An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the

non-living components of their environment (things like air, water and

mineral soil) interacting as a system.
Ecosystems vary greatly in size and elements but each is a functioning unit
of nature. Ecosystem can be as small as a single tree or as large as entire
forest.
Everything that lives in an ecosystem is dependent on the other species and elements
that are also part of that ecological community. If one part of an ecosystem is
damaged or disappears, it has impact on everything else.
General characteristics of an ecosystem
According to Smith following are the general characteristics of ecosystem.
 The ecosystem is a major structural and functional unit of ecology.
 The structure of an ecosystem is related to its species diversity; as such the
more complex ecosystem has high species diversity.
 The relative amount of energy required to maintain an ecosystem depends
on its structure. The more complex the structure, the lesser the energy it
requires to maintain itself.
 The function of the ecosystem is related to energy flow in material cycling
through and within the system.
 Ecosystems mature by passing from less complex to more complex states.
Early stages of such succession have an excess of potential energy. Later
(mature) stages have less energy accumulation.
 Both the environment and the energy fixation in any given ecosystem are
limited. They cannot be exceeded in any way without causing serious
undesirable effect.
 Alterations in the environments represent selective pressures upon the
population to which it must adjust. Organisms, which fail to adjust to the
changed environment, must vanish.
Importance of Ecosystem to Humans
Ecosystem provide invaluable goods and services which include :
 Provision of food, fuel and fibre
 Purification of shelter and building materials
 Purification of air and water
 Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
 Stabilization and moderation of earth’s climate
 Moderation of floods, droughts, temperature extremes and forces of wind
 Generation and renewal of soil fertility including nutrient cycling
 Maintaining biological and genetic diversity
 Cultural and aesthetic benefits

Why is it important to conserve ecosystem ?

The ecosystem provide food, breathable air and clean water as well as supplies for
different industries. Disrupting the fragile balance between the organisms in an
ecosystem and their interaction with the environment can result in significant and
irreversible damages.
Thus it is important to conserve ecosystem as conserving ecosystem guarantees the very
existence of every animal and plant species on earth.

Structure and function of an ecosystem

The two major aspects of an ecosystem are the structure and function.
Structure of an ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem is a description of the species of organisms that are
present, including information on their numbers, biomass, life history and
distribution in space etc. It also includes descriptive information on the non-living
features of ecosystem, for ex – give us information about the range of climatic
conditions, nutrients, water, temperature etc. that prevail in the area.
From structural point of view all ecosystems consist of following two basic
components:
Abiotic Components
It includes the non-living, physico-chemical factors such as air, water, soil and the
basic elements and compounds of the environment.
Abiotic factors are the most important determinants of where and how well an
organism exists in its environment.
Abiotic factors are broadly classified under three categories –
Climatic factors : It includes the climatic regime and physical factors of the
environment like light, humidity, atmospheric temperature, wind etc.
Edaphic factors : They are related to the structure and composition of soil
including its physical and chemical properties like soil and its types, soil profile,
minerals, organic matter etc.
Inorganic and Organic Substances : Inorganic substances includes materials like
water, carbon, sulphur, nitrogen and so on. Organic substances includes proteins,
lipids, carbohydrates, humic substances etc.
Biotic components
Biotic components include living organisms comprising plants, animals and
microbes and are classified according to their functional attributes into –
Autotrophs (Producers)
 Primary Producers are basically green plants (and certain bacteria and
algae)
 They synthesize carbohydrate from simple inorganic raw materials like
carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight by the process of
photosynthesis for themselves, and supply directly to other non-producers.
 Autotrophs forms the basis of any biotic system.
 In terrestrial ecosystem, producers are basically herbaceous and woody
plants, while in aquatic ecosystem producers are various species of
microscopic algae.
Heterotrophs (Consumers)
 They feed on plants or animals or both and are categorised on the basis of
their food sources.
 Herbivores are primary consumers which feed mainly on plants. e.g cow,
rabbit.
 Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers e.g wolves.
 Tertiary consumers are carnivores which feed on secondary consumers. e.g
lion which eat wolves
 Omnivores are organism which consume both plants and animals. e.g man
Saprotrophs (Decomposers)
  These include bacteria and fungi which contain energy and nutrients by
decomposing dead organic substances of plants and animal origin.
 The products of decomposition such as inorganic nutrients which are
released in the ecosystem are reused by producers and thus recycled.

