Beruflich Dokumente
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ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
1
TABLE OF CONTENT
SECTION 1
1.0: INTRODUCTION
SECTION 2
Experiment 4 – Oscillators
2
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Practical work is one of the prerequisite for excelling in a course in the
engineering field. The importance of practical in engineering fields can never be
over emphasized. It is one of the most effective teaching methods necessary to
develop craft skills or for the conduct of laboratory experiments. A student may
have an over view of an entire system but through laboratory experiment
individual components of the system can be investigated and then assembled to
produce a complete picture.
Practical work begins with experiments which study the behavior of individual
elements. Practical work involves the ability to handle equipment for accurate
measurement.
3
SECTION 2
Experiment 1 – The Bipolar Transistor Amplifier
Objectives:
Amplifier gain measurement.
Input impedance measurement.
Output impedance measurement.
Phase shift measurement.
Equipment required:
Analog trainer
Power supply
A multitester
An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
Jumper wires
A transistor 2N2222
Resistors: 2 x 100Ω, 2 x1KΩ, 15KΩ, 91KΩ
Capacitors: 10F, 100F
Discussion:
Linear amplifier
ii Ro io
Vi Vo
Figure 1
4
Amplifier parameters are AV, Ai, Ri, Ro.
AV is the voltage gain:
Vo
AV
Vi
Ai is the current gain:
io
Ai
ii
AV and Ai do not have measurement units.
Ri is the input impedance:
Vi
Ri
ii
Ro is the output impedance of the amplifier. It acts as a serial as a serial
resistance located in the amplifier’s output.
RS Vi ii Ro iL
Vo VL
VS
RL
Figure 2
The absolute value of io is equal to iL which equals:
VL
iL
RL
ii equal to the current through RS:
VRS
ii
RS
To calculate the Ro we measure VL without RL (Vo) and with RL (VL).
Ro is determined according to the following formula:
5
Vo I L R o VL
VL
Vo R o VL
RL
Vo VL
Ro RL
VL
Series and parallel feedback
Usually the amplifier is an open loop system. The input signal is amplified
according to the amplifier gain. The problem is that the gain is not accurate and
may change dramatically when replacing component or at temperature change.
Let's look at the following diagram, which describes a system with negative
feedback.
+ Ve
Vi A Vo
-
Vb
Figure 3
Vo is the voltage at the output. A part of it is fed back to the input negatively, i.e.
it is subtracted from the input voltage. This parameter is called Vb (Vback) and its
value is:
Vb = Vo
The voltage, which is fed into the amplifier that drives Vo, is called Ve (Verror) and
is the difference between the input voltage Vi and the feedback voltage Vb.
Ve = Vi – Vb = Vi – Vo
Vo is the product of the amplification of Ve.
Vo βAVo Vi A
Vo (1 βA) Vi A
6
Thus the final system equation is:
A
Vo Vi
1 A
This is the formula for the amplification of a negative feedback control system.
In an open circuit system, A indicates the ratio between Vo and Vi. It is difficult to
control exact amplification especially in a system in which there is an interference
of the controlled variable, which affects the amplification of the amplifier.
To achieve accurate and stable amplification in the system, we see to it that the
amplification A is as large as possible (even approaching infinity). is obtained
from an accurate attenuator such as a resistor voltage divider for example. The
feedback system b does not have to contend with interferences to its output
variable as it is connected directly into the amplifier's internal summation system
(which presents a fixed load on b).
RC
R1 1K C2
91K Vo
VC 10F
RS C1
VS
1K 10F VCE
R2
15K RE
2 100
7
Do not connect any voltage source to VS point.
Step 3: Turn ON the trainer.
Step 4: Measure VB, VC, VCE and VE.
Step 5: Calculate IC:
(VCC VC ) (12 VC )
IC
RC 1000
Step 6: Plot the operating line and the operating point on the graph.
IC
VCC
RC RE
VC
VCE
VCC
To calculate the amplifier’s parameters, it does not matter if we use Vpeak or Vp-
p or an effective voltage as long as we are consistent.
To annotate AC parameters we use small letters.
We use the 1K resistor as the RS resistance
CE Amplifier:
Step 7: Connect the function generator OUT/10 output probe to the VS point.
Adjust the function generator to generate a 1Vp-p 1KHz sine wave
(VOUT/10 = 0.1Vp-p).
Connect the scope probe CH1 to the function generator OUT output.
