Sie sind auf Seite 1von 46

FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NEKEDE

ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

LABORATORY MANUAL ON ANALOGUE


ELECTRONICS IV

(LABORATORY PRACTICALS ON ANALOGUE


ELECTRONICS)

1
TABLE OF CONTENT
SECTION 1

1.0: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Aims of Practical Work

1.2 Format for Laboratory Report Writing

SECTION 2

Experiment 1 – The Bipolar Transistor Amplifier

Experiment 2 – Transistor Oscillator

Experiment 3– Comparator & Schmitt Trigger Comparator

Experiment 4 – Oscillators

Experiment 5: POWER SUPPLIES

Experiment 5.1 – Voltage Rectifiers

Experiment 5.2 – Voltage Smoothing

Experiment 5.3 – Linear Voltage Regulators

Experiment 5.4 – Step-Down Switching Regulator

Experiment 5.5 – Step-Up Switching Regulator

2
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Practical work is one of the prerequisite for excelling in a course in the
engineering field. The importance of practical in engineering fields can never be
over emphasized. It is one of the most effective teaching methods necessary to
develop craft skills or for the conduct of laboratory experiments. A student may
have an over view of an entire system but through laboratory experiment
individual components of the system can be investigated and then assembled to
produce a complete picture.

Practical work begins with experiments which study the behavior of individual
elements. Practical work involves the ability to handle equipment for accurate
measurement.

AIMS OF PRACTICAL WORK


The major aims of Practical work are itemized as follows below:
 To guide the students to develop logical thinking while carrying out
experimental tasks.
 To enable the students to know how to read accurate results
 To develop the manipulative skills in the use of techniques and equipment
relevant to discipline.
 To enable the students know how to write accurately.

FORMAT FOR LABORATORY REPORT


The result of the experiment must be clearly presented in the format shown
below:
1. Topic/ Title
2. Aim/ Objective
3. Apparatus/ Equipments/ Tools
4. Theory
5. Method/ Procedure
6. Diagram
7. Result
8. Observation/ Analysis

3
SECTION 2
Experiment 1 – The Bipolar Transistor Amplifier
Objectives:
 Amplifier gain measurement.
 Input impedance measurement.
 Output impedance measurement.
 Phase shift measurement.
Equipment required:
 Analog trainer
 Power supply
 A multitester
 An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
 Jumper wires
 A transistor 2N2222
 Resistors: 2 x 100Ω, 2 x1KΩ, 15KΩ, 91KΩ
 Capacitors: 10F, 100F

Discussion:
Linear amplifier

One of the major applications of the transistor is as an amplifier. We supply a


small AC signal to its input and get an amplified signal (voltage or current) in its
output.
To distinguish between DC parameter and AC parameter (Voltage or Current) we
use capital letter for DC and small letter for AC.
We describe an amplifier as follows:

ii Ro io
Vi Vo

Figure 1

4
Amplifier parameters are AV, Ai, Ri, Ro.
AV is the voltage gain:
Vo
AV 
Vi
Ai is the current gain:
io
Ai 
ii
AV and Ai do not have measurement units.
Ri is the input impedance:
Vi
Ri 
ii
Ro is the output impedance of the amplifier. It acts as a serial as a serial
resistance located in the amplifier’s output.

How to measure amplifier parameters


In order to measure the amplifier’s parameters, we connect it to an alternate
voltage source VS through a series resistance RS and its output to a load
resistance RL as follows:

RS Vi ii Ro iL

Vo VL
VS
RL

Figure 2
The absolute value of io is equal to iL which equals:
VL
iL 
RL
ii equal to the current through RS:
VRS
ii 
RS
To calculate the Ro we measure VL without RL (Vo) and with RL (VL).
Ro is determined according to the following formula:

5
Vo  I L  R o  VL
VL
Vo   R o  VL
RL
Vo  VL
Ro   RL
VL
Series and parallel feedback
Usually the amplifier is an open loop system. The input signal is amplified
according to the amplifier gain. The problem is that the gain is not accurate and
may change dramatically when replacing component or at temperature change.
Let's look at the following diagram, which describes a system with negative
feedback.

+ Ve
Vi A Vo
-

Vb

Figure 3

Vo is the voltage at the output. A part of it is fed back to the input negatively, i.e.
it is subtracted from the input voltage. This parameter is called Vb (Vback) and its
value is:
Vb = Vo
The voltage, which is fed into the amplifier that drives Vo, is called Ve (Verror) and
is the difference between the input voltage Vi and the feedback voltage Vb.
Ve = Vi – Vb = Vi – Vo
Vo is the product of the amplification of Ve.

