.2n 1/an 1. 3=2/ C .2n 5/an 2. 3=2/
an . 3=2/ D ; n 2;
2n C 1
and setting r D 2 yields
a0 . 2/ D 1;
a1 . 2/ D 0;
(7.5.19)
.n 1/an 1. 2/ C .n 3/an 2. 2/
an . 2/ D ; n 2:
n
Calculating with (7.5.18) and (7.5.19) and substituting the results into (7.5.17) yields the fundamental set
of Frobenius solutions

3=2 1 2 2 5 3 7 4 76 5
y1 D x 1 xC x x C x C x C ;
3 5 21 135 1155

1 1 3 1 4 1
y2 D x 2 1 C x 2 x C x C x5 C :
2 3 8 30
Special Cases With Two Term Recurrence Relations

For n 2, the recurrence relation (7.5.12) of Theorem 7.5.2 involves the three coefficients an .r /,
an 1 .r /, and an 2 .r /. We’ll now consider some special cases where (7.5.12) reduces to a two term
recurrence relation; that is, a relation involving only an .r / and an 1 .r / or only an .r / and an 2 .r /. This
simplification often makes it possible to obtain explicit formulas for the coefficents of Frobenius solu-
tions.
We first consider equations of the form
x 2.˛0 C ˛1 x/y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x/y 0 C . 0 C 1 x/y D 0
with ˛0 ¤ 0. For this equation, ˛2 D ˇ2 D 2 D 0, so p2 0 and the recurrence relations in

Theorem 7.5.2 simplify to
a0 .r / D 1;
p1 .n C r 1/ (7.5.20)
an .r / D an 1 .r /; n 1:
p0 .n C r /
x 2 .3 C x/y 00 C 5x.1 C x/y 0 .1 4x/y D 0: (7.5.21)
Give explicit formulas for the coefficients in the solutions.
Solution For this equation, the polynomials defined in Theorem 7.5.2 are
p0 .r / D 3r .r 1/ C 5r 1 D .3r 1/.r C 1/;

p1 .r / D r .r 1/ C 5r C 4 D .r C 2/2 ;
p2 .r / D 0:
The zeros of the indicial polynomial p0 are r1 D 1=3 and r2 D 1, so r1 r2 D 4=3. Therefore
1
X 1
X
y1 D x 1=3 an .1=3/x n and y2 D x 1
an . 1/x n
nD0 nD0
the recurrence relationss (7.5.20); thus,
a0 .r / D 1;
p1 .n C r 1/
an .r / D an 1 .r /
p0 .n C r /
.n C r C 1/2 (7.5.22)
D an 1 .r /
.3n C 3r 1/.n C r C 1/
nCr C1
D an 1 .r /; n 1:
3n C 3r 1
Setting r D 1=3 in (7.5.22) yields
a0 .1=3/ D 1;
3n C 4
an .1=3/ D an 1 .1=3/; n 1:
9n
By using the product notation introduced in Section 7.2 and proceeding as we did in the examples in that
section yields
. 1/n njD1 .3j C 4/
Q
an .1=3/ D ; n 0:
9n nŠ
Therefore
1
. 1/n njD1 .3j C 4/ n
Q
X
1=3
y1 D x x
nD0
9n nŠ
is a Frobenius solution of (7.5.21).
Setting r D 1 in (7.5.22) yields
a0 . 1/ D 1;
n
an . 1/ D an 1. 1/; n 1;
3n 4
so
. 1/n nŠ
an . 1/ D Qn :
j D1 .3j 4/
Therefore
1
1
X . 1/n nŠ
y2 D x Qn xn
nD0 j D1 .3j 4/
is a Frobenius solution of (7.5.21), and fy1 ; y2 g is a fundamental set of solutions.
We now consider equations of the form
x 2 .˛0 C ˛2 x 2 /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ2 x 2 /y 0 C . 0 C 2x 2 /y D 0 (7.5.23)
with ˛0 ¤ 0. For this equation, ˛1 D ˇ1 D 1 D 0, so p1 0 and the recurrence relations in

Theorem 7.5.2 simplify to
a0 .r / D 1;
a1 .r / D 0;
p2 .n C r 2/
an .r / D an 2 .r /; n 2:
p0 .n C r /
Since a1 .r / D 0, the last equation implies that an .r / D 0 if n is odd, so the Frobenius solutions are of
the form
X1
y.x; r / D x r a2m .r /x 2m ;
mD0
where
a0 .r / D 1;
p2 .2m C r 2/ (7.5.24)
a2m .r / D a2m 2 .r /; m 1:
p0 .2m C r /
x 2 .2 x 2/y 00 x.3 C 4x 2 /y 0 C .2 2x 2/y D 0: (7.5.25)
Solution For this equation, the polynomials defined in Theorem 7.5.2 are
p0 .r / D 2r .r 1/ 3r C 2 D .r 2/.2r 1/;
p1 .r / D 0
p2 .r / D Œr .r 1/ C 4r C 2 D .r C 1/.r C 2/:
The zeros of the indicial polynomial p0 are r1 D 2 and r2 D 1=2, so r1 r2 D 3=2. Therefore
1
X 1
X
y1 D x 2 a2m .1=3/x 2m and y2 D x 1=2 a2m .1=2/x 2m
mD0 mD0
the recurrence relation (7.5.24); thus,
a0 .r / D 1;
p2 .2m C r 2/
a2m .r / D a2m 2 .r /
p0 .2m C r / (7.5.26)
.2m C r /.2m C r 1/
D a2m 2 .r /; m 1:
.2m C r 2/.4m C 2r 1/
Setting r D 2 in (7.5.26) yields
a0 .2/ D 1;
.m C 1/.2m C 1/
a2m .2/ D a2m 2 .2/; m 1;
m.4m C 3/
so
m
Y 2j C 1
a2m .2/ D .m C 1/ :
4j C 3
j D1
Therefore 0 1
1 m
X Y 2j C 1
y1 D x 2 .m C 1/ @ A x 2m
mD0
4j C 3
j D1
is a Frobenius solution of (7.5.25).

Setting r D 1=2 in (7.5.26) yields
a0 .1=2/ D 1;
.4m 1/.4m C 1/
a2m .1=2/ D a2m 2 .1=2/; m 1;
8m.4m 3/
so
m
1 Y .4j 1/.4j C 1/
a2m .1=2/ D m :
8 mŠ 4j 3
j D1
Therefore 0 1
1 m
X 1 Y .4j 1/.4j C 1/
y2 D x 1=2 m mŠ
@ A x 2m
mD0
8 4j 3
j D1
is a Frobenius solution of (7.5.25) and fy1 ; y2 g is a fundamental set of solutions.

R EMARK: Thus far, we considered only the case where the indicial equation has real roots that don’t
differ by an integer, which allows us to apply Theorem 7.5.3. However, for equations of the form (7.5.23),
the sequence fa2m .r /g in (7.5.24) is defined for r D r2 if r1 r2 isn’t an even integer. It can be shown
(Exercise 56) that in this case
1
X 1
X
y1 D x r1 a2m .r1 /x 2m and y2 D x r2 a2m .r2 /x 2m
mD0 mD0
form a fundamental set Frobenius solutions of (7.5.23).
USING TECHNOLOGY
As we said at the end of Section 7.2, if you’re interested in actually using series to compute numerical
approximations to solutions of a differential equation, then whether or not there’s a simple closed form
for the coefficents is essentially irrelevant; recursive computation is usually more efficient. Since it’s also
laborious, we encourage you to write short programs to implement recurrence relations on a calculator or
computer, even in exercises where this is not specifically required.
In practical use of the method of Frobenius when x0 D 0 is a regular singular point, we’re interested
in how well the functions
N
X
yN .x; ri / D x ri an .ri /x n ; i D 1; 2;
nD0
approximate solutions to a given equation when ri is a zero of the indicial polynomial. In dealing with
the corresponding problem for the case where x0 D 0 is an ordinary point, we used numerical integration
to solve the differential equation subject to initial conditions y.0/ D a0 ; y 0 .0/ D a1 , and compared
the result with values of the Taylor polynomial
N
X
TN .x/ D an x n :
nD0
We can’t do that here, since in general we can’t prescribe arbitrary initial values for solutions of a dif-
ferential equation at a singular point. Therefore, motivated by Theorem 7.5.2 (specifically, (7.5.14)), we
suggest the following procedure.
Verification Procedure
Let L and Yn .xI ri / be defined by
Ly D x 2 .˛0 C ˛1x C ˛2 x 2 /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x C ˇ2 x 2 /y 0 C . 0 C 1 x C 2 x 2 /y
and
N
X
yN .xI ri / D x ri an .ri /x n ;
nD0
where the coefficients fan .ri /gN

nD0 are computed as in (7.5.12), Theorem 7.5.2. Compute the error
ri
EN .xI ri / D x LyN .xI ri /=˛0 (7.5.27)
for various values of N and various values of x in the interval .0; /, with as defined in Theorem 7.5.2.
The multiplier x ri =˛0 on the right of (7.5.27) eliminates the effects of small or large values of x ri
near x D 0, and of multiplication by an arbitrary constant. In some exercises you will be asked to
estimate the maximum value of EN .xI ri / on an interval .0; ı by computing EN .xm I ri / at the M points
xm D mı=M; m D 1, 2, . . . , M , and finding the maximum of the absolute values:
N .ı/ D maxfjEN .xm I ri /j; m D 1; 2; : : : ; M g: (7.5.28)
(For simplicity, this notation ignores the dependence of the right side of the equation on i and M .)
To implement this procedure, you’ll have to write a computer program to calculate fan .ri /g from the
applicable recurrence relation, and to evaluate EN .xI ri /.
The next exercise set contains five exercises specifically identified by L that ask you to implement the
verification procedure. These particular exercises were chosen arbitrarily you can just as well formulate
such laboratory problems for any of the equations in any of the Exercises 1–10, 14-25, and 28–51
7.5 Exercises
This set contains exercises specifically identified by L that ask you to implement the verification pro-
cedure. These particular exercises were chosen arbitrarily you can just as well formulate such laboratory
problems for any of the equations in Exercises 1–10, 14-25, and 28–51.
In Exercises 1–10 find a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions. Compute a0 , a1 . . . , aN for N at least
7 in each solution.
1. C 2x 2.1 C x C x 2 /y 00 C x.3 C 3x C 5x 2 /y 0 yD0