Functions of an ecosystem
The function of ecosystems includes, the process how an ecosystem works or
operates in normal condition. It includes :
 Transformation of Solar Energy into Food Energy
The solar radiation is major source of energy in the ecosystem. It is the
basic input of energy entering the ecosystem. Green plants transform a
part of solar energy into food energy or chemical energy. This energy is
transferred to higher trophic levels through food chain.

 The Circulation of elements through Energy Flow

The organic and inorganic substances of the ecosystem are moved through
various closed system of cycles in the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere
and lithosphere.

 The Conversion of Elements into Inorganic Flow

The organic elements of plants and animals are released in the
following ways:
 Decomposition of dead plants and animals by decomposers and
their conversion into soluble inorganic form.
 The waste materials released by animals are decomposed by
bacteria. They find their way in soluble inorganic form to soil
storage.
 Burning of vegetation by lighting, accidental forest fire or deliberate
action of man. When burnt, the portions of organic matter are
released to the atmosphere and these again fall down, under the
impact of precipitation, on the ground. Then they become soluble
inorganic form of element to join soil storage, some portions in the
form of ashes are decomposed by bacterial activities.
 The Growth and Development of Plants
The biogeochemical cycles includes the uptake of nutrients of inorganic
elements by the plants through their roots. The nutrients are derived from
the soil where these inorganic elements are stored. These nutrients are
used in development of plant tissues and plant growth by biochemical
processes, mainly photosynthesis.

 Productivity of ecosystem
The productivity of an ecosystem refers to the rate of production i.e. the
amount of organic matter, which is accumulated in any unit
time. Productivity is of the following types:

 Primary productivity: It is associated with the producers which are

autotrophic.
  Secondary productivity: These are the rates of energy storage at
consumers level.
 Net Productivity: Net productivity refers to the rate of storage of
organic matter not used by the heterotrophs (consumer).

Food Chain

Flow of energy in an ecosystem is one way process. The sequence of organisms

through which the energy flows is known as food chain.
The different levels in a food chain are called trophic levels. Each food chain has
three main trophic levels :- producer level, consumer level and decomposer level.
If any of the intermediate stage of the food chain is removed, the succeeding links of
the food chain will be affected.

Types of Food Chain

Grazing food chain
 The consumers which start the food chain, utilizing plants or parts of plant
as their food, constitute the grazing food chain.
 This food chain begins from green plants at the base and the primary
consumer is herbivore.
 Most of the ecosystem in nature follows this type of food chain.
 ex – Grass → Caterpillar → Lizard → Snake
Detritus food chain
 This type of food chain starts from dead organic matter of decaying
animals and plant bodies to the micro-organisms and then to detritus
feeding organism and to other predators.
 The food chain mainly depends on the influx of organic matter produced in
another system.
 ex – Litter → Earthworm → Chicken → Hawk
The distinction between these two food chains is the source of energy for the first
level consumers.
In the grazing food chain the primary source of energy is living plant biomass
while in the detritus food chain the source of energy is dead organic matter or
detritus.
Significance of (studying) food chain
 The knowledge of food chain helps in understanding the feeding
relationship as well as the interaction between organism and ecosystem.
 It helps in understanding the mechanism of energy flow and circulation of
matter in ecosystem.
 It also helps to understand the movement of toxic substance and the
problem associated with biological magnification in the ecosystem.

Food Web
Food web can be defined as, “a network of food chains which are interconnected at
various trophic levels, so as to form a number of feeding connections amongst
different organisms of a biotic community.”
A food web is made up of many different food chains.
Difference between food chain and food web.
Food Chain Food

Food chain is defined as the phenomenon of transfer of energy Food web is an interconnection

through series of organisms falling on successive trophic levels. relation between them.

In food chains, usually member of high trophic level feed upon a In food web members of higher

single type of organism of lower trophic level. organisms of lower trophic level

In food chains, separate and isolated food chains increase the In food web, stability of the ecos

instability of the ecosystem. presence of complex food webs.

It comprises of only one chain. It comprises of many chains.

Removal of one group of organis

Removal of one group of organism disturbs the whole chain. web.