Vo = AVe = A(Vi – Vo)


In this equation, Vo (the output value) appears in both sides of the equation. We
will isolate Vo to see the system equation. First, we open the parentheses:
Vo = AVi – AVo
Now let's collect all the elements with Vo on the left:

Vo  βAVo  Vi  A
Vo (1  βA)  Vi  A
6
Thus the final system equation is:
A
Vo  Vi
1  A
This is the formula for the amplification of a negative feedback control system.
In an open circuit system, A indicates the ratio between Vo and Vi. It is difficult to
control exact amplification especially in a system in which there is an interference
of the controlled variable, which affects the amplification of the amplifier.
To achieve accurate and stable amplification in the system, we see to it that the
amplification A is as large as possible (even approaching infinity).  is obtained
from an accurate attenuator such as a resistor voltage divider for example. The
feedback system b does not have to contend with interferences to its output
variable as it is connected directly into the amplifier's internal summation system
(which presents a fixed load on b).

In cases where A >> 1 and A  , we will have:


A A 1
Vo  Vi  Vi  Vi
1  A A 
As  is smaller than 1 the result is that Vo is greater than Vi. The system
amplification is equal to β1 and does not depend on the accuracy of the amplifier
A. In other words, fluctuations in A (assuming that this value is still very high)
will not affect Vo
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.
Step 2: Implement the following circuit +12V
(RS = R43, RC = R69, C2 = C43)

RC
R1 1K C2
91K Vo
VC 10F
RS C1
VS
1K 10F VCE
R2
15K RE
2 100

7
Do not connect any voltage source to VS point.
Step 3: Turn ON the trainer.
Step 4: Measure VB, VC, VCE and VE.
Step 5: Calculate IC:
(VCC  VC ) (12  VC )
IC  
RC 1000
Step 6: Plot the operating line and the operating point on the graph.

IC
VCC
RC  RE
VC

VCE
VCC

To calculate the amplifier’s parameters, it does not matter if we use Vpeak or Vp-
p or an effective voltage as long as we are consistent.
To annotate AC parameters we use small letters.
We use the 1K resistor as the RS resistance

Use the following h parameter values for your calculations:


1
hfe = 100, hie = 2KΩ, hoe
= 40KΩ

CE Amplifier:

Step 7: Connect the function generator OUT/10 output probe to the VS point.
Adjust the function generator to generate a 1Vp-p 1KHz sine wave
(VOUT/10 = 0.1Vp-p).

Connect the scope probe CH1 to the function generator OUT output.

Step 8: Connect a by-pass capacitor of 100µF (C41) parallel to RE thus short


circuiting the AC voltages RE. We do not short circuit RE in order not to
change its DC operating point.

8
+12V

RC
R1 1K C2
91K Vo
VC 10F
RS C1
VS
1K 10F VCE
R2
15K RE
100 CE
2

Step 9: Calculate and record the AV, AI, Ri, Ro according to h parameter
model.
V hfe  i b  R C hfe  R C Vo
AVS 
AV  o    VS
Vi i b  hie hie
Ri V S  Ri
AI   AV Vi  
RL Ri  R S
Ro = RC Vi ( Ri  R S )
VS  
Ri
Vi
R i  Vo Vo Vo
ib AVS   
V S V S V Ri  R S
Vi  i b  hie i
Ri
i b  hie Vo Ri
R i   hie AVS  
ib Vi Ri  R S
R i  R B R i Ri
AVS  AV 
Ri  R S

Step 10: Connect the CH2 probe to the Vo point.


Step 11: Measure the voltages VC (Vo), VRS and Vi, with AC voltmeter.
Step 12: Connect a 1K resistor between Vo and ground. This resistor acts as RL.
Measure VL.
Step 13: Calculate and record the AV, AI, Ri, Ro according to your measurements
and to paragraph above (i.e How to measure amplifier parameters)

9
Step 14: Compare the amplifier calculation characteristics and the measurement
characteristics.
Step 15: Plot the scope picture on the following graph:

VCH1

VCH2

Step 16: What is the phase shift between the signals?

10
Experiment 2 – Transistor Oscillator
Objectives:
 The Hartley oscillator.
 The Colpietz oscillator.
 Crystal oscillator.
Equipment required:
 Analog trainer
 Power supply
 A multitester
 An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
 Jumper wires
 2N2222
 Resistors: 100, 11K, 15K
 Capacitors: 10F, 3 x 0.1F
 Coils: 47, 390
Discussion:
When we have a positive feedback from the output stage of an amplifier to its
input stage, the amplifier may oscillate. The oscillation conditions are described in
experiment 3
The transistor oscillator is mainly used as high frequency oscillator, especially in
RF circuits. The Local Oscillator is a variable frequency sine wave oscillator.
The most common oscillator in RF receivers is the Hartley oscillator. A positive
feedback exists in this circuit between the collector and the emitter. A capacitor is
connected in parallel to one of the bias resistor, in order to regulate the V B
voltage. This regulation causes the voltage changes in the emitter to change V BE
and this affects the collector voltage and back to the emitter.
The following circuit is a Hartley oscillator:
VCC

