TIN

Tin is a chemical element with symbol Sn (from Latin: stannum) and atomic number 50. It is a post-
transition metal in group 14 of the periodic table. It is obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite,
which contains tin dioxide, SnO2. Tin shows a chemical similarity to both of its neighbors in group 14,
germanium and lead, and has two main oxidation states, +2 and the slightly more stable +4. Tin is the
49th most abundant element and has, with 10 stable isotopes, the largest number of stable isotopes in
the periodic table, thanks to its magic number of protons. It has two main allotropes: at room
temperature, the stable allotrope is β-tin, a silvery-white, malleable metal, but at low temperatures it
transforms into the less dense grey α-tin, which has the diamond cubic structure. Metallic tin is not
easily oxidized in air.

tin is used in many alloys, most notably tin/lead soft solders, which are typically 60% or more tin and in
the manufacture of transparent, electrically conducting films of indium tin oxide in optoelectronic
applications. Another large application for tin is corrosion-resistant tin plating of steel. Because of the
low toxicity of inorganic tin, tin-plated steel is widely used for food packaging as tin cans. However,
some organotin compounds (compounds formed from tin and hydrocarbons) can be almost as toxic as
cyanide.

Table 1: Basic Properties of tin

color white with blueish tinge

hardness softer than gold, harder than

lead

atomic radius 140 pm

density 5.77g/cm3

melting point 232 degrees Celsius

boiling point 2623 degrees Celsius

electrical about 1/7th that of silver

conductivity

electrode potential >0.192V

first ionization 709 kJ/mol

energy

Ionic Radius 93 pm

Reactions of Tin
 Hydrogen Tin not affected

Nitrogen Tin absorbs it instead of hydrogen in electric discharge

Argon No sign of a combination of Tin with Argon

Fluorine Does not react with Tin at low temperatures, but at 100
degrees Celsius they form stannic fluoride.Perhaps
one of the most familiar of tin compounds, SnF2SnF2,
tin(II) fluoride, goes by the trade name of fluoristan and
is found in some fluoride toothpastes.

Chlorine Acts on Tin at room temperature

Bromine Acts on tin at room temperature

Sulfur Unites directly with Tin when heated

Selenium Reacts vigorously with Tin

Tellurium Reacts vigorously with Tin

Nitrogen Forms on compound by direct union with Tin

Arsenic Reacts with tin under heat and light

Antimony Is dissolved by molten Tin

Reaction of tin with oxygen

When heated in it, tin produces stannic oxide

Sn(s)+O2(g)→SnO2(s)Sn(s)+O2(g)→SnO2(s)
Reaction of tin with water (steam)
Sn(s)+2H2O(g)→SnO2(s)+2H2(g)Sn(s)+2H2O(g)→SnO2(s)+2H2(g)

Isotopes
There are 10 known stable isotopes of Tin, the most of any elements on the periodic table. This
high number of stable isotopes could be attributed to the fact that the atomic number
of Sn50Sn50 is a 'magic number' in nuclear physics.

Table 4: Isotopes of tin

Isotope % Natural Abundance

112 amu 0.95%

116 amu 14.24%

117 amu 7.57%

118 amu 24.01%

119 amu 8.58%

120 amu 32.97%

122 amu 4.71%

124 amu 5.98%

Allotropes of Tin
Tin has 3 allotropes: alpha, beta and gamma tin. Alpha tin is the most unstable form of tin. Beta
tin is the most commonly found allotrope of tin and gamma tin only exists at very high
temperatures.

Oxidation States of Tin

Tin, although it is found in Group 14 of the periodic table, is consistent with the trend found in
Group 13 where the lower oxidation state is favored farther down a group. Tin can exist in two
oxidation states, +2 and +4, but Tin displays a tendency to exist in the +4 oxidation state.

Common Compounds of Tin

Tin forms two main oxides, SnO and SnO2 (amphoteric).