Significance of food chain and food web

Food chain and food web plays a very important role in the ecosystem :-
 They maintain and regulate the population size of different trophic levels,
and thus help in maintaining ecological balance.
 Energy flow and nutrient cycling takes place through them.
 It helps in understanding the movement of toxic substance and the
problem associated with bio accumulation and bio magnification in the
ecosystem.
 Ecological Pyramids
For notes on Food Chain and Food Web Click Here.
Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting
with producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is knows as
an ecological pyramid.
The number, biomass and energy of organisms gradually decrease with each step
from the producer level to the consumer level and the diagrammatic representation
assumes a pyramid shape.
The ecological pyramid are of three categories :
 Pyramid of numbers
 Pyramid of biomass
 Pyramid of energy
Types of Ecological Pyramid
Pyramid of numbers

It represents the number of individual organism at each trophic level. Depending on

the type of ecosystem and food chain the pyramid can be upright or inverted.
Pyramid of number – upright
 In this pyramid, the number of individuals is decreased from lower level to higher
trophic level.
 This type of pyramid can be seen in grassland ecosystem and pond ecosystem.
 The grasses occupy the lowest trophic level (base) because of their abundance.
 The next higher trophic level is primary consumer – herbivore (example –
grasshopper) followed by primary carnivore (example – rat) which is further
followed by secondary carnivore (example – snakes).
 The next higher trophic level is the top carnivore. (Ex: Hawk).
 With each higher trophic level, the number of individual decreases.
Pyramid of number – inverted
 In this pyramid, the number of individuals is increased from lower level to higher
trophic level. E.g. Tree ecosystem.
 The tree being few in number represents the base of the pyramid and the
dependent herbivores (ex- Birds) represents the next higher trophic level and it is
followed by parasites in the next trophic level.
 Hyper parasites being higher in number represents the highest trophic level.
 The resulting pyramid is in inverted shape.
Pyramid of Biomass

It is based upon the total biomass (dry matter) at each trophic level in a food chain.
The pyramid of biomass can also be upright or inverted.
Upright – In contrast to its pyramid of numbers, the pyramid of biomass in a forest is
upright. This is because the producers (trees) accumulate a huge biomass while the
consumers’ total biomass feeding on them declines at higher trophic levels,
resulting in broad base and narrowing top.
Inverted – The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass. The total
biomass of producers (phytoplanktons) is much less as compared to herbivores
(zooplanktons, insects), Carnivores (Small fish) and tertiary carnivores (big fish).
Thus the pyramid takes an inverted shape with narrow base and broad apex.
Pyramid of energy
The amount of energy present at each trophic level is considered for this type of
pyramid. Pyramid of energy gives the best representation of the trophic relationships
and it is always upright.
At every successive trophic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the
form of heat, respiration etc. Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of the energy
passes on. Hence, there is a sharp decline in energy level of each successive trophic
level as we move from producers to top carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of energy
is always upright.

Biodiversity – Definition and levels

Biodiversity is defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources,
including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between
species and of ecosystems.
Thus, we can say, Biodiversity or Biological diversity includes all the different plants,
animals and micro organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems of which
they form a part.

Levels of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is considered to exist at three levels:
Genetic diversity:
 It is concerned with the variation in genes within a particular species.
 It is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a
species.
 Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to changing environment.
 This diversity aims to ensure that some species survive drastic changes and
thus carry on desirable genes.
Species diversity:
 It refers to the variety of living organisms on earth.
 Species differ from one another, markedly in their genetic makeup, do not
inter-breed in nature.
 Closely-related species however have in common much of their hereditary
characteristics. For instance, about 98.4 percent of the genes of humans
and chimpanzees are the same.
 It is the ratio of one species population over total number of organisms
across all species in the given biome. ‘Zero’ would be infinite diversity, and
‘one’ represents only one species present.
Ecosystem/Community diversity:
 This refers to the different types of habitats. (A habitat is the cumulative
factor of the climate, vegetation and geography of a region.
 There are several kinds of habitat around the world. Corals, grasslands,
wetland, desert, mangrove are examples of ecosystems.
 Change in climatic conditions is accompanied by a change in vegetation as
well. Each species adapts itself to a particular kind of environment.
 As the environment changes, species best adapted to that environment
becomes predominant. Thus the variety or diversity of species in the
ecosystem is influenced by the nature of the ecosystem.
  Bio-geographical classification of
India
 Based on the geography, climate and pattern of vegetation seen and the
communities of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibia, insects and other
invertebrates that live in them, Our country can be conveniently divided into
ten major regions.
 Each of these regions contains a variety of ecosystems such as forests,
grasslands, lakes, rivers, wetlands, mountains and hills, which have specific
plant and animal species.
 India has been classified into ten bio geographic zones by the Wildlife
Institute of India under the Government’s Bio-geographic Project.
 Biogeographical Zones of India