8
+12V
RC
R1 1K C2
91K Vo
VC 10F
RS C1
VS
1K 10F VCE
R2
15K RE
100 CE
2
Step 9: Calculate and record the AV, AI, Ri, Ro according to h parameter
model.
V hfe i b R C hfe R C Vo
AVS
AV o VS
Vi i b hie hie
Ri V S Ri
AI AV Vi
RL Ri R S
Ro = RC Vi ( Ri R S )
VS
Ri
Vi
R i Vo Vo Vo
ib AVS
V S V S V Ri R S
Vi i b hie i
Ri
i b hie Vo Ri
R i hie AVS
ib Vi Ri R S
R i R B R i Ri
AVS AV
Ri R S
9
Step 14: Compare the amplifier calculation characteristics and the measurement
characteristics.
Step 15: Plot the scope picture on the following graph:
VCH1
VCH2
10
Experiment 2 – Transistor Oscillator
Objectives:
The Hartley oscillator.
The Colpietz oscillator.
Crystal oscillator.
Equipment required:
Analog trainer
Power supply
A multitester
An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
Jumper wires
2N2222
Resistors: 100, 11K, 15K
Capacitors: 10F, 3 x 0.1F
Coils: 47, 390
Discussion:
When we have a positive feedback from the output stage of an amplifier to its
input stage, the amplifier may oscillate. The oscillation conditions are described in
experiment 3
The transistor oscillator is mainly used as high frequency oscillator, especially in
RF circuits. The Local Oscillator is a variable frequency sine wave oscillator.
The most common oscillator in RF receivers is the Hartley oscillator. A positive
feedback exists in this circuit between the collector and the emitter. A capacitor is
connected in parallel to one of the bias resistor, in order to regulate the V B
voltage. This regulation causes the voltage changes in the emitter to change V BE
and this affects the collector voltage and back to the emitter.
The following circuit is a Hartley oscillator:
VCC
L1
C2
R1
L2
Q1
11
The feedback voltage is accepted by voltage divider, based on two coils. The
current changes through them create voltage changes that are transferred to the
emitter.
In order to determine the required frequency of the oscillations, a capacitor or a
variable capacitor (if a variable oscillator is required) is connected in parallel to
the coil.
VCC
L1
C2
C
R1
L2
Q1
C1 R2
R3
VCC
L1
C2
R1
L2
C3
P1
Q1
V
R2
VC
C1
Figure 2-3 VVC Variable R3
Hartley Oscillator
12
A similar oscillator is called Colpietz oscillator. This oscillator is based on two
capacitors as voltage divider with a coil in parallel.
VCC
C C
2
R1 L
C
Q
1
C R
1 2
R
3
The reason why this oscillator is not common is the difficulty to produce a reliable
variable coil for tuning the desired frequency. When we need an accurate and fix
frequency oscillator, we use the crystal oscillator.
A transistor crystal oscillator is based on a transistor circuit with a positive
feedback, which is achieved with a capacitor between the emitter and the base.
The positive feedback causes the transistor to oscillate in a frequency determined
by the internal capacities in the transistor. This frequency is very high.
To cause the transistor to oscillate in a determined frequency, we connect a
crystal to the base, which forces the transistor to oscillate in the crystal
frequency, as follows:
VCC
C1
Vo
C2
Figure 2-5
13
The C1 capacitor is the feedback capacitor.
The C2 capacitor is not a detour capacitor (otherwise we would not have gotten a
signal at the output). Its function is to create a phase shifting in order to get the
positive feedback. This capacitor is 200pF.
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the Analog trainer to the power supply.
Step 2: Connect the power supply to the Mains and turn it ON.
Step 3: Implement a Hartley oscillator using the bipolar transistor.
VCC
L1
47
C2
R1 0.1
91K L2
390
Q1
C1
0.1 R2
15K
R3
100
Step 4: Connect the scope CH1 probe to the transistor emitter. You should view a
sine wave.
Step 5: Measure the signal frequency.
Step 6: Implement a Colpietz oscillator using the bipolar transistor.
14
VCC
C3
C2 10n
R1 L
0.1
91K 47
C4
0.1
Q1
C1
0.1 R2
15K
R3
100
15
Experiment 3– Comparator & Schmitt Trigger Comparator
Objectives:
Constructing and measuring a comparator amplifier.