2. C 3x 2y 00 C 2x.1 C x 2x 2/y 0 C .2x 8x 2/y D 0
3. C x 2 .3 C 3x C x 2 /y 00 C x.5 C 8x C 7x 2 /y 0 .1 2x 9x 2/y D 0
4. C 4x 2y 00 C x.7 C 2x C 4x 2 /y 0 .1 4x 7x 2 /y D 0
5. C 12x 2.1 C x/y 00 C x.11 C 35x C 3x 2 /y 0 .1 10x 5x 2/y D 0
6. C x 2 .5 C x C 10x 2/y 00 C x.4 C 3x C 48x 2/y 0 C .x C 36x 2 /y D 0
7. C 8x 2y 00 2x.3 4x x 2 /y 0 C .3 C 6x C x 2 /y D 0
8. C 18x 2.1 C x/y 00 C 3x.5 C 11x C x 2 /y 0 .1 2x 5x 2 /y D 0
9. C x.3 C x C x 2 /y 00 C .4 C x x 2 /y 0 C xy D 0
10. C 10x 2.1 C x C 2x 2/y 00 C x.13 C 13x C 66x 2/y 0 .1 C 4x C 10x 2/y D 0
11. L The Frobenius solutions of
2x 2 .1 C x C x 2 /y 00 C x.9 C 11x C 11x 2/y 0 C .6 C 10x C 7x 2 /y D 0
obtained in Example 7.5.1 are defined on .0; /, where is defined in Theorem 7.5.2. Find .
Then do the following experiments for each Frobenius solution, with M D 20 and ı D :5, :7,
and :9 in the verification procedure described at the end of this section.
(a) Compute N .ı/ (see Eqn. (7.5.28)) for N D 5, 10, 15,. . . , 50.
(b) Find N such that N .ı/ < 10 5 .
(c) Find N such that N .ı/ < 10 10 .
12. L By Theorem 7.5.2 the Frobenius solutions of the equation in Exercise 4 are defined on .0; 1/.
Do experiments (a), (b), and (c) of Exercise 11 for each Frobenius solution, with M D 20 and
ı D 1, 2, and 3 in the verification procedure described at the end of this section.
13. L The Frobenius solutions of the equation in Exercise 6 are defined on .0; /, where is defined
in Theorem 7.5.2. Find and do experiments (a), (b), and (c) of Exercise 11 for each Frobenius
solution, with M D 20 and ı D :3, :4, and :5, in the verification procedure described at the
end of this section.
In Exercises 14–25 find a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions. Give explicit formulas for the coeffi-
cients in each solution.
14. 2x 2y 00 C x.3 C 2x/y 0 .1 x/y D 0

15. x 2.3 C x/y 00 C x.5 C 4x/y 0 .1 2x/y D 0
16. 2x 2y 00 C x.5 C x/y 0 .2 3x/y D 0
17. 3x 2y 00 C x.1 C x/y 0 y D0
18. 2x 2y 00 xy 0 C .1 2x/y D 0
2 00 0
19. 9x y C 9xy .1 C 3x/y D 0
2 00
20. 3x y C x.1 C x/y 0 .1 C 3x/y D 0
2
21. 2x .3 C x/y C x.1 C 5x/y 0 C .1 C x/y D 0
00
22. x 2.4 C x/y 00 x.1 3x/y 0 C y D 0

23. 2x 2y 00 C 5xy 0 C .1 C x/y D 0
24. x 2.3 C 4x/y 00 C x.5 C 18x/y 0 .1 12x/y D 0
2 00 0
25. 6x y C x.10 x/y .2 C x/y D 0
26. L By Theorem 7.5.2 the Frobenius solutions of the equation in Exercise 17 are defined on .0; 1/.
Do experiments (a), (b), and (c) of Exercise 11 for each Frobenius solution, with M D 20 and
ı D 3, 6, 9, and 12 in the verification procedure described at the end of this section.
27. L The Frobenius solutions of the equation in Exercise 22 are defined on .0; /, where is defined
in Theorem 7.5.2. Find and do experiments (a), (b), and (c) of Exercise 11 for each Frobenius
solution, with M D 20 and ı D :25, :5, and :75 in the verification procedure described at the
end of this section.
In Exercises 28–32 find a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions. Compute coefficients a0 , . . . , aN for N
at least 7 in each solution.
28. C x 2 .8 C x/y 00 C x.2 C 3x/y 0 C .1 C x/y D 0

29. C x 2 .3 C 4x/y 00 C x.11 C 4x/y 0 .3 C 4x/y D 0
30. C 2x 2.2 C 3x/y 00 C x.4 C 11x/y 0 .1 x/y D 0
31. C x 2 .2 C x/y 00 C 5x.1 x/y 0 .2 8x/y
2 00 0
32. C x .6 C x/y C x.11 C 4x/y C .1 C 2x/y D 0
cients in each solution.
33. 8x 2y 00 C x.2 C x 2 /y 0 C y D 0
34. 8x 2.1 x 2 /y 00 C 2x.1 13x 2/y 0 C .1 9x 2/y D 0
35. x 2.1 C x 2 /y 00 2x.2 x 2 /y 0 C 4y D 0
36. x.3 C x 2/y 00 C .2 x 2 /y 0 8xy D 0
2 2 2
37. 4x .1 00
x /y C x.7 19x /y 0 .1 C 14x 2/y D 0
38. 3x 2.2 x 2 /y 00 C x.1 11x 2/y 0 C .1 5x 2 /y D 0
39. 2x 2.2 C x 2/y 00 x.12 7x 2/y 0 C .7 C 3x 2/y D 0
40. 2x 2.2 C x 2/y 00 C x.4 C 7x 2 /y 0 .1 3x 2/y D 0
41. 2x 2.1 C 2x 2/y 00 C 5x.1 C 6x 2/y 0 .2 40x 2 /y D 0
42. 3x 2.1 C x 2/y 00 C 5x.1 C x 2 /y 0 .1 C 5x 2 /y D 0
43. x.1 C x 2/y 00 C .4 C 7x 2 /y 0 C 8xy D 0
44. x 2.2 C x 2 /y 00 C x.3 C x 2 /y 0 yD0
2 2 2
45. 00
2x .1 C x /y C x.3 C 8x /y 0
.3 4x 2/y D 0
46. 9x 2y 00 C 3x.3 C x 2 /y 0 .1 5x 2 /y D 0
In Exercises 47–51 find a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions. Compute the coefficients a0 , . . . , a2M
for M at least 7 in each solution.
47. C 6x 2y 00 C x.1 C 6x 2/y 0 C .1 C 9x 2/y D 0

48. C x 2 .8 C x 2 /y 00 C 7x.2 C x 2 /y 0 .2 9x 2 /y D 0
49. C 9x 2.1 C x 2 /y 00 C 3x.3 C 13x 2/y 0 .1 25x 2 /y D 0
50. C 4x 2.1 C x 2 /y 00 C 4x.1 C 6x 2/y 0 .1 25x 2 /y D 0
51. C 8x 2.1 C 2x 2/y 00 C 2x.5 C 34x 2/y 0 .1 30x 2/y D 0
52. Suppose r1 > r2 , a0 D b0 D 1, and the Frobenius series
1
X 1
X
y1 D x r1 an x n and y2 D x r2 bn x n
nD0 nD0
both converge on an interval .0; /.

(a) Show that y1 and y2 are linearly independent on .0; /. H INT: Show that if c1 and c2 are
constants such that c1 y1 C c2 y2 0 on .0; /, then
1
X 1
X
c1 x r1 r2
an x n C c2 bn x n D 0; 0 < x < :
nD0 nD0
Then let x ! 0C to conclude that c2 D 0.

(b) Use the result of (b) to complete the proof of Theorem 7.5.3.
53. The equation
x 2 y 00 C xy 0 C .x 2 2 /y D 0 (7.5.1)
is Bessel’s equation of order . (Here is a parameter, and this use of “order” should not be con-
fused with its usual use as in “the order of the equation.”) The solutions of (7.5.1) are Bessel functions of order
.
(a) Assuming that isn’t an integer, find a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions of (7.5.1).
(b) If D 1=2, the solutions of (7.5.1) reduce to familiar elementary functions. Identify these
functions.
54. (a) Verify that
d d2
.jxjr x n / D .n C r /jxjr x n 1
and .jxjr x n / D .n C r /.n C r 1/jxjr x n 2
dx dx 2
if x ¤ 0.
(b) Let
Ly D x 2 .˛0 C ˛1x C ˛2 x 2 /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x C ˇ2 x 2 /y 0 C . 0 C 1 x C 2 x 2/y D 0:
Show that if x r 1
P n r
P1 n
nD0 an x is a solution of Ly D 0 on .0; / then jxj nD0 an x is a
solution on . ; 0/ and .0; /.
55. (a) Deduce from Eqn. (7.5.20) that
n
Y p1 .j C r 1/
an .r / D . 1/n :
p0 .j C r /
j D1
(b) Conclude that if p0 .r / D ˛0 .r r1 /.r r2 / where r1 r2 is not an integer, then

1
X 1
X
y1 D x r1 an .r1 /x n and y2 D x r2 an .r2 /x n
nD0 nD0
form a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions of
x 2 .˛0 C ˛1 x/y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x/y 0 C . 0 C 1 x/y D 0:
(c) Show that if p0 satisfies the hypotheses of (b) then

1 n
. 1/n

X 1
y1 D x r1 Qn xn
nD0
nŠ j D1 .j C r1 r2 / ˛0
and
1 n
. 1/n

r2
X 1
y2 D x Qn xn
nŠ j D1 .j C r2 r1 / ˛0
nD0
˛0 x 2 y 00 C ˇ0 xy 0 C . 0 C 1 x/y D 0:
56. Let
Ly D x 2.˛0 C ˛2 x 2 /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ2 x 2 /y 0 C . 0 C 2 x 2 /y D 0
and define
p0 .r / D ˛0 r .r 1/ C ˇ0 r C 0 and p2 .r / D ˛2 r .r 1/ C ˇ2 r C 2 :
(a) Use Theorem 7.5.2 to show that if
a0 .r / D 1;
(7.5.1)
p0 .2m C r /a2m .r / C p2 .2m C r 2/a2m 2 .r / D 0; m 1;
then the Frobenius series y.x; r / D x r 1 2m

satisfies Ly.x; r / D p0 .r /x r .
P
mD0 a2m x
(b) Deduce from (7.5.1) that if p0 .2m C r / is nonzero for every positive integer m then
m
Y p2 .2j C r 2/
a2m .r / D . 1/m :
p0 .2j C r /
j D1
(c) Conclude that if p0 .r / D ˛0 .r r1 /.r r2 / where r1 r2 is not an even integer, then

1
X 1
X
y1 D x r1 a2m .r1 /x 2m and y2 D x r2 a2m .r2 /x 2m
mD0 mD0
form a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions of Ly D 0.