Sl Bio-geographic Distribution

no. Zone

1. Trans – Himalaya Ladakh Mountains

Tibetan Plateau

2. Himalaya North-West Himalayas

West Himalayas

Central Himalayas

East Himalayas
 3. Desert Thar

Kutch

4. Semi-arid Central India

Gujarat-Rajwara

5. Western Ghats Malabar Coast

Western Ghats mountain

6. Deccan Peninsula Deccan Plateau South

Central Plateau

Eastern Plateau

Chhota Nagpur

Central Highlands

7. Gangetic Plain Upper Gangetic Plain

Lower Gangetic Plain

8. North-east India Brahmaputra Valley

North-eastern Hills

9. Islands Andaman Islands

Nicobar Islands

Lakshadweep Islands

10. Coasts Western Coast

Eastern Coast

India as a mega-diversity nation

Why is India considered a mega-diversity nation ?
A mega-diverse country is one that harbors the majority of the Earth’s species and
high numbers of endemic species.
India is one of the 17 mega-diversity countries in the world. The Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Govt. of India (2000) records 47,000 species of plants and
81,000 species of animals which is about 7% and 6.5% respectively of global flora and
fauna.
Endemism: Species which are restricted only to a particular area are known as
endemic. India shows a good number of endemic species. About 62% of amphibians
and 50% of lizards are endemic to India. Western ghats are the site of maximum
endemism.
Center of origin : A large number of species are known to have originated in India.
Nearly 5000 species of flowering plants had their origin in India. From agro-
diversity point of view also our country is quite rich. India has been the center of
origin of 166 species of crop plants and 320 species of wild relatives of cultivated
crops, thereby providing a broad spectrum of diversity of traits for our crop plants.
Marine diversity : Along 7500 km long coastline of our country in the mangroves,
estuaries, coral reefs, back waters etc. there exists a rich biodiversity. More than 340
species of corals of the world are found here. The marine diversity is rich in mollusks,
crustaceans (crabs etc.), polychaetes and corals. Several species of Mangrove plants
and seagrasses (Marine algae) are also found in our country.
A large proportion of the Indian Biodiversity is still unexplored. There are about 93
major wet lands, coral reefs and mangroves which need to be studied in detail.
Indian forests cover 64.01 million hectares having a rich biodiversity of plants in the
Trans-Himalayan, north-west, west, central and eastern Himalayan forests, western
ghats, coasts, deserts, Gangetic plains, deccan plateau and the Andaman, Nicobar
and Lakshadweep islands.
Due to very diverse climatic conditions there is a complete rainbow spectrum of
biodiversity in our country

Hotspots of Biodiversity
Biodiversity hotspots are a method to identify those regions of the world where
attention is needed to address biodiversity loss and to guide investments in
conservation.
The idea was first developed by Norman Myers in 1988 to identify tropical forest
‘hotspots’ characterized both by exceptional levels of plant endemism and serious
habitat loss, which he then expanded to a more global scope.
 Biodiversity hotspots. Original proposal in green, and added regions in blue.

Currently, 34 biodiversity hotspots have been identified, most of which occur in

tropical forests. They represent just 2.3% of Earth’s land surface, but between them
they contain around 50% of the world’s endemic plant species and 42% of all
terrestrial vertebrates.
Criteria
To qualify as a hotspot, a region must meet two criteria:
 it must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.5% of the
world’s total) as endemics.
 it has to have lost ≥ 70% of its original native habitat.