Equipment required:
Analog trainer
Power supply
A multitester
An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
Jumper wires
LM358 or 741
Resistors: 2 x 1K, 4.7K, 10K
Discussion:
Comparator amplifier
The basic operational amplifier is an electronic component, which has two inputs
(inverting and non-inverting) and an output. It has a differential input to easy
implementing a negative or a positive feedback. The ideal operational amplifier is
an amplifier with infinite gain and infinite input resistance, with the following
symbol and principles.
+V
V1 -
Vo
V2 +
–V
Figure 3-1
In a negative feedback, the input signal is supplied to the (+) input line and the
feedback signal is supplied to the (–) input line.
In a positive feedback, the input signal is supplied to the (–) input line and the
feedback signal is supplied to the (+) input line.
In an open range (without any feedback), the amplifier gain aspires to infinity.
Vout
A
V V( ) V( )
Because of the amplifier’s high input bias, the bias currents are very low and we
can assume that they aspire to zero.
16
I(+) = I(-) = 0
The output voltage is equal to the difference of the two input voltages multiplied
infinitely. Actual gain is not infinite, but very high and can be found in the
operational amplifier data sheet. The input currents are very small and can be
neglected.
Vo
+V
0
V2 – V1
-V
Figure 3-2
If V1 < V2, then Vo = +V.
If V1 > V2, then Vo = -V.
In this way, we can create a system that compares between two values or
between a signal and some voltage reference.
Vi -
Vo
+
R2
R1
Figure 3-3
When Vo = +V then:
17
R2
VA V
R1 R 2
When Vi goes a little over VA, Vo changes to –V and:
R2
VA V
R1 R 2
Now Vi should goes below a negative voltage in order to change the comparator
output.
We will not have any bouncing and oscillations.
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.
Comparator Amplifier
Step 2: Implement the following circuit on the main plug in board.
+12V
Vi +
Vo
-
-12V
+12V
+12V Vi +
Vo
-
1K
1K
18
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Vi -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Vo
Vo
Vi
Step 6: Connect the Vi terminal of the operational amplifier to the OUT output
terminal of the function generator. Adjust the function generator to 8Vp-
p 1KHz sine wave.
Step 7: Connect the scope CH1 to the generator output and the CH2 to the
amplifier output.
Step 8: Plot the scope picture on the following graph:
VCH1
VCH2
19
+12V
Vi -
Vo
+
R2
10
-12V K
R1
4.7K
+12V
Vi -
Vo
+
+12V R2
10K
4.7K
R1
4.7K
Step 10: Connect the Vi terminal of the operational amplifier to the OUT output
terminal of the function generator.
Step 11: Connect the scope CH1 to the generator OUT output and the CH2 to the
amplifier output.
Step 12: Plot the scope picture on the following graph:
VCH1
VCH2
t
20
Experiment 4 – Oscillators
Objectives:
An amplifier with positive feedback.
Constructing and measuring a Wein bridge oscillator.
Equipment required:
Analog trainer
Power supply
A multitester
An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
Jumper wires
LM358 or 741
Resistors: 2 x 1K, 4.7K, 10K, 2 x 100K
Capacitors: 2 x 0.1F
Potentiometer 10K
Coils: 2 x 47Hy
Discussion:
Vi -
A Vo
+
Figure 4-1
is the feedback factor, which indicates what part of the output is returned and
added to the input. Positive feedback drives the amplifier to one of its extreme
points (+V or –V).
There is a special case where the feedback voltage is the amplifier input signal.
A Vo
Figure 4-2
21
In this amplifier:
Vo = AVo
There are three cases:
1) A < 1. In this case, the output voltage will bound to 0.
2) A > 1. In this case, the output will be bounded to one of the extreme
voltages.
3) A = 1. In this case, the amplifier acts as an oscillator.
A Wein bridge oscillator is the following amplifier:
R3
R4
-
Vo
+ C1
Z1
R1
R3 C2
Z2
Figure 4-3
If we consider the V+ input as the amplifier input, we can treat the amplifier as a
non inverting amplifier:
R3 R4 R3
AV 1
R4 R4
The feedback signal is equal to:
Vo Z 2
V
Z1 Z 2
Hence:
Z2
Z1 Z 2
For the amplifier to oscillate we must have:
22
R3 R4 Z2 R4
A 1
R4 Z1 Z 2
A may be described as follows:
R 1
A 1 3
R4 Z
1 1
Z2
The oscillating condition only applies to a specific frequency. To calculate this
Z1
frequency, it is enough to find the condition in which the phase shift of Z2 is
equal to zero.