L1
C2

R1
L2

Q1

Figure 2-1 Hartley Oscillator


C1 R2
R3

11
The feedback voltage is accepted by voltage divider, based on two coils. The
current changes through them create voltage changes that are transferred to the
emitter.
In order to determine the required frequency of the oscillations, a capacitor or a
variable capacitor (if a variable oscillator is required) is connected in parallel to
the coil.
VCC

L1
C2
C
R1
L2

Q1

C1 R2
R3

Figure 2-2 Variable Hartley Oscillator

Another possibility is to use a VVC (Voltage Variable Capacitor) diode that


changes its frequency according to the voltage drop upon it.

VCC

L1
C2

R1
L2
C3
P1
Q1

V
R2
VC
C1
Figure 2-3 VVC Variable R3
Hartley Oscillator

12
A similar oscillator is called Colpietz oscillator. This oscillator is based on two
capacitors as voltage divider with a coil in parallel.

VCC

C C
2

R1 L
C

Q
1

C R
1 2
R
3

Figure 2-4 Colpietz Oscillator

The reason why this oscillator is not common is the difficulty to produce a reliable
variable coil for tuning the desired frequency. When we need an accurate and fix
frequency oscillator, we use the crystal oscillator.
A transistor crystal oscillator is based on a transistor circuit with a positive
feedback, which is achieved with a capacitor between the emitter and the base.
The positive feedback causes the transistor to oscillate in a frequency determined
by the internal capacities in the transistor. This frequency is very high.
To cause the transistor to oscillate in a determined frequency, we connect a
crystal to the base, which forces the transistor to oscillate in the crystal
frequency, as follows:
VCC

C1
Vo

C2
Figure 2-5
13
The C1 capacitor is the feedback capacitor.
The C2 capacitor is not a detour capacitor (otherwise we would not have gotten a
signal at the output). Its function is to create a phase shifting in order to get the
positive feedback. This capacitor is 200pF.

Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the Analog trainer to the power supply.
Step 2: Connect the power supply to the Mains and turn it ON.
Step 3: Implement a Hartley oscillator using the bipolar transistor.

VCC

L1
47
C2

R1 0.1
91K L2
390
Q1

C1
0.1 R2
15K
R3
100

Step 4: Connect the scope CH1 probe to the transistor emitter. You should view a
sine wave.
Step 5: Measure the signal frequency.
Step 6: Implement a Colpietz oscillator using the bipolar transistor.

14
VCC

C3
C2 10n

R1 L
0.1
91K 47
C4
0.1

Q1

C1
0.1 R2
15K
R3
100

Step 7: Connect the scope CH1 probe to the transistor emitter.


You should view a sine wave.
Step 8: Measure the signal frequency

15
Experiment 3– Comparator & Schmitt Trigger Comparator
Objectives:
 Constructing and measuring a comparator amplifier.
Equipment required:
 Analog trainer
 Power supply
 A multitester
 An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
 Jumper wires
 LM358 or 741
 Resistors: 2 x 1K, 4.7K, 10K
Discussion:
Comparator amplifier
The basic operational amplifier is an electronic component, which has two inputs
(inverting and non-inverting) and an output. It has a differential input to easy
implementing a negative or a positive feedback. The ideal operational amplifier is
an amplifier with infinite gain and infinite input resistance, with the following
symbol and principles.

+V

V1 -
Vo
V2 +

–V

Figure 3-1

In a negative feedback, the input signal is supplied to the (+) input line and the
feedback signal is supplied to the (–) input line.
In a positive feedback, the input signal is supplied to the (–) input line and the
feedback signal is supplied to the (+) input line.
In an open range (without any feedback), the amplifier gain aspires to infinity.
Vout
A  
V V(  )  V(  )
Because of the amplifier’s high input bias, the bias currents are very low and we
can assume that they aspire to zero.

16
I(+) = I(-) = 0
The output voltage is equal to the difference of the two input voltages multiplied
infinitely. Actual gain is not infinite, but very high and can be found in the
operational amplifier data sheet. The input currents are very small and can be
neglected.

Vo

+V

0
V2 – V1

-V
Figure 3-2
If V1 < V2, then Vo = +V.
If V1 > V2, then Vo = -V.
In this way, we can create a system that compares between two values or
between a signal and some voltage reference.

A schmitt trigger comparator


When a comparator input voltage is equal to the reference, the comparator
output voltage may bounces and oscillates between +V and –V. We can see this
problem when the input voltage changes slowly.

