MAE 309

Fluids Mechanics,
Fluid Properties
Fluid Mechanics
l The study of fluid mechanics is subdivided into
l Fluid Statics (often called hydrostatics) deals with fluids at rest;
l Fluid Kinematics deals with velocity/acceleration of fluid flow;
l Fluid Dynamics deals with the forces related to fluid motion.
Fluid Mechanics
l Fluid mechanics is governed by the laws of
physics:

l Conservation of mass,
l Laws of classical mechanics (Newton's laws of
motion), and
l Laws of thermodynamics (e.g. energy conservation).
Dimensions and Units

4
Dimensions and Units
SI Units

In accordance to Newton’s law, 1 N is the force required to

accelerate a mass of 1 kg at 1 m/s2.
Dimensions and Units
The U.S. Customary System (USCS) is a gravitational system (i.e. uses force
as a fundamental dimension) in use in the United States.

Unit of length is the foot, unit of force is the pound (lb or lbf), unit of time is the
second, and the unit of temperature is the Rankine (oR). The unit of mass is the
slug, which is derived from the unit of force:

The slug is defined as the mass that accelerates at 1 ft/sec2 when acted
upon by a force of 1 pound:

1 lb
F = ma 1 lb = 1 slug x 1 ft/sec2 1 slug =
1 ft/sec2
The abbreviation for pound is
sometimes expressed as “lbf" rather
than “lb" (1 lb = 1 lbf).

USCS units are sometimes called English units, Imperial units, or British Gravitational units.
Dimensions and Units
The English Engineering system of units is almost identical to the USCS. In the
English Engineering system
• Both force and mass are taken as fundamental dimensions
• Pound mass (lbm) is used as the unit of mass.

A force of 1 lb will accelerate a mass of 1 lbm at a rate of 32.174 ft/sec2 ,

which is the acceleration due to gravity.

1 lb = 32.174 lbm . ft/s2

1.0000 slug = 32.174 lbm

1 lbm ≡ 0.45359237 kg.

Dimensions and Units

Some Conversions Ratios

1 lb ≈ 4.448 N.

Work = Force × Distance

1 J = 1 N·m 1 cal = 4.1868 J 1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

8
Dimensions and Units
Relationship between degree Rankine and degree Fahrenheit (oF)

TR = TF + 459.67 where TR and TF are temperatures in degrees Rankine and

degrees Fahrenheit, respectively.

Note that (a change of) 1 oR = 1 oF.

An ideal gas theoretically has zero energy when the temperature is equal to 0 oR.

Standard Temperature and Pressure

•Standard temperature is 15 ◦C (59 ◦F)
•Standard pressure is 101.3 kPa (14.70 lb/in2).

These standard conditions roughly represent average atmospheric

conditions at sea level at 40◦ latitude.
Standard Temperature and
Pressure
In analyzing fluid behavior, reference is commonly made to standard
temperature and pressure.

•Standard temperature is 15 ◦C (59 ◦F)

•Standard pressure is 101.3 kPa (14.70 lb/in2).

These standard conditions roughly represent average atmospheric

conditions at sea level at 40◦ latitude.
Dimensional Homogeneity
All equations derived from fundamental physical laws must be dimensionally
homogeneous:
(1) all terms in a summation must have the same dimensions,
(2) terms on both sides of an equal sign also must have the same dimensions.

Example:
Determine if the following equation is dimensionally homogenous:

π dV
2 2
mg − CD ρV D = m
8 dt
m is mass of dimension (M),
g is acceleration due to gravity, of dimension (LT-2),
CD is a dimensionless drag coefficient (no dimension),
ρ is density of dimension (ML-3),
V is velocity of dimension (LT-1), and
t is time of dimension (T).
Dimensional Homogeneity
All equations derived from fundamental physical laws must be dimensionally
homogeneous:
(1) all terms in a summation must have the same dimensions,
(2) terms on both sides of an equal sign also must have the same dimensions.

Issustrative Example:
Determine if the following equation is dimensionally homogenous:

π dV 2 2
mg − CD ρV D = m
8 dt
m is mass [M], g is acceleration due to gravity [LT-2], CD is a dimensionless
drag coefficient, ρ is density [ML-3], V is velocity [LT-1], and t is time [T].

π dV [M][LT-2] – [ML-3][LT-1]2[L]2 = [M][LT-1]/[T]

mg − CD ρV 2 D 2 = m
8 dt
[M][LT-2] - [M][LT-2] = [M][LT-2]
 Continuum Idealization
Fluids, as well as solids, are made up of discrete molecules. It is convenient
to disregard the atomic nature of a fluid and view it as a continuous,
homogeneous matter with no holes (a continuum).