1
R1
Z1 jwc1
Z2 1
R2
jwc 2
In our circuit:
R3 = R1 = R
C1 = C2 = C
We will get:
1
f
2 R C
Prove this.
R1 = 4.7KΩ
R2 = 4.7KΩ
R3 = 1KΩ
R4 = 1KΩ
C1 = 0.1µF
C2 = 0.1µF
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.
23
Wein bridge oscillator:
Step 2: Implement the following circuit on the main plug in board.
R1
R2 +12V
2 -
8
1
Vo
3 C1
+ 4
Z1
-12V
R3
R4 C2
Z2
24
Experiment 5: POWER SUPPLIES
Introduction
The Mains voltage is an AC (Alternate Current) voltage and very High. The
effective voltage is 220V or 110V (depends on the country) and the frequency is
50Hz or 60Hz accordingly. The mains voltage is AC because, it can easily be
changed (increased or decreased) by a transformer. The electricity companies
prefer that the current in the conductive lines between cities will be as low as
possible, in order to reduce the power loss on the lines. The voltage on these
lines is raised to thousands of volts by a step-up transformer. The voltage is
transformed to 220V (or 110V), by using a step-down transformer in every street
or in every block of buildings.
In electronic systems we need a DC (Direct Current) low voltage power supply.
The voltage should be stable and does not change because of changes in the load
current or in the AC input voltage.
Figure 5-1
The transformer converts high AC voltage to low AC voltage and vice versa. It
composed of at least two coils wrapped on the same core made by ferromagnetic
material (usually Ferrum).
DC to AC converter:
In the following experiments we will learn how to convert AC voltage to DC
voltage. We use the transformer to reduce the Mains voltage. Sometimes we
need to convert DC voltage to AC voltage; when there is a power fail at home and
we need to supply power from batteries. In this case, we use 50Hz or 60Hz
oscillators with power amplifiers as output stage to create AC voltage. We feed
this voltage into a transformer, which its primary coil has less turns than its
secondary coil.
25
Experiment 5.1 – Voltage Rectifiers
Objectives:
Half wave rectifier.
Full wave rectifier.
Equipment required:
Analog trainer
Power supply
A multitester
An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
Jumper wires
Discussion:
Half wave rectifier
One diode rectifier is the simplest rectifier.
Vo
V1 V2 R2
Figure 5-1.1
The diode conducts current only when V2 > VD (V2 > 0.7V). When V2 < VD or V2 <
0, there is no current in the secondary circuit and Vo = 0V
V2
Vo
Figure 5-1.2
The voltage that develops on the diode, when it is OFF, is the secondary coil
voltage. Usually this voltage is negative. The maximum inverting voltage on the
26
diode is the maximum V2 voltage. We must select a diode, which will not be
ruptured by this voltage.
The disadvantage of this rectifier is the high output signal ripple and its low
average voltage.
1
The average voltage is: V1V Vmax
We must remember that the indicated Mains voltage and the transformer
voltages are effective voltages.
1
Veff Vmax
2
Vmax 2 Veff
For instance, the maximum output voltage of a 12V transformer is 16.9V.
We have to subtract the diode voltage (0.7V – 1V) in order to calculate the
rectifier output maximum voltage.
R2
Vi
B
D2
Figure 5-1.3
VRL
Figure 5-1.4
t
27
The maximum output voltage is the maximum voltage of one secondary coil less
the diode voltage. The maximum diode opposite voltage is 2 Vmax . Check that.
The waviness of the output signal is lower and the average value is higher twice
than the half wave rectifier.
2
Vav Vmax
A diode bridge rectifier
The diode bridge rectifier is an array of 4 diodes, which enables full wave
rectifying with a single secondary coil transformer. The circuit is as follows:
A +
D4 D1
R2
Vi
D3 D2
B -
Figure 5-1.5
On the positive part of Vi – VA is positive and VB negative. The current flows from
A to B through D1, RL and D3. D2 blocks the current flowing directly from A to B
through D1.
On the negative part of Vi – VB is positive and VA negative. The current flows from
B to A through D2, RL (the same direction as before) and D4. D1 blocks the current
flowing directly from B to A through D2.
We get similar wave as in 5.3.2 section with one difference. The output maximum
voltage is the V2 maximum voltage minus 2 VD .
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.
28
Step 2: Implement the following circuit on the analog trainer.
D1
Vo
R
VS ~ 1K
t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VS -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
VO
t 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
VS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VO
t
Vo
29
Step 8: Implement the following circuit on the Analog trainer.