In order to overcome this problem, we add a positive feedback.

Vi -
Vo
+
R2

R1

Figure 3-3

When Vo = +V then:

17
R2
VA   V
R1  R 2
When Vi goes a little over VA, Vo changes to –V and:
R2
VA   V
R1  R 2
Now Vi should goes below a negative voltage in order to change the comparator
output.
We will not have any bouncing and oscillations.

Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.
Comparator Amplifier
Step 2: Implement the following circuit on the main plug in board.
+12V

Vi +
Vo
-

-12V

Circuit for single voltage power supply:

+12V

+12V Vi +
Vo
-
1K
1K

Step 3: Turn ON the trainer.


Step 4: Change the input voltage Vi and measure the output voltage Vo and fill in
the following table.

18
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Vi -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Vo

Step 5: Plot your results on the following graph.

Vo

Vi

Step 6: Connect the Vi terminal of the operational amplifier to the OUT output
terminal of the function generator. Adjust the function generator to 8Vp-
p 1KHz sine wave.
Step 7: Connect the scope CH1 to the generator output and the CH2 to the
amplifier output.
Step 8: Plot the scope picture on the following graph:

VCH1

VCH2

Schmitt Trigger Comparator:

Step 9: Implement the following circuit:

19
+12V

Vi -
Vo
+
R2
10
-12V K

R1
4.7K

Circuit for single voltage power supply:

+12V

Vi -
Vo
+
+12V R2
10K

4.7K
R1
4.7K

Step 10: Connect the Vi terminal of the operational amplifier to the OUT output
terminal of the function generator.
Step 11: Connect the scope CH1 to the generator OUT output and the CH2 to the
amplifier output.
Step 12: Plot the scope picture on the following graph:

VCH1

VCH2

t
20
Experiment 4 – Oscillators
Objectives:
 An amplifier with positive feedback.
 Constructing and measuring a Wein bridge oscillator.

Equipment required:
 Analog trainer
 Power supply
 A multitester
 An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
 Jumper wires
 LM358 or 741
 Resistors: 2 x 1K, 4.7K, 10K, 2 x 100K
 Capacitors: 2 x 0.1F
 Potentiometer 10K
 Coils: 2 x 47Hy

Discussion:

Wein bridge oscillator


A Wein Bridge Oscillator is a special circuit, which includes an amplifier with
positive feedback.
An amplifier with positive feedback looks like this:

Vi -
A Vo
+


Figure 4-1

 is the feedback factor, which indicates what part of the output is returned and
added to the input. Positive feedback drives the amplifier to one of its extreme
points (+V or –V).
There is a special case where the feedback voltage is the amplifier input signal.

A Vo

Figure 4-2
 21
In this amplifier:
Vo = AVo
There are three cases:
1) A < 1. In this case, the output voltage will bound to 0.
2) A > 1. In this case, the output will be bounded to one of the extreme
voltages.
3) A = 1. In this case, the amplifier acts as an oscillator.
A Wein bridge oscillator is the following amplifier:

R3

R4
-

Vo

+ C1
Z1
R1

R3 C2
Z2

Figure 4-3

If we consider the V+ input as the amplifier input, we can treat the amplifier as a
non inverting amplifier:

R3 R4  R3
AV  1  
R4 R4
The feedback signal is equal to:
Vo  Z 2
V
Z1  Z 2
Hence:
Z2

Z1  Z 2
For the amplifier to oscillate we must have:

22
R3  R4 Z2  R4
A   1
R4 Z1  Z 2
A may be described as follows:
 R  1
A   1  3  
 R4  Z
1 1
Z2
The oscillating condition only applies to a specific frequency. To calculate this
Z1
frequency, it is enough to find the condition in which the phase shift of Z2 is
equal to zero.
1
R1 
Z1 jwc1

Z2 1
R2
jwc 2

In our circuit:
R3 = R1 = R
C1 = C2 = C
We will get:
1
f
2 R C
Prove this.

Calculate the oscillator frequency according to the component values in the


following values:

R1 = 4.7KΩ
R2 = 4.7KΩ
R3 = 1KΩ
R4 = 1KΩ
C1 = 0.1µF
C2 = 0.1µF

Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.

23
Wein bridge oscillator:
Step 2: Implement the following circuit on the main plug in board.

R1

R2 +12V
2 -
8
1
Vo
3 C1
+ 4
Z1
-12V
R3

R4 C2
Z2

Use the following values:


R1 = 100KΩ Potentiometer
R2 = 10KΩ
R3 = 1.5KΩ
R4 = 1.5KΩ
C1 = 0.1µF
C2 = 0.1µF
Step 3: Turn ON the trainer.
Step 4: Connect the scope probe CH1 to the oscillator output.
Step 5: Adjust the oscillator potentiometer until you form smooth sinusoidal
waves on the oscillator output.
Step 6: Measure the signal frequency. Compare the measured value with the
calculated value.