Despite the gaps between molecules, a substance can

be treated as a continuum because of the very large
number of molecules in an extremely small volume.
Example: there are about 2.5 x1016 molecules of oxygen
in 1 mm3 at 1 atm pressure and 20°C.

The continuum idealization is valid as long as the size of the system

we deal with is large relative to the space between the molecules.
Under normal temperatures and pressures, the spacing of molecules
is on the order of 10-6 mm for gasses, and 10-7 mm for liquids.
At very high vacuums or very high elevations, the mean free path may
become large (Mean free path is about 0.1 m for atmospheric air at an
elevation of 100 km).
Continuum Idealization
The continuum idealization allows us to treat fluid properties as varying
continually in space with no discontinuities.

The continuum approximation is sometimes considered applicable for

volumes as small as 10-9 mm3.
Fluid Properties
The behavior of a fluid depends on its properties. In fluid mechanics, fluids differ
from one another to the extent that their properties are different.

Physical properties of fluids that are of importance:

l Density, Specific Volume l Surface Tension

l Specific Gravity, l Vapor Pressure
l Specific Weight l Bulk Modulus
l Viscosity l Specific Heats
l Speed of Sound
Density and Specific Gravity
Specific gravity, SG:
Density The ratio of the density of a
m substance to the density of
ρ= ( kg/m3 ) some standard substance ρ
V at a specified temperature SG =
(usually water at 4°C). ρH O
2
Specific volume
V 1 Specific weight, γ:
υ= = The weight of a unit γ = ρg ( N/m3 )
m ρ volume of a substance.

Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.

16
Fluid Properties
Specific Volume
The specific volume, υ, is the volume per unit mass and is therefore the
reciprocal of the density:

volume of substance
specific volume, υ =
mass of substance

Specific Gravity, SG
The specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of the fluid to the
density of water at some temperature (usually 4oC)

density of liquid ρ
specific gravity, SG = SG =
density of water at 4 o C ρH O@4 o
C
2

Density of water at 4oC: ρ = 1000 kg/m3 = 1.94 slugs/ft3

In some specialized applications, a reference temperature of 15.56◦C (60◦F) is
used instead of 4◦C, (petroleum industry). However, because the density of
water is 999.04 kg/m3 at 15.56◦C, the adjusted reference temperature changes
the specific gravity by less than 0.1%.

Specific Gravity of a Gas

The specific gravity of a gas is the ratio of its density to that of either hydrogen
or air at some specified temperature and pressure; the specific gravity of a gas
is a seldom-used quantity.
Fluid Properties
Specific weight, γ
The specific weight (or weight density) of a fluid, γ, is defined as the weight
per unit volume:

g = local acceleration of gravity.

In BG system, γ has units of lb/ft3. In SI the units are N/m3.

Under conditions of standard gravity, water at 60 °F:

kN lb
γH O = 9.80 3 = 62.4 3
2
m ft
Fluid Properties
Density
The densities of most gases are directly proportional to pressure and
inversely proportional to temperature.

The densities of most liquids are relatively insensitive to pressure but

depend on temperature.

In comparison to gasses, liquids are commonly regarded as

incompressible.
Solids vs Fluids
Solids
Individual molecules (or atoms) are held together by relatively strong
forces; the individual molecules can only vibrate around an average
position without any net movement. The molecules are closely packed in
a regular pattern.

Liquids and Gases

In a liquid, the molecules move relatively slowly past one another. In a
gas, the molecules move freely at high speeds. The molecules are close
together but do not have a fixed position relative to each other.
In gases, the molecules are relatively widely spaced and move about
independent of each other.
Liquids and Gases

l Liquids are practically incompressible; gases are

compressible (insensitive to pressure).
l Liquids occupy definite volumes and have free
surfaces; gas occupies all of any containing vessel.

Liquids Gases

Closely spaced with large Widely spaced with small

intermolecular cohesive forces intermolecular cohesive forces

Retains volume but takes Takes volume and shape

shape of container shape of container

ρ ~ constant ρ = function of (p,T)

Fluid Properties
Liquids vs Gases
A 1% change in density of water at 1 atm requires a change in pressure
of about 210 atm. In contrast, a 1% change in the density of air at 1 atm
requires a change in pressure of only 0.01 atm.
Liquids are about three orders of magnitude more dense than gases,
with mercury being one of the denser liquids ( = 13,580 kg/m3) and
hydrogen being the lightest gas ( = 0.0838 kg/m3).
Fluid Properties
Density of Water
For most liquids, density decreases as temperature increases.
Pure water has the unusual property that density increases with temperature between 0
and 4◦C, and then decreases with temperature for temperatures higher than 4◦C; hence
water has its maximum density at 4◦C.

Density of water as a function of temperature in the ranges, 0-100◦C and 0-10◦C.