Electron Configuration of Tin

Tin has a ground state electron configuration of 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p2 and
can form covalent tin (II) compounds with its two unpaired p-electrons. In the three dimensional
figure below, the first and most inner electron shell is represented by blue electrons, the second
electron shell made up of eight electrons is represented by red electrons, the third shell containing
eighteen electrons is represented with green electrons, and the next outer electron again contains
eighteen electrons and represented in purple.

Uses of Tin
Early metal smiths were quick to learn that mixing copper with tin created a more durable metal
(bronze) and it is principally for its alloys that tin is valued today. Nearly half of the tin metal
produced is used in solders, which are low melting point alloys used to join wires. Solders are
important in electrician work and plumbing. Tin is also used as a coating for lead, zinc, and steel
to prevent corrosion. Tin cans are widely used for storing foods; the first tin can was used in
London in 1812.

Compounds and chemistry[edit]

In the great majority of its compounds, tin has the oxidation state II or IV.

Inorganic compounds[edit]
Halide compounds are known for both oxidation states. For Sn(IV), all four halides are well
known: SnF4, SnCl4, SnBr4, and SnI4. The three heavier members are volatile molecular compounds,
whereas the tetrafluoride is polymeric. All four halides are known for Sn(II) also: SnF2, SnCl2, SnBr2,
and SnI2. All are polymeric solids. Of these eight compounds, only the iodides are colored.[27]
Tin(II) chloride (also known as stannous chloride) is the most important tin halide in a commercial
sense. Illustrating the routes to such compounds, chlorine reacts with tin metal to give
SnCl4 whereas the reaction of hydrochloric acid and tin produces SnCl2and hydrogen gas.
Alternatively SnCl4 and Sn combine to stannous chloride by a process called comproportionation:[28]
SnCl4 + Sn → 2 SnCl2
Tin can form many oxides, sulfides, and other chalcogenide derivatives. The dioxide
SnO2 (cassiterite) forms when tin is heated in the presence of air.[27] SnO2 is amphoteric, which
means that it dissolves in both acidic and basic solutions.[29] Stannates with the structure
[Sn(OH)6]2−, like K2[Sn(OH)6], are also known, though the free stannic acid H2[Sn(OH)6] is
unknown.
Sulfides of tin exist in both the +2 and +4 oxidation states: tin(II) sulfide and tin(IV)
sulfide (mosaic gold).

Hydrides[edit]
Stannane (SnH4), with tin in the +4 oxidation state, is unstable. Organotin hydrides are however
well known, e.g. tributyltin hydride (Sn(C4H9)3H).[6] These compound release transient tributyl tin
radicals, which are rare examples of compounds of tin(III)

Questions
Find the oxidation state of tin in the following compounds:

a. SnCl^2 answer:2

b. SnO^2 answer:4

Write an equation for the reaction of tin with water. Under what conditions does this reaction take
place?

answer: Sn(s) + 2H2O(g) → SnO2(s) + 2H2(g) Reaction takes place if water is heated to a high
temperature to form steam.

Which of these reactions take place.

a. tin with oxygen ANSWER: YES

b. tin with hydrogen ANSWER: NO

c. tin with argon ANSWER: NO

d. tin with chlorine ANSWER: YES

Arrange the following in order of increasing atomic radius: Sn, K, Ag, C, Pb

ANSWER: C<Sn<Pb<Ag<K

Arrange the following in order of decreasing ionization energy: Sn, Si, Pb, I, In.

ANSWER: Si> I > Sn > In > Pb

PB

Lead is a chemical element with symbol Pb (from the Latin plumbum) and atomic number 82. It is
a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and has a
relatively low melting point. When freshly cut, lead is bluish-white; it tarnishes to a dull gray color when
exposed to air. Lead has the highest atomic number of any stable element and concludes three
major decay chains of heavier elements.

Lead is a relatively unreactive post-transition metal. Its weak metallic character is illustrated by
its amphoteric nature; lead and lead oxides react with acids and bases, and it tends to form covalent
bonds. Compounds of lead are usually found in the +2 oxidation state rather than the +4 state common
with lighter members of the carbon group. Exceptions are mostly limited to organolead compounds. Like
the lighter members of the group, lead tends to bond with itself; it can form chains, rings and polyhedral
structures.