24
Experiment 5: POWER SUPPLIES

Introduction
The Mains voltage is an AC (Alternate Current) voltage and very High. The
effective voltage is 220V or 110V (depends on the country) and the frequency is
50Hz or 60Hz accordingly. The mains voltage is AC because, it can easily be
changed (increased or decreased) by a transformer. The electricity companies
prefer that the current in the conductive lines between cities will be as low as
possible, in order to reduce the power loss on the lines. The voltage on these
lines is raised to thousands of volts by a step-up transformer. The voltage is
transformed to 220V (or 110V), by using a step-down transformer in every street
or in every block of buildings.
In electronic systems we need a DC (Direct Current) low voltage power supply.
The voltage should be stable and does not change because of changes in the load
current or in the AC input voltage.

The power supply comprises four components:

Mains Rectifier Filter Regulator


Transformer Vo
Voltage

Figure 5-1

The transformer converts high AC voltage to low AC voltage and vice versa. It
composed of at least two coils wrapped on the same core made by ferromagnetic
material (usually Ferrum).

DC to AC converter:
In the following experiments we will learn how to convert AC voltage to DC
voltage. We use the transformer to reduce the Mains voltage. Sometimes we
need to convert DC voltage to AC voltage; when there is a power fail at home and
we need to supply power from batteries. In this case, we use 50Hz or 60Hz
oscillators with power amplifiers as output stage to create AC voltage. We feed
this voltage into a transformer, which its primary coil has less turns than its
secondary coil.

25
Experiment 5.1 – Voltage Rectifiers
Objectives:
 Half wave rectifier.
 Full wave rectifier.
Equipment required:
 Analog trainer
 Power supply
 A multitester
 An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
 Jumper wires
Discussion:
Half wave rectifier
One diode rectifier is the simplest rectifier.

Vo

V1 V2 R2

Figure 5-1.1
The diode conducts current only when V2 > VD (V2 > 0.7V). When V2 < VD or V2 <
0, there is no current in the secondary circuit and Vo = 0V

V2

Vo

Figure 5-1.2

The voltage that develops on the diode, when it is OFF, is the secondary coil
voltage. Usually this voltage is negative. The maximum inverting voltage on the

26
diode is the maximum V2 voltage. We must select a diode, which will not be
ruptured by this voltage.
The disadvantage of this rectifier is the high output signal ripple and its low
average voltage.
1
The average voltage is: V1V  Vmax

We must remember that the indicated Mains voltage and the transformer
voltages are effective voltages.
1
Veff  Vmax
2
Vmax  2  Veff
For instance, the maximum output voltage of a 12V transformer is 16.9V.
We have to subtract the diode voltage (0.7V – 1V) in order to calculate the
rectifier output maximum voltage.

A full wave rectifier with center branch transformer


One way to get a full wave rectifier is to use a transformer with two secondary
coils as follows:
D1
A

R2

Vi

B
D2
Figure 5-1.3

The VA voltage is equal and opposite to the AB voltage.


When Vi is positive, VA is positive and AB is negative – the D1 diode conducts and
the D2 diode is cutoff. When Vi is negative, VA is negative, and AB is positive – the
D2 diode conducts and the D1 diode is cutoff. In these two cases, the voltage on
R2 is positive as follows:
Vi

VRL
Figure 5-1.4

t
27
The maximum output voltage is the maximum voltage of one secondary coil less
the diode voltage. The maximum diode opposite voltage is 2  Vmax . Check that.
The waviness of the output signal is lower and the average value is higher twice
than the half wave rectifier.
2
Vav  Vmax

A diode bridge rectifier

The diode bridge rectifier is an array of 4 diodes, which enables full wave
rectifying with a single secondary coil transformer. The circuit is as follows:

A +

D4 D1
R2
Vi

D3 D2

B -
Figure 5-1.5

On the positive part of Vi – VA is positive and VB negative. The current flows from
A to B through D1, RL and D3. D2 blocks the current flowing directly from A to B
through D1.
On the negative part of Vi – VB is positive and VA negative. The current flows from
B to A through D2, RL (the same direction as before) and D4. D1 blocks the current
flowing directly from B to A through D2.
We get similar wave as in 5.3.2 section with one difference. The output maximum
voltage is the V2 maximum voltage minus 2  VD .

A diode bridge may be implemented by 4 diodes or by 4 pin single component.


The + leg is indicated by dot.

Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.
28
Step 2: Implement the following circuit on the analog trainer.