Fluid Properties

Density of Water/Liquids
This unique property of water explains why when temperatures drop to near
freezing (i.e., near 0◦C) over a lake or other water body, the colder less-dense water
“floats" to the top causing ice to form from the top down, rather than ice forming
from the bottom up as would occur if water had the monotonic density properties
of most other liquids, which would lead to the denser colder water being on the
bottom.
Fluid Properties
Salinity
Seawater is a mixture of pure water various salts. The salt content of seawater is
commonly measured by the salinity, S:

Average salinity of seawater is typically taken

as 0.035.

At salinity of 0.035, average density is 1030 kg/m3.

The addition of salt to water increases the density of the water, suppresses the
temperature at which the maximum density occurs, and suppresses the freezing point of
the water.
“Road salt" is applied to prevent the formation of ice on roads.
The effect of salt on increasing the density of water explains why seawater
intrudes below fresh water in coastal areas.
Density of Air/Gasses
By volume, standard (dry) air contains approximately 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95%
oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other
gases.
Atmospheric air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, (an average
volumetric content of around 1%).
At the standard atmospheric pressure of 101.3 kPa (14.70 lbf/in2), the density of
standard air at a temperature of 15◦C is 1.225 kg/m3.

The density of standard air/gasses is a function of temperature and pressure.

Ideal Gas Law

pV = nRuT p = ρRT This is the form most commonly

used in Fluid Mechanics

p is pressure, V is volume occupied by the gas, n is number of moles, T is absolute temperature, R u is universal
gas constant, R (gas constant) = R u /M, where M is molar mass.
Ideal Gas Law
pV = nRuT p = ρRT This is the form most commonly
used in Fluid Mechanics

p is pressure, V is volume occupied by gas, n is number of moles, T is absolute temperature, Ru

is universal gas constant, R (gas constant) = Ru /M, where M is molar mass (aka molecular
weight), kg/mol.
Ru
R ( gas consant ) = Ru = 8:31424621 J/mol.K
M

n( MR)
pV = nRuT pV = n( MR)T p= T
V
mass m nM n( MR)
The gas density: ρ= = = p= T = ρRT
volume V V V

p = ρRT
Variation of Density with Altitude
Standard atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa) is typically used to approximate
conditions at sea level.
The density of air at elevations above sea level typically decrease with increasing
altitude, which is the net result of decreasing pressure and decreasing temperature
with altitude.
The variation of air density with altitude in a standard atmosphere is given in
Appendix B.3.
Mixtures of Ideal Gasses
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
Mixture of different gases, (eg air: nitrogen, oxygen, and other gasses),
can be analyzed by assuming that the other gasses are not present.
Dalton's law of partial pressures: each gas exerts its own pressure, called
the partial pressure, as if the other gasses were not present.
For a given volume, the pressure exerted by the mixture is the sum of the
(partial) pressures exerted by each of the gas components.
Mixtures of Ideal Gasses
In some cases, a mixture of gasses is treated as a single gas (i.e., pure
substance) with an equivalent molar mass. This approach is not exact,
since the relative molar concentrations change with temperature and
pressure.
For a common gas mixture such as air, the mixture ratio remains
approximately constant at a pressure of 1 atm and temperatures in the
range of -113◦C to 1900◦C, with the equivalent molar mass of standard
air generally taken as 28.96 g/mol.
The gas constant for air, Rair, is derived from the universal gas constant,
Ru, and the composite molar mass of air, Mair (= 28.96 g/mol):
Mixtures of Ideal Gasses
Mixtures of gasses are sometimes expressed in terms of the fraction of volume
occupied by each of the constituent gasses, (e.g, air is said to consist of 78%
nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gasses.)

The volume fractions in a mixture can be derived directly from the mole
fractions.

ni M i RT ( R / M i )T ni RuT
Vi = = ni M i = ni M i u =
ρi p p p
Mixtures of Ideal Gasses
Mole fraction of component i = ni/nT,

Volume fraction Vi/V is given by

Vi ni RuT ni RuT n
= = = i
V pV p(nT RuT / p) nT
Mixtures of Ideal Gasses
Example 1.6
Typical ambient air at 20◦C and 101.4 kPa (atmospheric pressure) contains 21%
oxygen by volume. The molar mass of the ambient air is 28.96 g, and the molar
mass of oxygen is 32 g. In a particular case, 20 N of ambient air is pumped into
a tank with a capacity of 21.2 L.
(a) What volume of ambient air is compressed?
(b) What is the gage pressure of the air in the tank. Assume that the temperature
of the compressed air in the tank is 20◦C.
(c) What is the partial pressure and specific weight of the ambient oxygen?
(d) What weight of oxygen is put in the tank?
(e) What is the partial pressure and specific weight of the oxygen in the tank?
Mixtures of Ideal Gasses
(a)
Weight of Air
Weight of Air = Volume of Air, Vair × γ air Volume of Air , Vair =
γ air
pair pair p M Air: p
γ air = ρ air g = g= g = air air g T = 20 + 273 = 293 K
ρ=
RTair ( Ru / M air )Tair RuTair RT
p = 101.4 kPa
R u = 8.3142 J/mol.K
M = 28.96 g/mol

pair M air (101.4 ×10 3 N / m 2 )(28.96 ×10 −3 kg / mol )