Lead is easily extracted from its ores; prehistoric people in Western Asia knew of it. Galena, a principal
ore of lead, often bears silver, interest in which helped initiate widespread extraction and use of lead
in ancient Rome Lead's high density, low melting point, ductility and relative inertness to oxidation make
it useful. These properties, combined with its relative abundance and low cost, resulted in its extensive
use in construction, plumbing, batteries, bullets and shot, weights, solders, pewters, fusible alloys, white
paints, leaded gasoline, and radiation shielding.

In the late 19th century, lead's toxicity was recognized, and its use has since been phased out of many
applications. Lead is a neurotoxin that accumulates in soft tissues and bones, damages the nervous
system, and causes blood disorders. It is particularly problematic in children: even if blood levels are
promptly normalized with treatment, permanent brain damage may result

Chemistry

Bulk lead exposed to moist air forms a protective layer of varying composition. Lead carbonate is a
common constituent;[38][39][40] the sulfate or chloride may also be present in urban or maritime
settings.[41] This layer makes bulk lead effectively chemically inert in the air.[41] Finely powdered lead, as
with many metals, is pyrophoric,[42] and burns with a bluish-white flame.[43]

Fluorine reacts with lead at room temperature, forming lead(II) fluoride. The reaction with chlorine is
similar but requires heating as the resulting chloride layer diminishes the reactivity of the
elements.[41] Molten lead reacts with the chalcogens to give lead(II) chalcogenides.[44]

Lead metal resists sulfuric and phosphoric acid but not hydrochloric or nitric acid; the outcome depends
on insolubility and subsequent passivation of the product salt.[45] Organic acids, such as acetic acid,
dissolve lead in the presence of oxygen.[41] Concentrated alkalis will dissolve lead and form plumbites.[46]
Inorganic compounds[edit]

See also: Compounds of lead

Lead shows two main oxidation states: +4 and +2. The tetravalent state is common for the carbon group.
The divalent state is rare for carbon and silicon, minor for germanium, important (but not prevailing) for
tin, and is the more important for lead.[41] This is attributable to relativistic effects, specifically the inert
pair effect, which manifests itself when there is a large difference in electronegativity between lead
and oxide, halide, or nitride anions, leading to a significant partial positive charge on lead. The result is a
stronger contraction of the lead 6s orbital than is the case for the 6p orbital, making it rather inert in
ionic compounds. This is less applicable to compounds in which lead forms covalent bonds with
elements of similar electronegativity such as carbon in organolead compounds. In these, the 6s and 6p
orbitals remain similarly sized and sp3 hybridization is still energetically favorable. Lead, like carbon, is
predominantly tetravalent in such compounds.[47]

There is a relatively large difference in the electronegativity of lead(II) at 1.87 and lead(IV) at 2.33. This
difference marks the reversal in the trend of increasing stability of the +4 oxidation state going down
carbon group; tin, by comparison, has values of 1.80 in the +2 oxidation state and 1.96 in the +4 state.[48]

Lead(II)[edit]

Lead(II) compounds are characteristic of the inorganic chemistry of lead. Even strong oxidizing
agents like fluorine and chlorine react with lead to give only PbF2 and PbCl2.[41] Lead(II) ions are usually
colorless in solution,[49] and partially hydrolyze to form Pb(OH)+ and finally Pb4(OH)4 (in which
the hydroxyl ions act as bridging ligands),[50][51] but are not reducing agents as tin(II) ions
are. Techniques for identifying the presence of the Pb2+ ion in water generally rely on the precipitation
of lead(II) chloride using dilute hydrochloric acid. As the chloride salt is somewhat soluble in water, the
precipitation of lead(II) sulfide, by bubbling hydrogen sulfide through the solution, is then attempted.[52]