(d) Show that if p0 satisfies the hypotheses of (c) then
1 m
. 1/m

r1
X 2
y1 D x m x 2m
2m mŠ j D1 .2j C r1
Q
mD0
r2 / ˛0
and
1 m
. 1/m

r2
X 2
y2 D x m x 2m
2m mŠ j D1 .2j C r2
Q
mD0
r1 / ˛0
˛0 x 2 y 00 C ˇ0 xy 0 C . 0 C 2 x 2 /y D 0:
57. Let
Ly D x 2 q0 .x/y 00 C xq1 .x/y 0 C q2 .x/y;
where
1
X 1
X 1
X
q0 .x/ D ˛j x j ; q1 .x/ D ˇj x j ; q2 .x/ D j x j ;
j D0 j D0 j D0
and define
pj .r / D ˛j r .r 1/ C ˇj r C j ; j D 0; 1; : : : :
r
P1
Let y D x nD0 an x n . Show that
1
X
Ly D x r bn x n ;
nD0
where
n
X
bn D pj .n C r j /an j:
j D0
58. (a) Let L be as in Exercise 57. Show that if

1
X
y.x; r / D x r an .r /x n
nD0
where
a0 .r / D 1;
n
1 X
an .r / D pj .n C r j /an j .r /; n 1;
p0 .n C r /
j D1
then
Ly.x; r / D p0 .r /x r :
(b) Conclude that if
p0 .r / D ˛0 .r r1 /.r r2 /
where r1 r2 isn’t an integer then y1 D y.x; r1 / and y2 D y.x; r2 / are solutions of Ly D 0.
59. Let
Ly D x 2.˛0 C ˛q x q /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇq x q /y 0 C . 0 C q x q /y
where q is a positive integer, and define
p0 .r / D ˛0 r .r 1/ C ˇ0 r C 0 and pq .r / D ˛q r .r 1/ C ˇq r C q :
(a) Show that if

1
X
y.x; r / D x r aq m .r /x q m
mD0
where
a0 .r / D 1;
pq .q.m 1/ C r / (7.5.1)
aq m .r / D aq.m 1/ .r /; m 1;
p0 .qm C r /
then
Ly.x; r / D p0 .r /x r :
(b) Deduce from (7.5.1) that
m
Y pq .q.j 1/ C r /
aq m .r / D . 1/m :
p0 .qj C r /
j D1
(c) Conclude that if p0 .r / D ˛0.r r1 /.r r2 / where r1 r2 is not an integer multiple of q,

then
X1 1
X
y1 D x r1 aq m .r1 /x q m and y2 D x r2 aq m .r2 /x q m
mD0 mD0

(d) Show that if p0 satisfies the hypotheses of (c) then
1 m
. 1/m

r1
X q
y1 D x xq m
q m mŠ m
Q
mD0 j D1 .qj C r1 r2 / ˛0
and m
1
. 1/m

r2
X q
y2 D x xq m
q m mŠ m
Q
mD0 j D1 .qj C r2 r1 / ˛0
˛0 x 2y 00 C ˇ0 xy 0 C . 0 C q x q /y D 0:
60. (a) Suppose ˛0 ; ˛1, and ˛2 are real numbers with ˛0 ¤ 0, and fan g1
nD0 is defined by
˛0 a1 C ˛1a0 D 0
and
˛0an C ˛1 an 1 C ˛2 an 2 D 0; n 2:
Show that
1
X
.˛0 C ˛1 x C ˛2x 2 / an x n D ˛0 a0 ;
nD0
and infer that

1
X ˛0 a0
an x n D :
˛0 C ˛1 x C ˛2 x 2
nD0
(b) With ˛0; ˛1 , and ˛2 as in (a), consider the equation
x 2 .˛0 C ˛1x C ˛2 x 2 /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x C ˇ2 x 2 /y 0 C . 0 C 1 x C 2x 2 /y D 0; (7.5.1)
and define
pj .r / D ˛j r .r 1/ C ˇj r C j ; j D 0; 1; 2:
Suppose
p1 .r 1/ ˛1 p2 .r 2/ ˛2
D ; D ;
p0 .r / ˛0 p0 .r / ˛0
and
p0 .r / D ˛0 .r r1/.r r2/;
where r1 > r2 . Show that
x r1 x r2
y1 D and y2 D
˛0 C ˛1 x C ˛2 x 2 ˛0 C ˛1 x C ˛2 x 2
form a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions of (7.5.1) on any interval .0; / on which
˛0 C ˛1 x C ˛2x 2 has no zeros.
Section 7.6 The Method of Frobenius II 365
In Exercises 61–68 use the method suggested by Exercise 60 to find the general solution on some interval
.0; /.
61. 2x 2.1 C x/y 00 x.1 3x/y 0 C y D 0

62. 6x 2.1 C 2x 2/y 00 C x.1 C 50x 2/y 0 C .1 C 30x 2/y D 0
63. 28x 2.1 3x/y 00 7x.5 C 9x/y 0 C 7.2 C 9x/y D 0
2
64. 9x .5 C x/y C 9x.5 C 3x/y 0
00
.5 8x/y D 0
2 2 2
65. 8x .2 00
x /y C 2x.10 21x /y 0
.2 C 35x 2 /y D 0
66. 4x 2.1 C 3x C x 2 /y 00 4x.1 3x 3x 2 /y 0 C 3.1 x C x 2 /y D 0
67. 3x 2.1 C x/2 y 00 x.1 10x 11x 2/y 0 C .1 C 5x 2 /y D 0
68. 4x 2.3 C 2x C x 2 /y 00 x.3 14x 15x 2/y 0 C .3 C 7x 2/y D 0
7.6 THE METHOD OF FROBENIUS II
In this section we discuss a method for finding two linearly independent Frobenius solutions of a homo-
geneous linear second order equation near a regular singular point in the case where the indicial equation
has a repeated real root. As in the preceding section, we consider equations that can be written as
x 2 .˛0 C ˛1x C ˛2 x 2 /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x C ˇ2 x 2 /y 0 C . 0 C 1 x C 2 x 2/y D 0 (7.6.1)
where ˛0 ¤ 0. We assume that the indicial equation p0 .r / D 0 has a repeated real root r1 . In this case
Theorem 7.5.3 implies that (7.6.1) has one solution of the form
1
X
y1 D x r1 an x n ;
nD0
but does not provide a second solution y2 such that fy1 ; y2g is a fundamental set of solutions. The
following extension of Theorem 7.5.2 provides a way to find a second solution.
Theorem 7.6.1 Let
Ly D x 2 .˛0 C ˛1 x C ˛2x 2 /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x C ˇ2 x 2 /y 0 C . 0 C 1 x C 2 x 2 /y; (7.6.2)
where ˛0 ¤ 0 and define
p0 .r / D ˛0 r .r 1/ C ˇ0 r C 0 ;
p1 .r / D ˛1 r .r 1/ C ˇ1 r C 1 ;
p2 .r / D ˛2 r .r 1/ C ˇ2 r C 2 :
Suppose r is a real number such that p0 .n C r / is nonzero for all positive integers n, and define
a0 .r / D 1;
p1 .r /
a1 .r / D ;
p0 .r C 1/
p1 .n C r 1/an 1 .r / Cp2 .n C r 2/an 2 .r /
an .r / D ; n 2:
p0 .n C r /
Then the Frobenius series

1
X
y.x; r / D x r an .r /x n (7.6.3)
nD0
satisfies
Ly.x; r / D p0 .r /x r : (7.6.4)
Moreover;
1
@y X
.x; r / D y.x; r / ln x C x r an0 .r /x n ; (7.6.5)
@r
nD1
and
@y
L .x; r / D p00 .r /x r C x r p0 .r / ln x: (7.6.6)
@r
Proof Theorem 7.5.2 implies (7.6.4). Differentiating formally with respect to r in (7.6.3) yields
1 1
@y @ r X X
.x; r / D .x / an .r /x n C x r an0 .r /x n
@r @r
nD0 nD1
1
X 1
X
D x r ln x an .r /x n C x r an0 .r /x n
nD0 nD1
1
X
D y.x; r / ln x C x r an0 .r /x n ;
nD1
which proves (7.6.5).

To prove that @y.x; r /=@r satisfies (7.6.6), we view y in (7.6.2) as a function y D y.x; r / of two
variables, where the prime indicates partial differentiation with respect to x; thus,
@y @2 y
y 0 D y 0 .x; r / D .x; r / and y 00 D y 00 .x; r / D .x; r /:
@x @x 2
With this notation we can use (7.6.2) to rewrite (7.6.4) as
@2 y @y
x 2 q0 .x/ .x; r / C xq1 .x/ .x; r / C q2 .x/y.x; r / D p0 .r /x r ; (7.6.7)
@x 2 @x
where
q0 .x/ D ˛0 C ˛1 x C ˛2 x 2 ;
q1 .x/ D ˇ0 C ˇ1 x C ˇ2 x 2 ;
q2 .x/ D 0 C 1 x C 2 x 2 :
Differentiating both sides of (7.6.7) with respect to r yields
@3 y @2 y @y
x 2 q0 .x/ 2
.x; r / C xq1 .x/ .x; r / C q2 .x/ .x; r / D p00 .r /x r C p0 .r /x r ln x:
@r @x @r @x @r
By changing the order of differentiation in the first two terms on the left we can rewrite this as
@3 y @2 y @y
x 2 q0 .x/ 2
.x; r / C xq1.x/ .x; r / C q2 .x/ .x; r / D p00 .r /x r C p0 .r /x r ln x;
@x @r @x@r @r
or
@2

@y @ @y @y
x 2 q0 .x/ .x; r / C xq1 .x/ .x; r / C q2 .x/ .x; r / D p00 .r /x r C p0 .r /x r ln x;
@x 2 @r @r @x @r
which is equivalent to (7.6.6).
Theorem 7.6.2 Let L be as in Theorem 7.6.1 and suppose the indicial equation p0 .r / D 0 has a repeated
real root r1 : Then
1
X
y1 .x/ D y.x; r1 / D x r1 an .r1 /x n
nD0
and
1
@y X
y2 .x/ D .x; r1/ D y1 .x/ ln x C x r1 an0 .r1 /x n (7.6.8)
@r
nD1
form a fundamental set of solutions of Ly D 0:
Proof Since r1 is a repeated root of p0 .r / D 0, the indicial polynomial can be factored as
p0 .r / D ˛0 .r r1 /2 ;
so
p0 .n C r1 / D ˛0 n2 ;
which is nonzero if n > 0. Therefore the assumptions of Theorem 7.6.1 hold with r D r1 , and (7.6.4)
implies that Ly1 D p0 .r1 /x r1 D 0. Since
p00 .r / D 2˛.r r1 /
it follows that p00 .r1 / D 0, so (7.6.6) implies that
Ly2 D p00 .r1 /x r1 C x r1 p0 .r1 / ln x D 0:
This proves that y1 and y2 are both solutions of Ly D 0. We leave the proof that fy1 ; y2 g is a fundamental
set as an exercise (Exercise 53).
Example 7.6.1 Find a fundamental set of solutions of
x 2 .1 2x C x 2 /y 00 x.3 C x/y 0 C .4 C x/y D 0: (7.6.9)
Compute just the terms involving x nCr1 , where 0 n 4 and r1 is the root of the indicial equation.
p0 .r / D r .r 1/ 3r C 4 D .r 2/2 ;
p1 .r / D 2r .r 1/ r C1 D .r 1/.2r C 1/;
p2 .r / D r .r 1/:
Since r1 D 2 is a repeated root of the indicial polynomial p0 , Theorem 7.6.2 implies that
1
X 1
X
y1 D x 2 an .2/x n and y2 D y1 ln x C x 2 an0 .2/x n (7.6.10)
nD0 nD1
the recurrence formulas from Theorem 7.6.1:
a0 .r / D 1;
p1 .r / .r 1/.2r C 1/ 2r C 1
a1 .r / D D D ;
p0 .r C 1/ .r 1/2 r 1
p1 .n C r 1/an 1 .r / C p2 .n C r 2/an 2 .r /
an .r / D
p0 .n C r / (7.6.11)
.n C r 2/ Œ.2n C 2r 1/an 1 .r / .n C r 3/an 2 .r /
D
.n C r 2/2
.2n C 2r 1/ .n C r 3/
D an 1 .r / an 2 .r /; n 2:
.n C r 2/ .n C r 2/
Differentiating yields
3
a10 .r / D ;
.r 1/2
2n C 2r 1 0 nCr 3 0
an0 .r / D a .r / a .r / (7.6.12)
nCr 2 n 1 nCr 2 n 2
3 1
2
an 1 .r / an 2 .r /; n 2:
.n C r 2/ .n C r 2/2
Setting r D 2 in (7.6.11) and (7.6.12) yields
a0 .2/ D 1;
a1 .2/ D 5;
(7.6.13)
.2n C 3/ .n 1/
an .2/ D an 1 .2/ an 2 .2/; n2
n n
and
a10 .2/ D 3;
2n C 3 0 n 1 3 1 (7.6.14)
an0 .2/ D an 1 .2/ an0 2 .2/ an 1 .2/ an 2 .2/; n 2:
n n n2 n2
Computing recursively with (7.6.13) and (7.6.14) yields
143 355
a0 .2/ D 1; a1 .2/ D 5; a2 .2/ D 17; a3 .2/ D ; a4 .2/ D ;
3 3
and
29 0 859 0 4693
a10 .2/ D 3; a20 .2/ D ; a3 .2/ D ; a4 .2/ D :
2 18 36
Substituting these coefficients into (7.6.10) yields