Biodiversity Hotspots in India

Out of the total hot spots worldwide two lies in India. These are represented by
Eastern and North-eastern Himalayas (Khasi jaintia hills and the lower Himalayan
slopes embracing areas of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and
Tripura) and Western Ghats region in the south.
The Indian hot spots are not only rich in floral wealth and endemic species of plants
but also reptiles, amphibians, swallow tailed butterflies and some mammals.
Eastern and North-Eastern Himalayas
They display an ultra-varied topography that fosters species diversity and
endemism. Out of the world’ s recorded flora 30% are endemic to India of which
35,000 are in the Himalayas.
There are numerous deep and semi-isolated valleys in Sikkim which are extremely
rich in endemic plant species. In an area of 7298 Km2 of Sikkim about 4250 plant
species are found of which 60% are endemic.
The forest cover of Eastern Himalayas has reduced to about 1/3rd of its original
cover. Certain species like Sapria himalayana, a parasitic angiosperm was sighted
only twice in this region in the last 70 years.
Western Ghats
The Western Ghats and the central belt lying to the west of it, is a region of very high
rainfall and is characterized by evergreen vegetation.
It extends along a 17,000 Km2 strip of forests in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala and has 40% of the total endemic plant species. 62%
amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats.
It is reported that only 6.8% of the original forests are existing today while the rest
has been deforested or degraded.
The flora and fauna of these evergreen regions have not been fully explored. Being
a store house of a large variety of plants and animals, these forests represent one of
the richest gene pool resources of flora and fauna in the country.
Though a large number of such forests have been destroyed for various plantation
crops like rubber, cocoa, coffee etc., whatever virgin forests remain have to be
specially protected as in the Silent Valley of Kerala or the rich orchid belt of the
north-eastern Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim.

Endangered Species

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
publishes the Red Data Book which includes the list of endangered species of plants
and animals. The red data symbolizes the warning signal for those species which are
endangered and if not protected are likely to become extinct in near future.
Some plants and animals have already become extinct and there are many facing
danger of extinction.
Causes of extinction
The basic reasons of extinction of wildlife are as follows:
 Destruction of their natural habitats due to expanding agriculture,
urbanization and industrialization.
 Overgrazing by domestic animals that convert the area into deserts.
 Poaching for meat, skin, fur, ivory, rhino horns etc.
 Export of some species.
Few ways to save endangered species
 If pollution can be controlled all across the globe then it can have a major
positive impact on animals, fish and birds all over the world.
 To save the endangered animals from extinction, a number of breeding
programmes have been introduced. The government, NGOs and the other
corporate bodies should come forward for this noble cause (as this
programme involves dedicated and special people and of course a lot of
money.)
 Reintroducing the endangered animals to the wild once their numbers
increase has become successful in some cases though all species have not
done well.
 If hunting and poaching can be controlled then there can be a significant change in
the numbers of the endangered animals.
In India, nearly 450 plant species have been identified in the categories of
endangered, threatened or rare. About 150 mammals and 150 species of birds is
estimated to be threatened while an unknown number of species of insects are
endangered.
A few species of endangered reptiles, birds, mammals and plants includes :
(a) Reptiles : Gharial, green sea turtle, tortoise, python
(b) Birds : Great Indian bustard, Peacock, Pelican, Great Indian Hornbill, Siberian
White Crane
(c) Carnivorous Mammals : Indian wolf, red fox, Sloth bear, red panda, tiger,
leopard, striped hyena, Indian lion, golden cat, desert cat, dugong
(d) Primates : Hoolock gibbon, lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri langur, Capped monkey,
golden monkey
(e) Plants : A large number of species of orchids, Rhododendrons, medicinal plants
like Rauvolfia serpentina, the sandal wood tree Santalum, Cycas beddonei etc.
Some important terms related to this topic
 Extinct species : A species is said to be extinct when it can no longer be found
in the wild or in captivity. e.g. Dodo, passenger pigeon.
 Endangered species : A species is said to be endangered when its number
has been reduced to a critical level or whose habitats, have been drastically
reduced and if such a species is not protected and conserved, it is in immediate
danger of extinction.
 Vulnerable species : A species is said to be in vulnerable category if its
population is facing continuous decline due to over exploitation or habitat
destruction. Such a species is still abundant, but under a serious threat of
becoming endangered if causal factors are not checked.
 Rare species : Species which are not endangered or vulnerable at present,
but are at a risk are categorized as rare species. These taxa are usually
localized within restricted areas i.e. they are usually endemic. Sometimes
they are thinly scattered over a more extensive area