D1
Vo
R
VS ~ 2K
t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VS -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
VO
t 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
VS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VO
VS
Vo
t
30
Experiment 5.2 – Voltage Smoothing
Objectives:
Smoothing voltage with capacitor.
Capacitance calculations.
Equipment required:
Analog trainer
Power supply
A multitester
An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
Jumper wires
Discussion:
The rectifier output signal is a positive wave but with very high waviness, which
changes from 0V to Vmax. We use a filter in order to get higher average voltage
and low waviness. Usually the filter is composed of a single capacitor.
Vo
RL
Vi V2 Rectifier C
Figure 5-2.1
Vo
With No filter
Vo With filter
V
Figure 5-2.2
31
When V2 goes down, the rectifier cannot discharge the capacitor because it
conducts only on one way.
The capacitor is discharged according to the current consumption of the load R L.
It discharged until the rectifier output voltage is higher than the capacitor
voltage.
When the I2 is higher, the V is larger, the discharging is slower and the waving is
lower (small V).
The calculator of the required capacitor is done according to the load average
current and the required V.
We may assume linear discharging and charging at once as follows:
V T
V
Figure 5-2.3
1 1
t T
2 2F
The load average current is called IDC.
1 I
V I DC t I DC T DC
2 2F
Q I DC
V
C 2FC
I DC
C
2F V
32
Exercise:
Design a power supply, which indicates a transformer, a diode bridge and a
filtering capacitor for output voltage 14 1.5V at load current of 0.5A. The Mains
voltage is 220V/50Hz.
Solution:
The output maximum voltage is 15.5V.
The transformer secondary maximum voltage is:
V2max – V0max +2VD = 15.5 + 1.4 = 16.9V
The secondary effective voltage should be:
Vmax
Veff 12V
2
The required transformer nominal rating is:
220V / 12V 0.5A
F = 50Hz
V = 3V
I DC 0 .5 0 .5
C 1666F
2FV 2 50 3 300
Vi C1 C2 Vo
Figure 5-2.4
This filter reduces the waviness, but we must consider the resistance voltage
drop.
3) To use a LC filter.
Vi C
Figure 5-2.5
33
This is a better filter with minimal voltage drop. The problem is to use a coil
suited for the load current.
4) To use a voltage regulator.
This is the accepted method and it is described in the following section.
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the Analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.
Step 2: Implement the following circuit on the Analog trainer.
D1
Vo
+ R
VS ~ C
1K
0.1F
VS
t
Vo
t
34
Step 6: Measure V.
Step 7: Replace the capacitor with a 100µF capacitor.
Step 8: Measure V.
Step 9: Implement the following circuit.
D1
Vo
+ R
VS ~ C 1K
0.1F
Step 11: Connect the oscilloscope CH1 to VS and the CH2 to Vo.
Step 12: Draw your results on the following graphs.
VS
t
Vo
35
Experiment 5.3 – Linear Voltage Regulators
Objectives:
Power supplies.
Measurements in linear voltage regulators.
Various monolithic regulators.
Equipment required:
Analog trainer
Power supply
A multimeter
An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
Jumper wires
Discussion:
The regulator’s purpose is to supply a fixed direct voltage, which does not depend
on changes in its input voltage or in the current consumption.
The important regulator parameters are:
a) The regulation load current coefficient which is called output resistance:
VOut
R0
I L
b) The regulation input voltage coefficient:
VOut
SV
VIn
Every regulator has a minimum input voltage, which is necessary to maintain the
required output voltage.
The zener breakdown voltage is called VZ. The zener diode symbol is:
A K
Figure 5-3.1
The zener characteristic is as follows:
36
I
V
VZ
Figure 5-3.2
Vo
VZ RL
Vi
Figure 5-3.3
Assuming Vi > VZ and also VRL > VZ (if there is no zener diode) then Vo = VZ.
The R accepts the voltage difference between Vi and VZ. Even if Vi changes, the
voltage on RL is fixed and equal to VZ.
Every zener diode has the maximum power dissipation rating. This rating
determines the zener maximum current. We try to operate the zener in 10-20%
of this maximum current. In this way, the diode will be in the linear part of the
breakdown range and with a lower power than the maximum power rating.
Exercise:
Design a zener circuit for the following values:
Vi = 12 2V
VZ = 6V
37
Pzmax= 3W
RL = 1000
Rd = 5
To determine the value of R we use the minimum value of V i, in order not to get
out the zener range.