2 2 143 3 355 4
y1 D x 1 C 5x C 17x C x C x C
3 3
and
29 859 2 4693 3
y2 D y1 ln x x3 3 C x C x C x C :
2 18 36
Since the recurrence formula (7.6.11) involves three terms, it’s not possible to obtain a simple explicit
formula for the coefficients in the Frobenius solutions of (7.6.9). However, as we saw in the preceding
sections, the recurrrence formula for fan .r /g involves only two terms if either ˛1 D ˇ1 D 1 D 0 or
˛2 D ˇ2 D 2 D 0 in (7.6.1). In this case, it’s often possible to find explicit formulas for the coefficients.
The next two examples illustrate this.
2x 2.2 C x/y 00 C 5x 2 y 0 C .1 C x/y D 0: (7.6.15)
p0 .r / D 4r .r 1/ C 1 D .2r 1/2 ;
p1 .r / D 2r .r 1/ C 5r C 1 D .r C 1/.2r C 1/;
p2 .r / D 0:
Since r1 D 1=2 is a repeated zero of the indicial polynomial p0 , Theorem 7.6.2 implies that
1
X
y1 D x 1=2 an .1=2/x n (7.6.16)
nD0
and
1
X
y2 D y1 ln x C x 1=2 an0 .1=2/x n (7.6.17)
nD1
form a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions of (7.6.15). Since p2 0, the recurrence formulas in
Theorem 7.6.1 reduce to
a0 .r / D 1;
p1 .n C r 1/
an .r / D an 1 .r /;
p0 .n C r /
.n C r /.2n C 2r 1/
D an 1 .r /;
.2n C 2r 1/2
nCr
D an 1 .r /; n 0:
2n C 2r 1
n
n
Y j Cr
an .r / D . 1/ ; n 0: (7.6.18)
2j C 2r 1
j D1
Setting r D 1=2 yields

n n
Y j C 1=2 Y 2j C 1
an .1=2/ D . 1/n D . 1/n ;
2j 4j
jQ
D1 j D1 (7.6.19)
. 1/n njD1 .2j C 1/
D ; n 0:
4n nŠ
Substituting this into (7.6.16) yields

Qn
1=2
1
X . 1/n j D1 .2j C 1/
y1 D x xn:
4n nŠ
nD0
To obtain y2 in (7.6.17), we must compute an0 .1=2/ for n D 1, 2,. . . . We’ll do this by logarithmic
differentiation. From (7.6.18),
n
Y jj C r j
jan .r /j D ; n 1:
j2j C 2r 1j
j D1
Therefore
n
X
ln jan .r /j D .ln jj C r j ln j2j C 2r 1j/ :
j D1
Differentiating with respect to r yields

n
an0 .r /

X 1 2
D :
an .r / j Cr 2j C 2r 1
j D1
Therefore
n
X 1 2
an0 .r / D an .r / :
j Cr 2j C 2r 1
j D1
Setting r D 1=2 here and recalling (7.6.19) yields

Qn 0 1
n n
. 1/n j D1 .2j C 1/ X 1 X 1
an0 .1=2/ D @ A: (7.6.20)
4n nŠ j C 1=2 j
j D1 j D1
Since
1 1 j j 1=2 1
D D ;
j C 1=2 j j.j C 1=2/ j.2j C 1/
(7.6.20) can be rewritten as
Qn n
. 1/n j D1 .2j C 1/ X 1
an0 .1=2/ D :
4n nŠ j.2j C 1/
j D1
Therefore, from (7.6.17),

Qn 0 1
n
1=2
1
X . 1/n j D1 .2j C 1/
X 1
y2 D y1 ln x x @ A x n:
nD1
4n nŠ j.2j C 1/
j D1
x 2 .2 x 2/y 00 2x.1 C 2x 2 /y 0 C .2 2x 2 /y D 0: (7.6.21)

Solution For (7.6.21), the polynomials defined in Theorem 7.6.1 are
p0 .r / D 2r .r 1/ 2r C 2 D 2.r 1/2 ;
p1 .r / D 0;
p2 .r / D r .r 1/ 4r 2 D .r C 1/.r C 2/:
As in Section 7.5, since p1 0, the recurrence formulas of Theorem 7.6.1 imply that an .r / D 0 if n is
odd, and
a0 .r / D 1;
p2 .2m C r 2/
a2m .r / D a2m 2 .r /
p0 .2m C r /
.2m C r 1/.2m C r /
D a2m 2 .r /
2.2m C r 1/2
2m C r
D a2m 2 .r /; m 1:
2.2m C r 1/
Since r1 D 1 is a repeated root of the indicial polynomial p0 , Theorem 7.6.2 implies that
1
X
y1 D x a2m .1/x 2m (7.6.22)
mD0
and
1
X
y2 D y1 ln x C x 0
a2m .1/x 2m (7.6.23)
mD1
form a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions of (7.6.21). We leave it to you to show that
m
1 Y 2j C r
a2m .r / D : (7.6.24)
2m 2j C r 1
j D1
Setting r D 1 yields Qm
m
1 Y 2j C 1 j D1 .2j C 1/
a2m .1/ D m D ; (7.6.25)
2 2j 4m mŠ
j D1
and substituting this into (7.6.22) yields

1 Qm
j D1 .2j C 1/
X
y1 D x x 2m :
mD0
4m mŠ
0
To obtain y2 in (7.6.23), we must compute a2m .1/ for m D 1, 2, . . . . Again we use logarithmic
differentiation. From (7.6.24),
m
1 Y j2j C r j
ja2m .r /j D :
2m j2j C r 1j
j D1
Taking logarithms yields

m
X
ln ja2m .r /j D m ln 2 C .ln j2j C r j ln j2j C r 1j/ :
j D1

0 m
a2m .r / X 1 1
D :
a2m .r / 2j C r 2j C r 1
j D1
Therefore
m
0
X 1 1
a2m .r / D a2m .r / :
2j C r 2j C r 1
j D1
Setting r D 1 and recalling (7.6.25) yields

Qm m
j D1 .2j C 1/ X

0 1 1
a2m .1/ D : (7.6.26)
4m mŠ 2j C 1 2j
j D1
Since
1 1 1
D ;
2j C 1 2j 2j.2j C 1/
(7.6.26) can be rewritten as
Qm m
0 j D1 .2j C 1/ X 1
a2m .1/ D :
2 4m mŠ j.2j C 1/
j D1

Qm 0 1
1 m
x X j D1 .2j C 1/ 1
X
y2 D y1 ln x @ A x 2m :
2 mD1 4m mŠ j.2j C 1/
j D1
If the solution y1 D y.x; r1 / of Ly D 0 reduces to a finite sum, then there’s a difficulty in using
logarithmic differentiation to obtain the coefficients fan0 .r1 /g in the second solution. The next example
illustrates this difficulty and shows how to overcome it.
x 2 y 00 x.5 x/y 0 C .9 4x/y D 0: (7.6.27)
Solution For (7.6.27) the polynomials defined in Theorem 7.6.1 are
p0 .r / D r .r 1/ 5r C 9 D .r 3/2 ;
p1 .r / D r 4;
p2 .r / D 0:
Since r1 D 3 is a repeated zero of the indicial polynomial p0 , Theorem 7.6.2 implies that
1
X
y1 D x 3 an .3/x n (7.6.28)
nD0
and
1
X
y2 D y1 ln x C x 3 an0 .3/x n (7.6.29)
nD1
are linearly independent Frobenius solutions of (7.6.27). To find the coefficients in (7.6.28) we use the
recurrence formulas
a0 .r / D 1;
p1 .n C r 1/
an .r / D an 1 .r /
p0 .n C r /
nCr 5
D an 1 .r /; n 1:
.n C r 3/2
n
Y j Cr 5
an .r / D . 1/n : (7.6.30)
.j C r 3/2
j D1
Setting r D 3 here yields

n
n
Y j 2
an .3/ D . 1/ ;
j2
j D1
so a1 .3/ D 1 and an .3/ D 0 if n 2. Substituting these coefficients into (7.6.28) yields
y1 D x 3 .1 C x/:
To obtain y2 in (7.6.29) we must compute an0 .3/ for n D 1, 2, . . . . Let’s first try logarithmic differen-
tiation. From (7.6.30),
n
Y jj C r 5j
jan .r /j D ; n 1;
jj C r 3j2
j D1
so
n
X
ln jan .r /j D .ln jj C r 5j 2 ln jj C r 3j/ :
j D1