D1
Vo

R
VS ~ 1K

Step 3: Use the Vvar (12V) power supply as an AC power supply.


Step 4: Change Vvar and fill in the following table:

t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VS -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
VO

t 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
VS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VO

Step 5: Use the trainer function generator as an AC power supply.


Adjust it to maximum amplitude and to minimum frequency.
Step 6: Connect the oscilloscope CH1 to VS and the CH2 to Vo.
Step 7: Draw your results on the following graphs.
VS

t
Vo

29
Step 8: Implement the following circuit on the Analog trainer.

D1
Vo

R
VS ~ 2K

Step 9: Use the Vvar (12V) power supply as an AC power supply.


Step 10: Change Vvar and fill in the following table:

t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VS -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
VO

t 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
VS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VO

Step 11: Use the trainer function generator as an AC power supply.


Adjust it to maximum amplitude and to minimum frequency.
Step 12: Connect the oscilloscope CH1 to VS and the CH2 to Vo.
Step 13: Draw your results on the following graphs.

VS

Vo

t
30
Experiment 5.2 – Voltage Smoothing

Objectives:
 Smoothing voltage with capacitor.
 Capacitance calculations.
Equipment required:
 Analog trainer
 Power supply
 A multitester
 An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
 Jumper wires
Discussion:
The rectifier output signal is a positive wave but with very high waviness, which
changes from 0V to Vmax. We use a filter in order to get higher average voltage
and low waviness. Usually the filter is composed of a single capacitor.

Vo

RL

Vi V2 Rectifier C

Figure 5-2.1

Vo
With No filter

Vo With filter

V

Figure 5-2.2

When the rectifier conducts, the capacitor is charged according to V2 up to Vmax.

31
When V2 goes down, the rectifier cannot discharge the capacitor because it
conducts only on one way.
The capacitor is discharged according to the current consumption of the load R L.
It discharged until the rectifier output voltage is higher than the capacitor
voltage.
When the I2 is higher, the V is larger, the discharging is slower and the waving is
lower (small V).
The calculator of the required capacitor is done according to the load average
current and the required V.
We may assume linear discharging and charging at once as follows:

V T

V

Figure 5-2.3

1 1
t T
2 2F
The load average current is called IDC.

The change in the capacitor change is:

1 I
V  I DC  t  I DC  T  DC
2 2F

Q I DC
V  
C 2FC

I DC
C
2F   V

32
Exercise:
Design a power supply, which indicates a transformer, a diode bridge and a
filtering capacitor for output voltage 14  1.5V at load current of 0.5A. The Mains
voltage is 220V/50Hz.
Solution:
The output maximum voltage is 15.5V.
The transformer secondary maximum voltage is:
V2max – V0max +2VD = 15.5 + 1.4 = 16.9V
The secondary effective voltage should be:
Vmax
Veff   12V
2
The required transformer nominal rating is:
220V / 12V 0.5A
F = 50Hz
V = 3V
I DC 0 .5 0 .5
C    1666F
2FV 2  50  3 300

We will select a 2000F capacitor.


We have four options to reduce the output voltage waviness:
1) To increase the capacitor’s capacitance.
2) To add a RC filter.

Vi C1 C2 Vo

Figure 5-2.4

This filter reduces the waviness, but we must consider the resistance voltage
drop.
3) To use a LC filter.

Vi C

Figure 5-2.5
33
This is a better filter with minimal voltage drop. The problem is to use a coil
suited for the load current.
4) To use a voltage regulator.
This is the accepted method and it is described in the following section.

Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the Analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.
Step 2: Implement the following circuit on the Analog trainer.

D1
Vo

+ R
VS ~ C
1K
0.1F

C is an electrolytic capacitor. Select C3, which is 1µF.


Step 3: Use the trainer function generator as an AC power supply.

Adjust it to maximum amplitude and to minimum frequency.

Step 4: Connect the oscilloscope CH1 to VS and the CH2 to Vo.


Step 5: Draw your results on the following graphs.

VS

t
Vo

t
34
Step 6: Measure V.
Step 7: Replace the capacitor with a 100µF capacitor.
Step 8: Measure V.
Step 9: Implement the following circuit.

D1
Vo

+ R
VS ~ C 1K
0.1F

Step 10: Use the trainer function generator as an AC power supply.

Adjust it to maximum amplitude and to minimum frequency.

Step 11: Connect the oscilloscope CH1 to VS and the CH2 to Vo.
Step 12: Draw your results on the following graphs.
VS

t
Vo

Step 13: Measure V.


Step 14: Replace the capacitor with a 100µF capacitor.
Step 15: Measure V.