γ= g= 9.81 m / s 2 = 11.83 N / m3
RuTair (8.314 J / mol ⋅ K ) × 293 K

Weight of ambient air pumped into tank = 20 N. Volume of air pumped in tank is

Weight of Air 20 N
Volume of Air , Vair = = 3
= 1.692m3
γ air 11.83 N / m
(b) What is the gage pressure of the air in the tank. Assume that the temperature
of the compressed air in the tank is 20◦C.

Compressing a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature is described by

p p
ρ= → = constant → pV = constant

p2V2 = p1V1 p1 = 101.3 kPa, RT ρ

V1 = 1.693 m3, V2 = 21.2 L = 0.0212 m3.

The gauge pressure of the air in the tank

is 8090 kPa - 101:3 kPa = 7989 kPa.

(c) What is the partial pressure and specific weight of the ambient oxygen?

pV = nRT If pO2 = partial pressure of oxygen (O2) in any volume, V , of

ambient air at a pressure p, then the ideal gas law gives

pairV pO2V pO2 nO2 nair and nO2 are the number of moles of air and the number
= = RT =
of moles of O2 , respectively, in a volume V of ambient air.
nair nO2 pair nair

Given pair = 101.3 kPa and nO2/nair = 0.21 pO2 = (101.2)(0.21) = 21.3 kPa
 p p pM
γ O = ρO g = g= g= g
2 2
RT ( Ru / M )T RuT

Specific weight oxygen in ambient air:

(d) Weight of oxygen put into the tank (same as weight of oxygen in ambient air):
p1 and V1 are the partial pressure of O2 and volume of ambient air (volume of O2),
respectively, and p2 and V2 are the partial pressure of O2 and volume of the tank,
(volume of O2 in tank) respectively.

Taking p1 = 21:3 kPa, V1 = 1:693 m3, and V2 = 0:0212 m3,

Polytropic process
Under some conditions, when a fixed mass of gas contained within a
closed system is expanded or compressed, the relationship between
density and pressure can be expressed as

⎧0 isobaric process
⎪1 isothermal process
⎪⎪
p p1 n = ⎨k isentropic process = reversible ( frictionless) and adiabatic
= = constant ⎪< k expansion with friction
ρn ρ1n ⎪
⎪⎩> k compression with friction
cp
Isentropic Process: n = k k ( specific heat ratio) =
cv

n −1
p1 p2 ρ1 RT1 ρ 2 RT2 T2 ⎛ ρ 2 ⎞
= = = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
ρ1n ρ 2n ρ1n ρ 2n T1 ⎝ ρ 2 ⎠
n −1
p1 p2 p1 p2 T2 ⎛ p2 ⎞ n
n
= n = = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
ρ 1 ρ 2 ( p1 / RT1 ) n ( p2 / RT2 ) n T1 ⎝ p1 ⎠
Polytropic process
Example 1.49
A cylinder contains 0.3 m3 of air at 20◦C and 120 kPa pressure. The air in the
cylinder is compressed isentropically with a piston mechanism to a pressure of
700 kPa. What is the temperature of the air after compression?
Polytropic process
Given data: V1 = 0.3 m3, T1 = 20◦C = 293 K, p1 = 120 kPa, and p2 = 700 kPa.
Fluid properties of air: k = 1.40, and R = 287:1 J/(kg K).

n
p p1 p1 p2 ⎛ ρ2 ⎞ p Isentropic process,
= = constant n
= n ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2
n=k
ρn ρ1n ρ 1 ρ 2 ⎝ ρ1 ⎠ p1

Initial Density 1/ n 1/ n 1/ 1.4

⎛p ⎞ ⎛p ⎞ kg ⎛ 700 ⎞ kg
ρ 2 = ρ1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ρ 2 = ρ1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = 1.427 3 ⎜ ⎟ = 5.02930
⎝ p1 ⎠ m ⎝ 120 ⎠ m3
⎝ p1 ⎠

p2 700 ×10 3 Pa
p2 = ρ2 RT2 T2 = = = 485 K
ρ 2 R 5.0293(kg / m3 ) × (287 J / kg .K )

n −1 n −1 1.4−1
T2 ⎛ p2 ⎞ n ⎛p ⎞ n
⎛ 700 ⎞ 1.4
=⎜ ⎟ T2 = T1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = 293⎜ ⎟ = 485.0 K
T1 ⎜⎝ p1 ⎟⎠ ⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎝ 120 ⎠
Fluids
A fluid deforms continuously when acted on by a
shearing stress of any magnitude.