n
an0 .r /

X 1 2
D :
an .r / j Cr 5 j Cr 3
j D1
Therefore
n
X 1 2
an0 .r / D an .r / : (7.6.31)
j Cr 5 j Cr 3
j D1
However, we can’t simply set r D 3 here if n 2, since the bracketed expression in the sum correspond-
ing to j D 2 contains the term 1=.r 3/. In fact, since an .3/ D 0 for n 2, the formula (7.6.31) for
an0 .r / is actually an indeterminate form at r D 3.
We overcome this difficulty as follows. From (7.6.30) with n D 1,
r 4
a1 .r / D :
.r 2/2
Therefore
r 6
a10 .r / D ;
.r 2/3
so
a10 .3/ D 3: (7.6.32)
From (7.6.30) with n 2,
Qn
n j D3 .j Cr 5/
an .r / D . 1/ .r 4/.r 3/ Qn D .r 3/cn .r /;
j D1 .j Cr 3/2
where Qn
n j D3 .j Cr 5/
cn .r / D . 1/ .r 4/ Qn ; n 2:
j D1 .j C r 3/2
Therefore
an0 .r / D cn .r / C .r 3/cn0 .r /; n 2;
which implies that an0 .3/ D cn .3/ if n 3. We leave it to you to verify that
. 1/nC1
an0 .3/ D cn .3/ D ; n 2:
n.n 1/nŠ
Substituting this and (7.6.32) into (7.6.29) yields
1
X . 1/n
y2 D x 3.1 C x/ ln x 3x 4 x3 x n:
nD2
n.n 1/nŠ
7.6 Exercises
In Exercises 1–11 find a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions. Compute the terms involving x nCr1 ,
where 0 n N (N at least 7) and r1 is the root of the indicial equation. Optionally, write a computer
program to implement the applicable recurrence formulas and take N > 7.
1. C x 2 y 00 x.1 x/y 0 C .1 x 2 /y D 0
2. C x 2 .1 C x C 2x 2 /y 0 C x.3 C 6x C 7x 2 /y 0 C .1 C 6x 3x 2 /y D 0
3. C x 2 .1 C 2x C x 2 /y 00 C x.1 C 3x C 4x 2/y 0 x.1 2x/y D 0
4. C 4x 2.1 C x C x 2/y 00 C 12x 2.1 C x/y 0 C .1 C 3x C 3x 2/y D 0
5. C x 2 .1 C x C x 2 /y 00 x.1 4x 2x 2 /y 0 C y D 0
6. C 9x 2y 00 C 3x.5 C 3x 2x 2 /y 0 C .1 C 12x 14x 2/y D 0
7. C x 2 y 00 C x.1 C x C x 2 /y 0 C x.2 x/y D 0
8. C x 2 .1 C 2x/y 00 C x.5 C 14x C 3x 2 /y 0 C .4 C 18x C 12x 2/y D 0
9. C 4x 2y 00 C 2x.4 C x C x 2 /y 0 C .1 C 5x C 3x 2 /y D 0
10. C 16x 2y 00 C 4x.6 C x C 2x 2/y 0 C .1 C 5x C 18x 2 /y D 0
11. C 9x 2.1 C x/y 00 C 3x.5 C 11x x 2 /y 0 C .1 C 16x 7x 2/y D 0
cients.
12. 4x 2y 00 C .1 C 4x/y D 0
13. 36x 2.1 2x/y 00 C 24x.1 9x/y 0 C .1 70x/y D 0
2 00 0
14. x .1 C x/y x.3 x/y C 4y D 0
2 00
15. x .1 2x/y x.5 4x/y 0 C .9 4x/y D 0
2 00 0
16. 25x y C x.15 C x/y C .1 C x/y D 0
17. 2x 2.2 C x/y 00 C x 2 y 0 C .1 x/y D 0
2 00 0
18. x .9 C 4x/y C 3xy C .1 C x/y D 0
19. x 2y 00 x.3 2x/y 0 C .4 C 3x/y D 0
20. x 2.1 4x/y 00 C 3x.1 6x/y 0 C .1 12x/y D 0
2 00 0
21. x .1 C 2x/y C x.3 C 5x/y C .1 2x/y D 0
2 00 0
22. 2x .1 C x/y x.6 x/y C .8 x/y D 0
In Exercises 23–27 find a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions. Compute the terms involving x nCr1 ,
where 0 n N (N at least 7) and r1 is the root of the indicial equation. Optionally, write a computer
program to implement the applicable recurrence formulas and take N > 7.
23. C x 2 .1 C 2x/y 00 C x.5 C 9x/y 0 C .4 C 3x/y D 0

24. C x 2 .1 2x/y 00 x.5 C 4x/y 0 C .9 C 4x/y D 0
25. C x 2 .1 C 4x/y 00 x.1 4x/y 0 C .1 C x/y D 0
26. C x 2 .1 C x/y 00 C x.1 C 2x/y 0 C xy D 0
27. C x 2 .1 x/y 00 C x.7 C x/y 0 C .9 x/y D 0
cients.
28. x 2y 00 x.1 x 2 /y 0 C .1 C x 2 /y D 0
29. x 2.1 C x 2 /y 00 3x.1 x 2 /y 0 C 4y D 0
30. 4x 2y 00 C 2x 3 y 0 C .1 C 3x 2/y D 0
31. x 2.1 C x 2 /y 00 x.1 2x 2 /y 0 C y D 0
32. 2x 2.2 C x 2/y 00 C 7x 3 y 0 C .1 C 3x 2/y D 0
33. x 2.1 C x 2 /y 00 x.1 4x 2/y 0 C .1 C 2x 2/y D 0
34. 4x 2.4 C x 2 /y 00 C 3x.8 C 3x 2/y 0 C .1 9x 2 /y D 0
35. 3x 2.3 C x 2/y 00 C x.3 C 11x 2/y 0 C .1 C 5x 2/y D 0
36. 4x 2.1 C 4x 2 /y 00 C 32x 3 y 0 C y D 0
37. 9x 2y 00 3x.7 2x 2/y 0 C .25 C 2x 2/y D 0
38. x 2.1 C 2x 2/y 00 C x.3 C 7x 2 /y 0 C .1 3x 2 /y D 0
In Exercises 39–43 find a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions. Compute the terms involving x 2mCr1 ,
where 0 m M (M at least 3) and r1 is the root of the indicial equation. Optionally, write a computer
program to implement the applicable recurrence formulas and take M > 3.
39. C x 2 .1 C x 2 /y 00 C x.3 C 8x 2/y 0 C .1 C 12x 2/y

40. C x 2 y 00 x.1 x 2 /y 0 C .1 C x 2 /y D 0
41. C x 2 .1 2x 2 /y 00 C x.5 9x 2 /y 0 C .4 3x 2 /y D 0
42. C x 2 .2 C x 2 /y 00 C x.14 x 2 /y 0 C 2.9 C x 2 /y D 0
43. C x 2 .1 C x 2 /y 00 C x.3 C 7x 2/y 0 C .1 C 8x 2/y D 0
cients.
44. x 2.1 2x/y 00 C 3xy 0 C .1 C 4x/y D 0

45. x.1 C x/y 00 C .1 x/y 0 C y D 0
46. x 2.1 x/y 00 C x.3 2x/y 0 C .1 C 2x/y D 0
47. 4x 2.1 C x/y 00 4x 2 y 0 C .1 5x/y D 0
48. x 2.1 x/y 00 x.3 5x/y 0 C .4 5x/y D 0
49. x 2.1 C x 2 /y 00 x.1 C 9x 2/y 0 C .1 C 25x 2/y D 0
50. 9x 2y 00 C 3x.1 x 2 /y 0 C .1 C 7x 2/y D 0
51. x.1 C x 2/y 00 C .1 x 2 /y 0 8xy D 0
52. 4x 2y 00 C 2x.4 x 2 /y 0 C .1 C 7x 2 /y D 0
53. Under the assumptions of Theorem 7.6.2, suppose the power series
1
X 1
X
an .r1 /x n and an0 .r1 /x n
nD0 nD1
converge on . ; /.
(a) Show that
1
X 1
X
y1 D x r1 an .r1 /x n and y2 D y1 ln x C x r1 an0 .r1 /x n
nD0 nD1
are linearly independent on .0; /. H INT: Show that if c1 and c2 are constants such that
c1 y1 C c2 y2 0 on .0; /, then
1
X 1
X
.c1 C c2 ln x/ an .r1 /x n C c2 an0 .r1 /x n D 0; 0 < x < :
nD0 nD1
Then let x ! 0C to conclude that c2 D 0.

(b) Use the result of (a) to complete the proof of Theorem 7.6.2.
54. Let
Ly D x 2 .˛0 C ˛1 x/y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x/y 0 C . 0 C 1 x/y
and define
p0 .r / D ˛0 r .r 1/ C ˇ0 r C 0 and p1 .r / D ˛1 r .r 1/ C ˇ1 r C 1 :
Theorem 7.6.1 and Exercise 7.5.55(a) imply that if

1
X
r
y.x; r / D x an .r /x n
nD0
where
n
Y
np1 .j C r 1/
an .r / D . 1/ ;
p0 .j C r /
j D1
then
Ly.x; r / D p0 .r /x r :
Now suppose p0 .r / D ˛0 .r r1 /2 and p1 .k C r1 / ¤ 0 if k is a nonnegative integer.
(a) Show that Ly D 0 has the solution
1
X
y1 D x r1 an .r1 /x n ;
nD0
where
n
. 1/n Y
an .r1 / D p1 .j C r1 1/:
˛0n .nŠ/2
j D1
(b) Show that Ly D 0 has the second solution

1
X
y2 D y1 ln x C x r1 an .r1 /Jn x n ;
nD1
where
n n
X p10 .j C r1 1/ X 1
Jn D 2 :
p1 .j C r1 1/ j
j D1 j D1
(c) Conclude from (a) and (b) that if 1 ¤ 0 then
. 1/n 1 n n
X1
y1 D x r1 x
nD0
.nŠ/2 ˛0
and 0 1
1 n n Xn
X . 1/ 1 1
y2 D y1 ln x 2x r1 @ A xn
.nŠ/2 ˛0 j
nD1 j D1
are solutions of
˛0 x 2 y 00 C ˇ0 xy 0 C . 0 C 1 x/y D 0:
(The conclusion is also valid if 1 D 0. Why?)
55. Let
Ly D x 2.˛0 C ˛q x q /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇq x q /y 0 C . 0 C q x q /y
where q is a positive integer, and define
p0 .r / D ˛0 r .r 1/ C ˇ0 r C 0 and pq .r / D ˛q r .r 1/ C ˇq r C q :
Suppose
p0 .r / D ˛0 .r r1/2 and pq .r / 6 0:
(a) Recall from Exercise 7.5.59 that Ly D 0 has the solution
1
X
y1 D x r1 aq m .r1 /x q m ;
mD0
where
m
. 1/m Y
aq m .r1 / D pq .q.j 1/ C r1 / :
.q 2 ˛0 /m .mŠ/2
j D1
(b) Show that Ly D 0 has the second solution

1
X
y2 D y1 ln x C x r1 aq0 m .r1 /Jm x q m ;
mD1
where
m m
X pq0 .q.j 1/ C r1 / 2X1
Jm D :
pq .q.j 1/ C r1 / q j
j D1 j D1
(c) Conclude from (a) and (b) that if q ¤ 0 then

1
. 1/m q m q m
X
y1 D x r1 x
mD0
.mŠ/2 q 2 ˛0
and 0 1
1 m m Xm
2 r1 X . 1/ q 1
y2 D y1 ln x x @ A xq m
q .mŠ/ 2 q 2˛ j
mD1 0
j D1
are solutions of
˛0 x 2y 00 C ˇ0 xy 0 C . 0 C q x q /y D 0:
56. The equation
xy 00 C y 0 C xy D 0
is Bessel’s equation of order zero. (See Exercise 53.) Find two linearly independent Frobenius
solutions of this equation.
57. Suppose the assumptions of Exercise 7.5.53 hold, except that
p0 .r / D ˛0 .r r1/2 :
Show that
x r1 x r1 ln x
y1 D and y2 D
˛0 C ˛1 x C ˛2 x 2 ˛0 C ˛1 x C ˛2 x 2
Section 7.7 The Method of Frobenius III 379
are linearly independent Frobenius solutions of
x 2 .˛0 C ˛1 x C ˛2 x 2/y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x C ˇ2 x 2 /y 0 C . 0 C 1 x C 2 x 2 /y D 0
on any interval .0; / on which ˛0 C ˛1 x C ˛2 x 2 has no zeros.
In Exercises 58–65 use the method suggested by Exercise 57 to find the general solution on some interval
.0; /.
58. 4x 2.1 C x/y 00 C 8x 2y 0 C .1 C x/y D 0