10 6
R 71
0.056
Vi R d 45
Vo VL 0.26V
R R d 71 5
Vo 0.26
SV 0.065
Vi 4
Vo Rd
SV
Vi R R d
38
Vo VZ I d R d 0.006 5 0.03V
Vo 0.03
Ro SI 5
I L 0.06
Ro Rd
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the Analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.
Step 2: Implement the following circuit.
R2
Vi Vo
1K
VZ
R2
Vi Vo
1K
RL
VZ 10K
39
Step 10: Measure Vo and calculate IL.
Step 11: Change RL to 4.7K (R44).
Step 12: Measure Vo and calculate IL.
Step 13: Calculate the load current coefficient:
Vo
Ro
I L
We cannot continue to a lower resistor because R 2 = 1K.
Step 14: Implement the following circuit:
IL
Vi = V V R2 IR IB
RL
1K 10K
Vi 7805 Vo
40
T 1 2 3 4
Vi 7 8 9 10
Vo
∆Vo
SV
Step 23: Calculate the regulation input voltage coefficient for each time:
Vo
SV
VIn
Step 24: Draw your conclusion in what Vin we have the smallest SV.
Step 25: Adjust Vi to 10V.
Step 26: Connect RL load register of 1K to Vo.
Step 27: Measure Vo and calculate IL.
Step 28: Change RL to 100.
Step 29: Measure Vo and calculate IL.
Step 30: Calculate the load current coefficient:
Vo
Ro
I L
Step 31: Implement the following circuit.
7805 Vo
R1
1K
VS ~
R2
100
41
Experiment 5.4 – Step-Down Switching Regulator
Objectives:
Equipment required:
Analog trainer
Power supply
A multitester
An oscilloscope or PC with SESCOPE
Jumper wires
Discussion:
The linear regulator is very simple for use and implementation. Its disadvantage
is its power consumption. This regulator is connected in series with the load and it
dissipates the complement of the power, which does not reach the load.
Suppose we use a 5V regulator and our input voltage is 12V (as in the trainer).
12V 7805
RL
Figure 5-4.1
The load voltage is 5V so the voltage that falls on the regulator is 7V. If the load
current is 0.5A, than the load power is 2.5W and the regulator power dissipation
is 3.5W.
Because of the input voltage fluctuation, we have to use a high DC level input
voltage.
A switching regulator operates entirely differently. It is based on a large reservoir
capacitor and a charging inductor coil.
42
Vin
ILimit
+ +
- +
Cin
Oscillator S
+ R
-
PWM
+
-
L
Thermal
+
Reference
+
+ R1
- Vo
Comparator +
C0
R2
CF
Figure 5-4.2
The regulator includes a comparator circuit, which compares the output voltage
with the required voltage. If the output voltage is lower than the required
voltage, then the regulator charges the capacitor through the coil L with current
pulses.
On every break of the pulse, the current is maintained by the coil (according to
Lenz’s law) through a Schottky diode connected to it.
This kind of charging enables us to supply different input voltages, even very high
ones to the regulator. Very little power is dissipated by the regulator.
In the Analog trainer, we use the 34166 regulator.
The circuit is aimed for step down and step up (described later).
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SW4
SW5
SW6
Figure 5-4.3
R1 and R2 determine the part of Vo that reaches the feedback input (FDBK).
Changing them changes the Vo voltage.
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the Analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.
Step 2: Place the jumper on SW4.
SW4
SW5
SW6
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Without load, the pulses are very narrow. In SESCOPE they may be seen
as uncompleted pulses.
Step 8: Connect the 100 load resistor to the output of the regulator.
How the load affects the SWOUT pulses?
+ R
-
PWM
+ L
-
Thermal
+
Reference
+
+ R1
- Vo
Comparator +
C0
R2
CF
Figure 5-26
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The step up regulator includes a switching transistor. In the charging pulse, make
state the transistor connects the coil to ground and drives current through it. In
the "break" state, the coil is disconnected from ground and its current flows to the
capacitor and charges it with a positive voltage.
Capacitor charging does not depend on the input voltage, even if it is a lower
voltage, due to the Schottky diode between the capacitor and the coil.
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the Analog trainer to the power supply and the power supply to
the Mains.
Step 2: Place the jumper on SW5.
R1
R2
PROJECT
1. Design and Construct a feedback Amplifier
2. Design and Construct a Stabilized Power Supply Unit
3. Design and Construct a Wien Bridge Oscillator
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