Endemic Species
  When a species is found only in a particular geographical region because of
its isolation, soil and climatic conditions it is said to be endemic. Endemic
species run a higher risk of extinction because of their geographic
isolation.
 India has two biodiversity hot spots and thus possesses a large number of
endemic species. Areas rich in endemism are north-east India, the Western
Ghats, the north-western and eastern Himalayas and Andaman & Nicobar
islands.
 Out of about 47,000 species of plants in our country 7000 are endemic.
Some of the important endemic flora include orchids and species
like Sapria himalayana, Uvaria lurida, Nepenthes khasiana, Pedicularis
perroter etc.
 A large number out of a total of 81,000 species of animals in our country is
endemic. Some of the important endemic fauna include Nicobar long-
tailed macaque, Narcondam Hornbill, Andaman rat etc.
 Endemic species are often the most vulnerable to anthropogenic (man-
made) threats due to their unique evolutionary history and relatively low
population size. Hence it’s very essential to take special attention for their
conservation.

In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of

biodiversity
Biodiversity is important for human existence. All forms of life are so closely
interlinked that disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in the others. If species of
plants and animals become endangered, they cause degradation in the environment,
which may threaten human being’s own existence.
A number of measures are now being taken to conserve biodiversity including plants
and wildlife.
There are two approaches of biodiversity conservation:
(a) In situ conservation (within habitat): This is achieved by protection of wild flora
and fauna in their natural habitats. e.g. Biosphere Reserves, National Parks,
Sanctuaries, Reserve Forests etc.
(b) Ex situ conservation (outside habitats) This is done by establishment of gene
banks, seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections etc.
In situ conservation
It can be defined as the conservation of plants and animals in their native ecosystem
(natural habitats) or even man made ecosystem, where they naturally occur. The
established natural habitats are :
 National Parks
 Sanctuaries
 Biosphere Reserves
 Reserved forests
 Protected forests
 Nature reserves
National Parks : A National park is an area which is strictly reserved for
the protection of the wildlife and where activities such as forestry, grazing or
cultivation are not allowed.
Wildlife Sanctuary : A sanctuary is an area, which is reserved for the conservation
of animals only and operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of minor
forest products are allowedso long as they do not affect the animals adversely.
Biosphere Reserve : These are multi-purpose protected areas, where every plant
and animal size is to be protected in its natural habitat. Its major objectives are :
 to conserve and maintain diversity and integrity of the natural heritage in
its full form, i.e. physical environment, the flora and the fauna
 to promote research on ecological conservation and other aspects of
environment at preservation
 to provide facilities for education, awareness and explaining.
Reserved forests : An area notified under the provisions of Indian Forest Act or the
State Forest Acts having full degree of protection. In Reserved Forests, all
activities are prohibited unless permitted.
Protected forests : An area notified under the provisions of Indian Forest Act or the
State Forest Acts having limited degree of protection. In Protected Forests, all
activities are permittedunless prohibited.
Ex situ conservation
Conserving biodiversity outside the areas where they naturally occur is known as ex
situ conservation.
 Here, animals are reared or plants are cultivated in places like zoological
parks or botanical gardens. Reintroduction of an animal or plant into the
habitat from where it has become extinct is another form of ex situ
conservation.
 For example, the Gangetic gharial has been reintroduced in the rivers of
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan where it had become
extinct.
 Seed banks, botanical, horticultural and recreational gardens are
important centers for ex-situ conservation.
In India, we have the following important gene bank/seed bank facilities:
 National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) :
a. The set up was established in 1976 by the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR).
b. It is located in New Delhi.
c. Here agricultural and horticultural crops and their wild relatives
are preserved by cryo-preservation of seeds, pollen etc. by using
liquid nitrogen at a temperature as low as -196°C.
 National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR)
a. It was established in 1984.
b. It is located in Karnal, Haryana.
c. It preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.
 National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR)
a. It was established for the development of a facility of conservation
of varieties of crop plants/trees by tissue culture.
b. This facility has been created within the NBPGR.

Constraints in biodiversity conservation

 Low priority for conservation of living natural resources.
 Exploitation of living natural resources for monetary gain.
 Values and knowledge about the species and ecosystem inadequately
known.
 Unplanned urbanization and uncontrolled industrialization.