Fluids flow when a shear stress is applied.

Response of a Solid to Shear Stress
Solids resist shear stress by static deformation, up to a limit, after which they
undergo fracture.
Response of a Fluid to Shear Stress

Solids vs Fluids
Fluids cannot sustain a shear (tangential) force. If a shear force is
applied
• Fluids deform continuously
• Solids deform or bend (to a fixed new length)

A fluid deforms continuously when acted on by a shearing stress.

 Response of a Fluid to Shear Stress

Consider Fluid (e.g. Water) placed between two very wide parallel plates.

Fluid between plates moves

with velocity u = u(y).

• Fluid in contact with upper plate moves with the plate velocity, U.
• Fluid in contact with the bottom fixed plate has a zero velocity.

Note: No Slip at Boundaries.

The rate at which the angle δβ changes with time will be different for different fluids.
Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
Whenever a moving fluid is in contact with a solid surface, the velocity of the
fluid at the solid boundary must necessarily be equal to the velocity at which the
surface is moving; this is called the no-slip condition.
Response of a Fluid to Shear Stress
Consider a rectangular fluid element. The element is acted upon by shear
stresses, τ, on the upper and lower surface.

Shape of element at time t is

ABCD;
Shape of element at t + Δt is
A′B′C′D′.

Angle Δθ [rad] is shear strain in time

interval Δt resulting from shear
Shearing strain rate = Δθ/Δt stress, τ.

Δθ ⎛ Δθ ⎞ µ is the proportionality constant between

τ∝ τ = µ⎜ ⎟ shear stress, τ and shear strain rate, Δθ/Δt.
Δt ⎝ Δt ⎠
µ is called the dynamic viscosity.
Response of a Fluid to Shear Stress
If the velocity of the bottom surface of fluid element is u, and the
velocity of the top surface is u + Δu, then for small values of Δθ,

Δθ Δu
=
Δt Δy

The dynamic viscosity, µ, is also called

the coefficient of viscosity, absolute
viscosity, or simply the viscosity.

Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Taking the limit as Δy → 0 yields

This equation referred to as Newton's law of viscosity

was first suggested by Sir Isaac Newton.
Response of a Fluid to Shear Stress

A fluid deforms continuously under the influence of shear stress, no matter

how small the shear stress.

In solids, stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids, stress is proportional to

strain rate.

The “viscosity“ of a fluid refers to the fluid's resistance to flow.

Fluids with higher viscosities do not flow as readily as fluids with lower
viscosities under the same applied (shear) stress.
Application to flow between at plates (lubrication)
Calculation of the shear force exerted by a fluid on a solid surface when the fluid
is moving relative to the surface.
Consider a fluid contained between two flat plates a distance h apart, where the
top surface is moving at a constant velocity V and the bottom surface is stationary.
This case could also be representative of cases in which both plates are moving,
with the top plate moving at a constant velocity V relative to the bottom plate.

The forces acting on an element of fluid

between the plates are illustrated in Figure
where the fluid element has dimensions Δx, Δy,
Δz, the upstream and downstream pressures on
the fluid element are p1 and p2, respectively, the
shear forces on the bottom and top surfaces are
τ1 and τ2, respectively, and the flow direction is
normal to the (vertical) direction in which
gravity acts.
Force on top surface
Response of a Fluid to Shear Stress
Newtonian Fluids
Newton's law of viscosity: With fluids, shear stress is proportional to
shear strain rate:

The constant of proportionality m is called the absolute viscosity, dynamic

viscosity, or simply the viscosity of the fluid.

Viscosity is the fluid property that relates shearing stress and fluid motion.

This linear proportionality between the shear stress, τ , and the strain
rate, du/dy, only exists for a class of fluids called Newtonian fluids.
Newtonian Fluids
The linear proportionality between the shear stress, τ ,
and strain rate, du/dy, only exists for a class of fluids
called Newtonian fluids.

Plot of τ versus du/dy is linear with the

slope equal to the viscosity.

The actual value of the viscosity

depends on the particular fluid.

Most common fluids, both liquids and

gases, are Newtonian.

Examples of Newtonian fluids include

water, air, oil, gasoline, alcohol,
kerosene, benzene, and glycerine.

Note: absolute viscosity µ does not change with the rate of deformation.
Non-Newtonian Fluids

Non-Newtonian Fluids:
Shearing stress is not linearly
related to the rate of shearing
strain.
The slope of the shearing
stress versus rate of shearing
strain is denoted as the
apparent viscosity, µap.
Kinematic Viscosity, v
In fluid flow problems viscosity often appears in combination with density.
We define kinematic viscosity, v, as

Kinematic Viscosity and has the dimensions of L2/T

Values of viscosity/kinematic viscosity for common fluids are listed in your Text.
Factors affecting Viscosity.

Liquids: viscosity is practically independent of pressure, and any small

variation in pressure is usually disregarded except at extremely high
pressures.

Gasses: viscosity is relatively insensitive to moderate pressure changes.

For example, increasing the pressure of air from 1 atm to 50 atm at 20◦C
increases the absolute viscosity by about 10%.

Liquids and gasses: viscosity is sensitive to changes in temperature. As

the temperature increases, the viscosities of all liquids decrease, while the
viscosities of all gasses increase.
This is because the force of cohesion, which diminishes with temperature,
predominates with liquids, while with gasses the predominant factor is the
interchange of molecules between layers of different velocities. Molecular
interchange between layers causes a shear and produces a friction force. At
higher temperatures, molecular activity increases, causing the viscosity of
gasses to increase with temperature.
Viscosity of water and other fluids.

The viscosity of water varies nonlinearly between 1.78 mPa.s at 0◦C, and
0.282 mPa.s at 100◦C, with a viscosity of 1.00 mPa.s at 20◦C. The
(dynamic) viscosity of water as a function of temperature is given in
Appendix B.1.

A commonly-used viscosity unit is the poise [P], which is equivalent to 0.1

Pa.s, and a centipoise [cP] is one hundredth of a poise.

The viscosities of several fluids at standard atmospheric pressure (101

kPa) and 20◦C are listed in Table 1.6.
Fluid Subjected to Shear Stress
Example
SAE 30 oil at 20oC is used as a lubricant to slide a large at plate over a stationary at
surface. A 0.5-mm thickness of oil is contained between the plate and the stationary
surface, and the plate is moved at a velocity of 0.7 m/s. Estimate the shear stress on the
plate and on the stationary surface. In what directions do these shear stresses act?
 This must be evaluated at the
location (value of y) in fluid.
du du du V
τ =µ =? = = constant for all
dy dy dy h values of y

The magnitude of the shear stress on the plate is h = 0.5 mm

V = 0.7 m/s
du V 0.7 m / s For SAE oil at 20o C;
τ top = µ =µ = (440 ×10 −3 Pa.s) −3
= 616 N / m 2 = 616 Pa µ = 440 mPa.s
dy y =h
h 0.5 ×10 m

The magnitude of the shear stress on the stationary surface is

du V 0.7 m / s
τ bottom = µ =µ = (440 ×10 −3 Pa.s) −3
= 616 N / m 2 = 616 Pa
dy y =0
h 0.5 ×10 m

Although the shear stresses on the moving plate and the stationary surface are
equal in magnitude, they do not act in the same direction.
The shear stress on the (top) moving plate acts in the opposite direction to the
plate movement. Fluid acts to retard the motion of the plate.
The shear stress on the (bottom) stationary surface acts in the same direction
as the plate movement.
 Fluid Subjected to Shear Stress

Example
SAE 30 oil at 20oC undergoes steady shear between a fixed lower plate and
an upper plate moving at a speed of V = 3 m/s. The clearance between the
plate is h = 2 cm. Compute the shear stress in the oil in Pascal.

The no-slip condition for viscous fluids states that at a solid boundary, the fluid will have zero velocity relative to the boundary.
 Response of a Fluid to Shear Stress

V du V
u= y τ =µ
dy
=µ
h
h

From Tables: For SAE 30 oil, µ = 0.44 kg/(m.s)

0.44 kg /(m.s) × 3 m / s
τ= = 66 kg /(m.s 2 ) = 66 N / m 2 = 66 Pa
0.02 s

The no-slip condition for viscous fluids states that at a solid boundary, the fluid
will have zero velocity relative to the boundary.
 Response of a Fluid to Shear Stress

Example :Viscous Force Calculation

A 25-mm-diameter shaft is pulled through a cylindrical bearing as shown in the Figure.

The lubricant that fills the 0.3-mm gap between the shaft and bearing is an oil having a
kinematic viscosity of 8.0 x 10-4 m2/s and a specific gravity of 0.91. Determine the force
P required to pull the shaft at a velocity of 3 m/s, and the power expended. Assume the
velocity distribution in the gap is linear.
∑F x =0 P = τA = τ (πDL) Where is the shaft length in the bearing

du velocity of shaft V
τ =µ =µ =µ
dy gap width b

V µ = ρv ρ = SG × ρ H O!@ 4 C = 0.91×1000 kg / m3 = 910 kg / m3

P = µ (πDL) ) 2
o

P=
(8.0 ×10 −4
)( )
m 2 / s 910 kg / m3 (3 m / s )(π × 0.025m × 0.5m)
= 286 N
0.0003 m

Note:
Power = Force x Velocity = P x V = 286 N x 3 m/s = 858 N.m/s = 858 J/s = 858 W
 Response of a Fluid to Shear Stress

Example
A shaft with outside diameter of 18 mm turns at 20 revolutions per second
inside a stationary journal bearing 60 mm long. A thin film of oil 0.2 mm thick
fills the concentric annulus between the shaft and the journal. The torque
needed to turn the shaft is 0.0036 N.m. Estimate the viscosity of the oil that
fills the gas.
 Assumptions: 1) Newtonian fluid; 2) Gap os narrow, so velocity profile is
linear

du
τ =µ
dy

du U ωD
τ =µ =µ =µ
dy t 2t

µπωD3 L
Torque, T = shear force × R = (τ × Area)R = τ (πD)(D / 2) =
4t
4tT
µ=
πωD 3 L
3
4 s 1 1 rev 3 mm
µ= × 0.2mm × 0.0036 N ⋅ m × × × × × 1000
π 20rev (18)3 mm3 60mm 2πrad m3

µ = 0.0208N ⋅ s / m2

Comment: From Tables of viscosity, this oil appears somewhat less viscous than SAE
10W, assuming the oil is at room temperature.
Example
The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer constructed of two
40-cm-long concentric cylinders. The outer diameter of the inner cylinder is 12
cm, and the gap between the two cylinders is 0.15 cm. The inner cylinder is
rotated at 300 rpm, and the torque is measured to be 1.8 N . m. Determine the
viscosity of the fluid.
SOLUTION The torque and the rpm of a double cylinder viscometer are given.
The viscosity of the fluid is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The inner cylinder is completely submerged in oil. 2 The viscous
effects on the two ends of the inner cylinder are negligible.
Analysis The velocity profile is linear only when curvature effects are negligible,
and the profile can be approximated as being linear in this case since l/R << 1.

du U ωR
τ =µ =µ =µ ω = 2πn!
dy ! !
n! = revolutions per second
Shear force = τ x 2πRL

Torque, T = Shear force x R = τ2πR2L

2 ωR 2πωR 3 L
2 4π 2 n"R 3 L
T = τ × 2πR L = µ 2πR L = µ =µ
! ! !
T" (1.8 N ⋅ m)(0.0015 m)
µ= 2 3 µ= = 0.158 N ⋅ s / m 2
= 0.158 Pa ⋅ s
4π n!R L 4π 2 (300 / 60 s −1 )(0.06 m)3 (0.4 m)
Response of a Fluid to Shear Stress

Non-linear velocity profile

du
τ =µ
dy
 Response of a Fluid to Shear Stress

Example:
A layer of water flows down an inclined fixed surface with the velocity profile
shown in the Fig. Determine the magnitude and direction of the shearing stress
that the water exerts on the fixed surface for U = 2 m/s and h = 0.1 m.

du 2 2y
τ =µ = µ ( − 2 )U
dy h h
Example
SAE Oil Viscosity Ratings
Motor oil or engine oil is oil used for lubrication of
various internal combustion engines. The main
function is to reduce wear on moving parts; it also
cleans, inhibits corrosion, improves sealing, and cools
the engine by carrying heat away from moving parts

The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has

established a numerical code system for grading
motor oils. SAE viscosity gradings include the
following, from low to high viscosity: 0, 5, 10, 15, 20,
25, 30, 40, 50 or 60. SAE 30 oil is less viscous than
SAE 50 oil at a given temperature.

The SAE designation for multi-grade oils includes two viscosity grades.
Example: 10W-30 designates a common multi-grade oil. The '10W' is the
viscosity of the oil at cold temperature and the ’30’ is the viscosity at 100 °C.
Viscosities of Some Common
Fluids
Air Bearings

High pressure air is fed into the gap

between the rotating shaft and a
stationary bearing.

The gap is extremely small (~ 1/100th of a millimeter) allowing the air

pressure to be maintained within the gap. This small gap also significantly
reduces the 'springiness' of the air cushion.
The shaft can then rotate freely as there is very little friction and the air
pressure will ensure the shaft does not come in contact with the stationary
bearing surfaces.
Foil (air) Bearing
Foil bearings (aka foil-air bearings) are a type of air
bearing. A shaft is supported by a compliant, spring-
loaded foil journal lining.
Once the shaft is spinning fast enough, the
working fluid (usually air) pushes the foil away from the
shaft so that there is no contact.
The shaft and foil are separated by the air's high
pressure which is generated by the rotation which pulls
air into the bearing via viscosity effects.
A high speed of the shaft with respect to the foil is
required to initiate the air gap, and once this has been
achieved, no wear occurs.
Unlike aero or hydrostatic bearings, foil bearings require
no external pressurisation system of the working fluid.
A foil-air bearing for the core rotor
shaft of an aircraft turbine engine
Response of a Fluid to Shear Stress

Example
The space between two 6-in.-long concentric cylinders is
filled with glycerin (viscosity = 8.5 x10-3 lb. s/ft2). The inner
cylinder has a radius of 3 in. and the gap width between
cylinders is 0.1 in. Determine the torque and the power
required to rotate the inner cylinder at 180 rev/min. The
outer cylinder is fixed. Assume the velocity distribution in
the gap to be linear.
Let F is the total tangential force on the inner cylinder. For
a linear velocity distribution in the gap:
Example
For a linear velocity distribution in the gap:
du U ωRi
τ =µ =µ =µ
dy b Ro − Ri
Let F is the total tangential force on the inner cylinder.

F = τΑ = τ .2πRi l
Recall:
Work, W = F θ r = T θ (Joules)
2πRi3lµω θ = angle (radians), r = radius (m)
Torque,T = F .Ri =
Ro − Ri T = torque or moment (Nm)

Power is the rate of doing work

P = dW / dt = T dθ / dt = T ω

Power , P = Torque × ω = T × ω ; ω = ( RPM ) × 2π/60 rad / s

 Example, Continued

Alternatively, the Torque T could be obtained by first computing a differential

Torque dT due to tangential force, dF, on a differential area dA:
dF=τdA; dT= RiτdA; where dA = Ridθl
 Response of a Fluid to Shear Stress

Example
A oil film of viscosity µ and thickness h << R lies between a solid wall and a circular
disk, as in Figure below. The disk is rotated steadily at angular velocity Ω. Noting that
both velocity and shear stress vary with radius r, derive a formula for the torque M
required to rotate the disk. Neglect air drag.
Assumptions: linear velocity profile, laminar flow, no-slip, Newtonian fluid.

Approach:
1) Estimate the shear stress on a circular
strip of width dr and area dA = 2πrdr dT = ( τdA)r

2) Find the torque (moment) dT about the

origin caused by this shear stress.
3) Integrate over the entire disk to find the
total torque (moment) T.
 At radius r, the velocity in the oil is tangential, varying from zero at the fixed
wall (no-slip) to u = Ω r at the disk surface (also no slip).

du Ωr
τ =µ =µ
dy h
The shear stress is everywhere perpendicular to the radius from the origin.
The total torque (moment) of the about the disk origin, caused by shearing this
circular strip is given by
µΩr
dT = (τ )(dA)r = (2πrdr )r
h
2πµΩ R 3 πµΩR 4
T = ∫ dT = r dr =
h ∫0 2h

This simplified analysis neglects possible edge effects, air drag on the top of
the disk, and the turbulence that might ensue if the disk rotates too fast.
Effect of temperature and
Pressure on viscosity
Viscosity is very sensitive to temperature.

Liquids: Viscosity decreased with

temperature. As temperature increases,
cohesive forces are reduced with a
corresponding reduction in resistance to
motion.
E.g: Viscosity of water decreases by ~ 40% as
temperature changes from 60 to 100 °F.

Gases: Viscosity increase with temperature.

Resistance to relative motion arises due to the
exchange of momentum of gas molecules
between adjacent layers.

Viscosity is mildly dependent on pressure and

the effect of pressure is usually neglected.
Effect of temperature on viscosity
Gases: the effect of temperature on viscosity using the Sutherland
equation:

C and S are empirical constants, and T is absolute temperature.

Liquids:

D and B are empirical constants and T is absolute temperature.

Newtonian/Non-Newtonian Fluids

Non-Newtonian Fluids:
Shearing stress is not linearly
related to the rate of shearing
strain.
The slope of the shearing
stress versus rate of shearing
strain is denoted as the
apparent viscosity, µap.
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Shear thinning: µap decreases with increasing shear rate—the harder
the fluid is sheared, the less viscous it becomes. Many colloidal
suspensions and polymer solutions are shear thinning. Example, latex
paint.

Shear Thickening: µap increases with increasing shear rate—the harder

the fluid is sheared, the more viscous it becomes. Common examples of
this type of fluid include water-corn starch mixture

Bingham Plastics: This is neither a fluid nor a solid. Bingham plastics

can withstand a finite, nonzero shear stress, τyield, (yield stress) without
motion. Once the yield stress is exceeded it flows like a fluid. Toothpaste
and mayonnaise are common examples.