35
Experiment 5.3 – Linear Voltage Regulators
Objectives:
 Power supplies.
 Measurements in linear voltage regulators.
 Various monolithic regulators.
Equipment required:
 Analog trainer
 Power supply
 A multimeter
 An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
 Jumper wires
Discussion:
The regulator’s purpose is to supply a fixed direct voltage, which does not depend
on changes in its input voltage or in the current consumption.
The important regulator parameters are:
a) The regulation load current coefficient which is called output resistance:
VOut
R0 
I L
b) The regulation input voltage coefficient:
VOut
SV 
VIn
Every regulator has a minimum input voltage, which is necessary to maintain the
required output voltage.

Zener diode regulation


The zener diode is the basic component in regulation circuits. The zener diode is a
diode aimed to operate in its reverse breakdown voltage. There are many zener
diodes with various breakdown voltages.

The zener breakdown voltage is called VZ. The zener diode symbol is:

A K

Figure 5-3.1
The zener characteristic is as follows:

36
I

V
VZ

Figure 5-3.2

In forward bias, the zener diode acts as an ordinary diode.


In reverse bias voltage over the zener voltage, the diode breaks down and
changes in its current almost do not affect the zener voltage.
The gradient of the zener area line determines the zener dynamic resistance Rd.
The following circuit is a zener regulation circuit.

Vo

VZ RL
Vi

Figure 5-3.3

Assuming Vi > VZ and also VRL > VZ (if there is no zener diode) then Vo = VZ.
The R accepts the voltage difference between Vi and VZ. Even if Vi changes, the
voltage on RL is fixed and equal to VZ.

Every zener diode has the maximum power dissipation rating. This rating
determines the zener maximum current. We try to operate the zener in 10-20%
of this maximum current. In this way, the diode will be in the linear part of the
breakdown range and with a lower power than the maximum power rating.

Exercise:
Design a zener circuit for the following values:

Vi = 12  2V
VZ = 6V

37
Pzmax= 3W
RL = 1000
Rd = 5

Let's calculate R and VL.


Pz max 3
I z max    0 .5 A
Vz 6
I z  0.1  I z max  0.05 A
Vz 6
I2    0.006 A
R L 1000
IR = Iz + IL = 0.05 + 0.006 = 0.056A
Vin  VZ
R
IR

To determine the value of R we use the minimum value of V i, in order not to get
out the zener range.
10  6
R  71
0.056
Vi  R d 45
Vo  VL    0.26V
R  R d 71  5
Vo 0.26
SV    0.065
Vi 4
Vo Rd
SV  
Vi R  R d

If we double the load current (RL = 500), we will get:


6
IL   0.012 A
500
V  VZ
IR  i
R
IR is constant so IZ will be reduced by 0.006A.
Vo will be changed according to VZ.

38
Vo  VZ  I d  R d  0.006  5  0.03V
Vo 0.03
Ro  SI    5
I L 0.06

Ro  Rd
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the Analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.
Step 2: Implement the following circuit.
R2
Vi Vo
1K

VZ

Step 3: Connect Vi to Vvar output.


Step 4: Change Vvar and fill in the following table:
T 1 2 3 4
Vi 7 8 9 10
Vo
∆Vo
SV
Step 5: Calculate ∆Vo for each time.
∆Vo(t) = Vo(t + 1) – Vo(t)
Step 6: Calculate the regulation input voltage coefficient for each time:
Vo
SV 
VIn
Step 7: Draw your conclusion in what Vin we have the smallest SV.
Step 8: Adjust Vi to 10V.
Step 9: Connect RL load register of 10K (R45) to Vo.

R2
Vi Vo
1K
RL
VZ 10K

39
Step 10: Measure Vo and calculate IL.
Step 11: Change RL to 4.7K (R44).
Step 12: Measure Vo and calculate IL.
Step 13: Calculate the load current coefficient:
Vo
Ro 
I L
We cannot continue to a lower resistor because R 2 = 1K.
Step 14: Implement the following circuit:

IL

Vi = V  V R2 IR IB
RL
1K 10K

Step 15: Adjust Vi to 10V.


Step 16: Measure Vo and calculate IL.
Step 17: Change RL to 4.7K (R44).
Step 18: Measure Vo and calculate IL.
Step 19: Calculate the load current coefficient:
Vo
Ro 
I L
Step 20: Implement the following circuit.

Vi 7805 Vo

Step 21: Change Vvar and fill in the following table:

40
T 1 2 3 4
Vi 7 8 9 10
Vo
∆Vo
SV

Step 22: Calculate ∆Vo for each time.