59. 9x 2.3 C x/y 00 C 3x.3 C 7x/y 0 C .3 C 4x/y D 0
60. x 2.2 x 2 /y 00 x.2 C 3x 2 /y 0 C .2 x 2 /y D 0
61. 16x 2.1 C x 2 /y 00 C 8x.1 C 9x 2/y 0 C .1 C 49x 2/y D 0
62. x 2.4 C 3x/y 00 x.4 3x/y 0 C 4y D 0
63. 4x 2.1 C 3x C x 2 /y 00 C 8x 2.3 C 2x/y 0 C .1 C 3x C 9x 2 /y D 0
64. x 2.1 x/2 y 00 x.1 C 2x 3x 2 /y 0 C .1 C x 2 /y D 0
65. 9x 2.1 C x C x 2/y 00 C 3x.1 C 7x C 13x 2 /y 0 C .1 C 4x C 25x 2/y D 0
66. (a) Let L and y.x; r / be as in Exercises 57 and 58. Extend Theorem 7.6.1 by showing that

@y
L .x; r / D p00 .r /x r C x r p0 .r / ln x:
@r
(b) Show that if

p0 .r / D ˛0 .r r1 /2
then
@y
y1 D y.x; r1 / and y2 D .x; r1 /
@r
are solutions of Ly D 0.
7.7 THE METHOD OF FROBENIUS III
In Sections 7.5 and 7.6 we discussed methods for finding Frobenius solutions of a homogeneous linear
second order equation near a regular singular point in the case where the indicial equation has a repeated
root or distinct real roots that don’t differ by an integer. In this section we consider the case where the
indicial equation has distinct real roots that differ by an integer. We’ll limit our discussion to equations
that can be written as
x 2.˛0 C ˛1 x/y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x/y 0 C . 0 C 1 x/y D 0 (7.7.1)
or
x 2 .˛0 C ˛2 x 2 /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ2 x 2 /y 0 C . 0 C 2 x 2 /y D 0;
where the roots of the indicial equation differ by a positive integer.
We begin with a theorem that provides a fundamental set of solutions of equations of the form (7.7.1).
Theorem 7.7.1 Let
Ly D x 2 .˛0 C ˛1 x/y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ1 x/y 0 C . 0 C 1 x/y;
p0 .r / D ˛0 r .r 1/ C ˇ0 r C 0 ;
p1 .r / D ˛1 r .r 1/ C ˇ1 r C 1 :
Suppose r is a real number such that p0 .n C r / is nonzero for all positive integers n; and define
a0 .r / D 1;
p1 .n C r 1/ (7.7.2)
an .r / D an 1 .r /; n 1:
p0 .n C r /
Let r1 and r2 be the roots of the indicial equation p0 .r / D 0; and suppose r1 D r2 C k; where k is a
positive integer: Then
X1
y1 D x r1 an .r1 /x n
nD0
is a Frobenius solution of Ly D 0. Moreover; if we define
a0 .r2 / D 1;
p1 .n C r2 1/ (7.7.3)
an .r2 / D an 1 .r2 /; 1nk 1;
p0 .n C r2 /
and
p1 .r1 1/
C D ak 1 .r2 /; (7.7.4)
k˛0
then
k 1 1
!
X X
r2 n r1
y2 D x an .r2 /x C C y1 ln x C x an0 .r1 /x n (7.7.5)
nD0 nD1
is also a solution of Ly D 0; and fy1 ; y2 g is a fundamental set of solutions.
Proof Theorem 7.5.3 implies that Ly1 D 0. We’ll now show that Ly2 D 0. Since L is a linear operator,
this is equivalent to showing that
k 1
! 1
!
X X
L x r2 an .r2 /x n C CL y1 ln x C x r1 an0 .r1 /x n D 0: (7.7.6)
nD0 nD1
To verify this, we’ll show that

k 1
!
X
r2 n r1
L x an .r2 /x D p1 .r1 1/ak 1 .r2 /x (7.7.7)
nD0
and !
1
X
r1
L y1 ln x C x an0 .r1 /x n D k˛0 x r1 : (7.7.8)
nD1
This will imply that Ly2 D 0, since substituting (7.7.7) and (7.7.8) into (7.7.6) and using (7.7.4) yields
Ly2 D Œp1 .r1 1/ak 1 .r2 / C C k˛0 x r1

r1
D Œp1 .r1 1/ak 1 .r2 / p1 .r1 1/ak 1 .r2 / x D 0:
We’ll prove (7.7.8) first. From Theorem 7.6.1,

1
!
X
L y.x; r / ln x C x r an0 .r /x n D p00 .r /x r C x r p0 .r / ln x:
nD1
Setting r D r1 and recalling that p0 .r1 / D 0 and y1 D y.x; r1 / yields

1
!
X
r1 n
L y1 ln x C x 0
an .r1 /x D p00 .r1 /x r1 : (7.7.9)
nD1
Since r1 and r2 are the roots of the indicial equation, the indicial polynomial can be written as
p0 .r / D ˛0 .r r1 /.r r2/ D ˛0 r 2 .r1 C r2 /r C r1 r2 :

Differentiating this yields

p00 .r / D ˛0.2r r1 r2 /:
Therefore p00 .r1 /
D ˛0 .r1 r2 / D k˛0 , so (7.7.9) implies (7.7.8).
Before proving (7.7.7), we first note an .r2 / is well defined by (7.7.3) for 1 n k 1, since
p0 .n C r2 / ¤ 0 for these values of n. However, we can’t define an .r2 / for n k with (7.7.3), since
p0 .k C r2 / D p0 .r1 / D 0. For convenience, we define an .r2 / D 0 for n k. Then, from Theorem 7.5.1,
k 1
! 1
! 1
X X X
r2 n r2 n
L x an .r2 /x DL x an .r2 /x D x r2 bn x n ; (7.7.10)
nD0 nD0 nD0
where b0 D p0 .r2 / D 0 and
bn D p0 .n C r2 /an .r2 / C p1 .n C r2 1/an 1 .r2 /; n 1:
If 1 n k 1, then (7.7.3) implies that bn D 0. If n k C 1, then bn D 0 because an 1 .r2 / D

an .r2 / D 0. Therefore (7.7.10) reduces to
k 1
!
X
r2 n kCr2
L x an .r2 /x D Œp0 .k C r2 /ak .r2 / C p1 .k C r2 1/ak 1 .r2 / x :
nD0
Since ak .r2 / D 0 and k C r2 D r1 , this implies (7.7.7).

We leave the proof that fy1 ; y2 g is a fundamental set as an exercise (Exercise 41).
2x 2 .2 C x/y 00 x.4 7x/y 0 .5 3x/y D 0:

p0 .r / D 4r .r 1/ 4r 5 D .2r C 1/.2r 5/;

p1 .r / D 2r .r 1/ C 7r C 3 D .r C 1/.2r C 3/:
The roots of the indicial equation are r1 D 5=2 and r2 D 1=2, so k D r1 r2 D 3. Therefore
1
X
y1 D x 5=2 an .5=2/x n (7.7.11)
nD0
and
2 1
!
X X
1=2 5=2
y2 D x an . 1=2/ C C y1 ln x C x an0 .5=2/x n (7.7.12)
nD0 nD1
(with C as in (7.7.4)) form a fundamental set of solutions of Ly D 0. The recurrence formula (7.7.2) is
a0 .r / D 1;
p1 .n C r 1/
an .r / D an 1 .r /
p0 .n C r /
.n C r /.2n C 2r C 1/ (7.7.13)
D an 1 .r /;
.2n C 2r C 1/.2n C 2r 5/
nCr
D an 1 .r /; n 1;
2n C 2r 5
which implies that
n
Y j Cr
an .r / D . 1/n ; n 0: (7.7.14)
2j C 2r 5
j D1
Therefore Qn
. 1/n j D1 .2j C 5/
an .5=2/ D : (7.7.15)
4n nŠ
Qn
5=2
1
X . 1/n j D1 .2j C 5/
y1 D x xn:
nD0
4n nŠ
To compute the coefficients a0 . 1=2/; a1 . 1=2/ and a2 . 1=2/ in y2 , we set r D 1=2 in (7.7.13)
and apply the resulting recurrence formula for n D 1, 2; thus,
a0 . 1=2/ D 1;
2n 1
an . 1=2/ D an 1. 1=2/; n D 1; 2:
4.n 3/
The last formula yields
a1 . 1=2/ D 1=8 and a2 . 1=2/ D 3=32:
Substituting r1 D 5=2; r2 D 1=2; k D 3, and ˛0 D 4 into (7.7.4) yields C D 15=128. Therefore,
from (7.7.12),
1
!
1=2 1 3 15 X
y2 D x 1 C x C x2 y1 ln x C x 5=2 0 n
an .5=2/x : (7.7.16)
8 32 128
nD1
We use logarithmic differentiation to obtain obtain an0 .r /. From (7.7.14),

n
Y jj C r j
jan .r /j D ; n 1:
j2j C 2r 5j
j D1
Therefore
n
X
ln jan .r /j D .ln jj C r j ln j2j C 2r 5j/ :
j D1

n
an0 .r /

X 1 2
D :
an .r / j Cr 2j C 2r 5
j D1
Therefore
n
X 1 2
an0 .r / D an .r / :
j Cr 2j C 2r 5
j D1
Setting r D 5=2 here and recalling (7.7.15) yields
. 1/n njD1 .2j C 5/ X

n
Q
0 1 1
an .5=2/ D : (7.7.17)
4n nŠ j C 5=2 j
j D1
Since
1 1 5
D ;
j C 5=2 j j.2j C 5/
we can rewrite (7.7.17) as
Qn 0 1
n
. 1/n j D1 .2j C 5/
X 1
an0 .5=2/ D 5 @ A:
4n nŠ j.2j C 5/
j D1

1 3 15
y2 D x 1=2 1 C x C x 2 y1 ln x
8 32 128
Qn 0 1
1 n n
75 5=2 X . 1/ j D1 .2j C 5/ 1
X
C x @ A xn:
128 4n nŠ j.2j C 5/
nD1 j D1
If C D 0 in (7.7.4), there’s no need to compute

1
X
y1 ln x C x r1 an0 .r1 /x n
nD1
in the formula (7.7.5) for y2 . Therefore it’s best to compute C before computing fan0 .r1 /g1
nD1 . This is
illustrated in the next example. (See also Exercises 44 and 45.)
x 2.1 2x/y 00 C x.8 9x/y 0 C .6 3x/y D 0:
p0 .r / D r .r 1/ C 8r C 6 D .r C 1/.r C 6/
p1 .r / D 2r .r 1/ 9r 3 D .r C 3/.2r C 1/:
The roots of the indicial equation are r1 D 1 and r2 D 6, so k D r1 r2 D 5. Therefore Theorem 7.7.1
implies that
1
X
y1 D x 1 an . 1/x n (7.7.18)
nD0
and
4 1
!
X X
6 1 n
y2 D x an . 6/ C C y1 ln x C x an0 . 1/x (7.7.19)
nD0 nD1
(with C as in (7.7.4)) form a fundamental set of solutions of Ly D 0. The recurrence formula (7.7.2) is
a0 .r / D 1;
p1 .n C r 1/
an .r / D an 1 .r /
p0 .n C r / (7.7.20)
.n C r C 2/.2n C 2r 1/
D an 1 .r /; n 1;
.n C r C 1/.n C r C 6/
which implies that
n
Y .j C r C 2/.2j C 2r 1/
an .r / D
.j C r C 1/.j C r C 6/
j
0D1
n
10
n
1 (7.7.21)
Y j Cr C2 Y 2j C 2r 1
D @ A@ A:
j Cr C1 j Cr C6
j D1 j D1
Since
n
Y j Cr C2 .r C 3/.r C 4/ .n C r C 2/ nCr C2
D D
j Cr C1 .r C 2/.r C 3/ .n C r C 1/ r C2
j D1
because of cancellations, (7.7.21) simplifies to

n
n C r C 2 Y 2j C 2r 1
an .r / D :
r C2 j Cr C6
j D1
Therefore
n
Y 2j 3
an . 1/ D .n C 1/ :
j C5
j D1

0 1
1 n
X Y 2j 3
y1 D x 1 .n C 1/ @ A x n:
nD0
j C 5
j D1
To compute the coefficients a0 . 6/; : : : ; a4 . 6/ in y2 , we set r D 6 in (7.7.20) and apply the

resulting recurrence formula for n D 1, 2, 3, 4; thus,
a0 . 6/ D 1;
.n 4/.2n 13/
an . 6/ D an 1. 6/; n D 1; 2; 3; 4:
n.n 5/
33 99 231
a1 . 6/ D ; a2 . 6/ D ; a3 . 6/ D ; a4 . 6/ D 0:
4 4 8
Since a4 . 6/ D 0, (7.7.4) implies that the constant C in (7.7.19) is zero. Therefore (7.7.19) reduces to

6 33 99 2 231 3
y2 D x 1 xC x x :
4 4 8
We now consider equations of the form
x 2 .˛0 C ˛2 x 2 /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ2 x 2 /y 0 C . 0 C 2 x 2 /y D 0;
where the roots of the indicial equation are real and differ by an even integer. The case where the roots
are real and differ by an odd integer can be handled by the method discussed in 56.
The proof of the next theorem is similar to the proof of Theorem 7.7.1 (Exercise 43).
Theorem 7.7.2 Let
Ly D x 2 .˛0 C ˛2x 2 /y 00 C x.ˇ0 C ˇ2 x 2/y 0 C . 0 C 2 x 2 /y;
p0 .r / D ˛0 r .r 1/ C ˇ0 r C 0 ;
p2 .r / D ˛2 r .r 1/ C ˇ2 r C 2 :
Suppose r is a real number such that p0 .2m C r / is nonzero for all positive integers m; and define
a0 .r / D 1;
p2 .2m C r 2/ (7.7.22)
a2m .r / D a2m 2 .r /; m 1:
p0 .2m C r /
Let r1 and r2 be the roots of the indicial equation p0 .r / D 0; and suppose r1 D r2 C 2k; where k is a
positive integer: Then
X1
y1 D x r1 a2m .r1 /x 2m
mD0
is a Frobenius solution of Ly D 0. Moreover; if we define
a0 .r2 / D 1;
p2 .2m C r2 2/
a2m .r2 / D a2m 2 .r2 /; 1mk 1
p0 .2m C r2 /
and
p2 .r1 2/
C D a2k 2 .r2 /; (7.7.23)
2k˛0
then
k
X1 1
!
X
r2 2m r1
y2 D x a2m .r2 /x CC y1 ln x C x 0
a2m .r1 /x 2m (7.7.24)
mD0 mD1
is also a solution of Ly D 0; and fy1 ; y2 g is a fundamental set of solutions.
x 2 .1 C x 2 /y 00 C x.3 C 10x 2 /y 0 .15 14x 2 /y D 0:
p0 .r / D r .r 1/ C 3r 15 D .r 3/.r C 5/
p2 .r / D r .r 1/ C 10r C 14 D .r C 2/.r C 7/:
The roots of the indicial equation are r1 D 3 and r2 D 5, so k D .r1 r2 /=2 D 4. Therefore
1
X
y1 D x 3 a2m .3/x 2m (7.7.25)
mD0
and
3 1
!
X X
5
y2 D x a2m . 5/x 2m C C y1 ln x C x 3 0
a2m .3/x 2m
mD0 mD1
(with C as in (7.7.23)) form a fundamental set of solutions of Ly D 0. The recurrence formula (7.7.22)
is
a0 .r / D 1;
p2 .2m C r 2/
a2m .r / D a2m 2 .r /
p0 .2m C r /
.2m C r /.2m C r C 5/ (7.7.26)
D a2m 2 .r /
.2m C r 3/.2m C r C 5/
2m C r
D a2m 2 .r /; m 1;
2m C r 3
which implies that
m
Y 2j C r
a2m .r / D . 1/m ; m 0: (7.7.27)
2j C r 3
j D1
Therefore Qm
. 1/m j D1 .2j C 3/
a2m .3/ D : (7.7.28)
2mmŠ
Qm
3
1
X . 1/m j D1 .2j C 3/
y1 D x x 2m :
2m mŠ
mD0
To compute the coefficients a2 . 5/, a4 . 5/, and a6 . 5/ in y2 , we set r D 5 in (7.7.26) and apply
the resulting recurrence formula for m D 1, 2, 3; thus,
2m 5
a2m . 5/ D a2m 2. 5/; m D 1; 2; 3:
2.m 4/
This yields
1 1 1
a2 . 5/ D ; a4 . 5/ D ; a6 . 5/ D :
2 8 16
Substituting r1 D 3, r2 D 5, k D 4, and ˛0 D 1 into (7.7.23) yields C D 3=16. Therefore, from
(7.7.24),
1
!
5 1 2 1 4 1 6 3 X
y2 D x 1 x C x C x y1 ln x C x 3 0
a2m .3/x 2m : (7.7.29)
2 8 16 16 mD1
0
To obtain a2m .r / we use logarithmic differentiation. From (7.7.27),
m
Y j2j C r j
ja2m .r /j D ; m 1:
j2j C r 3j
j D1
Therefore
n
X
ln ja2m .r /j D .ln j2j C r j ln j2j C r 3j/ :
j D1
0 m
a2m .r / X 1 1
D :
a2m .r / 2j C r 2j C r 3
j D1
Therefore
n
0
X 1 1
a2m .r / D a2m .r / :
2j C r 2j C r 3
j D1
Setting r D 3 here and recalling (7.7.28) yields
. 1/m m m
Q
j D1 .2j C 3/

0
X 1 1
a2m .3/ D : (7.7.30)
2m mŠ 2j C 3 2j
j D1
Since
1 1 3
D ;
2j C 3 2j 2j.2j C 3/
we can rewrite (7.7.30) as
Qm 0 1
n
0 3 . 1/n j D1 .2j C 3/
X 1
a2m .3/ D @ A:
2 2m mŠ j.2j C 3/
j D1

1 2 1 4 1 3
y2 D x 5 1 x C x C x6 y1 ln x
2 8 16 16
Qm 0 1
m
9 3 X . 1/m j D1 .2j C 3/ X
1
1
C x @ A x 2m :
32 mD1 2m mŠ j.2j C 3/
j D1
x 2 .1 2x 2/y 00 C x.7 13x 2 /y 0 14x 2y D 0:
p0 .r / D r .r 1/ C 7r D r .r C 6/;
p2 .r / D 2r .r 1/ 13r 14 D .r C 2/.2r C 7/:
The roots of the indicial equation are r1 D 0 and r2 D 6, so k D .r1 r2 /=2 D 3. Therefore
1
X
y1 D a2m .0/x 2m ; (7.7.31)
mD0
and
2 1
!
X X
6 2m
y2 D x a2m . 6/x CC y1 ln x C 0
a2m .0/x 2m (7.7.32)
mD0 mD1
(with C as in (7.7.23)) form a fundamental set of solutions of Ly D 0. The recurrence formulas (7.7.22)
are
a0 .r / D 1;
p2 .2m C r 2/
a2m .r / D a2m 2 .r /
p0 .2m C r /
.2m C r /.4m C 2r C 3/ (7.7.33)
D a2m 2 .r /
.2m C r /.2m C r C 6/
4m C 2r C 3
D a2m 2 .r /; m 1;
2m C r C 6
which implies that
m
Y 4j C 2r C 3
a2m .r / D :
2j C r C 6
j D1
Setting r D 0 yields Qm
j D1 .4j C 3/
a2m .0/ D 6 :
2m .m C 3/Š
1 Qm
X j D1 .4j C 3/
y1 D 6 x 2m :
mD0
2m .m C 3/Š
To compute the coefficients a0 . 6/, a2 . 6/, and a4 . 6/ in y2 , we set r D 6 in (7.7.33) and apply
the resulting recurrence formula for m D 1, 2; thus,
a0 . 6/ D 1;
4m 9
a2m . 6/ D a2m 2. 6/; m D 1; 2:
2m

5 5
and a4 . 6/ D : a2 . 6/ D
2 8
Since p2 . 2/ D 0, the constant C in (7.7.23) is zero. Therefore (7.7.32) reduces to

5 2 5 4
y2 D x 6 1 x C x :
2 8
7.7 Exercises
cients.
1. x 2y 00 3xy 0 C .3 C 4x/y D 0
2. xy 00 C y D 0
3. 4x 2.1 C x/y 00 C 4x.1 C 2x/y 0 .1 C 3x/y D 0
00 0
4. xy C xy C y D 0
5. 2x 2.2 C 3x/y 00 C x.4 C 21x/y 0 .1 9x/y D 0
2 00 0
6. x y C x.2 C x/y .2 3x/y D 0
2 00 0
7. 4x y C 4xy .9 x/y D 0
2 00 0
8. x y C 10xy C .14 C x/y D 0
9. 4x 2.1 C x/y 00 C 4x.3 C 8x/y 0 .5 49x/y D 0
2 00 0
10. x .1 C x/y x.3 C 10x/y C 30xy D 0
2 00
11. x y C x.1 C x/y 0 3.3 C x/y D 0
2 00 0
12. x y C x.1 2x/y .4 C x/y D 0
00 0
13. x.1 C x/y 4y 2y D 0
2
14. x .1 C 2x/y C x.9 C 13x/y 0 C .7 C 5x/y D 0
00
15. 4x 2y 00 2x.4 x/y 0 .7 C 5x/y D 0

2 00
16. 3x .3 C x/y x.15 C x/y 0 20y D 0
2 00 0
17. x .1 C x/y C x.1 10x/y .9 10x/y D 0
18. x 2.1 C x/y 00 C 3x 2 y 0 .6 x/y D 0
19. x 2.1 C 2x/y 00 2x.3 C 14x/y 0 C .6 C 100x/y D 0
2 00
20. x .1 C x/y x.6 C 11x/y 0 C .6 C 32x/y D 0
21. 4x 2.1 C x/y 00 C 4x.1 C 4x/y 0 .49 C 27x/y D 0
2 00 0
22. x .1 C 2x/y x.9 C 8x/y 12xy D 0
2 2 00 2 0
23. x .1 C x /y x.7 2x /y C 12y D 0
2 00 2 0
24. x y x.7 x /y C 12y D 0
00 0
25. xy 5y C xy D 0
26. x y C x.1 C 2x 2/y 0
2 00
.1 10x 2 /y D 0
27. x 2y 00 xy 0 .3 x 2/y D 0
28. 4x 2y 00 C 2x.8 C x 2 /y 0 C .5 C 3x 2 /y D 0
29. x 2y 00 C x.1 C x 2/y 0 .1 3x 2 /y D 0
30. x 2y 00 C x.1 2x 2 /y 0 4.1 C 2x 2/y D 0
31. 4x 2y 00 C 8xy 0 .35 x 2 /y D 0
32. 9x 2y 00 3x.11 C 2x 2 /y 0 C .13 C 10x 2/y D 0
33. x 2y 00 C x.1 2x 2 /y 0 4.1 x 2 /y D 0
34. x 2y 00 C x.1 3x 2 /y 0 4.1 3x 2 /y D 0
35. x 2.1 C x 2 /y 00 C x.5 C 11x 2 /y 0 C 24x 2y D 0
36. 4x 2.1 C x 2 /y 00 C 8xy 0 .35 x 2 /y D 0
37. x 2.1 C x 2 /y 00 x.5 x 2 /y 0 .7 C 25x 2/y D 0
38. x 2.1 C x 2 /y 00 C x.5 C 2x 2 /y 0 21y D 0
2 2 2
39. x .1 C 2x /y 00
x.3 C x /y 0
2x 2y D 0
40. 4x 2.1 C x 2 /y 00 C 4x.2 C x 2 /y 0 .15 C x 2 /y D 0
41. (a) Under the assumptions of Theorem 7.7.1, show that
1
X
r1
y1 D x an .r1 /x n
nD0
and
k 1 1
!
X X
r2 n r1
y2 D x an .r2 /x C C y1 ln x C x an0 .r1 /x n
nD0 nD1
are linearly independent. H INT: Show that if c1 and c2 are constants such that c1y1 Cc2y2
0 on an interval .0; /, then
r2
x .c1 y1 .x/ C c2 y2 .x// D 0; 0 < x < :
Then let x ! 0C to conclude that c2 =0.

(b) Use the result of (a) to complete the proof of Theorem 7.7.1.
42. Find a fundamental set of Frobenius solutions of Bessel’s equation
x 2 y 00 C xy 0 C .x 2 2 /y D 0
in the case where is a positive integer.

43. Prove Theorem 7.7.2.
44. Under the assumptions of Theorem 7.7.1, show that C D 0 if and only if p1 .r2 C ł/ D 0 for some
integer ł in f0; 1; : : : ; k 1g.
45. Under the assumptions of Theorem 7.7.2, show that C D 0 if and only if p2 .r2 C 2ł/ D 0 for
some integer ` in f0; 1; : : : ; k 1g.
46. Let
Ly D ˛0 x 2 y 00 C ˇ0 xy 0 C . 0 C 1 x/y
and define
p0 .r / D ˛0r .r 1/ C ˇ0 r C 0 :
Show that if
p0 .r / D ˛0 .r r1 /.r r2 /
where r1 r2 D k, a positive integer, then Ly D 0 has the solutions
1 n
. 1/n

X 1
y1 D x r1 Qn xn
nD0
nŠ j D1 .j C k/ ˛0
and
k 1 n
. 1/n

X 1
y2 D x r2 Qn xn
nŠ j D1 .j k/ ˛0
nD0
0 0 1 1
k 1 n n n
1 1 X . 1/ 1 X 2j C k A n A
@y1 ln x x r1 Qn @ x :
kŠ.k 1/Š ˛0 nD1
nŠ j D1 .j C k/ ˛0 j.j C k/
j D1
47. Let
Ly D ˛0x 2 y 00 C ˇ0 xy 0 C . 0 C 2 x 2 /y
and define
p0 .r / D ˛0r .r 1/ C ˇ0 r C 0 :
Show that if
p0 .r / D ˛0 .r r1 /.r r2 /
where r1 r2 D 2k, an even positive integer, then Ly D 0 has the solutions
1 m
. 1/m

r1
X 2
y1 D x x 2m
4m mŠ m
Q
j D1 .j C k/ ˛0
mD0
and
k 1 m
. 1/m

r2
X 2
y2 D x x 2m
4m mŠ m
Q
mD0 j D1 .j k/ ˛0
0 0 1 1
k 1 m X m
x r1 X . 1/m

2 2 @y1 ln x 2 2j C k A x 2m A :
2 mD1 4m mŠ m
@
4k kŠ.k
Q
1/Š ˛0 j D1 .j C k/ ˛0 j.j C k/
j D1
48. Let L be as in Exercises 7.5.57 and 7.5.58, and suppose the indicial polynomial of Ly D 0 is
p0 .r / D ˛0.r r1 /.r r2 /;
with k D r1 r2 , where k is a positive integer. Define a0 .r / D 1 for all r . If r is a real number

such that p0 .n C r / is nonzero for all positive integers n, define
n
1 X
an .r / D pj .n C r j /an j .r /; n 1;
p0 .n C r /
j D1
and let
1
X
y1 D x r1 an .r1 /x n :
nD0
Define
n
1 X
an .r2 / D pj .n C r2 j /an j .r2 / if n 1 and n ¤ k;
p0 .n C r2 /
j D1
and let ak .r2 / be arbitrary.

(a) Conclude from Exercise 7.6..66 that
1
!
X
L y1 ln x C x r1 an0 .r1 /x n D k˛0 x r1 :
nD1
(b) Conclude from Exercise 7.5..57 that

1
!
X
r2 n
L x an .r2 /x D Ax r1 ;
nD0
where
k
X
AD pj .r1 j /ak j .r2 /:
j D1
(c) Show that y1 and

1 1
!
r2
X
n A r1
X
y2 D x an .r2 /x y1 ln x C x an0 .r1 /x n
nD0
k˛0 nD1

(d) Show that choosing the arbitrary quantity ak .r2 / to be nonzero merely adds a multiple of y1
to y2 . Conclude that we may as well take ak .r2 / D 0.

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CHAPTER 7

Series Solutions of Linear Second

P0 .x/y 00 C P1 .x/y 0 C P2 .x/y D 0; (A)

that converge in an open interval centered at x D 0.

SECTION 7.1 reviews the properties of power series.

7.1 REVIEW OF POWER SERIES

Definition 7.1.1 An infinite series of the form

Theorem 7.1.2 For any power series

exactly one of the these statements is trueW

.x0 R; x0 C R/ if 0 < R < 1; or . 1; 1/ if R D 1:

If R is finite, no general statement can be made concerning convergence at the endpoints x D x0 ˙ R of

Theorem 7.1.3 Suppose there’s an integer N such that an ¤ 0 if n  N and

where 0  L  1: Then the radius of convergence of 1 x0 /n is R D 1=L; which should be

Example 7.1.1 Find the radius of convergence of the series:

S OLUTION (a) Here an D nŠ, so

S OLUTION (b) Here an D .1/n =nŠ for n  N D 10, so

S OLUTION (c) Here an D 2n n2 , so

Differentiation of Power Series

Theorem 7.1.4 A power series

Moreover; all of these series have the same radius of convergence R:

Example 7.1.2 Let f .x/ D sin x. From (7.1.3),

Uniqueness of Power Series

Theorem 7.1.5 If the power series

has a positive radius of convergence, then

This result can be obtained by setting x D x0 in (7.1.8), which yields

f .k/ .x0 / D k.k 1/ 1 ak D kŠak :

This implies that

for all x in an open interval that contains x0 ; then an D bn for n D 0, 1, 2, . . . .

for all x in an open interval that contains x0 ; then an D 0 for n D 0, 1, 2, . . . .

Figure 7.1.1 Approximation of y D e x by Taylor polynomials about x D 0

where the general term is a constant multiple of .x x0 /n .

Shifting the Summation Index in a Power Series

each is a constant multiple of .x x0 /n :

Example 7.1.4 Given that

Solution From Theorem 7.1.4 with x0 D 0,

We can also write this as

Two power series

Example 7.1.6 Suppose

S OLUTION (a) From (7.1.7) with x0 D 0,

S OLUTION (b) From (7.1.17) we see that y satisfies (7.1.13) on I if

2.n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 .n C 1/nanC1 C 2an D 0; n D 0; 1; 2; : : : : (7.1.18)

Example 7.1.7 Suppose

on an open interval I that contains x0 D 1. Express the function

.1 C x/y 00 C 2.x 1/2 y 0 C 3y (7.1.19)

Solution Since we want a power series in x 1, we rewrite the coefficient of y 00 in (7.1.19) as 1 C x D

where 0  L  1. Show that the radius of convergence of

where 0  L  1. Let k be a positive integer. Show that the radius of convergence of

6. L Graph y D sin x and the Taylor polynomial

11. .2 C x/y 00 C xy 0 C 3y 12. .1 C 3x 2 /y 00 C 3x 2y 0 2y

13. .1 C 2x 2 /y 00 C .2 3x/y 0 C 4y 14. .1 C x 2 /y 00 C .2 x/y 0 C 3y

.2 x/y 00 C 2y D 0; y.0/ D a0 ; y 0 .0/ D a1 ;

.1 C x/y 00 C 2.x 1/2 y 0 C 3y D 0; y.1/ D a0 ; y 0 .1/ D a1 ;

21. x 2.1 x/y 00 C x.4 C x/y 0 C .2 x/y

24. x 2.1 C 3x/y 00 C x.2 C 12x C x 2 /y 0 C 2x.3 C x/y

7.2 SERIES SOLUTIONS NEAR AN ORDINARY POINT I

.1 x 2 /y 00 2xy 0 C ˛.˛ C 1/y D 0; (7.2.2)

P0 .x/y 00 C P1 .x/y 0 C P2 .x/y D 0; y.x0 / D a0 ; y 0 .x0 / D a1 (7.2.4)

Setting x D x0 in this series and in the series

Computing the coefficients of the odd powers of x x0 from (7.2.12) yields

or, from (7.2.13) and (7.2.14), as

If we recall from calculus that

then (7.2.15) becomes

and Hermite’s equation,

Theorem 7.1.3 Suppose there’s an integer N such that an ¤ 0 if n N and

where 0 L 1: Then the radius of convergence of 1 x0 /n is R D 1=L; which should be

S OLUTION (b) Here an D .1/n =nŠ for n N D 10, so

where 0 L 1. Show that the radius of convergence of

where 0 L 1. Let k be a positive integer. Show that the radius of convergence of

.n C 2/.n C 1/anC2 C p.n/an D 0; n 0;

2 C 4x 2x 2 D 2 C 4Œ.x 1/ C 1 2Œ.x 1/ C 12

Œ.1 x 2 /b Pn0 0 D n.n C 2b 1/.1 x 2/b 1

Œ.1 x 2 /b Pn0 0 Pm Œ.1 x 2 /b Pm0 0 Pn D

is a solution of (A) if and only if an D 0 for 2 n k C 1 and

is a solution of (A) on . ; /.

is a solution of (A) on . ; /.

form a fundamental set of solutions of (A) on . ; /.