Lead monoxide exists in two polymorphs, red α-PbO and yellow β-PbO, the latter being stable only
above around 488 °C. It is the most commonly used compound of lead.[53] Its lead(II) hydroxide
counterpart can only exist in solution; it is known to form plumbite anions.[54] Lead commonly reacts
with heavier chalcogens. Lead sulfide is a semiconductor, a photoconductor, and an extremely
sensitive infrared radiation detector. The other two chalcogenides, lead selenide and lead telluride, are
likewise photoconducting. They are unusual in that their color becomes lighter going down the group.[55]

Lead dihalides are well-characterized; this includes the diastatide,[56] and mixed halides, such as PbFCl.
The relative insolubility of the latter forms a useful basis for the gravimetric determination of fluorine.
The difluoride was the first solid ionically conducting compound to be discovered (in 1834, by Michael
Faraday).[57] The other dihalides decompose on exposure to ultraviolet or visible light, especially the
diiodide.[58] Many lead pseudohalides are known.[55] Lead(II) forms an extensive variety of
halide coordination complexes, such as [PbCl4]2−, [PbCl6]4−, and the [Pb2Cl9]n5n− chain anion.[58]

Lead(II) sulfate is insoluble in water, like the sulfates of other heavy divalent cations. Lead(II) nitrate
and lead(II) acetate are very soluble, and this is exploited in the synthesis of other lead compounds.[59]

Lead(IV)[edit]
Few inorganic lead(IV) compounds are known, and these exist only in highly acidic solutions.[60] Lead(II)
oxide gives a mixed oxide on further oxidation, Pb3O4. It is described as lead(II,IV) oxide, or structurally
2PbO·PbO2, and is the best-known mixed valence lead compound. Lead dioxide is a strong oxidizing
agent, capable of oxidizing hydrochloric acid to chlorine gas. This is because the expected PbCl4 that
would be produced is unstable and spontaneously decomposes to PbCl2 and Cl2. Analogously to lead
monoxide, lead dioxide is capable of forming plumbate anions. Lead disulfide[61] and lead
diselenide[62] are only stable at high pressures. Lead tetrafluoride, a yellow crystalline powder, is stable,
but less so than the difluoride. Lead tetrachloride (a yellow oil) decomposes at room temperature, lead
tetrabromide is less stable still, and the existence of lead tetraiodide is questionable.[63]

Pb

Colour metallic grey

Atmic radius 175pm

Density 11.34g/cm^3

Mp 327.46 C

Bp 1749 C

Electrical resistivity 208 nΩ·m (at 20 °C)

Electrode potential -0.13 v

1st ionization energy 715.6kj/mol

Electronegativity 1.87

Heat of fusion 4.77kj/mol

Main isotopes of lead

Iso- Abun- Half- Decay Pro-

tope dance life(t1/2) mode duct

Pb
204 1.4% stable

Pb
206 24.1% stable

Pb
207 22.1% stable

Pb
208 52.4% stable
Reaction of lead with air
The surface of metallic lead is protected by a thin layer of lead oxide, PbO. Only upon heating lead
to 600-800°C does lead react with oxygen in air to from lead oxide, PbO.
2Pb(s) + O2(g) → 2PbO(s)
Finely divided lead powder is pyrophoric, however, meaning it is a fire risk.

Reaction of lead with water

The surface of metallic lead is protected by a thin layer of lead oxide, PbO. It does not react with
water under normal conditions.

Reaction of lead with the halogens

Lead metal reacts vigorously with fluorine, F2, at room temperature and chlorine, Cl2, on warming to
form the poisonous dihalides lead(II) fluoride, PbF2, and lead(II) chloride, PbCl2, respectively.
Pb(s) + F2(g) → PbF2(s) []
Pb(s) + Cl2(g) → PbCl2(s) []

Reaction of lead with acids

The surface of metallic lead is protected by a thin layer of lead oxide, PbO. This renders the lead
essentially insoluble in sulphuric acid, and so, in the past, a useful container of this acid. Lead reacts
slowly with hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, HNO3. In the latter case, nitrogen oxides are formed
together with lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2.

Reaction of lead with bases

Lead dissolves slowly in cold alkalis to form plumbites.