∆Vo(t) = Vo(t + 1) – Vo(t)

Step 23: Calculate the regulation input voltage coefficient for each time:
Vo
SV 
VIn
Step 24: Draw your conclusion in what Vin we have the smallest SV.
Step 25: Adjust Vi to 10V.
Step 26: Connect RL load register of 1K to Vo.
Step 27: Measure Vo and calculate IL.
Step 28: Change RL to 100.
Step 29: Measure Vo and calculate IL.
Step 30: Calculate the load current coefficient:
Vo
Ro 
I L
Step 31: Implement the following circuit.

7805 Vo
R1
1K
VS ~
R2
100

Step 32: Measure Vo, VR1 and VR2.

41
Experiment 5.4 – Step-Down Switching Regulator

Objectives:

 Switching power supplies.


 Measurements on step-down switching voltage regulators.

Equipment required:

 Analog trainer
 Power supply
 A multitester
 An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
 Jumper wires

Discussion:

The linear regulator is very simple for use and implementation. Its disadvantage
is its power consumption. This regulator is connected in series with the load and it
dissipates the complement of the power, which does not reach the load.

Suppose we use a 5V regulator and our input voltage is 12V (as in the trainer).

12V 7805
RL

Figure 5-4.1

The load voltage is 5V so the voltage that falls on the regulator is 7V. If the load
current is 0.5A, than the load power is 2.5W and the regulator power dissipation
is 3.5W.

Because of the input voltage fluctuation, we have to use a high DC level input
voltage.
A switching regulator operates entirely differently. It is based on a large reservoir
capacitor and a charging inductor coil.

42
Vin
ILimit
+ +
- +
Cin
Oscillator S

+ R
-
PWM
+
-
L
Thermal
+
Reference
+
+ R1
- Vo
Comparator +
C0
R2

CF

Figure 5-4.2

The regulator includes a comparator circuit, which compares the output voltage
with the required voltage. If the output voltage is lower than the required
voltage, then the regulator charges the capacitor through the coil L with current
pulses.

On every break of the pulse, the current is maintained by the coil (according to
Lenz’s law) through a Schottky diode connected to it.

This kind of charging enables us to supply different input voltages, even very high
ones to the regulator. Very little power is dissipated by the regulator.
In the Analog trainer, we use the 34166 regulator.
The circuit is aimed for step down and step up (described later).

43
SW4

SW5

SW6

Figure 5-4.3
R1 and R2 determine the part of Vo that reaches the feedback input (FDBK).
Changing them changes the Vo voltage.

Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the Analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.
Step 2: Place the jumper on SW4.

SW4

SW5

SW6

Step 3: Move the SW6 switch to the right.


R1 = 6.8K
R2 = 47K
Step 4: Measure the output voltage. It should be 5.77V.
Step 5: Measure the voltages on R1 and R2.
Step 6: Explain why and how the resistors affect the output voltage.
Step 7: Connect the scope CH1 to the SWOUT point of the regulator.

44
Without load, the pulses are very narrow. In SESCOPE they may be seen
as uncompleted pulses.
Step 8: Connect the 100 load resistor to the output of the regulator.
How the load affects the SWOUT pulses?

Experiment 5.5 – Step-Up Switching Regulator


Objectives:
 Measurements on step-up switching voltage regulators.
Equipment required:
 Analog trainer
 Power supply
 A multitester
 An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
 Jumper wires
Discussion:
With switching regulators, we can create an output voltage, which is higher than
the input voltage. The principle combines the inverter and the step-down
regulators.
Vin
ILimit
+ +
- +
Cin
Oscillator
S

+ R
-
PWM
+ L
-
Thermal
+
Reference
+
+ R1
- Vo
Comparator +
C0
R2

CF

Figure 5-26

45
The step up regulator includes a switching transistor. In the charging pulse, make
state the transistor connects the coil to ground and drives current through it. In
the "break" state, the coil is disconnected from ground and its current flows to the
capacitor and charges it with a positive voltage.

Capacitor charging does not depend on the input voltage, even if it is a lower
voltage, due to the Schottky diode between the capacitor and the coil.

Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the Analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.
Step 2: Place the jumper on SW5.

R1

R2

Step 3: Move the SW6 switch to the left.


R1 = 6.8K
R2 = 3.2K
Step 4: Measure the output voltage. It should be 20.6V.
Step 5: Measure the voltages on R1 and R2.
Step 6: Explain why and how the resistors affect the output voltage.
Step 7: Connect the scope CH1 to the SWOUT point of the regulator.
Without load, the pulses are very narrow. In SESCOPE they may be seen
as uncompleted pulses.
Step 8: Connect the 100 load resistor to the output of the regulator.
How the load affects the SWOUT pulses?

PROJECT
1. Design and Construct a feedback Amplifier
2. Design and Construct a Stabilized Power Supply Unit
3. Design and Construct a Wien Bridge Oscillator

46

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen