bLklzvf

-cg';Gwfgd"ns jflif{s k|sfzg_

jif{ @% cª\s !& k"0ff{ª\s !^ @)&!

;+/Ifs
uf]ljGbaxfb'/ sfsL{

k|wfg ;Dkfbs
wL/s'df/ >]i7

;Dkfbs
afnfs[i0f clwsf/L
uf}/j e§/fO{

;Dkfbg ;xof]uL
u+ufk|;fb lzjfsf]6L

k|sfzs
sf]6]Zj/ ax'd'vL SofDk;
sf]6]Zj/, dxfb]j:yfg, sf7df8f}F

k|sfzs M sf]6]Zj/ ax'd'vL SofDk;
sf]6]Zj/, dxfb]j:yfg
sf7df8f}F
kmf]g g+= )!–$!%%!$%, $!%%@^^
kf]:6 aS; g+= !#@#(, sf7df8f}F

k|sfzg jif{ M @)&!

;xof]u ?= M !)).–

sDKo'6/ n] cfp6 M ;'lgn dxh{g

d'b|s M n'ldnf lk|lG6ª k|];, aa/dxn, sf7df8f}+

kmf]g g+= M $@%!*##
 
On the happy occasion of Silver Jubilee of the establishment of
Koteshwar Multiple Campus (KMC), I would like to extend my warm
congratulations to all the students, parents, entire faculty as well as
the management committee members for being part of the fruitful and
successful journey of KMC over the last twenty-five years. I take this
grand opportunity to greatly value their indefatigable efforts which, I
believe, have immeasurably contributed in bringing the abiding pride
to KMC. I would also like to thank all the well wishers for showing
both love and trust in KMC. I also take this opportunity to express best
wishes for the continued success of KMC as well as of the students and
faculty members in the days ahead. I am confident that the enabling
environment for excellence will be further nurtured by the creativity
and diligence of the students; dedication and wisdom of the teaching
faculties; and good planning and far-sighted vision of the manage-
ment committee.
The year 2047 BS (1990 A.D.) was just like any other year in
the calendar but it has been very fascinatingly connected with our
present as well as with our future. Time does not pass, it continues!
I have taken the twenty-five years of KMC as a good start for a more
wonderful and more successful future of KMC. It should not go with-
out saying that it requires more perseverance, more efforts and more
contribution. I sincerely hope that with collective efforts of all the stu-
dents, parents, faculty members, management committee and well
wishers as well, KMC will be able to achieve its long cherished vision
of contributing to bringing positive and constructive changes in the
society with its quality education at affordable price. It is very exciting
to note that KMC is getting along with its vision and we are ready for
unfolding more successful chapters in the future. In fact, it is really
inspiring. It is a matter of great satisfaction that the special edition of
the Deepshikha is being published by including more such stories of
inspirations.
It is worthwhile to mention at this point of time that KMC
started its humble journey with just 49 students and few TU teachers
in 2047 BS. Now the Campus has more than two thousand students
and around five dozen dedicated quality teachers. Apart from the fac-
ulties of Commerce, Education and Humanities, the Campus is plan-
ning to launch more streams and specializations as per the demand of
time and need of the society. The Campus has also paid due attention
to incorporate latest technologies in teaching-learning modules. It is
hoped that such advancements promoted by the Campus for qualita-
tive education will be much more easier after constructing and shift-
ing to its own building in the space provided by the Government in
Jadibuti.
Lastly, I again wish KMC a complete success in its vision and
mission, and all those associated with the Campus even brighter and
more successful days ahead. I also wish a success of the publication
Deepshikha.

Thank you!
14 January 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Mahendra Bahadur Pandey

Chairman
Campus Managing Committee
Koteshwor Multiple Campus
 
@)$& ;fnb]lv ;fd'bflos ¿kdf ;~rflnt o; sf]6]Zj/ ax'd'vL
SofDk; ;dfh kl/jt{g ug{ ;Sg] bIf tyf u'0fjfg\ ljBfyL{ pTkfbg ug]{ p2]Zosf
;fy ;~rflnt 5 . lj1fg / k|ljlwsf] pRrtd\ lj:tf/ eO{ tbg'¿k ;~rflnt
ljZj kl/b[Zodf cfhsf] lzIffn] lgDg lnlvt cfjZostf k'/f ug{ ;Sg] hgzlSt
pTkfbg ug{ ;Sg'k5{ M
!= ljZj ahf/df k|lt:kwf{ ug{ ;Sg] cGt/f{li6«o u'0f:t/sf] hgzlSt,
@= b]zsf] :yfgLo ;|f]t / ;fwgsf] ;d'lrt pkof]u u/L :jfanDaL hLjg
ofkg ug{ ;Sg] Jofjxfl/s tyf k|fljlws hgzlSt /
#= /fli6«o p2]Zo k|fKt ug{ ;Sg] bIf / ;Ifd hgzlQm .
log} p2]Zo k|flKtsf nflu lg/Gt/ cufl8 al9/x]sf] o; SofDk;n]
;kmntfsf @% cf]6f uf}/jzfnL j;Gtx¿ kf/ ul/;s]sf] 5 . ;dosf] dfu /
/fli6«o Pjd\ cGt/f{li6«o cfjZostfnfO{ k"lt{ ug{ SofDk; cufl8 al9/x]sf] x'Fbf
o;sf] ;du| cfGtl/s u'0f:t/ ;'lglZrt ug{ SofDk;n] ljZj ljBfno cg'bfg
cfof]u (UGC) n] tf]s]sf k|fjwfgx¿ k'/f ug{ nflu/x]sf] Joxf]/f cjut u/fpg
rfxG5f}F .
SofDk; ;~rfngsf] @% jif{sf] cGt/fndf ;du| cfGtl/s u'0f:t/
;'lglZrttf (Quality Assurance and Accreditation, QAA) k|fKt ug{ cfjZos
kg]{ cfwf/x¿ k'/f ug{ w]/} xb;Dd ;kmn 5 . o; cjlwdf SofDk; k4lt
;ª\ut 9ª\un] cufl8 al9/x]sf] 5 . oxfF lzIfs, sd{rf/L, ljBfyL{ nufot
z}lIfs sfo{qmdnfO{ u'0f :t/Lo agfpg e/dUb'/ k|of; ul/Psf] 5 . ;+:yfut
;'zf;g k|fKt ug{ SofDk; lg/Gt/ k|oTgzLn 5 . SofDk;n] u'0f :t/LotfnfO{
hLjg d"No agfPsf] 5 .
xfdL SofDk; :yfkgfsf] /ht dxf]Tj; dgfpg nflu/x]sf 5f}F . o;
v'l;ofnLdf SofDk;;Fu ;Da4 ;Dk"0f{ ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿nfO{ awfO{ tyf wGojfb
lbg rfxG5f}F . ;fy} SofDk;nfO{ u'0f:t/Lo 9ª\un] ljsf; / lj:tf/ ub}{ n}hfg]
k|lta4tf JoQm ub{5f}F . pTs[i6 lzIf0f ljlw, glthf / Jofjxfl/s lzIff;Fu}
xfdL;Fu sfg'gsf] kf/blz{tf, k|lqmofsf] :jR5tf, ljlwsf] ;jf]{Rrtf / ;fª\u7lgs
;bfrf/ sfod 5 . o;n] ubf{ clxn] pRr lzIffsf If]qdf xfdL ljlzi6 klxrfg
:yflkt ug{ ;kmn 5f}F .
cfufdL lbgdf xfdL SofDk;sf ;an kIfnfO{ sfod /fvL b'a{n
kIfnfO{ ;'wfb}{ r'gf}tLnfO{ cj;/df abNg bQlrQ /xg] 5f}{+ . o;sf nflu sfdgf
ug'{ dfq kof{Kt x'Fb}g a? ;dk{0f efjsf ;fy sfo{ u/]/ nIosf ;fy cufl8
a9\g' h?/L 5 . xfn SofDk;df ±@ b]lv :gftsf]Q/ tx;Dd ;~rfngdf /x]sf
5g\ . eljiodf o:tf sfo{qmdx¿ yk lj:tf/ ub}{ nlug] 5 .
/ht dxf]T;jsf] o; ;'vb\ cj;/df SofDk;nfO{ ;kmntfsf] dfu{df
lg/Gt/ ¿kn] 8f]¥ofpFb} cxf]/fq vl6g] lzIfs, sd{rf/L tyf ljBfyL{x¿nfO{
wGojfb lbg rfxG5f}F . o;sf nflu l;Ëf] ;~rfns ;ldltsf] ;sf/fTds e"ldsf
klg ;bf :t'To 5 . o;} u/L o; SofDk;;Fu ;DalGwt tfn's lgsfox¿ klg
wGojfbsf xsbf/ 5g\ . cfufdL lbgdf SofDk; yk ;kmn x'g] k"0f{ ljZjf;sf
;fy ;a} kIfsf] /rgfTds ;xof]usf] ck]Iff /fVb5f}F .
o;} cj;/df SofDk;sf] cg';Gwfgd"ns jflif{s k|sfzgsf ¿kdf
k|sflzt x'Fb} cfPsf] bLklzvf tkfO{+x¿sf] xftdf 5 . o;nfO{ ldlxg]tk"j{s
;Dkfbg u/L k|sflzt ug]{ ;Dkfbs d08nnfO{ klg wGojfb lbg rfxG5f}F .

uf]ljGbaxfb'/ sfsL{
SofDk; k|d'v
@)&!÷!)÷)^
;DkfbsLo =========?
@)$& ;fndf ;fd'bflos :t/df :yfkgf eP/ cfh ko{Gt ;~rfngdf
/x]sf] sf]6]Zj/ ax'd'vL SofDk; :yfkgfsf] c9fO{ b;s cjlw k'/f ug]{ j|mddf
5 . oxL cj;/nfO{ ;b'kof]u ub}{ SofDk;n] o; jif{ /ht hoGtL ;df/f]x
dgfpFb} 5 . k|f/Dedf ;fwg ;|f]t / ef}lts ;'ljwf ljxLg ¿kdf SofDk; :yfkgf
ug'{ lgZrtM sl7g ljifo lyof] . :yfgLo a'l4hLjL, eb| enfbdL / ;j{;'ne
lzIffk|lt k|lta4 lzIff;]jLx¿sf] ;Tk|of;sf sf/0f cefjsf lar ;xefjsf]
ofqf yfngL u/]sf] x'Fbf SofDk;nfO{ oxfF;Dd cfOk'Ug dfu{ k|z:t ePsf] xf] .
Go"g ;xeflutf / sl7g jftfj/0fLo kof{j/0fx¿sf] ;fdgf ub}{ SofDk;sf] hu
/fVg' cjZo klg >d;fWo ljifo lyof] . ;dfh abNg rfxg]x¿n] h;sf] xf]Og
ckh;sf] efuL aGg'k5{ . o;sf ;fy} hf]lvdk"0f{ r'gf}tLnfO{ ;fdgf ug]{ lxDdtsf
;fy cufl8 a9\g'k5{ . o; ;Tsd{df b'u{d kfOnf prfNg]x¿s} sf/0f SofDk;n]
klRr; jif{sf] /ht cjlw;Dd k'Ug] cj;/ k|fKt ub}{ 5 . o;y{ ;j{k|yd tL
cleoGtfx¿ h;n] SofDk; :yfkgf u/L y'k|} y'k|} lzIffsfª\IfLx¿sf] hLjgdf
lzIffsf] Hof]lt 5g]{ cj;/ k|bfg u/]Ù nfO{ gdg lgj]bg ub{5f}F .
:yfkgf sfnb]lv xfn;Dd cfOk'Ubf SofDk;n] c;ª\Vo r'gf}tLx¿sf]
;fdgf ub}{ oxfF;Dd cfOk'Ug ;kmn ePsf] xf] . ;Lldt ;|f]t ;fwg, ljBfyL{
Pjd\ k|fWofksx¿sf] ;+nUgtfdf k|f/De ePsf] lzIf0f cfh pNn]Vo ljBfyL{
/ k|fWofks Pjd\ sd{rf/Lsf ;xeflutfdf ;+:yfut :j¿k k|fKt ul/;s]sf]
5 . o; cj:yf;Dd k|fKt x'gsf nflu ;Da4 ;a}sf] Ifdtf / bIftfsf] nufgL
eO;s]sf] 5 . pxfFx¿sf] cbDo ;fx; / ;d:ofx¿sf ;fd' gem'Sg] clj>fGt
of]Uotfsf sf/0f SofDk;n] pknlAwsf] ;u/dfyf r9\g ;kmn ePsf] xf] .
SofDk; :yfkgfsf] o; ;'vb cj;/df xfdL tL ;Dk"0f{ Tofuk"0f{ ljutx¿sf]
z'e:d/0f ug{ rfxG5f}F .
SofDk; :yfkgfsf] nueu pxL ;dob]lv z}lIfs, k|fl1s Pjd\ af}l4s
k|ultnfO{ ;fsf/ ¿k k|bfg ug{ …cg';Gwfgd"ns jflif{s k|sfzgÚsf ¿kdf …
bLklzvfÚ lg/Gt/ k|sflzt x'Fb} cfPsf] 5 . ljleGg ljifo If]qsf vf]hd"ns
Pjd\ zf]wd"ns n]vx¿sf] k|sfzgdfkm{t o;n] 1fgIf'wfnfO{ s]xL xb;Dd
eP klg zfGt kfb}{ cfPsf] 5 . o;n] ljBfyL{, k|fWofks Pjd\ cg';Gwftfsf]
cfjZostfnfO{ cf+lzs ¿kdf eP klg k'/f ub}{ cfPsf] 5 . o; tYonfO{ o;sf]
ahf/ dfusf cfwf/df l;4 ug{ ;lsG5 . cfjZostf af]wsf] oxL ;Tosf sf/0f
o;sf] k|sfzgdf lg/Gt/ nflu/xg xfdLnfO{ k|]/0ff ldn]sf] 5 . oxL sf/0f o;
jif{ klg xfdL 1fgsf ljljw If]qsf /rgfx¿sf] ;ª\u|x af]s]/ oxfFx¿;dIf
cfOk'u]sf 5f}F . ;Gbe{tM o;nfO{ :ki6tM ltg efudf ljeSt u/L k|:t't u/]sf
5f}F . klxnf] efudf g]kfnL efiffdf n]lvPsf g]kfnL efiff, ;flxTo / Jofs/0fsf
;fy} Joj:yfkg / lzIff ljifos n]vx¿ ;dfj]z 5g\ . bf];|f] efudf cª\u|]hL
efiffdf n]lvPsf Joj:yfkg / ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ nufotsf ljifo If]qsf
n]vx¿ ;dflji6 5g\ . t];|f] tyf clGtd efu SofDk; k[i7sf ¿kdf k|:t't 5
hxfF SofDk;sf] k|ult / :ki6 cg'xf/ b]Vg ;lsG5 . o;sf ;fy} SofDk;sf]
cfly{s ultljlw;Fu ;DalGwt tYo / tYofª\sx¿nfO{ kf/bzL{ 9ª\un] k|:t't
u/]sf sf/0f SofDk;sf] cfly{s :jf:Yosf af/]df hfgsf/L /fVg rfxg]sf nflu
o;n] ultnf] v'/fs k|bfg ug]{ 5 eGg] xfdLn] 7fg]sf 5f}F .
cGTodf km]l/ Ps k6s SofDk;sf] k|ultdf /ut kl;gf aufpg]x¿
;a}nfO{ Psd'i6 ;lDemg rfxG5f}F . ;fy} …bLklzvfÚsf nflu cfkm\gf cd"No
/rgf k|sfzgfy{ pknAw u/fP/ ;xof]u k'¥ofpg'x'g] ljåt\ ju{df ljgd| s[t1tf
lgj]bg ug{ rfxG5f}F . wGojfb .

ljz]if lgj]bg
xfn g]kfnL efiffsf] n]vgdf j0f{ ljGof;sf ljljw ¿kx¿ k|rngdf /x]sf
sf/0f xfdLn] n]vssf j0f{ ljGof;df ;fdfGo kl/dfh{g dfq u/L h:tfsf]
t:t} k|:t't u/]sf 5f}F . o;af6 kf7s ju{df kg{ hfg] c;'ljwfk|lt Ifdf
lgj]bg ug{ rfxG5f}F .
;Dkfbs d08n
 ljifo ;"rL
g]kfnL v08
!= g]kfnL efiffsf] dfgsLs/0f / j0f{ljGof;
8f= ;'s'd zdf{=====================================================================!!
@= ;}4flGts ;Gbe{ / g]kfnL ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhg
afnfs[i0f clwsf/L===========================================================@)
#= ;f+:s[lts cWoogsf] cjwf/0ffTds 9fFrf
s]zj/fh clwsf/L=======================================================#&
$= efiff kf7\oj|mddf ;flxlTos s[ltsf] k7g tyf k|ltlj|mof n]vg
1fg' clwsf/L=======================================================================%@
%= efiff kf7\oj|mddf ;flxlTos s[ltsf] k7g tyf k|ltlj|mof n]vg
1fg' clwsf/L=======================================================================%@
^= dflos oyfy{sf] sf]0faf6 ‘kNnL’sf] k7g
bLksk|;fb 9sfn============================================================^!
&= e}/j cof{nsf] gjLgtd P]ltxfl;s s[lt M /fhLgfdf
8f= /fdk|;fb 1jfnL=======================================================&!
*= g]kfndf Jofjxfl/s Joj:yfkg lzIffsf] cfjZostf
s[i0fxl/ afF:sf]6f===============================================================*@
(= :t/Lo d"Nofª\sgdf ;d:of, ;Defjgf / pkfo
k|f=8f= l8NnL/fh g]jfM====================================================*^

cª\u|]hL v08
1. Knowledge Management for Organizational Effectiveness
Ram Babu Nepal....................................... 92

2. Factors Influencing Purchase Intention of Consumers in ......

Bharat Rai.............................................. 108

3. Poor Public Service Quality; identifying the culprits

Dhruba Nepal......................................... 127
4. Analysing The Guru of Love from Perspective of Class Struggle
Raju Prasad Bhusal................................. 137

5. A Study on Women Entrepreneurs: The Case of Bhaktapur .....

Prakash Pokharel..................................... 140

6. Why We Write? : Three Nobel winners define writing at Nobel Banquet

Gaurav Bhattarai..................................... 157

7. Reading Challenges for College Level students

Gobinda Bahadur Adhikari........................ 163
8. Leadership Behaviour of Principal at School
Laxman Ghimire...................................... 167

9. Marxist-Feminist Reading of Toni Morrison'’s Paradise

Sachita Dhakal........................................ 178

10. Internet in Nepal: Achievements and Challenges

Manoj Kumar Karna................................. 181

SofDk; k[i7

!= QAA k4lt / SofDk;sf cfufdL sfo{ef/

uf]ljGbaxfb'/ sfsL{=======================================================!*$
@= cf=j= @)&)÷&! sf] n]vf k/LIf0f k|ltj]bg================================================!(&
 g]kfnL efiffsf] dfgsLs/0f / j0f{ljGof;
8f= ;'s'd zdf{*

!= k[i7e"ld
efiffsf] :t/Lo pRrf/0f cg';f/sf] n]vgljwfg g} j0f{ljGof; xf] .
g]kfnL efiffsf sYo / n]Vo ¿kdWo] n]Vo cleJolStdf j0f{ljGof;sf] ljz]if
rrf{ kfOG5 . efiffsf] k|of]usf j|mddf cfPsf zAbx¿df j0f{x¿sf] j|md of
/vfOj|md j0f{ljGof;leq k5{ . pRrf/0fsf] ;/n, :t/Lo / dfgs n]vgsf]
vf]hL j0f{ljGof;sf] cWoog kIf xf] . ;}4flGts ¿kdf j0f{ljGof;fTds n]vg
pRrf/0f cg'¿k g} x'G5 . n]vg k/Dk/f ePsf efiffdf lnlk, j0f{dfnfsf]
k|of]u x'G5 . efiffsf] b[ZofTds of n]vg Joj:yfsf j|mddf s]xL dfGotf /
lgodsf] lgwf{/0f ul/G5 . oxL lgodsf] kIf g} j0f{ljGof;;Fu ;Da4 5 .
g]kfnL efiffdf rrf{, kl/rrf{, n]vg x]bf{ ;a}eGbf a9L j0f{ljGof;df g}
ePsf] kfOG5 . o; ljifodf @)^% otf bh{gf}F uf]i7Lkq -sfo{kq_, uf]i7L,
kqklqsfdf ax;, ;+:yfut ax;, 3f]if0ffkq k|sfzg h:tf ultljlw ePsf
5g\ . oL ;a} cWoog of ultljlw x]bf{ ljz]if gjLg lgoddf ax; s]lGb|t
eGbf klg ;+:s[t afx]s cGo efiffsf zAb n]vgdf g]kfnLd"ns lgod
ckjfbsf lgod / Ifltk"lt{leqsf lgodsf] tb\ejLs/0f of g]kfnLd"ns
lgodsf n]vg Joj:yfdf /x]sf] 5 . of] ax; hlt t/lª\ut ePsf] 5 Tolt
g} ;Dxflng of l:y/Ls/0f x'g vf]h]sf] klg 5 . o;} ;Gbe{df p7]sf kl5Nnf
;'wf/sf ljifoleq g} of] k|:tfj s]lGb|t 5 .

* pkk|fWofks, g]kfnL s]Gb|Lo ljefu, sLlt{k'/, sf7df8f}F .

bLklzvf ÷ 11
@= j0f{ljGof;df ;Ldfaf]w
s'g} lnlksf] k|of]u efiffsf ;Gbe{df ePkl5 g} n]vgsf] ljsf; ePsf]
xf] . n]vg Joj:yfdf n]Vo efiffsf eflifs k|sf/sf] cWoog x'G5 . n]Vo
efiffdf n3'td cy{e]bs PsfO n]lvd xf] . n]lvdsf] n]vgsf cg';f/ x'G5 .
n]lvd ljZn]if0fsf cfwf/df n]vg Joj:yfsf ljz]iftf af]w ug{ ;lsG5 .
;Da4 efiffsf n]vgdf j0f{dfnfsf] k|of]u s;/L ug{] eGg] lgod of Joj:yf
x'G5 . o;y{ sYo / n]Vo ljGof;sf lar leGgtf /x]sf] 5 . j0f{ljGof;df
k|j]z ubf{ of] ;Ldfaf]w x'g cfjZos 5 M
t pRrfo{ ljGof; n]VoljGof;df k"/} ;d]l6g g;Sg] .
t b]jgfu/L lnlksf ljz]iftf / ;Ldfsf sf/0f j0f{ljGof;df k|efj kg{] .
t n]Voefiff;Fu ;Da4 ePsfn] k/Dk/fut x'g] / sd kl/jt{gzLn b]lvg] .
t ;+:yfut dfGotfsf sf/0f ¿9 x'g] / ;/nLs/0f sl7g b]lvg] .
t efiffsf] kl/jt{g;Fu} n]vg Joj:yfdf kl/jt{gsf] vf]hL x'g] .
t efiffj}1flgs ljZn]if0f sd / ;fdflhs ;Demf}tfdf n]vg lgwf{/0f x'g] .
t ;+:s[t j0f{dfnfsf Wjlg of n]Volrx\gx¿n] g]kfnL Wjlgsf] k|ltlglwTj gug{] .
t P]ltxfl;s, ef}uf]lns, ;fdflhs, lnlk, j0f{dfnf, cIf/ ;+/rgf cflbsf
sf/0f n]vgdf k|efj kg{] cflb .

#= efiffaf]w
g]kfnL efiffsf] Jofs/0f n]vg k/Dk/f ;+:s[t / cª\u|]hL Jofs/0f
k/Dk/faf6 a9L k|efljt 5 . g]kfnL efiffsf] Jofs/0fdf s]Gb|Ls[t x'Fbf cGo
efiffsf] Jofs/0f Go"g x'Fb} hfg] / j0f{ljGof; dfgsLs/0fsf] k|lj|mof ;xh x'g]
b]lvG5 . rlGb|sf uf]/vfefiff Jofs/0fdf ;+:s[tdf of] lgod eP klg uf]/vf
efiffsf] Joj:yf of] xf] egL JofVof ug{' g]kfnLsf] df}lns ljz]iftftkm{s} hf]8
dfGg ;lsG5 . of] k/Dk/f cGo Jofs/0fdf klg kfOG5 .
g]kfnL efiffsf] zAb;|f]t x]bf{ tT;d, tb\ej / cfuGt's /x]sf] 5 . oL
zAbsf] n]vg Joj:yfdf tT;d zAb -;+:s[t efiffsf zAb_ ;+:s[th:t} n]vg
x'gkg{] dfGotfdf tT;dd"ns n]vg lgod ljsf; ePsf] b]lvG5 . cfuGt's
efiffsf zAb klg tT;d -;'?sf] JofVof_ zAb cg';f/ n]lvg' -ci6]«lnof,
kf]i6/_ g]kfnLsf] lgod geO{ ;+:s[t Jofs/0fsf] lgoddf ;fl6Psf] b]lvG5 . o;
cfwf/nfO{ kl/dfh{g u/L tb\ej / cfuGt's zAbsf n]vgdf g]kfnLd"ns lgod

12 ÷ bLklzvf
cg';f/ x'g'k5{ eGg] kl/jt{g ePsf] 5 . af]nrfnsf g]kfnLdf n]vg ;+:s[t
cª\u|]hL of cGo efiff cg';f/ slt ;xh x'G5 < oxL ¿9 dfGotfdf kl/jt{g
ax;sf] Ps bL3{ ljifo / l:y/Ls/0fsf] klxnf] cfwf/ ag]sf] 5 . g]kfnLdf
n]vg gLlt o; k|sf/ 5 M
-s_ tT;dd"ns n]vg lgod
-v_ g]kfnLd"ns n]vg lgod
oL lgodsf af/]df 6g{/ -;g\ !(#!_ b]lv g} JofVof ePsf] kfOG5 .
o;sf :ki6 cWoogdf clgjfo{ g]kfnL lzIf0f lgb{]zg -@)#^_ kl5sf ljleGg
;+:s/0f x]g{ ;lsG5 . g]kfnL efiffsf] ljsf; of kl/jt{g;Fu} g]kfnL n]vgdf
klg kl/jt{g 5, h:t} M
-s_ hLj < lhp, l3j < l3p j–p]
-v_ s/ < u/, s–u
-u_ uof < eP, of–P
-3_ tkf`L < tkfOF{, `L–O{F .
k'/fgf] g]kfnLsf hLj, l3j, s/, uof, eof, tkf`L h:tf zAbdf kl/jt{g
cfPsf] 5 . o;af6 n]vg klg kl/jt{gzLn x'g] b]lvG5 . efiffaf]w;Fu} n]vgdf
kl/jt{g ;xh x'g] b]lvG5 . efiffsf] kl/jt{g cg';f/ n]vg gLltdf klg kl/jt{g
x'g] oyfy{af]w u/L g]kfnL efiffsf Joj:yfaf6 g]kfnL Jofs/0f n]vgdf ax;
s]lGb|t x'g cfjZos 5 .

$= g]kfnL efiffsf] n]vg k/Dk/f af]w

g]kfnL efiffdf n]vg cf/De clen]vaf6 ePsf] xf] . jfª\do n]vg,
;flxTo n]vg, ljBfno, k|zf;g, kqklqsf cflbdf efiffsf] k|of]u la:tf/
ePkl5 g]kfnLdf Jofs/0fsf] vf]hL ePsf] xf] . n]Vo efiffsf] ljsf;;Fu} kl/jt{g
gx'g] xf] eg] cf/DesfnLg n]vgdf g} hf]8 lbgkg{] x'G5 . of] ;Dej b]lvFb}g .
g]kfnL Jofs/0f n]vgs} k[i7e"lddf xnGt / chGtsf] ljjfb n]vg;Fu hf]l8Psf]
b]lvG5 . o; ljjfbdf ;fdflhs ;Demf}tf gfdkb chGt / lj|mofkb pRrf/0f
cg';f/ xnGt n]vgsf] lylt a:g' dfgslt/sf] ofqf g} xf] eGg ;lsG5 . j0f{ljGof;
zAbsf]zsf] ljifo a9L / Jofs/0fsf] ljifo sd eP klg g]kfnL efiffsf] ;'?sf]
n]vg Joj:yfdf Jofs/0fs} of]ubfg /x]sf] 5 . g]kfnLdf n]vg k/Dk/fdf
j0f{ljGof;sf] t/ª\u / l:y/Ls/0fsf] k|lj|mof lgDglnlvt ¿kdf x]g{ ;lsG5 .

bLklzvf ÷ 13
$=!= Jofs/0f lgb{]z n]vgsf] vf]hL
g]kfnL efiffsf] n]vg k/Dk/f nfdf] ;do;Dd Jofs/0f lgb{]zljgf g}
ljsf; ePsf] kfOG5 . clen]v, jfª\dosfnLg n]vg dfq geO{ ;flxTo
n]vgsf] l;ª\uf] k|fylds sfndf Jofs/0f ;r]t of lgb{]z n]vg kfOFb}g .
df]tL/fd e6\6n] efg'eStsf] hLjg rl/qsf n]vgdf eflifs z'l4sf] ljifo
p7fg u/]sf 5g\ . g]kfnLdf kf7Øk':ts cIf/fª\s lzIff -!(%*_, klqsf
uf]/vfkq -!(%*_ k|sfzgdf cfPkl5 g} Jofs/0fsf] vf]hL ePsf] xf] .
Jofs/0fsf vf]hL;Fu ;'Gb/L -@)^#_ klqsfdf p7fOPsf] Jofs/0f lrGtg
xnGt alxisf/ cleofg -!(^%_ n]vg Joj:yfsf] vf]hL / Jofs/0f n]vgsf]
k[i7e"ld lgdf{0fdf ;xof]uL b]lvG5g\ . g]kfnL efiffsf] Jofs/0f P6g -;g\
!*@)_, 6g{a'n -;g\ !**&_ k|sfzgdf cfP klg g]kfnL efiffsf] n]vgdf
oL Jofs/0fsf] k|efj kfOFb}g . o;y{ g]kfnL efiffsf] n]vg k/Dk/fdf o;
sfnv08df n]lvPsf s[ltsf] eflifs cg';Gwfg u/L n]vg k/Dk/fsf] vf]hL
cfjZos 5 -x]g{", zdf{, @)^%_ .

-s_ n]vgdf klxnf] t/ª\u / l:y/Ls/0fsf] cfwf/

xnGt alxisf/ cfGbf]ng -!(^%_ sf] efiffdf ax; / g]kfnL efiff
k|sflzgL ;ldlt -!(&)_ sf] n]vg lgoddf n]vgsf] dfgsLs/0fsf] k|of;
kfOG5 . 6g{/ -;g\ !(#!_ n] g]kfnLd"ns lgod / tT;dd"ns lgodsf] :ki6
JofVof dfq geO{ x|:jd"ns n]vgsf] k|of]u u/]kl5 gofF t/ª\u l;h{gf ePsf]
xf] . g]sz'n] -!(()_ sf] ;+:yfut k|of;, kfF8] -!((&_, k|wfg -@)))_,
dWorlGb|sfsf] ;+zf]wg / ;/nLs/0f, k'is/zdz]/sf] hglha|flt/sf] hf]8 klg
n]vgsf ;Gbe{df gofF ax; g} xf] . g]kfnL efiffsf] Jofs/0f ;r]t klxnf]
k|sfzg ;'Gb/L -!(^#_ xf] . o; klqsfdf g]kfnL Jofs/0fsf af/]df n]vg
cf/De ePsf] b]lvG5 . g]kfnLdf Jofs/0f n]vg cHof{n -!($%–!(^#_,
l;+x -!(^(_, kl08t -!(^(_, bLlIftfrfo{ -;g\ !(!#_ / zdf{ -!(&^_
af6 ePsf] kfOG5 . o; k/Dk/fdf k|wfg / k|wfg -;g\ !(@)_, ha/f
-@)))_, k|wfg -@)))_ hf]l8Psf 5g\ . g]kfnL efiffdf k/Dk/fut Jofs/0f
/ efiffj}1flgs cWoogsf] ljZn]if0f leGg 5 / n]vg Joj:yfdf o;sf] k|efj
kg{] / :ki6 gLlt lng'kg{] dfGotf klxnf] l:y/Ls/0fsf] ;dodf b]lvG5 . o;y{
6g{/sf] dfGotfdf ljjfb dfq geO{ g]kfnLd"ns cWoog k/Dk/f cf/De x'g'
klg cGj]if0fs} ljifo ag]sf] 5 .

14 ÷ bLklzvf
-v_ n]vgdf bf];|f] t/ª\u / l:y/Ls/0f
g]kfnL efiffdf em/f{] cfGbf]ng -@)!#_ kl5 n]vg Joj:yfdf gofF
t/ª\u b]vf k/]sf] 5 . o; j|mddf ;+:s[t / cª\u|]hL k/Dk/fsf] cg's/0f
gu/L g]kfnL efiffsf] df}lns vf]hL x'g'kg{]df hf]8 lbPsf] kfOG5 -x]g{", zdf{,
@)^$_ . P]ltxfl;s efifflj1fgsf cfwf/df o; lsl;dsf] lrGtg clu a9]sf]
b]lvG5 . kGt -@)!$_, >Ljf:tj -@)!(_, kf]v/]n -@)@)_, ;fksf]6f
-@)@)_ cflbsf eflifs lrGtg o; ;Gbe{df :d/0fLo 5g\ . kGtsf] ;lhnf]
n]vgsf k|:tfjdf Zofdk|;fb zdf{ nufotsf] ;dy{g /x]sf] kfOG5 . o;
;dosf] n]vgut kIf g]kfnL zAbsf]z -@)!(_ df s]xL ;+Zn]if0f ePsf] 5 .
o; k[i7e"lddf …lnlk ;'wf/ cleofgÚ -@)@)_ j0ff{Tds n]vg, cIf/fTds
n]vg, x|:j bL3{ gn]vL Osf/, psf/ dfqfsf nflu Pp6f lrx\g dfq k|of]u ug{]
h:tf dfGotf o; cleofgdf b]vf k/]sf] kfOG5 . o:t} kf]v/]n -@)@@_ sf]
/fi6«efiff, ;fksf]6f -@)@$_ sf] Wjlgsf] wGbf, pkfWofo /]UdL -@)@%_ sf]
g]kfnL efiffsf] pTklQh:tf P]ltxfl;s efifflj1fgsf cfwf/df ljZn]if0f ePsf
eflifs lrGtg pNn]Vo /x]sf 5g\ . efiffsf Wjlgsf] klxrfg, efiffj}1flgs
k4lttkm{sf] cfsif{0f o; ;dosf] efiffsf] n]vgut of lrGtgut kIf b]lvG5 .
o;} ;dodf ePsf] ;femf k|sfzgsf] …lxHh] ;DaGwL uf]i7LÚ -@)@*_ / g]kfn
Ps]8]dLsf] …g]kfnL efiff ;+uf]i7L— @)##Ú df efiff ljjfb ;DxflnFb} clu a9]sf]
kfOG5 . g]kfnL efiffsf] j:t'k/s cWoog / o;n] n]vgdf kf/]sf] k|efj csf{]
cWoogLo ljifo xf] .

-u_ t];|f] t/ª\u / l:y/Ls/0f

g]kfnL n]vg k/Dk/fdf efifflj1fgsf] lrGtg la:tf/ ePkl5 yk ;'wf/sf
k|:tfj cfPsf] kfOG5 . aGw' -@)#)_, bfxfn -@)#!_, zdf{ -@)#^_, rfkfufO{F
-@)%!_, clwsf/L -@)$(_, kf]v/]n -@)%$_ cflbsf n]vgdf g]kfnL n]vg
Joj:yfdf gjLg dfGotf b]vf k/]sf] e]l6G5 . lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf k7gkf7g
ug{] lzIfsx¿sf] e]nf …clgjfo{ g]kfnL lzIfssf] /fli6«o ;Dd]ngÚ -@)#$_
n]vg k/Dk/fdf csf{] :d/0fLo km8\sf] xf] . o; k[i7e"lddf clgjfo{ g]kfnL lzIf0f
lgb{]zg -@)#^_ / o;sf cfwf/df ;+zf]wg, kl/dfh{g ;lxt ljsl;t n]vg
/ j0f{ljGof;sf] dfgsLs/0f :d/0fLo 5 . o; k/Dk/fdf x|:j n]vg cleofg
-@)#%_, g]kfnL a[xt\ zAbsf]z -@)$)_, g]/fk|k|sf] kxn -@)%&_, k|of]ufTds
g]kfnL zAbsf]z -@)^)_, clgjfo{ g]kfnL lzIf0f lgb{]lzsf -@)^%_, ;a}sf]

bLklzvf ÷ 15
g]kfnL -@)^&_ n] /fv]sf n]vgut dfGotfsf] ;+Zn]if0f / cfwf/af6 n]vg
l:y/Ls/0fdf hf]8 lbg'kg{] b]lvG5 .
l;ª\uf] k/Dk/f x]bf{ g]kfnL efiff ;/nLs/0f, :t/Ls/0f / dfgsLs/0fs}
dfu{df ultzLn 5 . k/Dk/fut Jofs/0f / efiffj}1flgs cWoogsf ;+Zn]if0fdf
g]kfnL n]vg ;'wf/ x'Fb} cfPsf] 5 . t/lª\ut / l:y/ l;4fGtdf g]kfnL
n]vgsf] dfgsLs/0f x'g' efiffsf] ljsf; xf] . of] ax; :jfefljs xf] / ax;
g} dfgsLs/0fsf] af6f] xf] . k/Dk/fut n]vgtkm{ geO{ efiffj}1flgs cWoogsf
cfwf/df dfgsLs/0fsf] vf]hL g} cfhsf] ;xh af6f] x'g] b]lvG5 .

%= ljjfbsf kIf
;+:s[taf6 cfPsf tT;d zAbsf] tT;dd"ns n]vgsf] lgod / cGo
efiffaf6 cfPsf cfuGt's zAb tyf ;+:s[taf6 cfPsf tb\ejd"ns zAbsf
n]vgdf g]kfnLd"ns lgod u/L ;+Zn]if0f ePsf] j0f{ljGof; lrGtg d'Vo ¿kn]
bf];|f] lgoddf g} a9L s]lGb|t ePsf] 5 . bf];|f] lgoddf g]kfnL j0f{ljGof;sf
k/Dk/fdf lqe'jg ljZjljBfno -e6\6/fO{ / lu/L, @)^(_ n] 7DofPsf b;cf]6f
;d:of -@–!!_ / cGo ;Gbe{df p7fOPsf] -!_ u/L hDdf !! cf]6f ;d:ofdf
ljjfb 5g\ . oL ljjfb o; k|sf/ /x]sf 5g\ M
t cfuGt's zAbsf] g]kfnLd"ns n]vg gx'g] -zx/, ======_
t hflt, y/ a'emfpg] zAbdf tfnJo -z, zfx, z]kf{_ .
t hflt, y/ a'emfpg] clGtd psf/ x|:j -yf?_ klg .
t OR5fy{s zAb bL3{ n]lvFb} cfPsfdf x|:j klg .
t Ifltk"lt{ bL3L{ejg egL n]lvFb} cfPsf zAbsf] ;'? / larsf] Osf/ psf/
x|:j n]lvg] .
t >'lt;dleGgfy{ zAb bL3{ n]lvFb} cfPsfdf x|:j n]lvg] .
t gfdof]uL kbof]u u/L÷gu/L n]Vg ;lsg] .
t ;+o'St lj|mofdf s[bGt c+z kbof]u u/L n]Vg ;lsg] . -hfg'k5{====_ .
t gfd / y/sf lardf cfpg] dWojtL{ Ps} l8sf]df /fVg] .
t ¿9 cy{df k|of]u x'g] ;d:t zAb Ps} l8sf]df n]Vg] .
t Ifltk"lt{ bL3L{ejgdf gk/]sf t/ ;+:s[t k|efjn] bL3{ n]lvPsf x|:j
n]Vg] -lsnf], lhp ===_ cflb .

16 ÷ bLklzvf
-gf]6 M != sf] ljjfb clgjfo{ g]kfnL lgb]{lzsf -@)#^_ df 6'lª\uO;s]sf], @=
zfx dfq b'O{ cy{ lbg], #= cy{ e]b gx'g], $= cy{df km/s gkg{], %= o;n] ckjfb
sd ug{] / cy{ut e]b gkfg{], ^= vf]hL x'g'kg{] -km'n < km"n_ n]lvd dfq xf]
ls <, &= zAbof]uL -rlGb|sfsf] wf/0ffdf vf]h x'g'kg{], *= km/s gkg{], (= / !)=
uf}td -@)^(_ sf] yk JofVof / !!= df ljjfb gubf{ ;/nLs/0f g} x'g] ._

s]xL dfGotf
t g]kfnL efiffsf] Jofs/0f af]w u/L efiffsf] ultzLn kIf;Fu n]vg klg
kl/jt{g x'g] dfGotfdf :ki6 x'g'kg{] .
t k/Dk/fut Jofs/0f / efiffj}1flgs cWoogsf] t'ngfaf6 ckjfb sd
ub{} ;/n cfwf/ vf]hL x'g'kg{] .
t tT;d lgodsf] ;/nLs/0f / tb\ejLs/0fdf cWoog x'g'kg{] .
t ckjfbsf lgod x6fpFb} dfgsLs/0fdf hf]8 lbg'kg{] .
t ;df;, låTj / ;lGwsf af/]df g]kfnL eflifs Joj:yf vf]hL x'g'kg{] .
t gfdof]uL / ljelStsf] k|of]uut cfwf/df cWoog x'g kg{] .
t lgodd'vL geO{ cEof;d'vL / ;ª\sygsf cfwf/df lgodaf]wdf hf]8
lbg'kg{] .

^= ;fdflhs ;Demf}tfsf] ljifo

j0f{ljGof; efiffj}1flgs Joj:yfsf] cWoog eGbf ;fdflhs ;Demf}tfsf]
ljifo a9L xf] . ;fdflhs ;Demf}tfdf g} efiffn] dfgsLs/0fsf] ¿k lnG5 . cg]s
eflifsf e]bleqsf] dfgs ¿ksf] ;Demf}tf lnlk k|of]u / dfgs n]vgsf] ;Demf}tf
sYo efiffdf gePsf, n]Vo efiffsf cltl/St lnlk lrx\g n]vgsf] ;Demf}tf,
n]vg gLltdf ;Demf}tf -pRrf/0f cg';f/ / pRrf/0f leGg_ k/Dk/fut Jofs/0f
lrGtg / efiffj}1flgs lrGtgsf lar ;Demf}tf, tT;dd"ns lgod / g]kfnLd"ns
lgodsf] ;Demf}tf, lnlk x6fpg] ;Demf}tf -ळ_ lrx\g k|of]u k"0f{lj/fd klxn]
-=_ / clxn] -._ x'g]df ;Demf}tf cflb j0f{ljGof;df b]lvG5 . j0f{ljGof;
t/lª\ut / l:y/ x'Fb} efiffsf] ultzLn cj:yf;Fu dfgsLs/0fdf g} /x]sf] 5 .
o;sf nflu clxn] klg ;+:yfut kxnsf] vfFrf] 5 . g]kfnL efiff gefFl8O{
l:y/Ls/0fsf] ultdf 5 . of] g]kfnL efiffsf] ;an kIf xf] .

bLklzvf ÷ 17
;Gbe{ ;fdu|L ;"rL
clwsf/L, x]dfª\u/fh= @)%&= ;d;fdlos g]kfnL Jofs/0f -lå= ;+:s=_ sf7df8f}F M
ljBfyL{ k':ts e08f/ .
uf}td, b]jLk|;fb= @)$(= g]kfnL efiff kl/ro= sf7df8f}F M ;femf k|sfzg .
uf}td, b]jLk|;fb= @)^(= ækbof]u / kbljof]u M ;Gbe{ / ;dLIffÆ= ul/df= jif{ #),
cª\s !@, k[= #$–#( .
bfxfn, aNnedl0f -;+of]=_= @)#(= clgjfo{ g]kfnL lzIf0f lgb{]lzsf -lnyf] ;+:s=_=
sf7df8f}F M kf7Øj|md ljsf; s]Gb|, lq=lj= .
bLlIftfrfo{, ljZjdl0f= ;g\ !(!#= uf]/vf Jofs/0f af]w= snsQf M n]vs :jod\ .
kGt, /fd/fh= @)!$= efifflj1fg= sLlt{k'/ M kf7\oj|md ljsf; s]Gb|, lq=lj= .
===== @)!*= efifflj1fgsf] Oltxf;= nlntk'/ M hubDaf k|sfzg .
kl08t, x]d/fh= @)%!= rlGb|sf uf]/vf efiff Jofs/0f -t[= ;+:s=_ sf7df8f}F M ;femf
k|sfzg .
k|wfg, x[borGb|l;+x= @)))= lrGx kl/ro= sf7df8f}F M g]kfnL efiff k|sflzgL ;ldlt .
===== @))$= zAb z'l4ljrf/= sf7df8f}F M n]vs :jod\ .
kfF8] …c;LdÚ, uf]kfn= !(($= /rgf bk{0f= sf7df8f}F M g]kfnL efiff k|sflzgL ;ldlt .
===== !((&= x|:j bL3{sf] ;jfO{= sf7df8f}F M g]kfnL efiff k|sflzgL ;ldlt .
===== @)))= /rgfs];/= sf7df8f}F M g]kfnL efiff k|sflzgL ;ldlt .
===== @)@^= æg]kfnL Jofs/0fdf cIf/ljGof;Æ= dw'ks{= jif{ @, cª\s %, k[= !^–@) .
kf]v/]n, afns[i0f= @)!(= æg]kfnL efiffsf] syfÆ= g]kfnL= jif{ !@ -;fpg–c;f]h_,
k[= @&–^& .
===== @)@@= /fi6«efiff= sf7df8f}F M ;femf k|sfzg .
===== -;Dkf=_= @)$(= kRrL; jif{sf eflifs rrf{= sf7df8f}F M g]kfn /fhsLo k|1f
k|lti7fg .
kf]v/]n, dfwjk|;fb= @)%$= g]kfnL jfSo Jofs/0f= sf7df8f}F M g]kfn /fhsLo k|1f
k|lti7fg .
===== @)%$= æg]kfnL j0f{ljGof;sf] Oltxf;Æ= g]kfnL= k"0ff{ª\s !%#, k[= #–!& .
e6\6/fO{, r"8fgfy= @)##= g]kfnL efiff clwuf]i7L @)##= sf7df8f}F M g]kfn /fhsLo
k|1f k|lti7fg .
e6\6/fO{, ab|Lljzfn / hLj]Gb|b]j lu/L= @)^(= g]kfnL j0f{ljGof; k|:tfj= sLlt{k'/ M
kf7\oj|md ljsf; s]Gb| .
/]UdL, r"8fdl0f pkfWofo= @)@%= g]kfnL efiffsf] pTklQ= nlntk'/ M hubDaf k|sfzg .

18 ÷ bLklzvf
zdf{, ;'s'd= @)%^= g]kfnL Jofs/0fsf] P]ltxfl;s ;j{]If0f= sf7df8f}F M jfª\do k|sfzg .
===== @)^%= g]kfnL efiff ;flxTodf cfGbf]ng, sLlt{k'/ M Ps]8]dL a'S; .
zdf{, ;f]dgfy= !(&^= dWorlGb|sf= sf7df8f}F M n]vs :jod\ .
l;+x, hok[YjLaxfb'/= !(^(= k|fs[t Jofs/0f= sf7df8f}F M uf]/vfkq ;+:yfg .
Acharya, Jayaraj. 1980. Traditional Grammars English and Nepali: A Study.
Kathmandu : Author.
Ayton, J.A. 1820. A Grammar of the Nepali Languages. Culcutta : (1960).
Grierson G.A. 1916. Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. IX\, Part IV, Culcutta.
…. 1927. Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. I, Culcutta.
Turnbull, R.A. 1904. Nepali Grammar and Vocabulary (3rd ed.). Darjeeling :
The Mission House Bansted.
Turner, R.L. 1931. A Comparative and the Etymological Dictionary of the Nepali
Language. London Trubner & Co. Ltd.

bLklzvf ÷ 19
 ;}4flGts ;Gbe{ / g]kfnL ;flxTosf]
sfn ljefhg
afnfs[i0f clwsf/L*

!= ljifo kl/ro
sfn ljefhg ;do ljefhgsf] Pp6f dxŒjk"0f{ k|of; xf] . ;donfO{
d"ntM e"t, jt{dfg / eljiot\ u/L ltg sfnv08df ljefhg ug]{ k|rng /x]sf]
5 . of] k|rng klg cfkm}df ljjfbaf6 d'St 5}g . e"t xfdLn] ef]lu;s]sf
x'gfn] o;sf] ljefhgsf] cfjZostf 5}g . jt{dfg cToGt Ifl0fs x'g] ePsfn]
klg Pp6f sfnsf ¿kdf o;nfO{ dfGotf lbg' Tolt >]ois/ 5}g lsgeg] h]
xfdLn] ul/;Sof}F Tof] e"t x'G5 / h] xfdLn] u/]sf 5}gf}F Tof] eljios} ue{df
/xG5 . eljio clglZrt 5 . clglZrt eljionfO{ s;/L sfnsf ¿kdf
dfGg ;lsG5 < o; ;+;f/sf ;Dk"0f{ ef}lts j:t'sf h:t} ;donfO{ ljleGg
v08df ljefhg ug{ ;Dej 5}g . sfn ljefhg a? Pp6f kl/sNkgf xf] h;df
cv08 ;donfO{ ljleGg sfnv08df v08Ls/0f ug]{ k|oTg dfq ul/Psf]
x'G5 . dfgj Oltxf;nfO{ Pp6f lglZrt kl/sNkgf agfP/ ljleGg ;dodf
ljefhg u/]h:t} s'g} klg /fi6«sf] ;flxlTos Oltxf;sf] ;/n, ;'ne / pko'St
af]w tyf ljZn]if0fsf nflu ljleGg sfnv08df ljefhg ug]{ kl/kf6L /x]sf]
5 . k|:t't ;dfnf]rgfdf sfn ljefhgsf] ;}4flGts ;Gbe{sf] ;ª\lIfKt ljdz{
ub}{ tbg'¿k g]kfnL ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgsf] Pp6f gjLg cjwf/0ff k|:t't
ul/Psf] 5 .

* pkk|fWofks, sf]6]Zj/ ax'd'vL SofDk;, sf7df8f}F .

20 ÷ bLklzvf
@= ;flxlTos sfn ljefhgsf] kl/ro
;flxTo dfgjLo r]tgfsf] snfTds k|:t'lt klg xf] ;fy} ;flxTo eflifs
snf xf] . efiffsf dfWodaf6 ;dfh, hLjg hut\af6 k|fKt 1fg, cg'e"lt, ;+j]bgf
cflbsf] snfTds k|:t'lt ;flxTodf ul/Psf] x'G5 . h'g;'s} ljsl;t efiffdf
;flxTo x'G5 / ;flxTo n]vg tyf k7gsf] k/Dk/faf6 o;sf] Oltxf; lgdf{0f
ePsf] x'G5 . ;flxlTos k/Dk/fsf] nfdf] ofqfnfO{ ljleGg v08df ljefhg ug'{
;flxTosf] sfn ljefhg xf] .
;+;f/sf k|foMh;f] ljsl;t / cNkljsl;t efiffsf ;flxTosf] Oltxf;
x'G5 . æ===;fdfGo Oltxf; em}F ;flxTo]ltxf; klg k|rlnt ;}4flGts cg'zf;gdf
cfa4 eP/ g} /fi6«sf] ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts hLjgsf] Ps dxŒjk"0f{ cª\u eO/x]sf]
x'G5 ->]i7, @)%( M @(_ . s'g} efiffsf] ;flxTo]ltxf; To;sf] k|f/De, ljsf;
/ k|ultsf] t6:y Pjd\ tYok|wfg ;j]{If0f / d"Nofª\sg xf] -z/0f, ;g\ !(&$ M
!(^_ . ;flxTo]ltxf;sf] d"n p2]Zo /rgfsf] pTklQ / jt{dfgdf To;sf] ;fy{stf
b'a}df ljrf/ ug'{ xf] -kf08]o, ;g\ @))* M !@_ . s'g} klg efiffsf ;flxTosf]
Oltxf; cv08 x'G5 . ;flxTosf] o;} cv08 Oltxf;nfO{ v08Ls/0f ug'{ g}
sfn ljefhg xf] .
;flxTo]ltxf; dfgljsL tyf ;dfh zf:qsf ljleGg ljwfx¿dWo] Ps
xf] . d"ntM of] dfgjLo efjgf, ljrf/, ;+j]bgfsf ;fy} ;du| dfgj hfltsf]
pTklQ tyf ljsf;;Fu k|ToIf ;DalGwt 5 . dfgj ;dfhsf ljsf;sf] ultaf6
k|ToIf k/f]If ¿kdf k|efljt k|]l/t x'Fb} ;flxTosf] Oltxf; klg j|mdzM ultzLn
x'g] ePsfn] o;sf] ;du| cWoogsf nflu sfn ljefhg ug'{kg]{ x'G5 .
Oltxf;df h:t} ;flxTo]ltxf;df klg d"t{, 7f]; / k|fdfl0fs tYo clgjfo{
x'G5g\ . Oltxf;nfO{ h:t} æ;flxTo]ltxf;nfO{ ;fdflhs–;f+:s[lts d"Nox¿sf
sfnh:t} sfnhGo tYox¿sf] z[ª\vnfa4 cg';Gwfg–kl/0ffd dfGg ;lsG5Æ
->]i7, @)%( M #)_ . sfn ;Da4 Oltxf;df ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts tYox¿n]
dxŒj /fv]h:t} ;flxTo]ltxf;df klg logn] plQs} dxŒj /fVb5g\ . ;flxTo]ltxf;
Oltxf; h:t} dfgj ;Eotf / ljrf/sf] ;+:sfl/t / sfnj|mlds clen]vfª\sg xf] .
;flxTo]ltxf;df ;do tŒj cToGt dxŒjk"0f{ / anjfg\ dflgG5 . ;dosf
s'g} b'O{ ljGb'larsf] ;flxlTos pxfkf]xnfO{ ;flxTo]ltxf;n] cfˆgf] d"n ljifo
agfpF5 . cf/Deb]lv jt{dfg;Ddsf] ;dli6 / Joli6 cWoognfO{ ;flxTo]ltxf;n]
cfˆgf] cWoog If]q agfpF5 . To;}n] ;flxTo]ltxf;nfO{ ljleGg sfnv08df
ljefhg u/]/ cWoog ubf{ pSt ljifo If]qn] ;ª\lIfKttf, d"t{tf / j:t'k/stf
k|fKt ub{5 .

bLklzvf ÷ 21
 ;flxTo]ltxf; ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts lrGtgsf] kl/0flt xf] . ;fdflhs
k|f0fLsf ¿kdf dfG5]n] ;Eotfsf] cfDeb]lv g} cfˆgf] ;+:s[lt lgdf{0f u/]sf] x'G5 .
To;}n] ;flxTo, snf cflb p;n] lgdf{0f u/]sf] eflifs tyf ;f}Gbof{Tds ;+:s[ltsf
pkh x'g\ . ;+:s[ltsf] cd"No lglw ;flxTodf klg dfgjLo lrGtgsf ljljw
;+:s/0fx¿sf] 5fk k/]sf] x'G5 . To:tf k|efjsf] vf]hLsf nflu ;flxTo]ltxf;sf]
cfjZostf k5{ / ;flxTo]ltxf;sf] ;d'lrt cWoogsf nflu sfn ljefhgsf]
cfjZostf kb{5 . To;}n] ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhg ug'{ klg ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts
lrGtgsf] pkh xf] .
;flxTo]ltxf; ;flxlTos tYox¿sf] Jojl:yt clen]v xf] . ;r]ttfk"j{s
tYosf] ;ª\sng, To;k|ltsf] k|Zg, k|ltk|Zg / ljZn]if0faf6 ;flxTo]ltxf;
n]lvg] ePsfn] o;df clt ;fgf / clt lj:t[t tYosf] klg plQs} dxŒj
/x]sf] x'G5 . Oltxf;sf] pTvggaf6 k|fKt tYox¿nfO{ P]ltxfl;s dxŒj k|bfg
ub}{ ltgsf] Jojl:yt clen]vfª\sg ul/g] ePsfn] ;flxTo]ltxf;df ;do tŒj
dxŒjk"0f{ 5 / ;dosf] v08Ls/0f ub}{ ;d'lrt, tfls{s, j:t'k/s tyf Jojl:yt
clen]vfª\sg ug'{ ;flxTo]ltxf;sf] clgjfo{ kIf xf] .
k|f0fL, jg:klt cflbsf h:t} ;flxTo]ltxf;sf] klg pTklQ, ljsf;
/ lj:tf/ x'G5 . s'g} Pp6f u'0f, ljz]iftf jf k|j[lQ lnP/ ljsl;t ePsf]
;flxTo]ltxf;sf] s'g} sfnv08 sfnfGt/df ;dosf] ;+:sfl/t r]tgfsf cfwf/df
cs}{ k|j[lQnfO{ cfTd;ft\ ug{ k'Ub5 . o;af6 ;flxTo]ltxf;n] cjuL{o Oltxf;df
juL{o ljz]iftf k|fKt ub{5 . pTklQ;Fu} j[l4, ljsf; / lj:tf/sf r/0fdf
kl/df0fut / u'0fut b'a} k|sf/sf ptf/r9fpsf] ;fdgf ;flxTo]ltxf;n] u/]sf]
x'G5 . afFRgsf nflu / cfˆgf] j+z lj:tf/sf nflu k|f0fL jf jg:kltn] ;ª\3if{
u/]h:t} ;flxTo]ltxf;n] klg cffˆgf ljwf pkljwfsf] ljsf;sf nflu ;ª\3if{
ug'{k/]sf] x'G5 . o;} ;ª\3if{af6 g} ;flxTo]ltxf;sf] ljwfut ;f}Gbo{ klg lgdf{0f
ePsf] x'G5 . ;flxTo]ltxf;sf] pTklQ, j[l4, ljsf; / lj:tf/sf] Jojl:yt /
;Dk"0f{ cWoog sfn ljefhgaf6 dfq ;Dej 5 .
;flxTo]ltxf; s[ltsf cfGtl/s / afx\o kIfsf] ;+jfbfTds cGt/lj|mofsf]
lg/Gt/tf / kl/jt{gsf] pkh xf] . s'g} klg ;flxlTos /rgfsf d'Vo b'O{ kIf
x'G5g\ M -!_ cfGtl/s kIf jf s[ltleqsf] ljifo / -@_ afx\o kIf jf s[ltsf]
o'uLg k[i7e"ld . s[ltleqsf] ljifon] o'uLg k[i7e"ld;Fusf] lg/Gt/ cGt/lj|mof
u/L Oltxf;nfO{ k|jfxzLn agfPsf] x'G5 . ha o; lg/Gt/tfdf kl/jt{g jf
j|mdeª\u x'G5 ta gofF k|jfx jf sfnsf] cf/De x'G5 . s[ltsf] cfGtl/s /
afx\o kIflar x'g] ;+jfbfTds cGt/lj|mofsf] lg/Gt/tf / kl/jt{gsf] af]waf6 g}

22 ÷ bLklzvf
cvl08t Oltxf;nfO{ vl08t u/]/ a'‰g] r]tgfsf] ljsf; x'G5 . oxL r]tgfsf]
kl/0flt g} sfn ljefhg xf] . To;}n] ;flxTo]ltxf;df s[ltleqsf] ljifo / o'uLg
k[i7e"ld tyf ljz]iftfsf] ;+jfbfTds cGt/lj|mofsf] lg/Gt/tf / kl/jt{gn] vf;
cy{ / dxŒj /fV5 .
;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgdf ;dfhsf ljljw kIfx¿n] k|ToIf k/f]If
k|efj kf/]sf x'G5g\ . sfn ljefhgdf s'g} Ps kIfnfO{ dfq ljrf/ u/]/
k'Ub}g . o; ;Gbe{df tf/fgfy zdf{sf] ljrf/ o:tf] 5 M æ;flxTosf sfnsf]
n]vfhf]vf ubf{ ljifoj:t', z}nL, efiff, /fhg}lts / cfly{s k[i7e"ld, c¿
efiff / ;flxTosf] k|efj, j}rfl/s bfz{lgs k|ltkfbg, r]tgzLn ¿kn] u/]sf
;flxlTos cfGbf]ngx¿, c¿ o'usf ;flxlTos wf/0ffx¿sf] k'g:yf{kgf h:tf
cg]sf}F dfkb08x¿nfO{ Wofgdf /fVg'k5{Æ -zdf{, @)@& M #_ . To;}n] sfn
ljefhgsf cfGtl/s / afx\o u/L b'O{ k|sf/sf k|efjs /x]sf x'G5g\ . ;flxTo
:jod\df sfn ljefhgsf] cfGtl/s k|efjs xf] . o;leq kg]{ snf / eflifs
:j¿k klg ;flxlTos sfn ljefhgsf cfGtl/s k|efjs g} x'g\ . ;fdflhs,
/fhgLlts, cfly{s, z}lIfs, bfz{lgs cflb cfwf/ tyf dfgjLo r]tgf / j}rfl/s
kIfw/tf sfn ljefhgsf afx\o k|efjs x'g\ .
;flxTosf] sfn ljefhg klg Oltxf;sf] sfn ljefhg h:t} ofb[lR5s
x'G5 . of] ;flxTo]ltxf;sf/sf] lrGtg / b[li6sf]0f cg';f/ km/s km/s x'g ;S5 .
Pp6f;Fu csf{sf] lrGtg jf b[li6sf]0f d]n gvfg ;S5 . To;}n] sfn ljefhg
JolStlkR5] km/s km/s x'g ;S5 .
;flxTosf] d"t{ Oltxf; tof/ kfg{sf nflu Pp6f Oltxf;sf/n] d"ntM
tYo / To;sf ljZn]if0fsf] ef}lts, k|fljlws, s"6gLlts, /0fgLlts, dfgl;s
/ jftfj/0fLo kIfdf ljz]if Wofg lbg' cfjZos x'G5 . oL ljljw kIfdf ljrf/
ubf{ k|To]s JolStlkR5]sf ljrf/ / lrGtgn] a9L dxŒj kfpg] ;Defjgf /xG5 t/
ofb[lR5stfsf gfpFdf k4lt / k|lj|mofsf] ;d'lrt k|of]u gePsf sfn ljefhgn]
;flxTosf] Oltxf;nfO{ lrgfpg tyf a'emfpg c;dy{ x'G5g\ .
;flxTo]ltxf; ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts d"Nox¿sf sflns tYox¿sf]
z[ª\vnfa4 cg';Gwfgsf] kl/0flt xf] . of] ;f+:s[lts k|efjsf sf/0f lgld{t
x'G5 . ;f+:s[lts lrGtgaf6 JoSt ePsf tYox¿sf] syf ;flxTo]ltxf; xf] .
To;}n] ;flxTo]ltxf;df tYosf ;fy} syfTdstf jf kl/sNkgfsf] klg dxŒj
/xG5 . ;flxTo]ltxf;df sfn ljefhg clgjfo{ x'G5 . sfn ljefhg r]tgfsf] d"n
cfwf/ kl/sNkgf xf] . ;flxTo]ltxf;sf sfn ljefhgsf] cfwf/ / gfdfª\sg klg
sfNklgs g} x'G5 . ;flxTo]ltxf; ;flxTosf cf/Deb]lv jt{dfg;Ddsf ;fdflhs

bLklzvf ÷ 23
;f+:s[lts d"No / dfgjLo r]tgfsf pxfkf]x b]vfPg] P]gf xf] . ;flxTo]ltxf;
lqsflns cfofddf 3l6t ;flxlTos 36gfjnLsf] j}1flgs cWoog ePsfn]
o;n] Oltxf; zf:q;Fu cToGt glhssf] ;DaGw /fVb5 . Oltxf;n] dfgjLo
;Eotf ljsf;sf] nfdf] sfnj|mlds ufyf k|:t't ub{5 eg] ;flxTo]ltxf;n]
dfgjLo ;f}Gbo{k/s eflifs cleJolSt snfsf] sfnj|mlds cWoog, ljZn]if0f
/ d"Nofª\sg k|:t't ub{5 . To;}n] ;flxTo]ltxf; Ps lsl;dn] Oltxf; g} xf] .
Oltxf;sf h:t} ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgsf klg ljlw zf:qLo k4lt /x]sf
x'G5g\ . tL k4ltx¿ sfn ljefhgsf cª\uLe"t tŒjs} ;fk]Ifdf lgwf{l/t /
lgof]lht x'G5g\ .

#= sfn ljefhgsf ;+/rs 36sx¿

;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgsf lglZrt cjoj jf ;+/rs 36sx¿ x'G5g\ .
sfn ljefhgsf nflu cfjZos ;+/rs 36sx¿nfO{ o;sf cª\uLe"t tŒj
klg elgG5 . o:tf ;+/rs 36sx¿ o; k|sf/ /x]sf 5g\ M
-!_ sfn ljefhg / gfds/0fsf cfwf/
-@_ sfnv08sf] ;dofjlw lgwf{/0fdf kl/sNkgf
-#_ ljeflht sfnv08sf] cf}lrTo lgwf{/0f / k'li6
-$_ sfn ljefhgsf] of]hgf
-%_ sfn ljefhgsf ljlw / k|lj|mof
-^_ sfn ljefhgsf] k|:t'lt
pko'{St cª\uLe"t tŒjsf] cGtaf{x\o ;+of]hgaf6 dfq ;flxTosf] sfn
ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 .

$= sfn ljefhg / gfds/0fsf cfwf/

;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgsf lglZrt cfwf/ x'G5g\ . To:tf cfwf/nfO{
Psn, o'un jf ;fd"lxs ¿kdf s'g} klg efiffsf ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgdf
k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 . clwsf+z ;flxlTos Oltxf;df /fhgLlts kl/jt{gnfO{
;flxlTos sfn ljefhgsf] d"n cfwf/ dflgPsf] kfOG5 . /fhgLlt ;flxTosf]
d"n dfkb08 xf] -j]n]s / jf/]g, pb\w[= kflnjfn, ;g\ @))) M #$*–#$(_ .
/fhgLlts kl/jt{gnfO{ d"n cfwf/ dfg]/ ul/Psf] sfn ljefhgn] ;flxTonfO{
/fhgLltsf sf]0faf6 x]g]{ k|oTg u/]sf] x'G5 . /fhgLlt afx]s klg cGo w]/}
cfwf/df ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhg ul/Psf] 5 . ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgdf
h'g cfwf/sf] k|of]u ePsf] 5 To;sf] k|ToIf emNsf] ljeflht sfnv08sf]

24 ÷ bLklzvf
gfds/0faf6 lbOPsf] x'G5 . To;}n] sfn ljefhgsf] cfwf/ / gfds/0f Ps
csf{;Fu cGt/;DalGwt x'G5g\ .
;flxTosf] sfn ljefhg / ljeflht sfnv08sf] gfds/0fsf lglZrt
cfwf/x¿ x'G5g\ . JolStlkR5] leGg leGg cfwf/nfO{ a9L dxŒj lbOPsf]
kfOG5 . Oltxf;sf] sfn ljefhg ug'{kg]{ ePsfn] / of] ;do;Fu k|ToIf ;DalGwt
ePsfn] sltkon] ;do tŒjnfO{ a9L dxŒj lbPsf] kfOG5 eg] sltkon]
/fhgLlts kl/jt{gnfO{ a9L dxŒj lbPsf] kfOG5 . ;flxlTos k|j[lQ cg'¿k
;flxTo]ltxf;df b]lvPsf kl/jt{gsf kblrGxnfO{ k5\ofpFb} kfOnf kfOnfnfO{
v08 v08 agfP/ cWoog ug{ ;lsof] eg] dfq ;flxTosf] k|efjsf/L cWoog
k"/f ug{ ;lsG5 . l;ª\uf] ;flxTo]ltxf;nfO{ ljleGg sfnv08df ljefhg u/]/
cWoog ubf{ pSt ljefhgsf cfwf/df Ps ¿ktf x'g' klg plQs} cfjZos
b]lvG5 -clwsf/L, @)^^ M %_ . o;sf ;Gbe{df g]kfn n]V5g\— æo;/L
v08–v08df ljefhg ug{sf lglDt cWo]tfn] s[lt / s[ltsf/sf efjwf/f,
hLjgb[li6, efiffz}nL cflb ljleGg s'/fnfO{ cfwf/:j¿k lnFb} 5Æ -;g\
@))( M $$_ . sfn ljefhgdf s'g} g s'g} cfwf/nfO{ cfTd;ft\ ul/Psf] 5}g
eg] pSt sfn ljefhg Jojl:yt x'g ;Sb}g / ljeflht sfnv08sf] gfds/0f
klg ts{xLg jf atf;] aLph:t} x'g hfG5 . To;}n] sfn ljefhg / ljeflht
sfnv08sf] gfds/0fdf cfwf/sf] clgjfo{tf /x]sf] 5 .
ljZj ;flxTodf ;flxTosf Oltxf;sf] sfn ljefhgdf lgDglnlvt
afx\o jf :y"n cfwf/x¿sf] k|of]u x'g] u/]sf] b]lvG5 M
-s_ ztfAbLsf cfwf/df, h:t} M c7f/f}F ztfAbL, pGgfO;f}F ztfAbL, la;f}F
ztfAbL cflb .
-v_ k|l;4 zf;s ju{sf] gfd / zf;g ;dosf cfwf/df, h:t} M k[YjL o'u,
sdgj]Ny o'u, Plnhfj]yg o'u cflb .
-u_ /fhgLlts 36gfj|mdsf cfwf/df, h:t} M k|hftGq sfn, k~rfot sfn,
k|Tofjt{g o'u cflb .
-3_ ;flxlTos k|j[lQ, d"n efj wf/f jf jfbsf cfwf/df, h:t} M jL/ sfn,
elSt sfn, z[ª\uf/ sfn, :jR5GbtfjfbL o'u, k|of]ujfbL o'u cflb .
-ª_ k|Voft o'u k|ltlglw ;flxTo ;|i6fsf cfwf/df, h:t} M efg' o'u, df]tL
o'u, r;/ o'u hf]G;g o'u cflb .
-r_ k|l;4 ;flxlTos s[ltsf cfwf/df, h:t} M j}lbs sfn, pklgifb\ sfn,
k~rtGq sfn, d'b|f/fIf; o'u cflb .
-5_ snf–Oltxf;sf cfwf/df, h:t} M k'ghf{u/0f o'u, uf]lys sfn cflb .

bLklzvf ÷ 25
-h_ wfld{s k|efjsf cfwf/df, h:t} M k|f]6]:6]g o'u, Sofyf]lns o'u cflb .
-`_ eflifs ljsf;sf cfwf/df, h:t} M egf{s'n/ ;flxTo cflb .
-6_ ;Eotf ljsf;sf] j|mdsf cfwf/df, h:t} M nf}x o'u, /ht o'u, :j0f{
o'u cflb .
-7_ ljlzi6 ;fdflhs clenIf0fsf cfwf/df, h:t} M k|frLg jf k|fylds
sfn, dfWolds sfn, cfw'lgs sfn, pQ/cfw'lgs sfn cflb .
-8_ snf ;flxlTos cfGbf]ng tyf cleofgsf cfwf/df, h:t} M :6«fd] PG8 8«ª
o'u cflb .
-9_ nf]s gfos / ltgsf k|efj kl/lwsf cfwf/df, h:t} M ufGwL o'u, t'n;L
o'u, ;Gt 1fg lbnbf; o'u, dfl6{g n'y/ o'u cflb .
-0f_ o'4, ;lGw cflbsf cfwf/df, h:t} M ljZj o'4k"j{ o'u, o'4f]Q/ ;flxTo,
;'uf}nL ;lGw sfn cflb .
-t_ ;dfh ljsf;sf] k|ultjfbL lrGtgsf cfwf/df, h:t} M ;fdGtsfnLg
;flxTo o'u, k'FhLjfbL ;flxTo o'u, hgjfbL ;flxTo o'u cflb .
-y_ s'g} ljwf ljz]ifsf] k|wfgtfsf cfwf/df, h:t} M dxfsfJo sfn, cfVofg
sfn, d'Sts sfn cflb .
-b_ ;do ljsf;sf] j|mdsf cfwf/df, h:t} M k|f/lDes sfn, pTyfg sfn,
ljsf; sfn
-w_ ;flxlTos z}nLsf cfwf/df, h:t} M gofF ;do, k'/fgf] ;do cflb .
;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgdf d"ntM b'O{ k|sf/sf cfwf/nfO{ cfTd;ft\ ug{
;lsG5 M
-!_ gfds/0fdf k|ToIf k|efj kfg]{ cfwf/ jf afx\o cfwf/ /
-@_ gfds/0fdf k|ToIf k|efj gkfg]{ cfwf/ jf cfGtl/s cfwf/ .
g]kfnL k/Dk/f tyf ljZjel/ ;flxTosf] Oltxf; n]vg k/Dk/fdf log}
cfwf/df ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhg ug]{ kl/kf6L /x]sf] kfOG5 . sfn ljefhgsf]
afx\o cfwf/ Tof] xf] h'g k|ToIf ¿kn] sfnv08sf] gfds/0fdf k|ltljlDat
x'G5 . o; cGtu{t snf Oltxf;sf] cfwf/, k|l;4 zf;sju{sf] gfd / ;dosf]
cfwf/, k|l;4 ;flxlTos s[ltsf] cfwf/, /fhg}lts 36gfj|mdsf] cfwf/, o'u
k|ltlglw ;flxTo ;|i6fsf] cfwf/, ljlzi6 ;fdflhs clenIf0ftfsf] cfwf/,
efiff÷Jofs/0f ljsf;sf] cfwf/, ztfAbLsf] cfwf/, ;Eotf ljsf;sf] cfwf/,
;flxlTos k|j[lQ, d"n efjwf/f jf jfbsf] cfwf/, ;flxlTos kqklqsfsf]
cfwf/ cflb kb{5g\ . sfn ljefhgsf] cfGtl/s cfwf/ Tof] xf] h'g k|ToIf
¿kn] sfnv08sf] gfds/0fdf k|ltljlDat x'Fb}g . o; cGtu{t wfld{s

26 ÷ bLklzvf
k|efjsf] cfwf/, z}lIfs ljsf; / k|efjsf] cfwf/, afx\o ;flxlTos k|efjsf]
cfwf/, cfly{s ljsf;sf] cfwf/, k|ljlw ljsf;sf] cfwf/, bfz{lgs cfwf/,
juL{otfsf] cfwf/ cflb kb{5g\ . sfn ljefhgsf] cfGtl/s cfwf/ d"ntM
ljeflht sfnv08sf] cf}lrTo lgwf{/0f / To;sf] k'li6sf j|mddf k|of]u x'g]
ub{5 .
sfn ljefhgdf dflysf dWo] s'g} Ps, PseGbf a9L jf k|ToIf k|efj
kfg]{ / ck|ToIf k|efj kfg]{ b'a} k|sf/sf PseGbf a9L cfwf/sf] k|of]u x'g ;S5g\ .
d"ntM ljlzi6 ;fdflhs clenIf0fsf cfwf/df k|fylds sfn, dfWolds sfn,
cfw'lgs sfn / pQ/cfw'lgs sfndf ljefhg u/L ;flxlTos k|jl[ Q, d"n efjwf/f
jf jfbsf cfwf/df r/0f jf pkr/0fsf] ljefhg ug]{ k/Dk/f w]/}h;f] efiffsf
;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgdf a9L k|rlnt /x]sf] b]lvG5 . ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhg
;do k|jfxsf] ljsf; / ;flxlTos k|j[lQs} cfwf/df ePdf pko'St x'G5 .
;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgsf] csf]{ dxŒjk"0f{ kIf gfds/0f xf] . sfnsf]
/]vfª\sg ug'{ ;dosf] v08Ls/0f ug'{ jf v08 v08df 5'6\ofpg' xf] . of]
;du| sfn ljefhgs} dd{ xf] . sfn ljefhg ug]{ lglZrt cfwf/nfO{ lnP/
;flxTo]ltxf;sf cWo]tfn] ljefhg u/]sf sfnv08sf] Gjf/fg ug'{ g} gfds/0f
xf] / of] klg sfn ljefhgsf] clgjfo{ zt{ xf] . gfds/0f sfnv08sf] d"n
klxrfg jf lrgf/L xf] . sfnv08sf] :j¿k / u'0f b'a} emlNsg] gfds/0f ePdf
Tof] j}1flgs 7x5{ . sfnv08sf ;flxlTos ljz]iftfsf] k|ltlglwTj ug{ ;Sg]
gfdsf] 5gf]6 ePdf sfnv08 / To;sf gfdsf larsf] ;Gt'ng / ;dGjo sfod
x'g hfG5 . To;}n] sfnv08sf] ;Dk"0f{ kl/ro lbg] vfnsf] gfd jf zLif{s 5gf]6
ug'{ g} gfds/0f xf] / of] sfn ljefhgsf cfwf/df cfl>t /x]sf] x'G5 .
sfn ljefhgsf] cfwf/ / gfds/0fdf ;dGjo x'g'kb{5 . s'g} Ps
cfwf/df ljefhg ul/Psf sfnv08sf] gfds/0f To;} cfwf/;Fu ;Da4 kb tyf
kbfjnLaf6 eof] eg] To;nfO{ pko''St dflgG5 . o; ;DaGwdf >]i7 -@)%(_
n]V5g\— ædfgjLo lj|mofsnfkcGtu{t /fhgLlt, ;+:s[lt cflb s'/fx¿sf] k|efj
;flxTodf kg]{ eP klg sfnsf] gfd/s0f ubf{ eg] o'uLg ;flxlTos k|j[lQsf] ;f/
emNsg] efiffzf:qLo kb jf kbfjnL g} 5fGg'kb{5Æ -k[= ##_ . o; ;DaGwdf
3gZofd g]kfn -@))(_ n]V5g\— æsfnsf] gfds/0fsf nflu cfwf/ 5gf]6
ubf{ Ps ¿ktf sfod x'g;s] pQd xf]Æ -k[= $*_ . sfn ljefhgsf] cfwf/n]
Psflt/ ;dosf] v08Ls/0f ug]{ / csf{lt/ gfds/0fnfO{ k[i7kf]if0f k|bfg ug]{
x'gfn] ljeflht sfnv08sf] gfds/0fdf o;sf] k|ToIf k|efj Hofbf k/]sf] x'G5 .
;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgsf] cfwf/ :jlgi7 / cGtlg{i7 eP h:t} gfds/0f klg

bLklzvf ÷ 27
:jlgi7 / cGtlg{i7 g} x'G5 . :jlgi7 gfds/0f ;flxTo, ;flxlTos k|j[lQ, wf/f,
pkwf/f, jfb cflbnfO{ Bf]tg ug]{ kb jf kbfjnLsf] k|of]u x'G5 eg] cGtlg{i7
gfds/0fdf 1fg lj1fgsf cGo ljifo If]qdf ;dosf v08nfO{ a'emfpg] kb
jf kbfjnLsf] k|of]u x'G5 .
;flxTosf sfn ljefhgsf] cfwf/sf h:t} ljeflht sfnv08sf]
gfds/0f klg k|ToIf / ck|ToIf ¿kn] g} ul/Psf] x'G5 . k|ToIf ¿kn] ul/Psf]
gfds/0fdf sfn ljefhgdf k|o'St cfwf/sf] ;f]em} k|efj b]lvG5Ù h:t} M g]kfnL
;flxTosf ;Gbe{df JolSt;|i6fsf cfwf/df ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhg ul/Psf]
5 eg] efg'eSt o'u, df]tL/fd o'u, n]vgfy o'u cflb h:tf gfdx¿ cfpg
;S5g\ . ck|ToIf ¿kn] ul/Psf] gfds/0fdf sfn ljefhgsf] cfwf/ k|ToIf
jf ck|ToIf h'g;'s} ¿ksf] eP klg To;sf] k|efj k/]sf] b]lvG5Ù h:t} M efiff
ljsf;sf cfwf/df sfn ljefhg ul/P klg sfnv08nfO{ k|f/lDes, dfWolds
/ cfw'lgs u/L gfds/0f ubf{ To;sf] gfddf efiff ljsf;sf cfwf/sf] s'g} uGw
e]6\g ;lsFb}g . To; sf/0f ;flxTosf ljeflht sfnv08sf] gfds/0f k|ToIf
/ ck|ToIf b'a} tl/sfn] x'g ;S5 .
sfn ljefhgsf] dxŒjk"0f{ / clgjfo{ tŒj ljefhg / gfds/0fsf]
cfwf/ xf] . ;a}h;f] sfn ljefhgdf clgjfo{ ¿kdf s'g} g s'g} cfwf/sf] k|of]u
ePs} x'G5 / ;f] cfwf/ cg'¿k sfnv08sf] k|ToIf jf k/f]If gfds/0f ePsf]
x'G5 . ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgdf olb :ki6 / ;flxlTos, eflifs / ;fdlos
cfwf/x¿sf] k|of]u ePdf pQd dflgG5 . To:t} sfn ljefhgsf] ljZn]if0fdf
klg cfwf/sf] ;d'lrt ljZn]if0f x'g ;s]df s'g} klg efiffsf] ;flxTo n]vg /
To;sf] cWoog cf}lrTok"0f{ x'g hfG5 .

%= g]kfnL ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhg M cfwf/e"t /]vfª\sg

;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgsf j|mddf cfwf/ k|of]udf Ps ¿ktf x'g'
clgjfo{ dflgG5 . sfn ljefhgsf] cjwf/0ffn] klg o;} s'/fnfO{ hf]8 lbPsf]
5 . To;}n] k|:t't ;Gbe{df g]kfnL ;flxTosf] Oltxf;nfO{ b'O{ txsf sfnv08df
ljefhg ul/g] ePsfn] cfwf/ k|of]u klg lgDg lnlvt b'O{ k|sf/n] ul/Psf] 5 M
-!_ d"n sfnv08 ljefhg M ljlzi6 ;fdflhs clenIf0fsf cfwf/df .
-@_ pkv08 jf o'u jf r/0fsf] ljefhg M ;flxlTos d"n k|j[lQ, efjwf/f
/ jfbsf cfwf/df .
g]kfnL ;flxTosf] ljsf; k|jfxnfO{ cWoog ljZn]if0f u/L x]bf{ l;ª\uf]
g]kfnL ;flxTodf d"ne"t ¿kdf ltgcf]6f d'Vo kl/jt{gsf ;do laGb' b]lvG5g\ M

28 ÷ bLklzvf
%=!= g]kfnL ;flxTosf] n]vg cf/De
cg';Gwfg / vf]hLsf] k/Dk/f slxNo} cGTo gx'g] eP klg clxn];Ddsf]
vf]hLaf6 k[YjLgf/fo0f zfxsf] g]kfn PsLs/0f cleofg;Fu} ;flxTo n]vg
cf/De ePsf] s'/f k|dfl0ft ePsf] 5 . c1ftsf] /fd zfxsf] hLjgLsf] n]vg
;do ls6fgLsf ;fy eGg g;lsP klg g]kfnsf Oltxf;sf] cWoogaf6 !&^#
;fndf /fd zfxn] uf]vf{ /fHodf /fHof/f]x0f u/]sf] yfxf kfpg ;lsG5 . To;}n]
/fd zfxsf] /fHof/f]x0fkl5 o;sf] n]vg ePsf] cg'dfg ug{ ;lsG5 . o; s[ltdf
;flxlTos u'0f klg ePsf] x'gfn] o;nfO{ g]kfnL ;flxTosf] k|yd df}lns /rgf
dfGg klg ;lsG5 t/ o;sf] ;do k|dfl0ft gePsfn] ;do nueu k|dfl0ft
eO;s]sf] ;'jfgGb bf;sf] sljtf …k[YjLgf/fo0fÚ -lj=;+= !*@^÷@&_ nfO{ g}
g]kfnL ;flxTosf] klxnf] lnlvt /rgf dfGg' cf}lrTok"0f{ b]lvG5 . oBlk /fd
zfxsf] hLjgLsf] /rgf cjlwb]lv lj=;+= !*@& ;Ddsf] cjlwdf o:t} w]/}
s[ltsf] /rgf ePsf] x'g ;Sg] 7fg]/ oL b'O{ /rgf n]vg ;dosf] dWo cyf{t\
lj=;+= !*)) sf] cf;kf;nfO{ g]kfnL ;flxTosf] cf/De ljGb' dfGg' pko'St
x'G5 . cg';Gwfg k|lj|mofaf6 gofF tYosf] k|flKt x'Fb} hfFbf g]kfnL ;flxTosf]
k|f/lDes ;do To;eGbf klg cem cufl8 hfg ;S5 . o;/L g]kfnL ;flxTosf]
n]vg k|f/De ePsf] ;do lj=;+= !*)) sf] cf;kf;nfO{ dflgPsf] 5 .
g]kfnL ;flxTosf] k|:tfjgfb]lv klxnf] d'Vo v'l8\snf];Ddsf] nueu
Ps ;o rfln; jif{sf] cjlwnfO{ k|f/lDes sfn dflgG5 . o;nfO{ ;dosf
b'O{ laGb'leq /fVbf lj=;+= !*)) b]lv lj=;+= !($) ;Ddsf] ;dofjlw lgwf{/0f
ug{ ;lsG5 . k|j[lQut lx;fan] g]kfnL ;flxTosf] k|f/lDes sfndf d"ntM
b'O{ cf]6f efjwf/f ljBdfg /x]sf] kfOG5 M -!_ jL/ ufyfd"ns wf/f / -@_
elSt ufyfd"ns wf/f . g]kfnsf] PsLs/0f cleofg;Fu} cf/De ePsf] g]kfnL
;flxTosf] klxnf] ;flxlTos k|j[lQ jL/ :t'lt xf] . k[YjLgf/fo0f zfxsf] zf;g
sfnb]lv cf/De ePsf] of] wf/f g]kfnL /fhgLlts Oltxf;sf] ;'uf}nL ;lGw;Dd
-lj=;+= !*&@_ sfod /x]sf] 5 . olta]nf g]kfnsf] PsLs/0f cleofg / g]kfn
clw/fHosf] ;Ldf lj:tf/ cleofgnfO{ k|>o lbg] vfnsf s]xL ;Lldt ;flxTo
n]lvPsf] kfOG5 . cg'jfb ¿kfGt/0f k/Dk/f g} g]kfnL ;flxTo n]vgsf] kof{o
ag] klg s]xL df}lns s[ltsf] /rgf ;d]t olta]nf ePsf] kfOG5 . PsLs/0f
cleofg¿kL o'4df xf]ldPsf jL/ uf]vf{nLx¿sf] pT;fx a9fpg] sfd o;
cjlwsf ;flxTon] u/]sf 5g\ . d"ntM sljtfsf dfWodaf6 tTsfnLg /fhf
dxf/fhfsf ;fy} jL/ l;kfxLx¿sf] oz:jL ufg ul/Psf ;flxTosf] afx'No
olta]nf b]lvG5 . ;flxlTos n]vgdf g]kfnL efiffsf] z'4 / dfgs ¿ksf]

bLklzvf ÷ 29
cefj eP klg logn] g]kfnL efiff / ;flxTosf] k|f/lDes ¿ksf] kl/df0ffTds
/ u'0ffTds ljsf;df ljz]if e"ldsf v]n]sf 5g\ . efiffsf] snfTds ¿ksf]
k|f/lDes afGsL o; cjlwsf ;flxTodf b]Vg ;lsG5 . jL/ ufyfsf] afx'No
ePsf] dflgP klg o; cjlwsf ;flxTosf] d"n efj :t'ltk/stf g} xf] .
blIf0flt/af6 pklgj]zsf] cfFwL af]s]/ cfPsf] la|l6; ;fd|fHo;Fu af/Daf/
n8]/ ljho k|fKt u/] klg lj=;+= !*&! df ePsf] o'4df g]kfnLx¿ k/flht eP /
jL/ uf]vf{nLsf jL/tfsf ufyfx¿ Oltxf;df ;Lldt eP . g]kfnL jL/tf÷uf]vf{nL
jL/tfdf cª\u|]hn] wfjf af]Nof] / g]kfnn] cfkm"n] cfh{g u/]sf] Ps ltxfO e"efu
u'dfpFb} ;'uf}nL ;lGwdf r"k nfUg afWo eof] . g]kfnL hftLotfsf] o; k/fhosf]
3fp la;{gsf nflu ;flxTosf/x¿ ;gftgb]lv cfˆgf x[bodf ljBdfg ePsf]
O{Zj/k|ltsf] cf:yfnfO{ elStufyfdf ¿kfGtl/t ug]{tkm{ pBt eP . o;/L g]kfnL
;flxTosf] d"n k|jfx jL/ ufyfd"ns wf/faf6 elSt ufyfd"ns wf/ftkm{ ¿kfGtl/t
eof] . cfWoflTds efjgf ePsf ;flxTosf/df O{Zj/ elSt / ljul7t b]zk|lt
tLj| dfof ePsf ;flxTosf/df b]zelStsf] efjgf hfu[t eO{ ;flxTosf] /rgf
ug]{ cfzlSt b]lvFb} hfg yfNof] . ;'uf}nL ;lGwsf] 3fp, eLd;]g yfkfsf] ktg
cflb kL8fx¿n] cfxt ePsf g]kfnLx¿n] lj=;+= !()# sf] sf]tkj{sf] h3Go
xTofsf08 ;d]t ef]Ug'k¥of] . g]kfnLx¿sf] g}/f:odf j[l4 x'Fb} uof] / o;af6
d'lSt k|fKt ug{sf nflu cfcfˆgf cf/fWob]j /fd, s[i0f cflbnfO{ ljifo agfO{
elSt ;flxTo n]Vg] sfo{df ;flxTosf/x¿ nfUg yfn] . sltko ;flxTosf/x¿
O{Zj/sf] ;fsf/ ¿kn] dfgjLo kL8f x6fpg g;Sg] 7fGb} lg/fsf/ O{Zj/sf] pkf;gf
ug{ yfn] . g]kfnL ;flxTodf l56km'6 jL/ efjsf ;flxTo n]lvP klg d"n k|jfx
eg] elSt ufyfd"ns wf/fd} s]lGb|t eof] . g]kfnL ;flxTodf of] k/Dk/f df]tL/fd
e6\6sf] cfudgk"j{;Dd ;zSt ¿kdf sfod /x\of] t/ jL/ ufyfd"ns wf/f /
elSt ufyfd"ns wf/f b'a}sf] k|j[lQut ;f/ :t'ltk/stf g} /x]sf] b]lvG5 .

%=@= g]kfnL ;flxTosf] k|sfzg cf/De, To;sf] ;fj{hlgsLs/0f / kf7sLo rf;f]

g]kfnL ;flxTosf] n]vg cf/Dekl5sf] csf]{ dxŒjk"0f{ v'8\lsnf] g]kfnL
;flxTosf] k|sfzg cf/De tyf To;sf] ;fj{hlgsLs/0f / kf7sn] ;flxTo
k7gk|lt b]vfPsf] k|f/lDes rf;f] Pjd\ To;sf] k|ltlj|mof :j¿k b]lvPsf]
cf:jfbg, l6Kk0fL, ;dLIff / ;dfnf]rgfsf] k|f/De xf] . g]kfnL ;flxTodf k|sfzg
o'usf] cf/De lj=;+= !($) sf] bzssf] k"jf{4{af6 eof] . o;sf d'Vo cf/Destf{
df]tL/fd e6\6 x'g\ . pgLaf6 g]kfnL ;flxTosf] vf]hL cWoog ug]{ k/Dk/f klg
cf/De eof] eg] ;ª\ul7t ;flxTo n]vg cleofgsf] klg k|f/De eof] . c¿sf

30 ÷ bLklzvf
;flxTo k9]/ jf ;'g]/ To;k|lt k|ltlj|mof, 6Lsfl6Kk0fL, ;dLIff ug]{ sfo{sf]
yfngL klg df]tLd08nL, ;d:ofk"lt{ /rgf cflbsf ¿kdf pgs} ;dodf eof] .
df]tL/fdsf k|oTgdf g]kfnL ;flxTosf sljtf, gf6s cflb ljwfdf z[ª\ufl/s
k|j[lQ cf/De eof] . cfVofgdf jL/l;Ssf -lj=;+= !($^_ cflb s[ltsf] k|sfzg
klg olta]n} eof] . o;/L ;flxTosf] n]vgaf6 dfq geP/ k|sfzg tyf To;sf]
k7g ;+:s[lt / efjg k/Dk/fsf] cf/Deaf6 Oltxf;sf] lg/Gt/tfdf kl/jt{gsf]
k|efjsf/L ;ª\s]t b]lvPsfn] lj=;+= !($) sf] bzsnfO{ g]kfnL ;flxTosf]
bf];|f] sfnv08 cf/Desf] d'Vo v'8\lsnf] dflgPsf] xf] .
dfWolds sfnsf gfdaf6 kl/lrt o; sfnv08df g]kfnleqsf]
of]ubfgsf ;fy} g]kfn aflx/sf bflh{lnª, agf/;, l;lSsd cflb e"efudf
ePsf g]kfnL efiff / hftLo hfu/0f;Fu ;Da4 cleofg, 36gfj|md, kqklqsfsf]
k|sfzg cflbn] klg ljz]if e"ldsf v]Nof] . of] sfn d"ntM z[ª\ufl/s efjwf/fdf
s]lGb|t eP klg c+ztM jL/ ufyfd"ns wf/f / elSt ufyfd"ns wf/fdf klg
ultzLn eof] . ;d;fdlos ;dok|ltsf] vf; rf;f] o; sfndf /x]sf] kfOFb}g .
dfWolds sfnsf] pQ/jtL{ r/0fdf lgs} kl/jt{gsfdL k|j[lQ lnP/ cfPsf
n]vgfy kf}8\ofn, dxfgGb ;fksf]6f, zDe'k|;fb 9'ª\Uofn cflbsf ;flxTo ;fy}
g]kfn aflx/af6 ;"o{ljj|md, w/0fLw/, kf/;dl0f, ¿kgf/fo0f cflbsf k|oTg /
ljleGg ;flxlTos kqklqsfsf] k|sfzgn] klg g]kfnL ;flxTonfO{ gjLg ¿k
lbg] tyf ¿kfGtl/t ug]{ lbzfdf cfwf/e"ldsf] sfo{ u/] . g]kfnleq} k|sflzt
uf]/vfkqn] t g]kfnL ;flxTo ljsf;sf] d"n :tDesf ¿kdf sfo{ u¥of] . o;sf
nflu g]kfnleqaf6 / g]kfn aflx/ ljz]iftM k|jf;af6 g]kfnL ;flxTosf] k/Dk/fdf
kl/jt{gsf nflu y'k|} ultnf sfo{x¿ ;DkGg eP / g]kfnL ;flxTon] cfw'lgs
:j¿k k|fKt u¥of] . g]kfnL ;flxTosf] dfWolds sfnsf] k|f/lDes r/0fdf
z[ª\ufl/s wf/f d'Vo k|efjssf ¿kdf b]lvP klg pQ/jtL{ ;do -lj=;+=
!(&% kl5_ df cWofTdjfbL / zf:qLotfjfbL÷kl/isf/jfbL wf/f s]Gb|df /x\of] .
pQ/jtL{ ;dodf ljsl;t pko'{St wf/fn] g]kfnL ;flxTosf] cfw'lgsLs/0fsf
nflu lgs} 7'nf] of]ubfg u/]sf] tYo eg] la;{g ;lsFb}g . g]kfnL ;flxTodf
;fdflhs lrGtgsf] k|of]u, eflifs dfgsLs/0fsf] k|oTg, efj / efiffsf]
snfTds ;+of]hg, lj1fgsf] k|efj / k'/fgf] lrGtg jf k'/fgf kl/kf6Lsf] cGTo
tyf ;jf{ª\uL0f kl/jt{gsf cfsfª\Iffsf] k|f/lDes afGsL o; pQ/jtL{ r/0fn]
csf]{ sfnv08sf nflu lbPsf cd"No gjLg k|j[lQ x'g\ . log} k|j[lQnfO{ hu
agfP/ g} hLjg ;fk]If, ;dfh ;fk]If, ;do ;fk]If / ultzLn ljrf/ ;fk]If
;flxTo /rgf ug]{ o'udf g]kfnL ;flxTo v8f x'g ;Dej eof] .

bLklzvf ÷ 31
%=#= hLjg ;fk]If, ;dfh ;fk]If, ;do ;fk]If / ultzLn ljrf/ ;fk]If ;flxTo
/rgf ug]{ gjLg o'usf] yfngL
hLjg ;fk]If, ;dfh ;fk]If, ;do ;fk]If / ultzLn ljrf/ ;fk]If
;flxTo /rgf ug]{ sfo{ k"j{jtL{ ;flxTosf/n] pQ/jtL{ ;flxTosf/nfO{ lbPsf]
cd"No pkxf/ xf] / ToxL kydf bQlrQ eP/ nfu]sf x'gfn] g} !((! kl5sf
;flxTosf/n] g]kfnL ;flxTonfO{ cGt/f{li6«o dfkb08df k'¥ofpg ;kmn eP .
g]kfnL ;flxTodf o:tf ljz]iftfx¿ s'g} Ps ;dodf / s'g} Ps ;flxTosf/af6
geP/ k/Dk/faf6 k|fKt eof] . nfdf] ;flxTo n]vgsf] cEof; / k"j{jtL{n] u/]sf]
;fwgfaf6 g} lj=;+= !((! kl5 g]kfnL ;flxTon] k/Dk/fdf kl/jt{gsf] 6fFrf dfg{
;kmn eof] . lj=;+= !(&) sf cf;kf;b]lv ;dfh ;fk]If ;flxTo n]vgtkm{sf]
rf;f] eP klg To;n] lj=;+= !((! kl5 g} sfo{ ¿kdf cjtl/t x'g] df}sf k|fKt
u¥of] . lj=;+= !(%* b]lv lg/Gt/ ¿kdf uf]/vfkqsf] k|sfzg x'g' / To;df
ljleGg ljwfsf ;flxlTos /rgf k|sflzt x'Fb} hfg', ;'Gb/L -!(^#_, dfwjL
-!(^%_ cflb ljleGg kqklqsfsf] k|sfzg x'Fb} hfg' / ltgn] ;flxTosf kf7sdf
k7g ;+:s[ltsf] ljsf; u/fpg', jL/]Gb|s]z/L cHof{nsf] …a];/LÚ tyf x]d/fhsf]
rlGb|sf -!(^(_ n] g]kfnL efiffsf] dfgsLs/0f ug]{ k|of;sf] cf/De ug'{,
uf]vf{ efiff k|sflzgL ;ldltsf] :yfkgf x'g' -!(&)_, n]vgfy cflbsf efj /
efiffsf] snfTds ;Gt'ng -!(^(–&# b]lv_ ePsf ;flxlTos s[lt n]vg /
k|sfzg x'g', z[ª\ufl/stfsf] r"8fGt gd'gf ;"lStl;Gw'sf] k|sfzg x'g' -!(&$_,
lqrGb| sn]hsf] :yfkgf x'g' -!(&^_, k|yd ljZjo'4sf] ;dflKt / To;n]
;+;f/el/ kf/]sf] j}1flgs k|efj g]kfndf klg k/f]If ¿kdf kg'{ -!(&&_, s[lt
n]v]s} cfwf/df n]vsn] bl08t eO{ d[To' j/0f ug'{kg]{ ds} kj{ h:tf] h3Go
36gf 36\g' -!(&&_, ;fdflhs s'/Lltsf ¿kdf /x]sf] ;tL k|yfsf] cGTo x'g'
-!(&&_, w/0fLw/sf hfu/0fwdL{ g}j]B -!(&&_ sljtf ;ª\u|xsf] k|sfzg
x'g' / To;sf] ;dfnf]rgf -!(&(_ klg x'g', lje]bsf/L bf; k|yfsf] cGTo x'g'
-!**!_, ;fdflhs cfbz{df cfwfl/t eP klg kfZrfTo 9/f{sf ;flxTo n]Vg]
k|lj|mof cf/De x'g', afns[i0f ;dn] d'6'sf] Joyf -!(*^_ n]v]/ 5kfpg', zf/bf
klqsfsf] k|sfzg -!((!_ af6 g]kfnL ;flxTosf k|foM ;a}h;f] ljwfx¿sf]
k/Dkl/t ;+/rgfeGbf leGg gjLg ;+/rgfdf ;flxlTos /rgfx¿ cfpg', uB
-pkGof;, syf / lgaGw_ sf If]qdf ljz]if ljsf; x'Fb} hfg' tyf kBn] klg
gf}nf] :j/ / z}nL k|fKt ug'{, g]kfnLdf ;flxTosf ;a}h;f] ljwfn] ljwfut :ki6tf
k|fKt ul/;Sg', g]kfnL ;dfnf]rgfsf] hu a:g', k/Dkl/t sljtf n]vgnfO{ k"/}
lt/f]lxt u/L uf]kfnk|;fb l/dfn cflbaf6 kl/jt{gsf/L uB sljtf n]vg k|f/De

32 ÷ bLklzvf
ug'{ cflb 36gfj|mdx¿ o;} ;dodf g]kfnL ;flxTo, ;+:s[lt / ;dfh kl/jt{gsf
If]qdf 36]sf 5g\ . oL ljleGg 36gfn] g]kfnL ;flxTonfO{ lgs} uxg k|efj kf/]sf
5g\ / g]kfnL ;flxTo ;dfh ;fk]If, hLjg ;fk]If / ;do ;fk]If aGb} uPsf]
5 . To;}n] lj=;+= !(&) sf] bzs g]kfnL ;flxTosf k|j[lQ kl/jt{gsf] cf/De
laGb' xf] eg] o;sf] ;fy{s ¿kfGt/0fsf] csf]{ ;do laGb' lj=;+= !((!–(@
xf] . o;/L x]bf{ g]kfnL ;flxTo ljsf;sf] t];|f] v'l8\snf] klxnf] / bf];|f] hlQs}
;/n / ;xh 9ª\un] ljZn]if0f ug{ ;lsg] vfnsf] 5}g .
;flxTosf ax'd'vL cfofddf Ps} k6s kl/jt{g x'g] / hfb'sf 58Lh:t}
s'g} Pp6f JolStsf k|oTgdf ;a} otfsf] ptf x'g] ;Defjgf b]lvFb}g . s'g} /fhf
dxf/fhf jf s'g} Pp6f ;flxTosf/af6 k'/fgf] o'usf] cGTo / gofF o'usf] cf/De
x'g] dfGotf cfhsf] kl/jlt{t ;dodf Tolt cy{k"0f{ / o'u;Ddt b]lvFb}g . To;}n]
g]kfnL ;flxTosf] t];|f] v'l8\snf] s'g} Pp6f ;do laGb', s'g} Pp6f n]vs, s'g}
Pp6f ljwfsf] x:tIf]ksf/L g]t[Tj / s'g} Pp6f dfq ;flxlTos k|j[lQaf6 k|efljt
/ kl/jlt{t 5}g . g]kfnL ;flxTosf] t];|f] v'l8\snf] lgwf{/0f ug'{kbf{ lj=;+= !(&)
kl5 36]sf pko'{lNnlvt ;flxlTos, /fhgLlts, ;fdflhs, ;f+:s[lts cflb
36gfj|md / To;sf] kl/0flt :j¿k lj=;+= !(() sf cf;kf;df ;flxlTos
/rgfdf b]lvPsf j}rfl/s, efjut / z}nL lzNkut ;r]ttf Pjd\ gjLgtfsf
cfwf/df lj=;+= !((! nfO{ df]6fdf]6L ;dosf ¿kdf g]kfnL ;flxTo ljsf;sf]
t];|f] d'Vo v'8\lsnf] dfGg' pko'St b]lvG5 .
k|:t't ;dfnf]rgfdf g]kfnL ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgsf] /]vfª\sg dfq
k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . d"ntM k|f/lDes, dfWolds / cfw'lgs sfnsf ljefhs
/]vf, ltgsf cGtaf{x\o sf/0fx¿sf] ljZn]if0f dfly k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 t/ cfw'lgs
sfn cGtu{tsf ljleGg pkr/0fx¿sf] ljZn]if0f o;df ;Dej gePsfn] o;sf]
yk JofVof ljZn]if0f cfufdL lbgdf cfpg] g} 5g\, clxn]nfO{ g]kfnL ;flxTosf]
sfn ljefhgut /]vfª\sg o; k|sf/ k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 M
-!_ k|f/lDes sfn -cf/Deb]lv lj=;+= !($) ;Dd_
-s_ jL/ :t'ltk/s wf/f -lj=;+= !*)) b]lv !*&! ;Dd_
-v_ O{Zj/ :t'ltk/s wf/f -lj=;+= !*&@ b]lv !($) ;Dd_
-@_ dfWolds sfn -lj=;+= !($! b]lv !(() ;Dd_
-s_ z[ª\ufl/s wf/f -lj=;+=!*)) b]lv !*&$_
-v_ zf:qLotfjfbL wf/f -lj=;+= !*&% b]lv !(() ;Dd_
-#_ cfw'lgs sfn -lj=;+= !((! b]lv otf_
-s_ klxnf] r/0f -lj=;+= !((! b]lv @)!( ;Dd_

bLklzvf ÷ 33
 -c_ cfbz{jfbL / :jR5GbtfjfbL wf/f -lj=;+= !((! b]lv
@))# ;Dd_
-cf_ oyfy{jfbL / k|ultjfbL wf/f -lj=;+= @))$ b]lv @)!(
;Dd_
-v_ bf];|f] r/0f -lj=;+= @)@) b]lv @)%! ;Dd_
-c_ k|of]ujfbL wf/f -lj=;+= @)@) b]lv @)#% ;Dd_
-cf_ oyfy{jfbL k|ultjfbL / :jR5GbtfjfbL wf/fsf] k'g/fudg
-lj=;+= @)#^ b]lv @)%! ;Dd_
-u_ t];|f] r/0f -lj=;+= @)%@ b]lv otf_
-c_ dfS;{jfbL / pQ/cfw'lgstfjfbL wf/f -lj=;+= @)%@ b]lv
@)^@ ;Dd_
-cf_ ;d;fdlos wf/f -lj=;+= @)^# b]lv otf_

^= lgisif{
;flxTodf k|frLgtf / cfw'lgstf eGg] s'/f ;fk]lIfs x'G5g\ . lxhf]sf
d"No / dfGotfx¿ cfh k'/fgf aG5g\ . ;do hlt kl/jt{g x'Fb} hfG5 Tolt
g} dfG5]sf] ;f]rfO, lrGtg, ljrf/ / b[li6sf]0f kl/jt{g x'Fb} hfG5 . ;flxTodf
klg of] s'/f nfu' x'G5 . uB / kBdf n]v]s} cfwf/df s;}nfO{ cfw'lgs /
s;}nfO{ cgfw'lgs 7x¥ofpg' plrt x'Fb}g . Pp6} z}nL / efjwf/fdf n]Vg]
b'O{ ;flxTosf/dWo] /fhgLlts, cfly{s / cGo ¿kaf6 zlStzfnL ePsf
sf/0fn] Pp6fnfO{ cfw'lgs b]Vg' / To:tf] gePsf sf/0fn] csf]{nfO{ cgfw'lgs
b]Vg' klg /fd|f] xf]Og . ;flxTosf] k/v ug]{ cfwf/ ;flxlTos g} x'g'k5{ .
;flxTosf/n] cfˆgf ;flxTodf ltg k|s[ltsf] lrGtg jf b[li6sf]0fnfO{ k|:t't
ub{5 M
-!_ pSt ;dosf] ;dfh ;+:s[lt, rfn rng, k/Dk/f h:tf] 5 To;nfO{
To:t} ¿kdf ;flxTodf ptfg'{,
-@_ ljBdfg ;fdflhs r]tgfdf Ps kfOnf cufl8 a9]/ jf …a|]s y|'Ú u/]/
To;sf] k|ltlaDag ;flxTodf ug'{ /
-#_ hLjg ;fk]If, ;dfh ;fk]If, ;do ;fk]If / ultzLn ljrf/ ;fk]If
;flxTo /rgf x'g' .
o; ;Gbe{df cfw'lgs s;nfO{ dfGg] / s;nfO{ gdfGg] eGg] s'/fsf] ax;
x'g' t l7s} xf] t/ h;n] hLjg, ;dfh, ;do / ultzLn lrGtg÷ljrf/nfO{
cfˆgf n]vgdf k|:t't u5{ To;nfO{ cgfw'lgs 7x¥ofpg' / h;n] ljrf/df lgs}

34 ÷ bLklzvf
j|mflGt jf kl/jt{gsf s'/f u5{ t/ Jojxf/df ;w}F ;fdGtjfbsf] kIfkf]if0f u5{
To;nfO{ cfw'lgs dfGg' a]l7s x'G5 . To;}n] hLjg, ;dfh, ;do / ultzLn
ljrf/df s]lGb|t eP/ cfˆgf /rgf / Jofjxfl/s hLjgdf To;sf] k|efj b]vfPg
;Sg]n] g} gjLg ;dosf] af]w / gofF o'usf] k|ltlglwTj u/]sf] dfGg ;lsG5 .
o:tf] ug{ s'g} Ps JolStn] dfq ;Dej x'Fb}g . ;dfhsf] ;fd"lxs / k|j[lQd"ns
k|oTgaf6 o:tf] x'g' ;Dej b]lvG5 . o;/L cfˆgf /rgfdf ¿kfGt/0fsf/L
ljrf/sf] ;dfof]hg ug'{ n]vssf] n]vsLo wd{ xf] / To:tf n]vsx¿nfO{ dfq
o''u kl/jt{gsf] ;fd"lxs cleoGtfsf ¿kdf dfGotf lbg' cf}lrTok"0f{ b]lvG5 .
JolStaf6 o'u kl/jt{g x'g ;Sb}g . o'u kl/jt{gdf ;fd"lxs r]tgfsf] cfjZostf
x'G5 . w]/} JolSt ldn]/ ;dfh jf ;d"x aG5 / ;fd"lxs r]tgf ;dfhsf] r]tgf
aG5 . ;fdflhs r]tgfnfO{ JolStsf] k]jf agfpg' x'Fb}g . cfw'lgstfsf] cfdGq0f
eg]sf] ;fd"lxs k|of;sf] kl/0flt xf] . To;}n] g]kfnL ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgdf
s'g} JolStaf6 cfw'lgs sfn ;'? eof] jf ePg eg]/ ljjfb ug'{ j}1flgs xf]Og
t/ g]kfnL ;flxTodf kmnfgf] JolStaf6 cfw'lgs jf cGo s'g} sfnsf] cf/De
eof] jf ePg eGg] ljifodf nfdf] ;dob]lv lgs} ljjfb rln/x]sf] b]Vg ;lsG5 .
olb Pp6f JolStnfO{ o'u kl/jt{gsf] >]o lbO/xg] xf] eg] o; ljjfbsf] clGtd
kl/0flt ljjfb} ug'{ dfq x'G5 . To;}n] JolStaf6 dfly p7]/ ;fd"lxs, ;fdflhs
/ ;fdlos hLjg ;Gbe{ Pjd\ k|ultzLn ljrf/nfO{ kl/jt{gsf] sf/s dfGg]
lrGtgn] dfq g]kfnL ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhgdf b]lvPsf] ljjfbnfO{ 6'ª\uf]df
k'¥ofpg d2t ub{5 .

;Gbe{ ;fdu|L ;"rL

clwsf/L, afnfs[i0f= @)^@= æg]kfnL ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhg;DaGwL ljjfbx¿Æ=
ul/df= jif{ @#, cª\s %, k"0ff{ª\s @^( -j}zfv_, k[= $!–%) .
==== @)^^= g]kfnL ;flxTo]ltxf; n]vg M ;j]{If0f / ljZn]if0f= sf7df8f}F M o'u klAns];g
k|f=ln= .
==== @)^(= g]kfnL ;flxTosf] sfn ljefhg M P]ltxfl;s ljZn]if0f= sf7df8f}F M ljj]s
l;h{gzLn k|f=ln= .
pkfWofo, s]zjk|;fb= @)^&= ljrf/ / JofVof -t[= ;+:s=_= nlntk'/ M ;femf k|sfzg .
vgfn, /]jtL/d0f= @)@#= æg]kfnL ;flxTosf sfnljefhgÆ= uf]/vfkq= -kf}if (_,
k[= ^–& .
g]kfn, 3gZofd= @)$* ;g\ !((!= g]kfnL ;flxTosf] kl/rofTds Oltxf;= l;nu'8L M
g]kfnL ;flxTo k|rf/ ;ldlt .
kxf8L, jfdb]j= @)%@= ljrf/sf s]xL If0f= sf7df8f}F M g]kfn /fhsLo k|1f k|lti7fg .

bLklzvf ÷ 35
kf08]o, d}g]h/= ;g\ @))*= ;flxTo cf}/ Oltxf; b[li6 -t[= ;+:s=_= gofF lbNnL M
jf0fL k|sfzg .
kf]v/]n, afns[i0f= @)@#= æg]kfnL ;flxTodf sfnljefhgÆ= uf]/vfkq= -df3 *_,
k[= % / * .
a/fn, O{Zj/= @)@@= æg]kfnL ;flxTosf] sfnljefhgÆ ¿k/]vf= jif{ ^, cª\s %,
k"0ff{ª\s %# -c;f]h_, k[= (–@@ / @& .
e6\6/fO{, z/b\rGb|= @)#&= g]kfnL ;flxTosf] Oltxf; -dfWolds sfn_= sf7df8f}F M
kf7\oj|md ljsf; s]Gb|, lq=lj= .
z/0f, bLgfgfy= ;g\ !(&$= g]kfnL ;flxTosf Oltxf;= k6gf M laxf/ lxGbL u|Gy csfbdL .
zdf{, tf/fgfy= @)@&= g]kfnL ;flxTosf] Oltxf;= sf7df8f}F M ;xof]uL k|sfzg .
zdf{, df]xg/fh= @)$)= g]kfnLsf s]xL cfw'lgs ;flxTosf/ -lå= ;+:s=_= sf7df8f}F M
;xof]uL k|]; .
>]i7, bof/fd= @)%(= ;flxTosf] Oltxf; M l;4fGt / ;Gbe{, sf7df8f}F M lqsf]0f k|sfzg .
j]n]s, /]g]= ;g\ @)))= ;flxTo l;4fGt= aL=P;= kflnjfn -cg'=_= Onfxjfb M
nf]sef/tL k|sfzg .
l;+x, k/dfgGb= ;g\ !(((= Oltxf; bz{g -t[= ;+:s=_= lbNnL M df]tLnfn agf/;Lbf; .
Collingwood, R.G. 1994. The Idea of History. Newyork : Oxford University Press.
Gallie, W.B. 1968. Philosophy and the historical understanding (2nd ed.). New
York : Schocken.
Minor, V.H. 2001. Art History's History (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J. : Pren-
tice Hall.
Walder, D. (Ed. by). 2004. Literature In The Modern World (2nd ed.). London :
Oxford University Press.
(adbalakrishna@yahoo.com)

36 ÷ bLklzvf
 ;f+:s[lts cWoogsf]
cjwf/0ffTds 9fFrf
s]zj/fh clwsf/L*

!=!= ljifo k|j]z

;+:s[lt zAbsf k"jL{o / kfZrfTo lrGtg k/Dk/fdf P]ltxfl;s / ;fdflhs
kl/k|]Iodf cfcfˆg} cjwf/0ffx¿ /x]sf 5g\ . ;+:s[lt zAbn] ;fdfGo cy{df
/Lltl/jfh, rfnrng, wd{, rf8kj{ ;+:sf/ cflbnfO{ a'emfP klg of] oltdf dfq
;Lldt 5}g . ;+:s[ltsf] Jofks cfofdleq dfgj hLjgsf Jojxf/l;t ;Da4
;a} kIfx¿ ;d]l6Psf x'G5g\ . ;+:s[lt cfkm}df cd"t{ / cg]sf}F ljifo;Fu ;DalGwt
5 h;nfO{ oxL g} ;+:s[lt xf] eg]/ kl/eflift ug{ hl6n 5 . o; cWoogsf
;Gbe{df ;+:s[lt eGgfn] kfZrfTo ;dfhsf] pQ/ ;+:s[lt;Fu ;DalGwt ;+:s[ltut
cWoog g} ;f+:s[lts cWoog xf] . ;f+:s[lts cWoog ;flxTo ;dfnf]rgfsf
;Gbe{df klZrddf la;f}F ztfAbLsf] pQ/fw{df a]nfotdf hGd]sf] cfGbf]ng xf] .
o;n] cfˆg} lsl;dsf] j}rfl/s, bfz{lgs / ;f+:s[lts b[li6sf]0fx¿sf] ljsf;
u/]sf] 5 . o;n] 1fgfg'zf;gsf ;a} ljwfx¿af6 cfjZos ljifo / wf/0ffx¿nfO{
u|x0f ub}{ cfˆgf] lghL :j¿ksf] lgdf{0f u/]sf] 5 . o;n] klZrdL ;dfhsf] pQ/
cfw'lgstfjfbL lrGtg k4ltdf sltko dfGotf / cjwf/0ffx¿nfO{ 6]s]/ cfˆgf]
cjwf/0ffut dfGotf k|:t't u/]sf] 5 . o;n] ;+:s[ltsf] cWoog;Fu ;DalGwt
;f+:s[lts cWoogsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ hl6n agfOlbPsf] 5 .
;f+:s[lts cWoog cGt/ cg'zf;gfTds Pjd\ ax' cg'zf;gfTds ljifo
ePsfn] s[lt ljZn]if0fsf nflu o;sf] lglZrt k"j{ :yflkt ;}4flGts dfGotf
5}g . o:tf] cj:yfdf o;n] ljleGg ljwfaf6 km/s km/s wf/0ffx¿nfO{ u|x0f
* lzIf0f ;xfos, ;fgf]l7dL SofDk;, eStk'/ .

bLklzvf ÷ 37
u/]/ cfˆgf] v'nf, ;xh / nlrnf] lsl;dsf] cjwf/0ff lgdf{0fsf] cfwf/ tof/
u/]sf] 5 . To;}n] ;flxlTos snfs[ltsf] ;fk]Iftfdf cfjZos cWoogsf]
9fFrf jf cfwf/x¿ ;f+:s[lts cWoogn] lgdf{0f ug'{kb{5 . o; j|mddf pQ/
cfw'lgstfjfb, pQ/ ;+/rgfjfb, dfS;{jfb, pQ/ dfS;{jfb, gf/Ljfb, n}ª\lus
cWoog, k7g, ljk7g, km'sf] / ;ªsyg nufotsf 1fgfg'zf;gsf ljljw
ljifox¿af6 lglZrt / ;fk]lIfs lsl;dsf cjwf/0ffx¿nfO{ ;d]6\b} k|:t't
cWoogdf ;f+:s[lts cWoogsf o; k|sf/sf d"n cjwf/0ffx¿ lgdf{0f ul/Psf
5g\ . To;}n] o;df ;f+:s[lts cWoogsf d"ne"t cjwf/0ffx¿sf ;DaGwdf
;lj:tf/ rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 .

!=@= klxrfg
;f+:s[lts cWoogsf] d"n cfwf/ klxrfg xf] . ;f+:s[lts cWoogdf
klxrfgsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ pQ/ ;+/rgfjfb / pQ/ cfw'lgstfjfbn] ;}4flGts
cfwf/ k|bfg u/]sf] b]lvG5 . klxrfg JolSt / ;d'bfosf lglDt dxŒjk"0f{ /
;jf]{kl/ /xFb} cfPsf] 5 . klxrfg ;fdfGotM JolSt / ;d'bfosf] lghtf jf
:j;Fu hf]l8G5 . ;fdfGo cy{df o;nfO{ JolSt / ;fdflhs ;d'bfox¿sf
ljlzi6 lrgf/Lsf ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . o;n] JolSt / ;d'bfosf cf–cfˆgf
ljlzi6tfx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 h;sf cfwf/df Pp6f JolSt / ;d'bfo csf]{ JolSt
jf ;d'bfoeGbf km/s b]lvG5 . klxrfg JolSt ;d'bfosf] :jaf]w / cfˆgf]kg
xf] hf] cfˆgf] cnu Oltxf;, wd{, ;+:s[lt, efiff, e"uf]n cflbsf dfWodaf6
lgld{t x'G5 -lu/L, @)^( M @*_ . hflt, hghflt, k];f, wd{, efiff, ;+:s[lt,
cy{, /fhgLlt / r]tgfsf cfwf/df JolSt jf ;d"xn] cfkm}nfO{ kl/eflift ug]{
jf c¿åf/f kl/eflift ul/g] s'/fnfO{ klxrfgsf ¿kdf lnPsf] b]lvG5 . klxrfg
JolSt / ;d'bfosf] ;fdfGo lrgf/L dfq} geP/ Tof] dflg;sf] JolStut, ;f+:s[lts
/ /fhgLlts kl/ro;Fu hf]l8Psf] x'G5 .
;flxlTos s[ltdf pkl:yt kfqx¿, ltgn] p7fg u/]sf ljrf/x¿n] JolSt
jf ;d'bfo s;sf] k|ltlglwTj u/]sf 5g\ . tL cfjfh jf ljrf/ lgtfGt j}olSts
x'g\ jf ;fd"lxs . JolStn] /fv] klg cfjfh ;d'bfout ;femf cjwf/0ffsf
¿kdf cufl8 cfPsf] 5 eg] Tof] ljrf/ ;fd"lxs aGg ;S5 / Tof] g} To;
;d"xsf] k|ltlglwTjd"ns klxrfg aGg ;S5 . x/]s JolStsf] cfˆg} kl/ro /
klxrfg t x'G5 g} t}klg JolSt ;fdflhs ;b:o ePsfn] ;dfhsf] ;f+:s[lts
/fhgLlts, cfly{s, z}lIfs nufotsf cGo ;+/rgfx¿af6 klg c;+k[St /xFb}g
h;n] ubf{ p;sf] kl/ro jf klxrfg To;} cg's"n lgld{t x'G5 . ;fdflhs

38 ÷ bLklzvf
;b:osf ¿kdf p;n] afFr]sf] ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts ;+/rgfn] p;sf] kl/ro
lgdf{0f ul/lbPsf] x'G5 / ToxL ;+/rgfleq g} p;n] cfkm" / cfˆgf] klxrfgnfO{
k|fKt u/]sf] x'G5 . JolStsf] lnª\u, efiff, If]q, e"uf]n, ;fdflhs, cfly{s
/fhgLlts, z}lIfs k[i7e"ldn] klg p;sf] klxrfg lgwf{/0fdf ;3fPsf] x'G5 .
xf]u / ca|fx\d; -!(** M @_ n] xfdL sf] xf}F, sxfF k5f{}F / c¿;Fu xfd|f] ;DaGw
s] xf] eGg] hg cjwf/0ffnfO{ klxrfgsf ¿kdf pNn]v u/]sf] kfOG5 -lu/L,
@)^( M @*_ . klxrfg JolSt / ;d'bfosf] xfdL c¿eGbf ljlzi6 / leGg 5f}F
eGg] a'emfO;Fu hf]l8Psf] 5 . klxrfgn] d"ntM ;fdflhs ;d'bfox¿sf] k[ys\
;f+:s[lts ljlzi6tfnfO{ hgfpF5 . To;}n] klxrfg ;f+:s[lts x'G5 eGg] wf/0ff
:yflkt 5 . klxrfgsf] cWoogleq hflt, lnª\u, If]q, wd{, ckfª\utf, km/s
Ifdtf h:tf ljifox¿ klg ;d]l6Psf 5g\ .
klxrfgnfO{ ;flxTosf] ;f+:s[lts cWoogdf /fhgLlts, cfly{s,
;+:s[lt;Fu hf]8]/ x]l/G5 . klxrfg ljlzi6 ;f+:s[lts pTkfbg xf] . JolStsf]
;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts ;Gble{t cy{ s] xf] eGg] d} klxrfg lge{/ /xG5 .
JolSt ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts ¿kdf s;/L lgld{t 5 . klxrfg ;fdflhs /
;f+:s[lts k|ltlglwTjeGbf aflx/ /xg ;Sb}g -afs{/, @)!@ M @@)_ .
;dfhsf] ultzLntf;Fu} ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts ;+/rgfx¿sf] kl/j{tgzLntfn]
ubf{ JolSt / ;d'bfosf klxrfgx¿ klg ¿kfGtl/t eO/xG5g\ . o;n] ubf{
klxrfg ;dfh / ;do ;fk]If x'G5 . klxrfgsf] dfkb08 k|s[lt k|bQ geP/
P]ltxfl;s / /fhgLlts kl/k|]Ioleq x'G5g\ . klxrfg lgdf{0f x'g]eGbf klg
;dfhsf dfGotf tyf ;f+:s[lts /fhgLlts ljZjf;, cg'ej, cf:yf / hLjg
z}nLn] lgwf{/0f ug]{ ljifo xf] . klxrfgsf] lgwf{/0fdf ljdzf{Tds ;+/rgf /
To;n] lgdf{0f u/]sf] ;ª\syg / To;sf] zlSt ;DaGwdf klg cfwfl/t /xG5 .
;dfhsf] lglZrt ljrf/wf/fTds ljdz{n] klg JolSt jf ;d'bfosf] klxrfgdf
dxŒj /fV5 . ;dfhdf /x]sf] zlSt ;DaGwn] klg lglZrt cy{ / klxrfgsf
cfwf/x¿ pTkfbg u/]sf] x'G5 . To;sf/0f ;fdflhs k|lj|mof leq} klxrfg /
k|ltlglwTjsf ;Gbe{x¿ cly{g ;S5g\ -1jfnL, @)&) M &&_ . ;dfhsf]
;fdflhs, /fhgLlts, ;f+:s[lts, cfly{s Joj:yfn] lje]bsf] cj:yf l;h{gf
u/]sf] x'G5 / To;df k5fl8 kfl/Psf ;d'bfo / JolStx¿ pTkL8gdf k/]sf
x'G5g\ . ltgLx¿sf] klxrfgsf] vf]hL g} ;flxTosf] ljZn]if0fdf dxŒjk"0f{
ljifosf ¿kdf p7fg ug'{ cfjZos b]lvG5 . pQ/ cfw'lgstfsf] cfudg;Fu}
pQ/ ;+/rgfjfbn] lgdf{0f u/]sf] kLl7sfdf 6]s]/ klxrfgsf] d'2f ;f+:s[lts
cWoogdf ;zSt ¿kdf :yflkt ePsf] dfGotf xf] .

bLklzvf ÷ 39
!=#= k|ltlglwTj
;f+:s[lts cWoogdf k|ltlglwTj s]Gb|Lo cWoogsf] ljifosf ¿kdf
:yflkt 5 . o;n] ;fdflhs ;+/rgfdf k|ltlglwTjnfO{ cy{k"0f{ 9ª\un]
x]5{ . k|ltlglwTjn] ;fdflhs ;+/rgfsf] lgdf{0f k|lj|mof Pjd\ To;df JolStsf]
k|ltlglwTj s;/L ePsf] 5 eGg] s'/fnfO{ x]5{ -afs{/, @)!@ M *_ . ;f+:s[lts
cWoogsf] s]Gb| eg]sf] ;+:s[ltsf] cWoogsf ;fy} k|ltlglwTjsf] a'emfO klg xf] .
cyf{t\ kf7x¿n] k|:t't u/]sf] cy{sf] vf]hL ubf{ k|ltlglwTjsf] vf]hL ul/G5 eGg]
xf] . ;flxTodf k|ltlglwTjsf] vf]hL kf7, ;fdflhs k|lj|mof, ;ª\syg, ljrf/wf/f,
;+:yfx¿ cy{tGqsf cfwf/x¿df ul/G5 -e6\6/fO{, @)^( M $(_ . k|ltlglwTjn]
kf7ut cy{x¿sf] k|:t'tLs/0fsf] vf]hL u5{ / To;df ljleGg ;Gbe{df cy{sf]
pTkfbg s;/L ePsf] 5 / To;sf] kf7fTds ;Gbe{df k|ltlglwTj s;/L ePsf]
5 To;sf] vf]hLnfO{ dxŒj lbG5 . tyflk ;f+:s[lts k|ltlglwTj / To;sf] cy{
;fdflhs /fhgLlts cy{ k|lj|mof;Fu hf]l8g cfpF5 .
k|ltlglwTj eg]sf] kf7ut cy{, efiff / ;+:s[lt;Fu hf]l8G5 . ;fwf/0ftM
k|ltlglwTj eGgfn] efiffsf] k|of]u / efiffsf] cy{ pTkfbg k|lj|mof xf] . k|ltlglwTj
Tof] k|lj|mof xf] h;df ;f+:s[lts ;d"xsf ;b:ox¿n] k|of]u ug]{ eflifs cy{
pTkfbg k|lj|mofaf6 lgwf{l/t x'G5 -xn, !((& M ^!_ . ;+;f/df ePsf hlt
klg j:t', ;fdu|L, dfG5], 36gf / ljrf/wf/f s'g} klg clGtd ;To jf lglZrt
cy{ 5}g . oL ;a} dfgjLo ;+:s[ltsf] k|lj|mofleq cy{k"0f{ agfOPsf x'g\ .
To;}n] k|ltlglwTj eGg] s'/f ;dfh / ;+:s[lt ;fk]If x'g cfpF5 . cyf{t\ of]
P]ltxfl;s /fhgLlts ;+:s[lt ;fk]If lgwf{/0f x'g] ljifo xf] . k|ltlglwTj ;dfh
/ Oltxf;sf] kl/j{tgzLn cl:y/ w/ftndf lglxt 5 .
;f+:s[lts k|ltlglwTj / cy{x¿sf lglZrt ljz]iftfx¿ 5g\ h'g eflifs
cleJolStsf dfWodaf6 ;dfhdf Wjlg, clen]v, j:t', k|ltlaDa, lstfa,
kqklqsf, /]l8of], 6]lnlehgsf sfo{j|mdx¿df ;+Zn]lift x'G5g\ / ltgLx¿
ljlzi6 ;fdflhs ;Gbe{sf pTkfbg, ;xsfo{, k|of]u / a'emfOdf k|ltlalDat
x'G5g\ -afs{/, @)!@ M *_ . o;/L ;dfhsf ljleGg ;+/rgf / ldl8ofx¿sf
k|:t'tLs/0fsf efiff / 9fFrfx¿af6 k|ltlglwTjsf] af]w ePsf] x'G5 t/ tL
k|ltlglwTjd"ns ljifox¿ ;fd"lxs ju{ ljz]ifsf k|ltlglwTjsf ¿kdf /xG5g\ .
Tof] k|ltlglwTj ;Da4 ;d"xsf] xf] jf xf]Og eGg] ljifo eg] hl6n x'g cfpF5
lsgls k|ltlglwTjdf ;dfh / /fhgLltsf] zlSt ;DaGw k|ToIf ¿kn] ufFl;Psf]
x'G5 h;n] ubf{ k|ltlglwTjsf] ;jfn jf:tljs k|ltlglw ;d"xsf] geP/ u}/
;d"xsf] klg x'g ;S5 . o; ;DaGwdf ld;]n km'sf]sf] o; k|sf/sf] wf/0ff

40 ÷ bLklzvf
;fGble{s b]lvg cfpF5, æx/]s JolStn] cfˆgf] k|ltlglwTj cfkm} dfq ug{
;S5 . blnt nufotsf cGo s'g} klg ;d"xsf] k|ltlglwTj efiffsf] k|of]u u/]/
dfq ug{ ;lsG5 t/ efiffsf k|of]ux¿ zlSt ;ª\3if{sf /fhgLlts, cfly{s tyf
;f+:s[lts ;+:yfut ;~hfnx¿df afFlwPsf x'gfn] efiffåf/f cleJoSt ePsf
k|ltlglwTj jf ;ª\sygx¿nfO{ klg zlStsf ltg} ;~hfnn] lgb]{lzt ul//x]sf
x'G5g\ . ltgnfO{ agfpFb}, aª\UofpFb} nu]sf x'G5g\Æ -pk|]tL, @)^* M @*@_ .
o;/L km'sf]n] k|ltlglwTjnfO{ eflifs ;ª\sygsf] tfls{s pkl:yltsf ¿kdf
k|:t't ub}{ s]xL klxrfg / k|ltlglwTjx¿ ljrf/wf/f / zlStsf] k|Zg;Fu hf]l8Psf
x'G5g\ / To:tf 1fgfTds ;ª\sygx¿ JolStsf] klxrfg / k|ltlglwTj lgdf{0f
k|lj|mofdf ;dfj]z ePsf x'G5g\ . t;y{ k|ltlglwTj ;Da4 ;d"xsf] jf:tljs
jf cjf:tljs s] xf] t eGg] k|Zg g} ;f+:s[lts cWoogdf d"n ljifosf ¿kdf
cufl8 cfpF5 .
;flxTodf k|ltlglwTjsf] cWoog ljz]iftM ;LdfGts[t ;d"x;Fu hf]l8g
cfpF5 . o; ;DaGwdf l:kjfssf] dt o; k|sf/sf] b]lvG5 . pgL elG5g\,
ælgd'vfx¿n] cfˆgf] k|ltlglwTj cfkm} ug{ ;Sb}gg\ t/ ;Sb}gg\ eg]/ klg af}l4s
ju{n] ;LdfGt ;d"xsf] k|ltlglwTj ug]{ sfd 5f]8\g' xF'b}gÆ -pk|]tL, @)^* M
@*%_ . pgsf] wf/0ffaf6 k|ltlglwTjsf] ;jfn ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts / /fhgLlts
zlSt ;DaGwdf hf]l8Psf] b]lvG5 . To:tf] k|ltlglwTjn] e|dfTds / ;f+:s[lts
zf]if0f klg u/]sf] x'g ;S5 / To; cj:yfdf ;dfhdf s:tf] vfnsf] ;f+:s[lts
cj:yfsf] k|efj sfod 5 To; ljifonfO{ ;flxTodf vf]hL ul/G5 . ljz]iftM
;f+:s[lts ;Gbe{df s'g} ju{, lnª\u, hflt cflbsf] pkl:ylt ;flxTodf s;/L
ePsf] 5 / k5fl8 kfl/Psf lnª\u ju{, hghflt, blnt, cNk;ª\Vos, km/s
Ifdtf, ckfª\utf cflbsf dfWodaf6 ;flxTodf k|ltlglwTjsf] cWoog ul/G5 .

!=$= k|lt/f]w
k|lt/f]w ;f+:s[lts zlStsf nflu ul/g] cfTd/Iff;Fu cfwf/e"t ¿kdf
;DalGwt 5 . Tof] cwLg:y ;fdflhs 36gf kl/36gfaf6 l;lh{t x'G5 -afs{/,
@)!@ M $%$_ hxfF ;f+:s[lts zlStsf ¿kx¿dfly afx\o jf cGo kIfn] k|Zg
lrGx p7fpF5g\ . cGofo, cTofrf/, pTkL8g, bdg cflb sf/0faf6 bldt aGg
k'u]sf] ju{ jf ;d'bfon] bdg zlStsf lj?4 cfjfh p7fpg' jf ljb|f]x ug'{
k|lt/f]wsf] r]tgf xf] . k|lt/f]wsf] d'2f d"n ljifo zlSt / cwLg:y;Fu ;DalGwt
5 hxfF bldt ;+:s[ltn] bldt ;++:s[lteGbf aflx/ cfˆgf] k|efjsf] vf]lh/x]sf]
x'G5 . k|lt/f]wsf ;DaGwdf km'sf]sf] egfO oxfF ;fGble{s b]lvg cfpF5 . pgsf

bLklzvf ÷ 41
cg';f/ æhxfF zlStsf] cEof; b]vf k5{ ToxfF g} To;sf] k|ltsf/sf] ;Defjgf klg
;fy ;fy} df}nfpF5 . To;}n] zlStsf] cEof; / To;sf] k|lt/f]w Pp6} k|lj|mofsf
b'O{ efusf ¿kdf x]l/g'kb{5Æ -pk|]tL, @)^* M $!_ . k|lt/f]wsf ;|f]tx¿
bldt ;+:s[lteGbf aflx/ /x]sf x'G5g\ eGg] s]xL dfkb08x¿ 5g\ . ljlnoD;n]
k|e'TjzfnL, cjz]if / eljtfd'vL u/L tLg lsl;dsf ;+:s[lt b]vfPsf 5g\ .
k|e'TjzfnL ;+:s[lt eg]sf] ;dfhdf ljrf/ / zf;gsf] x}sd rnfpg]x¿n]
rnfPsf] ;+:s[lt cyf{t\ k/Dkl/t ¿kdf /fHo / ;dfh Joj:yfaf6} ;j{dfGo
¿kdf rnfPsf] ;+:s[ltsf] :j¿knfO{ dflgG5 t/ of] k|e'TjzfnL ;+:s[lt ;dfh
/ ;d"xleqsf hLjg z}nLdf ;dfg 9ª\un] gcly{g / gckgfpg ;lsG5 .
To;}n] k|e'TjzfnL ;+:s[ltsf ljk/Lt ;f+:s[lts rl/qsf] ljsf; ;dfhdf x'g'
g} ;f+:s[lts k|lt/f]wsf] l:ylt xf] . ljlnoD;n] eljtfd'vL ;+:s[ltnfO{ cYof{pFb}
:yflkt ;+:s[ltleq} ;dfhsf ju{ jf ;d"xn] eljiosf] rl/q b]Vg] k|j[lQsf]
ljsf; x'G5 geP ToxfF j}slNks ;+:s[ltsf] ljsf; x'g ;S5 / ToxLFaf6
k|lt/f]wsf] l:ylt hGdg ;S5 . s'g} klg ;dfhsf] k|e'TjzfnL ;+:s[ltdfly
s'g} ;d"x, ju{ n]vs, lrGtsx¿n] ha k|Zg u5{g\ ToxLFaf6 k|lt/f]w ;'? x'G5
-;'j]bL, @)^* M !#)_ . k|lt/f]wsf] ljlzi6tf zf:qLo k/Dkl/t d"No dfGotfdf
o'jf ;+:s[ltsf] cfwf/e"t k|lt/IffTds k|ltlj|mofsf] :j¿kdf b]Vg ;lsG5 . of]
kF'hLjfbL lj:tf/sf] lj/f]wdf gofF cfj|md0f klg xf] . k|lt/f]wn] >lds ju{sf]
;+:s[ltdf h/f uf8]/ a;]sf] ljBdfg cj:yf b]lvG5 h'g zf;s ju{x¿sf]
lj?4df ljlzi6 9ª\un] plePsf] 5 . o; ;DaGwdf xnsf] wf/0ffnfO{ oxfF
/fVg' ;fGble{s b]lvG5 . pgsf cg';f/ æ;+:s[ltsf b'O{ kf6f 5g . Pp6f kf6f]
d"nwf/ xf] . o;sf dfGotfx¿ lglZrt 5g\ . of] dfgs klg xf] . clg csf]{lt/
;LdfGts[t ju{ x'G5 . To; ju{n] ToxL ;+:s[ltnfO{ s;/L l;h{gfTds 9ª\un]
df]8]/ k|lt/f]wfTds ;+:s[ltsf] /rgf ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] sfd u5{ .Æ -;'j]bL,
@)^* M !#!_ . o;n] k|lt/f]w s]jn gsf/fTds lj/f]wsf] :j¿k dfq geP/
;fdflhstf;Fu} l;h{gfTds ¿kfGt/0f klg xf] eGg] a'lemg cfpF5 . k|lt/f]w
jf:tljs Ifdtfdf cfwfl/t x'G5 lsgeg] of] ju{ jf ;d'bfo slxn] / sxfF
k|lt/f]w ug]{ eGg] af/]df :ki6 x'G5 . o;/L ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts b[li6sf]0fnfO{
k|lt/f]wsf ¿kdf lnOG5 .

!=%= zlSt ;DaGw

zlSt ;DaGw ;f+:s[lts cWoogsf] dxŒjk"0f{ kIf xf] . zlStsf] k|e'Tj
k|ToIf jf ck|ToIf ¿kdf ;dfhsf x/]s ;+/rgfut tx / tKsfdf k'u]sf] x'G5 .

42 ÷ bLklzvf
zlSt ;DaGwsf] cfwf/e"t cjwf/0ff lgdf{0fdf dxŒjk"0f{ e"ldsf v]Ng] zlSt,
;To / 1fgsf] ljdzf{Tds ;+/rgfsf ;DaGwdf :ki6 x'g' cfjZos b]lvG5 .
;f+:s[lts cWoogdf zlStsf] cjwf/0ff s]Gb|Lo dxŒjsf ljifosf ¿kdf
cufl8 ;fg]{ ul/Psf] 5 . ;fdfGo cy{df dfgj ;dfhdf /x]sf] JolStsf] cl:tTj
g} p;sf] zlSt xf] . hfg /f]a6{;gsf cg';f/ æzlSt eg]sf] lg0f{o k|lj|mofdf
k|efjsf/L ;xeflutf x'g' xf]Æ -9sfn, @)^& M $$_ . zlStsf] s]Gb| dfly
cyf{t\ ;Qfdf dfq x'G5 / Tof] kl/lwlt/ lj:tfl/t x'G5 eGg] dfGotfsf ljk/Lt
1fg / zlStsf] cfwf/ kl/lwdf klg /x]sf] x'G5 hf] zlSt s]Gb|sf] k|lt/f]w ub}{
dflylt/ hfg] k|of; ul//x]sf] x'G5 eGg] dfGotf ;f+:s[lts cWoogdf /x]sf] 5 .
km'sf]n] zlStsf] cEof; cfly{s If]qdf dfq geP/ cGo If]qdf klg eO/x]sf]
x'G5 . zlSt ;~hfn /fhgLlts, ;fdflhs, cfly{s / ;f+:s[lts nufot
;dfhsf ;a} If]qdf dfq gkm}lnP/ ljZjJofkL ;+;f/, /fi6« / ;dfhb]lv lnP/
kl/jf/ / JolStsf cGtd{g;Dd km}lnPsf] x'G5 . cyf{t\ zlStsf] cEof; o'4 /
/fhgLltdf dfq geP/ ;dfhsf x/]s PsfOleq x'G5 . ;dfhsf ljleGg txsf]
cGt/ ;DaGwdf zlSt ljBdfg 5 . zlSt ;fdflhs PsfOnfO{ hf]8\gsf nflu
dfq geP/ Ps vfnsf] bafa xf] hf] dflg; lar ;DalGwt x'G5 / Tof] ;fdflhs
sfo{, ;x;DaGw / cg'j|mdsf] k|lj|mofsf ¿kdf b]lvG5 -afs{/, @)!@ M !)_ .
zlStsf] k|of]u zf;s ju{sf cltl/St lgd'vf ju{x¿sf ju{, hft, lnª\u, /fi6«
/ pd]/ ;d"xleqsf ljz]if kIfx¿df k|jflxt eO/x]sf] x'G5 / of] s]Gb|df /x]sf]
kIfn] dfq geP/ To;sf] kl/lwdf /x]sf k|lt/f]wL zlStn] To;nfO{ k|lt/f]wsf]
cfwf/e"t cfTd/Iff :j¿k k|of]u ul//x]sf] x'G5 .
1fg, zlSt / ;Tosf ;DaGwdf ld;]n km'sf]sf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ zlSt
;DaGwdf pkof]u ug{ ;lsG5 . km'sf]sf] 1fgsf] ljdzf{Tds ;+/rgfsf] bfz{lgs
dfGotfnfO{ oxfF :ki6 kfg'{ ;fGble{s x'g cfpF5 . ljdz{ eg]sf] sygx¿sf] To:tf]
;d"x xf] h;n] s'/f ug]{ s'g} ljifosf nflu efiff k|bfg ub{5 / h'g efiffn] s'g}
P]ltxfl;s sfnv08 ljz]ifdf ljifo jf zLif{sdflysf] 1fgnfO{ k|:t't ub{5 jf
k|ltlglwTj ub{5 . o;nfO{ ;ª\syg jf l8:sf];{ / ;ª\sygfTds lgld{ltsf
¿kdf klg a'lemG5 . o;/L Ps k|sf/n] ljdz{ eg]sf] efiffaf6 1fgsf] pTkfbg
xf] . of] efiff / Jojxf/sf] ;dli6 xf] . efiffåf/f l;lh{t 1fg h;n] ef}lts j:t'
tyf ;fdflhs cEof;nfO{ cy{ k|bfg ub{5 To;nfO{ ;ª\syg cyf{t\ ljdz{sf
¿kdf a'em\g ;lsG5 -afs{/, @)!@ M &*_ . of] efiff / Jojxf/sf] ;dli6 :j¿k
xf], ljifo klg xf] / ljifoL klg xf] . o; k|sf/sf] ljdz{n] g} xfd|f] 1fgsf] j:t'
/ j:t'dflysf] 1fg b'a}nfO{ pTkflbt ub{5 . o;n] s'g} ljifoaf/] af]Ng], ;f]Rg],
o;nfO{ af]wuDo agfpg] k4ltnfO{ :yflkt ub{5 / To; a]nf;Dd :yflkt To:t}
bLklzvf ÷ 43
csf]{ k4ltnfO{ lj:yflkt ub{5 . o;/L ha s'g} ljdzf{Tds kl/36gfn] ;dfg
j:t'nfO{ ;dfg z}nLdf ;Daf]wg ub{5 / To;af6 Pp6f ;dfg vfnsf] ljdz{
lgdf{0f x'G5 / Tof] efiffeGbf k/ P]ltxfl;stfl;t klg hf]l8P/ cfpF5 / To;nfO{
km'sf]n] ljdzf{Tds ;+/rgf cyf{t\ 1fgfTds ;ª\syg klg eg]sf 5g\ . km'sf]n]
l8:sf];{nfO{ efiffeGbf dfly p7]/ P]ltxfl;s kl/k|]Iodf x]g{ cfu|x u/]sf 5g\ .
Oltxf;;Da4 eP/ ljdz{sf] lgld{lt x'g] ePsfn] P]ltxfl;stfdf g} ljdz{sf]
cyf{kg ul/g'kb{5 . P]ltxfl;stfn] ljdz{nfO{ lgoGq0f jf ;Ldfª\sg ug]{ ePsfn]
cy{sf] ;Totf ;do ;fk]If x'G5 . ljdz{n] lbg] cy{ cyjf To;n] pTkfbg
ul//x]sf] h'g 1fg 5 Tof] 1fg ljdz{eGbf aflx/ xF'b}g . s'g} klg kf7sf] cyf{kg
lgodg ug]{ sfd ljdz{n] ub{5 . ljdz{nfO{ pgn] zlSt / 1fg;Fu hf]8]sf 5g\ .
ljdz{s} dfWodaf6 cy{ jf 1fgsf] pTkfbg x'G5 t/ ljdzf{Tds ;+/rgfx¿ k|To]s
P]ltxfl;s kl/k|]Io jf sfnv08 ;fk]If x'G5 / To;} ;+/rgfdf To;n] sfd
klg ub{5 . ljdz{sf] ;+/rgfdf ToxL P]ltxfl;s sfnv08df h'g ;d"x zlSt
jf ju{sf] jr{:j jf k|e'Tj 5 ljdz{sf pks/0fx¿ -lzIff, sfg'g, k|zf;g,
k|x/L, lghfdtL_ dfly klg p;s} k|e'Tj /xG5 / 1fgsf] pTkfbg klg To;s}
cg's"ntfdf x'G5 / To; 1fgsf] ;To klg To;} kl/j]z cg's"nsf] ;fk]If ;To
dfq x'G5 . km/s km/s ljdzf{Tds ;+/rgfn] pTkfbg ug]{ 1fgdf lg/Gt/tfsf]
s8L gx'g klg ;S5 . To;n] leGg ljdzf{Tds ;+/rgfdf 1fgsf] leGg ¿k
pTkflbt x'g ;S5 . km'sf]sf cg';f/ ;To zlStzfnLsf] x}sdaf6 lgld{t x'g]
ePsfn] ;TonfO{ zlStåf/f lgld{t zfZjt j:t' dflgG5 . 1fg klg zlStsf] :j¿k
xf] . zlStn] ;Tosf] lgdf{0f u5{ clg 1fg g} zlSt aGb5 . o;n] 1fg :jtGq
5}g h;n] ubf{ ;To / 1fg P]ltxfl;s ;fk]If b]lvG5g\ . cyf{t\ ;To / 1fg
:jfwLg k|lj|mofaf6 lgdf{0f xF'b}g . To;}n] ljdzf{Tds ;+/rgf, 1fg, ;To /
zlStsf aLrdf ce]B ;DaGw 5 h;n] zlSt ;DaGwdf dxŒjk"0f{ e"ldsf /fV5 .
o;/L km'sf]sf] zlStsf] cjwf/0ffn] 1fg zlStsf] ;|f]t xf] 1fg¿kL
zlStsf] k|of]u k|To]s ljdzf{Tds ;+/rgfdf x'G5 / Tof] ;do ;fk]If ;Tosf
¿kdf :yflkt xF'b} hfG5 t/ Tof] k/Dk/fut ¿kdf :jLsf/ ul/P emF} s]Gb|af6
kl/lwlt/ km}lnPsf] eGg] x'Fb}g . P]ltxfl;s ljdzf{Tds ;+/rgfleq s]Gb|afx]s
y'k|} :yfgLo lgsfo 36s jf tŒj x'g ;S5 . cyf{t\ zlSt Pp6} af6f]af6 ;wF}
Psgfzn] clu a9\b}g . of] ;do, :yfg / kl/l:ylt cg'¿k kl/jlt{t x'G5 .
oxL j|mddf ;To / 1fg klg kl/jlt{t x'G5 . o; cj:yfdf zlStzfnL zf;s
/ o;sf lj/f]wL lar 6s/fa x'G5 ->]i7, @)^* M ##_ . o;/L hxfF zlStsf]
cEof; b]vf k5{ ToxfF k|ltsf/sf] ;Defjgf klg ;fy;fy} df}nfpF5 .

44 ÷ bLklzvf
 ;flxTodf zlSt ;DaGwsf] ljZn]if0f s]Gb| / kl/lwsf] zlSt ;DaGw,
>lds / dflnssf larsf] zlSt ;DaGw, ;Qf kIf / k|ltkIfsf larsf]
zlSt ;DaGw nufot n}ªl\us, hfltut, If]qLo, cfly{s, ju{ / ;d'bfout
cGt/;DaGwsf ljljw If]qsf cGt/;DaGwx¿nfO{ zlSt;DaGwsf cfwf/df
ljZn]if0f ug{ ;lsG5 . To;} u/L s:tf] lsl;dsf] ljdzf{Tds ;+/rgfdf ;flxlTos
s[ltsf] /rgf ePsf] 5 . To;df k|ltlalDat zlSt ;+/rgf / ;fdflhs zf;gsf]
cj:yf s] s:tf] 5 eGg] s'/fsf] ljZn]if0f o; cGtu{t ul/G5 .

!=%= k|e'Tj
k|e'Tj cª\u|]hLsf] x]h]df]gL zAbsf] g]kfnL ¿kfGt/0f xf] . /fhgLlts
efiffdf x]h]df]gL eg]sf] Pp6f /fhgLlts PsfOn] csf]{ /fhgLlts PsfO jf
;d"xdfly nfb]sf] k|e'Tj eGg] x'G5 . csf]{ cy{df s'g} JolSt jf ;d"xdfly
csf]{ ;d"x jf JolStn] ug]{ cwLgtf jf zlStsf] lg/Gt/tf eGg] a'lemG5 .
k|e'Tj zAbnfO{ la;f}F ztfAbLsf dfS;{jfbL lrGts cfGtf]lgof] u|fD;Ln] k|of]udf
NofPsf x'g\ . u|fD;Lsf] k|e'Tj ;DaGwL dfGotfsf] k|efj ;f+:s[lts cWoogsf
If]qdf kof{Kt dfqfdf k/]sf] 5 . x]h]df]gL jf k|e'Tjsf] h'g wf/0ff pgn] k|s6
u/]sf 5g\, To;sf] d'Vo ;f/tŒj ;f+:s[lts /x]sf] 5 . x]h]df]gL Ps ;f+:s[lts
d"Nosf ¿kdf lj|mofzLn x'G5 h;n] ;fdfGo dflg;x¿nfO{ ;Qf / ;Qf¿9 ju{
tyf pgLx¿sf lj|mofsnfknfO{ j}w dfGg] / ;xg] l:yltdf k'¥ofpF5 . ;Qfn]
ug]{ k|ToIf lgoGq0f / bdgeGbf of] s}of}F u'0ff k|efjsf/L x'G5 . x]h]df]gL Ps
lsl;dsf] dfgl;s bf;tf xf] hf] d"ntM ;Qflgld{t ;f+:s[lts ;+:yfx¿ / ltgsf
;Dkf]ifs ju{x¿af6 k|fKt x'G5 . clVtof/Lk"0f{ ljrf/ / cEof;x¿sf] lgdf{0f,
lg/Gt/tf tyf k'glg{df{0f ug]{ k|lj|mofnfO{ k|e'Tjsf ¿kdf a'‰g ;lsG5 . o;n]
cNk;ª\Vos zf;s ju{n] ax';ª\Vos zfl;t ju{df nfbg] ;fdflhs clwsf/
/ g]t[TjnfO{ ;ª\s]t u5{ . k|e'Tj bafaåf/f cem a9L ;xdltåf/f cfh{g ul/G5 .
ljrf/, cy{ / cEof;x¿df k|e'TjnfO{ a'‰g ;lsG5 -1jfnL, @)&) M *)_ .
k|e'Tj Ps lsl;dsf] j}rfl/s / ;f+:s[lts k|lj|mof xf] . ;f]emf] bdg jf ann]
dfG5]dfly zf;g ug{ ;lsGg eGg] dfGotfdf cfwfl/t k|e'Tjn] zf;s ju{sf]
ljrf/wf/fnfO{ :yflkt ug]{ nIo /fv]sf] x'G5 . u|fD;Lsf cg';f/ zlStzfnL
;d"xn] sdhf]/ lgd'vfdfly cfˆgf] zf;g ;Qfsf] k|e'Tj sfod} /fVg ansf]
dfq k|of]u ub}{g, ;xdlt dfkm{t klg k|e'Tj lgdf{0f / k|of]u u5{ . x}sdnfO{
;fdfGotM an / ;xdlt b'a}sf] k|of]uaf6 ;Gt'ng ul/G5 . an k|of]usf dfkm{t
dfq geP/ gful/s cleJolStåf/f 5fkf / ;~rf/dfkm{t an k|of]u gu/]/ klg

bLklzvf ÷ 45
gful/ssf] ;xdlt a6'Ng] nufot ;xdltsf ljljw pkfo ckgfP/ zlStzfnL
;d"xn] ;jfN6g{ ju{dfly k|e'Tj sfod u5{ ->]i7, @)^* M $)_ . ;dfhdf
/fHo cyjf zf;s ju{n] s;/L cfˆgf] bafa / cl:tTj sfod u5{ / Tof] sfd
p;n] bdgaf6 dfq u5{ ls cGo tl/sfaf6 klg u5{ eGbf /fHon] bdg ;Fu;Fu}
hgtfaf6 ;xdlt klg lng vf]H5 / cfˆgf] k|e'Tj sfod /fV5 . /fHon] g/d
Jojxf/sf :j¿kx¿ ;flxTo, snf, ;+:s[lth:tf dfWodåf/f / bfz{lgs ¿kdf
pTkLl8t ju{nfO{ bldt cj:yfd} /flv/fV5 / cfˆgf] k|e'Tj :yflkt ug]{ sf]l;;
ul//xG5 .
u|fD;Ln] ljrf/wf/fTds clw/rgfsf ¿kdf ;+:s[ltn] vf; ju{ /
;Qfsf] lxtsf] k|ltlglwTj ub{5 eGg] wf/0ff k|:t't u/]sf 5g\ . u|fD;Ln] ;du|
;+/rgfnfO{ ;+:s[ltsf ;Gbe{df x]g'{k5{ eg]sf 5g\ . k/Dk/fut lgld{t ;+:s[ltn]
cfd dflg;nfO{ s;/L aGws agfO /fV5 / Tof] ;Qf / ;Qf¿9 ju{sf lglDt
lxts/ x'G5 eGg] wf/0ff pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ . ;+:s[lt s;/L clehft ju{sf
lglDt cfd dflg;x¿dfly jr{:j k|flKtsf] cfwf/ aGb} 5 eGg] ljifo k|e'Tjdf
b]lvG5 . u|fD;Ln] ljrf/wf/fnfO{ k|e'Tjsf] k|d'v cfwf/ dfg]sf 5g\ . ljrf/wf/f
/fHosf clw/rgfsf ¿kdf :yflkt ;f+:s[lts ;+:yfx¿af6 pTkflbt x'G5 /
To;n] zf]lift ju{sf] b}lgs hLjg / Jojxf/nfO{ k|efljt kfl//x]sf] x'G5 . cyf{t\
To;}af6 xfd|f] b}lgsL lgb]{lzt eO/x]sf] x'G5 t/ Tof] ljrf/wf/f /fHosf] zf;gsf]
Tof] txdf a;]sf] x'G5 . p;n] g} lgdf{0f u/]sf] x'G5 / To;n] an / ;xdlt
b'a}sf] ;Gt'ngdf ;dfhdf k|e'Tj hdfPsf] x'G5 h;nfO{ zfl;tx¿n] hLjgsf
jf:tljs kl/k|]Iox¿df ;DaGw :yfkgf u/]sf] x'G5 . ljrf/wf/fTds ;ª\sygsf
dfWodaf6 /fHosf ;fdflhs k|e'Tj -cfd hgtfaf6 ul/Psf] ;xdlt_ / csf]{
/fhgLlts ;/sf/ -/fHosf] bdgfTds zlStsf] ;fwg_ sf dfWodaf6 klg
jr{:j sfod /fVb5 . o;/L /fi6«, lgod, sfg'g tyf k/Dkl/t ;fdflhs d"No
dfGotfsf ¿kdf :yflkt ljrf/wf/fn] zf;s ju{n] zfl;t x'g grfxg] ju{ jf
;d'bfodfly zfl;t x'g] dgf]j}1flgs / ef}lts ljdz{ / kl/j]z lgdf{0f ug{ ;kmn
x'G5 . zfl;tsf] To:tf] :jLsf/f]lStsf] lgdf{0fdf ljrf/wf/fn] dxŒjk"0f{ e"ldsf
v]n]sf] x'G5 . dfS;{ j]Aj/ eGb5g – æzf;ssf] ljrf/wf/fnfO{ ;xdltsf]
/fhgLltaf6 ;d]t ;afN6g{ ju{dfly nflbg] ;+/rgfsf sf/0f zlStzfnLn] lgwf{
lgd'vfnfO{ cfˆgf] zf;sLo OR5f yf]k/]/ pgLx¿sf] :jefjdfly klg kl/jt{g
u/fP/ zf;ss} rfxgf cg'¿k rNg afWo agfpg] ;Defjgf /lx/xG5Æ ->]i7,
@)^* M $)_ . ljrf/wf/fsf] Tof] vfnsf] k|e'Tjn] ubf{ zfl;tn] ljb|f]x ug]{
cj:yf sd} /xG5 t/ ;dfh kl/jt{gzLn 5 / Tof] kl/jt{gzLn ;dfhdf

46 ÷ bLklzvf
aGg] ;ª\sygx¿ klg kl/jt{gzLn x'G5g\ . ToxfFsf ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts
clw/rgfx¿df klg kl/jt{g eO/xG5 h;n] ubf{ k|e'Tj klg kl/jt{g x'g] l:ylt
x'G5 . To;}n] k|e'Tj cl:y/ k|s[ltsf] klg x'G5 . o;df /fHosf] bdgsf/L tyf
;f+:s[lts clw/rgfTds ;+oGq hlt g} zlStzfnL eP tfklg ljb|f]x / lj/f]wsf]
;Defjgf eg] ;w}F /lx/xG5 h;n] k|ltk|e'Tjsf] l:ylt klg l;h{gf x'g hfG5
-pk|]tL, @)^* M !&(_ . k|ltk|e'Tjsf] lgdf{0fdf eg] u|fD;Ln] eg] emF} ;dfhdf
ePsf] h}ljs a'l4hLjLsf] dxŒjk"0f{ e"ldsf b]lvG5 . lsgls gofF j}slNks
zlSt k|ltk|e'Tjsf dfWodaf6 k|e'Tjdf cfpgsf nflu af}l4s ju{ dfq ;Ifd
x'g ;S5 . pgLx¿n] dfq zf;sLo ljrf/wf/fnfO{ r'gf}tL lbFb} cfd hgdfg;df
zf;ssf] e|dsf] kbf{ vf]Ng pgLx¿ ;Ifd x'G5g\ . u|fD;Ln] o; ;Gbe{df x]h]df]gL
k'FhLjfbL dfq geP/ ;j{xf/f x]h]df]gL klg x'G5 / zf]liftx¿n] klg cfˆgf] ju{df
x]h]df]gfOH8 ub}{ zf]ifs ju{x¿sf] lj?4df n8g'k5{ eg]/ sG;]G6sf] -;xdltsf]_
lgdf{0f ub5{g\ / b'O{ ju{sf x]h]df]gLdf k|lt:kwf{ x'G5 -df:s], @)^* M @(_ .
To;}n] k|e'Tjsf] cfh{gsf nflu h}ljs a'l4hLjLsf] dxŒjk"0f{ e"ldsf /xG5 .
o;/L zf;s ju{n] kl5 k/]sf ;d'bfosf] bdgsf nflu s;/L lgod lgdf{0f
ub{5g\ / wfld{s ;f+:s[lts d"No dfGotfx¿n] s;/L zf;s ju{sf] lxt /Iff
u5{g\ eGg] ljifosf] ljZn]if0fdf k|e'Tj s]lGb|t /xG5 . o;n] ;flxTodf juL{o,
n}ª\lus, hftLo, /fli6«o, If]qLout k|e'Tjsf] l:yltsf cfwf/df klg ljZn]if0f
ug{ ;lsG5 .

!=^= n}ª\lustf
n}ª\lustf zAb cª\u|]hL zAb h]G8/sf] g]kfnL ¿kfGt/0f xf] . o; zAbn]
vf; u/L :qLTj -km]ldlg6L_ / k'?ifTj -d:So'lnlg6L_ nfO{ ;ª\s]t ub{5 .
n}ª\lustfsf] cWoog;Fu lnª\u -;]S;_ / n}ª\lus -h]G8/_ b'a} hf]l8P/
cfpF5g\ . oL b'O{ ;dfg geP/ leGg x'g\ eGg] wf/0ffdf :ki6 x'g' cfjZos 5 .
lnª\u / n}ª\lus km/s ljifo x'g\ . lnª\u k|s[ltn] dfgjnfO{ lbPsf] zf/Ll/s
;+/rgfnfO{ lrgfpg] hLj j}1flgs ljifo xf] eg] n}ª\lustf ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts
kIf;Fu ;DalGwt 5 . lnª\u ;fj{ef}lds / h}ljsLo ljifo xf] eg] n}ª\lustf
;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts ;Gbe{df lgld{t x'G5 . ;fdfGotM k|s[lt k|bQ leGg zf/Ll/s
;+/rgfs} sf/0fn] h}ljsLo ¿kdf dlxnf / k'?if eg]/ 5'6\6\ofpg] h'g cfwf/
5 To;nfO{ g} lnª\u elgG5 . h}ljsLo ¿kdf dlxnfsf] z/L/df dfl;s >fj,
ue{wf/0f / :tgkfgsf] Ifdtf x'g' tyf k'?ifsf] z/L/df jLo{ pTkfbg Ifdtf x'g'
dlxnf / k'?ifsf lardf b]lvg] lnª\uut e]b xf] . o;}nfO{ lnª\usf gfdn]

bLklzvf ÷ 47
a'lemG5 t/ dlxnf / k'?ifsf lardf lje]bsf] lgdf{0f k|fs[lts leGgtfsf cfwf/df
geO{ ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts kIfaf6 x'g] u/]sf] h'g k|lj|mof / k4lt 5 To;}af6
n}ª\lustfsf] lgdf{0f ePsf] x'G5 . o;n] :qLTj / k'?ifTj ;DaGwL d"No, dfGotf,
wf/0ff, Jojxf/, e"ldsf, pQ/bfloTj, u'0f, :jefj cflbnfO{ af]w u/fpF5 .
lnª\uut e]bs} cfwf/df ;dfh, ;d'bfo tyf ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts PsfOåf/f
lgwf{/0f ul/Psf lnª\uut sfd, Jojxf/ / lhDd]jf/L h'g 5g\ Tof] e"ldsfnfO{
n}ª\lustfleq x]g{ ;lsG5 . n}ª\lustf dfgj lgld{t cjwf/0ff ePsfn] o;sf]
cj:yf ;dfh, hft, ju{ pd]/sf dlxnf k'?ifsf k|j[lQ / d"No dfGotfdf km/s
x'g hfG5 .
n}ª\lustf ;DaGwL cWoog gf/LjfbL cWoogsf] k[i7e"ldaf6 ljsl;t
ePsf] b]lvG5 . dlxnf cfGbf]ngsf] k[i7e"lddf hGd]sf] gf/Ljfbdf klg ;fdlos
1fg / lrGtg k/Dk/fsf kl5Nnf pQ/ ;+/rgfjfbL / pQ/ cfw'lgstfjfbL
cjwf/0ffsf] k|efj;Fu} gf/LjfbL Pjd\ n}ª\lus lrGtg k/Dk/fx¿df klg pbf/jfbL
b[li6sf]0fsf] ljsf; eof] . o;;Fu} gf/Ljfbleqsf] n}ª\lus ;dfgtfsf] s'/f ubf{
dlxnf / k'?ifsf s'/f dfq} gu/]/ t];|f] lnª\uLsf cj:yfx¿sf] klg cWoog
x'g'k5{ eGg] dfGotf;Fu} n}ª\lustf ;DaGwL cWoog ;f+:s[lts cWoogsf]
dxŒjk"0f{ ljifosf ¿kdf :yflkt ePsf] b]lvG5 .
;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts kIfåf/f n}ª\lustfsf] lgdf{0f ePsf] x'G5 . k'?if
/ dlxnfsf] ;dfhsf] ;+/rgfut ;f+:s[lts clw/rgfut ;+:yfx¿;Fu s:tf]
;DaGw x'G5, ;dfhdf ltgsf] e"ldsf, k|e'Tjsf] l:ylt nufotsf kIfx¿sf] vf]hL
o;df ul/G5 . n}ª\lustfleq dlxnf / k'?ifsf] k|fs[lts kIfsf] geO{ ;f+:s[lts
kIfsf] cWoog ul/G5 . ;dfhdf dlxnf jf k'?ifsf] k|ltlglwTj s;/L ePsf] 5,
s:tf] x'g'k5{ / To; afx]s t];|f] lnª\uLsf] klxrfg / e"ldsfsf] klg vf]hL ub{5
-e6\6/fO{, @)^* M @^!_ . n}ª\lus cWoog k'?if / dlxnfsf] ;DaGw, ;dfhdf
ltgsf] cfly{s, ;fdflhs, ;f+:s[lts ;+/rgfdf k'?if / dlxnfsf] cj:yf s:tf]
5 eGg] cfwf/ k|d'v /xG5 . To:tf] n}ª\lus ;DaGwsf] :j¿k d"ntM /fhgLlts
x'G5 h;n] ubf{ n}ª\lus lje]b, lkt[;Qf, z/L/ /fhgLlt h:tf /fhgLlts
ljifox¿ n}ª\lus cWoogsf vf]hLdf kb{5g\ . o;df ;dfhdf dlxnfsf]
cj:yf, lkt[;Qfsf sf/0f dlxnfx¿sf] bdg / zf]if0fsf sf/0fx¿sf] vf]hL
ul/G5 . n}ª\lustf lnª\usf ;Gbe{af6 eGbf klg of}gsf ;Gbe{af6 cfPsfn]
n}ª\lus bdg, lx+;f, k'?ifx¿sf] dlxnfdflysf] of}lgs Jojxf/, ljrf/wf/f,
klxrfg, k|ltlglwTj cflbsf] ljZn]if0f n}ª\lustf cGt{ut cfpF5g\ -e6\6/fO{,
@)^* …vÚ M @^*_ . lnª\uLo lje]b ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts lgld{lt xf] . of]

48 ÷ bLklzvf
d"ntM gf/Ldfly ul/g] bdg, pTkL8g, zf]if0fsf] ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts :j¿k xf] .
o:t} vfnsf] n}ª\lus d'2fdfly o;n] ax; u5{ . ;fdflhs ;+/rgfn] lgwf{/0f
u/]cg';f/ dlxnfsf] / k'?ifsf] ;fdflhs e"ldsf pQ/bfloTj s] x'G5 < ;dfhdf
:qLTj / k'?ifTjsf] lgwf{/0f s]n] ub{5 < z/L/ jf n}ª\lustf ;Qf jf zlStsf]
s]Gb| lsg alg/x]sf] 5 < of}g / z/L/sf] pkef]Stfs/0f s;/L eO/x]sf] 5 <
pkef]StfjfbL k'FhLjfbL ;+:s[ltn] dlxnfnfO{ lj1fkgsf] ;fwg, km];gsf] dfWod
lsg agfPsf] 5 < pkef]Stfjfbsf] bafa / k|efj gf/Ldfly ;jf{lws lsg k/]sf]
5 < :qLsf] z/L/nfO{ k'FhLjfbL ahf/ Joj:yfn] sdf]l86L agfP/ k|bz{g ug]{
sfd lsg u/]sf] 5 < gf/LnfO{ kl/jf/ ;dfh tyf /fHosf] pTkL8gsf/L ;+/rgf,
bdgsf/L k/Dk/f / k}t[s k|e'Tjn] s;/L ufFh]sf] 5 < 3/ kl/jf/df dlxnfsf]
If]q cfGtl/s / k'?ifsf] afx\o s]n] lgwf{/0f u¥of] < dlxnfsf] z/L/dfly dlxnfs}
clwsf/ geP/ k'?ifsf] cwLgtf / zf]if0f s;/L sfod /x]sf] 5 < ;fdGtjfbL
k'FhLjfbL Joj:yfn] gf/LnfO{ bf;L, sdf/L / ef]uljnf;sf] ;fwgsf ¿kdf lsg
/ s;/L Jojxf/ ul//x]sf] 5 < h:tf y'k|} k|Zgx¿df n}ª\lus cWoog s]lGb|t
/x]sf] b]lvG5 . log} k|Zgx¿sf] ;]/f]km]/f]df ;flxlTos s[ltn] n}ª\lustf ;DaGwL
j}rfl/stfnfO{ s;/L k|:t't u/]sf] 5 eGg] ljifodf ;f+:s[lts cWoog s]lGb|t
ug{ ;lsG5 .

@= lgisif{
;f+:s[lts cWoog ;+:s[ltsf] lj:t[t cjwf/0ffaf6 lgb]{lzt 5 .
;+f:s[lts cWoogn] k"j{ 1fgk/Dk/fsf dfGotfx¿nfO{ 6]s]/ ;+:s[ltnfO{ x]g]{ gjLg
b[li6sf]0fsf] ljsf; u/]sf] 5 . ;+:s[lt hlQs} Jofks cfofd cf]u6]sf] ;f+:s[lts
cWoogsf] cfˆg} lghL :j¿k 5}g . To;}n] o;sf] nlrnf], v'nfkg ;'udtf h:tf
ljz]iftfsf sf/0f o;sf] cWoog If]q Jofks / pbf/ 5 . ;flxTodf k|ltlalDat
;+:s[ltsf] ljZn]if0fsf j|mddf To; s[ltn] k|:t't u/]sf] ;fdflhs ;+:s[ltnfO{
s]Gb|df /fv]/ To;sf] klxrfg / ljZn]if0f ul/g'k5{ eGg] dfGotf o;sf] /x]sf]
b]lvG5 . o;n] ;a} lsl;dsf ;f+:s[lts sfo{, pTkfbg, pkef]u / cEof;n]
;f+:s[lts cj:yfdf kg]{ c;/sf] ljj]rgf u5{ . ;fy} ltg} ;f+:s[lts sfo{x¿s}
dxŒjk"0f{ cEof;sf ¿kdf ;flxTonfO{ lnG5 / o;sf] d'Vo ;/f]sf/sf] ljifo
eg]sf] ;fdflhs, cfly{s, /fhgLlts bafa / zlSt ;+/rgf tyf To;n] lgdf{0f
ug]{ ;f+:s[lts ljljwtf / ;fdflhs d"No;Fu lg/Gt/ ;DaGwsf] vf]hL u5{ .
;f+:s[lts cWoog cfkm}df ultzLn / ;do ;fk]If rl/q ePsfn] klg o;sf
w]/} ljZn]if0ffTds cjwf/0ffut 9fFrfx¿ ;fdlos 9ª\un] lgdf{0f x'g ;S5g\ .

bLklzvf ÷ 49
cjwf/0ffTds 9fFrf cGtu{t pkGof; ljZn]if0fsf nflu klxrfg, k|ltlglwTj,
k|lt/f]w, zlSt;DaGw, k|e'Tj n}lª\ustf h:tf pks/0fx¿sf] lgdf{0f ul/Psf]
5 . pko'{St cjwf/0fut 9fFrf lgdf{0fsf j|mddf ;f+:s[lts cWoogn] dfS;{jfb,
;+/rgfjfb, km'sf], u|fD;L pQ/ cfw'lgstfjfb, n}ª\lus cWoogaf6 cfjZostf
cg';f/sf] cjwf/0ffx¿ u|x0f u/]sf] 5 / ;f+:s[lts cWoogsf] ljZn]if0ffTds
9fFrf lgdf{0f u/]sf] 5 .

;Gbe{ ;fdu|L ;"rL

pk|]tL, ;~hLj @)^*= l;4fGtsf s'/f= sf7df8f}F M cIf/ lj|mo;g .
ls/0f= @)^%= g]kfnL ;dfh / ;+:s[lt -bf]=;+=_= sf7df8f}F M ljj]s l;h{gzLn k|sfzg
k|f=ln= .
lu/L, cd/ @)^&= ;do ;dfh / ;+:s[lt= sf7df8f}F M ljj]s l;h{gzLn k|sfzg k|f=ln= .
==== @)^*= …lrGtgdf gofF cfofdÚ= d"Nofª\sg= #)÷@)) df3, k[= #)—#% .
==== @)^(= …klxrfgsf] /fhgLlt / dfS;{jfbÚ= gjo'u @@÷* k[= @&—#^ .
uf}td, s[i0f @)%(= cfw'lgs cfnf]rgf M cg]s ¿k cg]s k7g= -bf]=;+=_= nlntk'/ M
;femf k|sfzg .
==== @)^&= pQ/ cfw'lgs ;+jfb= sf7df8f}F M e[s'6L klAns];g .
==== @)^&= ;f+:s[lts ¿kfGt/0f= sf7df8f}F M vf]hL k|sfzg u[x k|f=ln= .
r}tGo= @)^^= dfS;{jfb / ;+:s[lt= sf7df8f}F M ;lxb :d[lt k|sfzg .
hf]8g, Un]g / lj8]g= lj|m; @))^= …ln6/]r/ OG6' sNr/n M sNr/n l:6l8h ckm6/
n]lehÚ= ln6/]/L Yof]/L PG8 lj|ml6l;hd= kfl6«l;of apkm -;Dkf=_= Go' lbNnL M
cS;kmf]8{ o'lgel;{6L k|]; .
1jfnL, lji0f'k|;fb @)&)= …/d]z ljsnsf pkGof;sf] ;f+:s[lts cWoogÚ=
-ck|sflzt bz{gfrfo{ tx zf]wk|aGw_= sLlt{k'/ M g]kfnL s]Gb|Lo ljefu=
lqe'jg ljZjljBfno .
9sfn, dgxl/ @)^&= zlSt / /fhgLlt= sf7df8f}F M bLIffGt k|sfzg .
k]6«f;, h]D;= @)^*= …pQ/ dfS;{jfbaf/] dfS;{jfbL cfnf]rgfÚ= k|jt{s= @÷@= k[= &$—(!
a/fn, Clif/fh= @)^&= dfS;{jfb / pQ/ cfw'lgstfjfb -bf]=;+=_= nlntk'/ M ;femf
k|sfzg .
==== @)^*= …gj dfS;{jfbL lje|dsf lj?4Ú= k|jt{s @÷@= k[= #*—&# .
afs{/, lj|m;= ;g\ @))$= b ;]h l8S;g/L ckm sNr/n :6l8h= nG8g M ;]h klAns]zg .
==== ;g\ @)!@= sNr/n :6l8h lyo/L PG8 k|flS6;= nG8g M ;]h klAns];g .
af]pjf/, l;df]g @)^(= b ;]s]G8 ;]S;= -rf}=;+=_= sf7df8f}F M k|ult ;bg .
e6\6/fO{, /d]z= @)^* …sÚ= …;f+:s[lts cWoogsf] kl/ro / ljsf;Ú= ;dsfnLg ;flxTo=
!÷^&= k[= ^!—&! .

50 ÷ bLklzvf
==== @)^(= …;f+:s[lts cWoogsf d"ne"t l;4fGtx¿Ú= e[s'6L= !^ ;fpg–ebf}–c;f]h,
k[= $*—&& .
df:s], dx]z @)^*= …h}ljs a'l4hLjLÚ= d"Nofª\sg= #)÷@)) df3 k[= @^–@( .
ld>, r}tGo @)^#= k'FhLjfb / g]kfn= -bf]=;+=_= sf7df8f}F M d"Nofsg k|sfzg u[x
k|f= ln=.
/]g, dfOr]on ;g\ @)!)= sNr/n l:6l8h= o's] M jfOnL ANofs jon .
nª\x':6{ / cGo ;g\ @)!!= OG6/8\o'l;ª\ sNr/n :6l8h= lbNnL M lko;{g .
jfpu, kfl6{l;of @))^= ln6/]/L lyo/L PG8 lj|ml6l;hd= nG8g M cS;kmf]8{ .
>]i7, tf/fnfn @)^*= zlSt, ;|i6f / ;afN6g{= sf7df8f}F M l8:sf];{ klAns];G; .
;'j]bL, cle @)%$= kfZrfTo sfJo l;4fGt= nlntk'/ M ;femf k|sfzg .
==== @)^*= …;f+:s[lts ;dfnf]rgfsf] ;}4flGts ljsf;Ú /Tg a[xt\ g]kfnL ;dfnf]rgf=
sf7df8f}F M /Tg k':ts e08f/ .
l:dy, dfs{ h]= ;g\ @))%= sNr/= Go' lbNnL M leef a'S; k|fOe]6 lnld6]8 .
xn, :6'6= ;g\ !((&= l/lk|h]G6];g M sNr/n l/lk|h]G6];g PG8 l;lUgkmfOª\ k|flS6;=
nG8g PG8 Go' lbNnL M ;]h klAns];g .
xn, uf/L PG8 snf/] larf{n @))^= Go' sNr/n :6l8h M P8efGr;{ Og lyof]/L=
Pl8gju{ M Pl8gju{ o'lge{l;6L k|]; .
(adhikarikeshav@yahoo.com)

bLklzvf ÷ 51
 efiff kf7\oj|mddf ;flxlTos s[ltsf] k7g
tyf k|ltlj|mof n]vg
1fg' clwsf/L*

!= ljifo kl/ro
efiff dfgj ;d'bfosf] cgdf]n ;DklQ xf] . dfgj dfgjsf lardf
efjgf, ljrf/ cflb ;Dk|]if0f ug]{ dfWod g} efiff xf] . eflifs 1fg / l;ksf
cefjdf dflg;n] cfˆgf s'/fnfO{ ;xL / k"0f{ ¿kdf cleJoSt ug{ ;Sb}g .
o; b[li6n] efiff l;sfOnfO{ dxŒjk"0f{ k|lj|mofsf ¿kdf lnOG5 . efiffsf] :t/Lo
l;sfOsf] ljsf; ug{ / bIftf xfl;n ug{ k|fylds txb]lv :gfts tx;Ddsf]
cf}krfl/s lzIf0fdf efiff kf7\oj|mdnfO{ ljz]if dxŒj lbOPsf] 5 . efiff
kf7\oj|md agfpFbf eflifs l;ksf] ljsf;nfO{ k|d'v nIo dfg]/ To; cg'¿k
kf7\oj:t'sf] lgdf{0f ul/Psf] x'G5 . o;/L kf7\oj:t' lgdf{0f ubf{ ljljw ¿ksf
eflifs cleJolStnfO{ ;dfj]z ul/G5 . ;flxTosf ljwf pkljwfx¿df s]lGb|t
eP/ n]lvPsf ;flxlTos /rgfx¿df efiffsf ljljw ¿ksf] k|of]u x'g] ePsfn]
g} efiff kf7\ok':tsdf ;flxlTos /rgfnfO{ ;dfj]z ul/Psf] xf] . j}olSts
¿kdf ljifoj:t'sf] cf:jfbg ug{ tyf af}l4s r]tgfsf] clej[l4 ug{ ;flxlTos
s[ltsf] k7g hlt dxŒjk"0f{ 5 Tolt g} dxŒjk"0f{ efiffsf] l;sfO tyf :t/Lo
efiff k|of]u ug]{ l;ksf] ljsf; ug{ klg 5 . ;flxTon] dfgjLo hLjg / ;dfhsf
ljljw ljifoj:t'nfO{ ljleGg eflifs ;+/rgfdf 9fn]/ snfTds ¿kdf cleJoSt
ub{5 . To;}n] efiff kf7\ok':tssf] d'Vo ;fdu|L eg]sf] g} ;flxlTos /rgf jf
s[lt xf] .

* pkk|fWofks, sf]6]Zj/ ax'd'vL SofDk;, sf7df8f}F .

52 ÷ bLklzvf
@= ;flxTo / ;flxlTos s[ltsf] kl/ro
b}lgs Jojxf/df cfpg] ;fdfGo n]vgeGbf leGg snfTds n]vgnfO{
;flxTo elgG5 . g]kfnL a[xt\ zAbsf]zn] ;flxTonfO{ hLjg / hut\;Fu ;Da4
ljljw ljifodf ;f}Gbo{, ¿k, u'0f cflbsf b[li6n] cleJoSt x'g] jf /lrg]
x[bo:kzL{ n]v jf u|Gysf ¿kdf cYof{Psf] 5 . hLjg / hut\sf ljljw kIfdf
s]lGb|t eO{ /rgf ul/Psf snfTds cleJolSt g} ;flxTo xf] . a[xt\ cfsf/sf
dxfsfJob]lv rf/ x/k]m d'Sts;Ddsf] cfofddf k}mlnPsf uB tyf kB /rgfx¿
g} ;flxlTos /rgf x'g\ . ;flxTosf ljljw :j¿k, ;+/rgf / cfofd x'g] ePsfn]
g} o;nfO{ ljleGg ljwf tyf pkljwfx¿df juL{s/0f ul/Psf] xf] . ;flxTosf
ljwf tyf ltgsf e]b pke]bx¿nfO{ tnsf] cf/]vdf o;k|sf/ b]vfOG5 M

dxfsfJo uLt
sljtf v08sfJo÷nfdf] sljtf uhn
k'm6s/ sljtf d'Sts
syf÷n3'syf xfOs'
cfVofg
pkGof;
;flxTo gf6s Psfª\sL
k"0ff{ª\sL
lgofqf
;+:d/0f
n]v
lgaGw ;dLIff
kq
8fo/L
hLjgL cflb .

;flxTo ;DaGwL jf ;flxTosf ljljw ljwfx¿;Fu ;Da4 eP/ n]lvPsf

s[ltx¿nfO{ ;flxlTos s[lt elgG5 . ;flxlTos /rgf eGgfn] k'm6s/ ¿kdf
n]lvPsf ;[hgfnfO{ a'emfpF5 eg] ;flxlTos s[lt eGgfn] u|Gysf ¿kdf k|sflzt
/rgf jf /rgfx¿sf] ;ª\sng eGg] a'lemG5 . efiff kf7\ok':tsdf ;dfj]z
ul/g] ;flxlTos /rgfx¿ ljleGg ljwf tyf pkljwfdf n]lvPsf /rgfdWo]af6
5fg]/ lnOPsf x'G5g\ . o;/L 5gf]6 ubf{ 5f]6f cfofddf n]lvPsf ljwfut
/rgfnfO{ a9L k|fyldstf lbOG5 . o;/L k|fylds txb]lv :gfts tx;Ddsf

bLklzvf ÷ 53
kf7\ok':tsdf ;dfj]z ul/Psf ;flxlTos /rgfdWo] clwsf+ztM sljtf, uLt,
syf, Psfª\sL, lgofqf, ;+:d/0f, n]v, hLjgL cflb ;dfj]z ul/Psf x'G5g\ .
uB / kB z}nLdf n]lvPsf oL ;flxlTos /rgfx¿n] efiffsf ljljw ¿knfO{
k|s6Ls/0f ug'{sf ;fy} ljifoj:t'sf] ljljwtfnfO{ k|:t't u/]sf x'G5g\ . efiffsf]
cleJolSt z}nL k[ys\ k[ys\ lsl;dsf x'G5g\ . sljtfdf nofTds tyf ;"qfTds
z}nLsf] k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 eg] k"0ff{ª\sL gf6sdf ;+jfbfTds z}nLsf] k|of]u
ul/Psf] x'G5 . To;} u/L n]v, lgaGw cflbdf j0f{gfTds z}nLsf] k|of]u kfOG5
eg] syf, n3'syf tyf pkGof;df cfVofgfTds z}nL jf ljljw lsl;dsf
z}nLsf] k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 . o:tf ;flxlTos /rgfx¿ ;dfj]z ul/Psf sf/0f
efiffsf] kf7\ok':tsdf z}nLut ljljwtf x'G5 / o;sf] k7gaf6 l;h{gfTds
df}lns cleJolStut IfdtfnfO{ j[l4 ug{ ;lsG5 . g]kfnL efiff kf7\ok':tsdf
;dfj]z ul/g] ;flxTosf ljwf tyf pkljwfnfO{ ;ª\lIfKt ¿kdf tn rrf{ ul/G5 M

@=!= sljtf ljwf / o;sf pke]bx¿

;flxTosf ljleGg ljwfx¿dWo] sljtf ;a}eGbf k'/fgf] ljwf xf] .
;j{k|frLg ljwfsf ¿kdf /x]sf] sljtf÷sfJo ;a}eGbf nf]slk|o ljwfsf ¿kdf
;d]t b]lvG5 . ljZj ;flxTos} Oltxf; x]g]{ xf] eg] klg sljtf÷sfJo ;a}eGbf
;d[4 b]lvG5 . sljtf ljlzi6 nofTds x'g'sf ;fy} o;df efj, ljrf/ jf
36gfsf] cleJolSt x'G5 . :j¿k / ;+/rgfsf cfwf/df sljtfsf rf/cf]6f
:j¿k 5g\ h;nfO{ o;k|sf/ b]vfPg ;lsG5 M
n3'td ¿k -d'Sts_

n3' ¿k -k'm6s/ sljtf_
sljtf dWod ¿k -v08sfJo÷nfdf] sljtf_
a[xt\ ¿k -dxfsfJo_

sljtfnfO{ ;flxTosf cGo ljwfaf6 k[ys\ b]vfPg] tŒjsf ¿kdf o;sf]
efiff z}nLo tŒj /x]sf] x'G5 h;df efiff, z}nL laDa, k|tLs, no, 5Gb, cnª\sf/
k|d'v ¿kdf /x]sf x'G5g\ . sljtfsf rf/cf]6f e]bdWo] ;a}eGbf ;fgf] ¿knfO{
d'Sts elgG5 . of] rt'ikbL cyf{t\ rf/ x/kmsf] ;+/rgfdf n]lvG5 . sljtfsf]
n3'¿k cGtu{t k'm6s/ sljtf klg kb{5 . k'm6s/ sljtf kfFr x/kmb]lv dfly
krf; x/kmsf] cfofd;Dd k}mlnPsf] x'G5 . dfG5]sf cg'e"lt, ef]ufO, hLjg,
hut\, k|s[lt, ;+:s[lt, ;fdflhs, cfly{s, /fhgLlts cflbsf ;fy} ;d;fdflos
;Gbe{ nufotsf h'g;'s} s'/f klg sljtfsf ljifo x'g ;S5g\ h;nfO{ efj

54 ÷ bLklzvf
jf ljrf/ elgG5 . o;} u/L sljtfsf] dWod ¿k cGtu{t v08sfJo / nfdf]
sljtf kb{5 . hLjgsf] s'g} Ps kIf jf 36gfdf s]lGb|t eO{ /rgf ul/Psf
cfVofgfTds jf u}/ cfVofgfTds uB jf kB /rgfnfO{ v08sfJo jf nfdf]
sljtf elgG5 . sljtfsf] ;a}eGbf a[xt\ ¿k dxfsfJo xf] . of] cfVofgfTds
;+/rgfdf n]lvPsf] x'G5 . of] nfdf] / lj:t[t cfofddf k}mlnPsf] sfJofTds
/rgf xf] .

@=@= cfVofg ljwf / o;sf pke]bx¿

s'g} klg 36gf, cg'e"lt / b[ZonfO{ syfgs agfO{ l;h{gf ul/g] uB
/rgfnfO{ cfVofg elgG5 . cfVofgsf] d'Vo clenIf0f eg]sf] g} syf tŒj xf] .
:y"n jf ;"Id h] h:tf] eP klg cfVofgdf syfgs x'g}k5{ . o;sf] ;a}eGbf
;fgf] ¿knfO{ n3'syf elgG5 eg] dWod ¿knfO{ syf elgG5 . o;sf] nfdf]
¿knfO{ pkGof; elgG5 . cfVofgsf e]bx¿nfO{ tnsf] cf/]vdf o; k|sf/
b]vfOG5 M
nfdf syf
n3'td ¿k -d'Sts_
n3' syf
cfVofg
a[xt\ ¿k -dxfsfJo_

hLjg / hut\sf ljleGg kIfnfO{ ljifoj:t' agfP/ n]lvg] cfVofg
cGtu{t syfdf hLjgsf] Pp6f kIf jf 36gf / cg'e"ltnfO{ ljifo agfOG5 / yf]/}
kfqsf] k|of]u ul/G5 eg] pkGof;df hLjgsf ljljw kIf / 36gfnfO{ ljifo agfO{
ltg} 36gf / cg'e"ltnfO{ k|:t't ug]{ ljljw kfqsf] k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 . syf
/ pkGof;df rl/q jf 36gfsf] j0f{g ul/g] x'Fbf j0f{gfTds z}nLsf] / obfsbf
kfqx¿sf lardf x'g] ;+jfbnfO{ klg k|:t't ul/g] x'Fbf ;+jfbfTds z}nLsf] klg
k|of]u ul/G5 .

@=#= gf6s ljwf / o;sf pke]bx¿

;flxTosf] b[Zo e]b cGtu{t kg]{ gf6s klg k|frLg ljwf xf] .
cleg]ofTdstf g} gf6ssf] d"n klxrfg xf] . clego / cg's/0fnfO{ a9L
k|fyldstf lbO{ /rgf ul/Psf] ;+jfbfTds ;flxlTos l;h{gfnfO{ gf6s elgG5 .
jt{dfg ;dodf gf6snfO{ klg b'O{cf]6f e]bdf juL{s/0f ul/G5 h'g o;k|sf/
5M

bLklzvf ÷ 55
 k"0ff{ª\sL
gf6s
Psfª\sL

;flxTosf] b[Zo ljwf cGtu{t kg]{ k"0ff{ª\sL gf6snfO{ gf6s dfq elgG5
eg] Psfª\sL gf6snfO{ Psfª\sL elgG5 . oL b'a}sf ljwfut tŒjdf ;dfgtf
5 . dfgjLo hLjgsf] ;du|tfnfO{ ljleGg pksyf agfP/ gf6sn] ;d]6]sf] x'G5 .
gf6sn] w]/} kfqx¿sf] pkl:yltnfO{ b]vfPsf] x'G5 eg] Psfª\sLn] hLjgsf]
j|mda4 ef]ufOnfO{ gb]vfO{ Pp6f ljz]if 36gf, kl/l:ylt jf cj:yfnfO{ dfq
lrq0f u/]sf] x'G5 . gf6sn] lj:t[t / Jofks syfj:t'nfO{ ljleGg cª\s /
b[Zodf ljefhg u/]/ b]vfPF5 eg] Psfª\sLn] 5f]6f] syfnfO{ Ps cª\s / Ps
jf cg]s b[Zodf b]vfPF5 . gf6s ljwfdf sYo efiff -af]nrfnsf] efiff_ sf]
k|of]u / ;+jfbfTds z}nLsf] k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 .

@=$= lgaGw ljwf / o;sf pke]bx¿

lgaGw zAbsf] cy{ 5l/P/ /x]sf efjx¿nfO{ Ps} 7fpFdf afFWg' eGg] x'G5 .
cfVofg lg/k]If uB /rgf g} lgaGw xf] . n]vssf lghL cg'e"lt, ljrf/ tyf
b[li6sf]0fnfO{ ;f]e}m k|s6 ug{ ;lsg] dfWodsf ¿kdf klg lgaGwnfO{ lnOG5 .
j}olStstf, lghfTdstf, cfTdk|s6Ls/0f, ;ª\lIfKttf, ljifoj:t'ut :ki6tf,
af}l4stf, xflb{stf, ljrf/sf] k|ltkfbg tyf ;+j]bgf / cg'e"ltsf] ;xhtf,
efjsf] ;3gtf / tfls{stf h:tf ljz]iftf lgaGwdf /xg] x'gfn] lgaGwsf] If]q
lgs} Jofks / lj:t[t 5 . ;fdfGotM lgaGwsf e]b÷pke]bx¿nfO{ o; k|sf/
b]vfOG5 M

;+:d/0f
lgofqf
xf:oJoª\Uo
;dLIff
hLjgL lgaGw
lgjftf{
l/kf]tf{h
8fo/L
b}lgsL

56 ÷ bLklzvf
 ;flxTosf d'Vo rf/cf]6f ljwfdWo] ;a}eGbf sfG5f] ljwfsf ¿kdf /x]sf]
lgaGw ljwfdf cGo ljwfsf t'ngfdf ;a}eGbf a9L e]bf]ke]b /x]sf] b]lvG5 .
cfVofg]t/ uB /rgfx¿ ;a} o;leq kg]{ ePsfn] klg lgaGwsf ljljw ¿k
b]vf k/]sf x'g\ . cfTdk/s lgaGw, j:t'k/s n]v jf k|aGw, hLjgL, ;+:d/0f,
cfTdsyf, lgofqf, ;DkfbsLo, b}lgsL, cfTdj[tfGt, e"ldsf, ;dLIff, ;dfnf]rgf
cflb ;a} ;flxTosf k|e]bx¿ lgaGw cGtu{t g} kg]{ ePsfn] lgaGwsf] k|sf/nfO{
cfTdut lgaGw / j:t'ut lgaGw u/L b'O{ k|sf/df dfq ljefhg u/]/ k'Ub}g .
To;}n] lgaGwnfO{ cfTdk/stfsf cfwf/df, j:t'k/stfsf cfwf/df / lzNksf
cfwf/df juL{s/0f ug'{kg]{ b]lvG5 . lgaGwdf lzNk z}nLut ljljwtfsf ;fy}
ljifoj:t'ut ljljwtf klg ;a}eGbf a9L b]lvG5 . lgaGwnfO{ ljrf/fTds,
efjfTds, j0f{gfTds / ljj/0ffTds lgaGw u/L rf/ k|sf/df juL{s/0f klg
ul/G5 . efjfTds lgaGwdf n]vssf] j}olSts cleJolSt / cfTdk|s6Ls/0f
k|d'v ¿kdf /x]sf] x'G5 eg] ljrf/fTds lgaGwdf hLjg / hut\sf ljljw kIfdf
cfˆgf ljrf/x¿ cleJoSt u/L n]lvPsf] x'G5 . o;} u/L j0f{gfTds lgaGwdf
ljifoj:t'nfO{ snfTds ¿kdf j0f{g ul/Psf] x'G5 eg] ljj/0ffTds lgaGwdf
s'g} 36gf jf j:t'sf] ;TotYo ljj/0f k|:t't ul/Psf] x'G5 .

#= efiff kf7\ok':tsdf ;flxlTos /rgfsf] cfjZostf

efiff kf7\ok':ts eGgfn] eflifs l;k clej[l4 ug]{ p2]Zon] agfOPsf]
kf7\oj:t' xf] . o;df ljljw lsl;dsf 1fgsf ;fy} eflifs cleJolSt Ifdtfdf
ljsf; x'g] ck]Iff ;lxt kf7\oj:t'sf] 5gf]6 ul/Psf] x'G5 . o;/L hLjg / hut\
;DaGwL ljleGg 1fg, lzIff / ;Gb]zsf ;fy} eflifs k|:t'ltsf ljljw ¿k;Fu
kl/lrt x'g / To;sf] cg's/0f u/L n]Vg] l;ksf] ljsf; ug{ efiff kf7\ok':tsdf
;flxlTos /rgfsf] pkl:yltnfO{ clgjfo{ dflgG5 . ;flxTosf ljleGg ljwf
tyf pkljwfx¿sf] pkof]un] kf7\ok':ts k|efjsf/L / ljlzi6 aGg k'U5 . s'g}
klg ljifoj:t'nfO{ k|efjsf/L / ;zSt agfpg pkof]u ul/g] eflifs cleJolSt
;flxTo ePsfn] o:t} eflifs l;ksf] ljsf; ug{ ;flxlTos /rgfx¿ dxŒjk"0f{
b]lvG5g\ . efiff kf7\ok':tsdf ;flxlTos /rgfx¿sf] cfjZostf / dxŒjnfO{
lgDglnlvt a'Fbfx¿df b]vfOG5 M
-!_ /f]rs k|;ª\uåf/f k7gk|lt cfslif{t x'g,
@_ ljljw ljifoj:t'af/] hfgsf/L kfpg,
-#_ cg]sf}F gjLg z}nL tyf lzNkaf6 kl/lrt x'g,
-$_ ;Dk|]if0fdf k|efjsfl/tf Nofpg,

bLklzvf ÷ 57
-%_ df}lns cleJolStsf] ljsf; ug{
-^_ snfTds cleJolStsf] k|of]u ug{,
-&_ l;h{gfTds Ifdtfsf] clej[l4 ug{,
-*_ zAb e08f/sf] j[l4 ug{,
-(_ dfgs efiffsf] k|of]uaf/] cEo:t x'g,
-!)_ Jofs/0f l;sfOnfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg,
-!!_ ljifoj:t'sf] cf:jfbg u/L k|ltlj|mof n]vgtk{m cu|;/ x'g .
;flxTo eg]sf] Ps lsl;dsf] eflifs v]n g} xf] . Pp6} ljifoj:t'
jf 36gfnfO{ klg ljleGg z}nL / lzNkdf 9fn]/ leGgleGg lsl;dn] cToGt
/f]rs / x[bo:kzL{ ¿kdf k|:t't ug]{ snf ;flxlTos cleJolStdf /x]sf]
x'G5 . ;flxTosf syf, lgaGw, sljtf, uLt, gf6s, pkGof;h:tf ljljw
ljwf pkljwfsf l;sfOn] kf7sf] cf:jfbg;Fu} k|ltlj|mofn] v]ntk{m klg pGd'v
ub{5 . o;/L efiff kf7\ok':tsdf ;flxlTos /rgfx¿sf] k7gkf7g u/fpFbf
Pp6} ljifoj:t'leq klg ljleGg kf7\oj:t'x¿ agfpg ;lsG5 . pbfx/0fsf
nflu syf kf7 k9fO;s]kl5 o;nfO{ cfwf/ agfP/ >'ltaf]w, >'ltn]vg, ;:j/
k7g, b|'tk7g, df}gk7g, zAbfy{, k7gaf]w, zAbju{ klxrfg, zAb lgdf{0f,
zAb ¿kfog, jfSo ;+/rgf, jfSotŒj, jfSo ;+Zn]if0f, plSt kl/jt{g, a'Fbf
l6kf]6, ;ª\If]kLs/0f, lj:t[tLs/0f, z}nL ;+/rgf, jfSo ¿kfGt/0f, jfRo, kIf,
efj, s/0f–cs/0f, JofVof, ;k|;ª\u JofVof, lgof]lht n]vg, :jtGq Pjd\
l;h{gfTds n]vgh:tf efiff l;sfOsf ljljw kIfdf cEof; u/fpg ;lsg]
ePsfn] klg efiff kf7\ok':tsdf ;flxlTos /rgfsf] cfjZostf k/]sf] xf] .

$= k7gaf]w / k|ltlj|mof n]vg

s'g} klg k':ts, n]v, /rgf jf kf7nfO{ k9\g] sfd ug'{ k7g xf] . k7g
;fdfGo / ljlzi6 u/L b'O{ k|sf/sf x'G5g\ . ;fdfGo lsl;dn] a'‰g] u/L ;txL
¿kdf kl9g] k7g ;fdfGo k7g xf] eg] s'g} klg ;ª\sygnfO{ /fd|/L k9]/,
To;leq /x]sf kb, kbfjnL, pkjfSo, jfSoh:tf eflifs PsfOsf txdf cfpg]
efj, ljrf/, ljifo, sYo, tYo cflb s'/fx¿ a'‰g' jf ltgsf] cy{af]w ug'{ g}
ljlzi6 k7gaf]w xf] . k7gaf]wn] k7g cle?lrsf] ljsf; ug'{sf ;fy} gofF gofF
z}nLut cleJolSt;Fu klg kl/ro u/fpF5 . ;flxlTos /rgfsf] k7gaf]waf6
kf7sn] ljifoj:t'sf] cf:jfbg k|fKt ug{ ;S5 / oxL cf:jfbgn] p;nfO{ kf7k|lt
;Ddf]lxt agfpF5 . s'g} klg ;ª\sygsf] k7gdf cy{af]w ckl/xfo{ kIf xf] .
cy{af]w lagf g t kf7df cGtlg{lxt d"nefjsf] cf:jfbg ug{ ;lsG5 g t

58 ÷ bLklzvf
To;n] kf7ssf dgleq s'g} k|ltlj|mof pTkGg g} u/fpg ;S5 . o;sf/0f k7gsf]
;a}eGbf dxŒjk"0f{ kIf g} cy{af]w xf] . cy{af]wkl5 dfq kf7s jf efjssf
dgleq To;sf k|ltlj|mofx¿ pAhg] j|md ;'? x'g yfN5 . ljlzi6 k7gaf]waf6
dfq kf7sn] s[lt jf kf7sf af/]df cfˆgf] ljrf/ jf wf/0ffnfO{ :ki6 ¿kdf
eGg ;S5 / cfˆgf] df}lns cleJolStsf] k|s6Ls/0f ug{ ;S5 .
efiff kf7\oj|mddf /flvPsf ;flxlTos n]v, /rgf / s[ltx¿sf] k7gsf]
p2]Zo ljljw ljwfdf n]lvPsf kf7x¿df cGtlg{lxt ljifoj:t'nfO{ hfGg' dfq
geO{ tL kf7x¿df k|of]u ul/Psf ljljw z}nL / ltgn] cleJol~ht ug]{ ljljw
k|sf/sf cy{nfO{ ;d]t af]w ug'{ xf] .
;fdfGotM k|ltlj|mof eGgfn] s'g} 36gf jf sfo{ x'Fbf pTkGg x'g] dgsf]
l:ylt jf dgdf k/]sf] k|efj eGg] a'lemG5 . k7gsf ;Gbe{df eg] o;sf] cy{
s]xL km/s 5 . s'g} kf7 jf ;ª\sygsf] k7gkZrft\ To;n] dgdf kf/]sf] k|efj
jf To;k|ltsf] cfˆgf] ljrf/ tyf wf/0ffnfO{ k7gsf ;Gbe{df k|ltlj|mof eGg]
a'lemG5 . k|ltlj|mof ;DalGwt kf7ssf] ljrf/ tyf efjgf;Fu ;Da4 x'G5 .
kf7k|lt kf7ssf] ljrf/ jf b[li6sf]0fnfO{ ;d]6]/ n]lvPsf] n]vgnfO{ k|ltlj|mof
n]vg dflgG5 . k|ltlj|mof n]vg ;flxTosf] lgaGw / ;dLIff ljwf;Fu lgs6
b]lvG5 . k|ltlj|mof n]vgdf Psflt/ kl9Psf] ;ª\syg jf kf7sf] ljZn]if0f /
d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf] x'G5 eg] csf{lt/ kf7ssf] To;k|ltsf] efj, ljrf/, wf/0ff
tyf b[li6sf]0fnfO{ klg ;d]l6Psf] x'G5 . k|ltlj|mof n]vgn] kf7ssf] cy{af]wsf]
IfdtfnfO{ phfu/ ug'{sf ;fy} cleJolSt IfdtfnfO{ klg j[l4 u/fpFb} n}hfG5 .
To;}n] efiff kf7\oj|mddf k7gaf]w / k|ltlj|mof n]vgnfO{ clt dxŒjk"0f{ dflgG5 .

%= lgisif{
efiff kf7\oj|mdsf] p2]Zo efiff l;sfO tyf eflifs l;ksf] ljsf;df
nlIft ePsfn] kf7\oj:t'sf] lgdf{0fdf ;flxlTos /rgf jf s[ltsf] 5gf]6 cToGt}
dxŒjk"0f{ dflgG5 . To;}n] k|fylds txb]lv :gfts tx;Ddsf ;Dk"0f{ clgjfo{
g]kfnL kf7\ok':tsdf ;flxlTos /rgfnfO{ ;dfj]z ul/Psf] xf] . o;/L ;dfj]z
ubf{ ljleGg ljifo If]qdf s]lGb|t eO{ n]lvPsf sljtf, syf, gf6s, Psfª\sL,
lgaGw, hLjgLh:tf ljwfnfO{ 5gf]6 ul/Psf] b]lvG5 . kf7\oj|mddf ;dfj]z
ul/Psf ;flxlTos /rgfx¿sf] p2]Zo ;flxTosf] ;}4flGts kIf jf ;flxToaf/]
hfgsf/L lbg' geO{ ;'gfO, af]nfO, k9fO / n]vfOh:tf eflifs l;ksf] Ifdtf
j[l4 u/fpg' / k7gaf]w tyf k|ltlj|mof n]vgsf :t/;Dd k'¥ofpg' /x]sf] x'G5 .
;flxlTos n]v /rgfsf] k7gaf6 ljifoj:t'sf] cf:jfbg / cy{af]w lgs} ;/n

bLklzvf ÷ 59
tl/sfaf6 ug{ ;lsg] / ljljw lsl;dsf lzNk / z}nLut n]vgaf6 kl/lrt
x'g ;lsg] ePsfn] efiff kf7\ok':ts ;zSt / k|efjsf/L agfpg ;flxlTos
/rgfsf] dxŒjk"0f{ e"ldsf /x]sf] b]lvG5 . ;flxlTos /rgfsf] k7gn] efiff
l;sfOsf ;fy} ;d;fdlos ljifoj:t' tyf /fi6« / /fli6«otf h:tf kIfdf klg
ljBfyL{nfO{ ck|ToIf ¿kdf ;r]t agfpFb} n}hfG5 / df}lns cleJolSt k|:t't
ug]{ Ifdtfsf] klg lj:tf/ u/fpF5 . To;sf/0f efiff kf7\ok':tsdf ;flxlTos
/rgfsf] k7gaf]w / k|ltlj|mof n]vg ;a}eGbf dxŒjk"0f{ dflgG5 .

;Gbe{ ;fdu|L ;"rL

clwsf/L, 1fg'= @)^&= clgjfo{ g]kfnL ;xof]uL k':ts= sf7df8f}F M P;=s]= klAns];g .
clgjfo{ g]kfnL ljifo :yfoL ;ldlt= @)^%= clgjfo{ g]kfnL ;flxlTos /rgf= nlntk'/ M
;femf k|sfzg .
uf}td, b]jLk|;fb kf/;dl0f e08f/L / /fdgfy cf]emf= @)&)= :gfts g]kfnL -lå=
;+:s=_= sf7df8f}F M ljBfyL{ k':ts e08f/ .
kf}8]n, dfwjk|;fb= @)^*= efiff kf7\oj|md, kf7\o;fdu|L tyf lzIf0f k4lt= sf7df8f}F M
ljBfyL{ k':ts e08f/ .
>]i7, bof/fd nId0fk|;fb uf}td / 1fg' clwsf/L= @)&!= ;'af]w clgjfo{ g]kfnL=
sf7df8f}F M e'F8Lk'/f0f k|sfzg .

60 ÷ bLklzvf
 dflos oyfy{sf] sf]0faf6
…kNnLÚsf] k7g
bLksk|;fb 9sfn*

!= ljifo kl/ro
kNnL g]kfnL ;flxTosf] cfVofg ljwf -syf / pkGof;_ sf If]qdf
k|of]usf kof{o dflgg] df]xg/fh zdf{sf] gjLgtd s[lt xf] . of] k|of]udf cfwfl/t
pkGof; xf] . zdf{ cfˆgf pkGof;df ljz]iftM cltsNkgfsf] k|of]uåf/f g]kfnL
;dfhsf oyfy{nfO{ zAbdf lrqfª\sg ub{5g\ . ;d;fdlos /fli6«o Pj+
cGt/f{li6«o hLjgdf b]vf k/]sf gj gj cfofdnfO{ dfgj hLjg;Fu hf]8]/
cfVofgsf] sfofdf k|:t't ug'{ logsf] lghTj xf] . ;lnhf]n] ;dsfnLg g]kfnL
j}lZjs kl/j]zdf b]vf k/]sf n}lª\us ljeUgtf -k/Dk/fut n}lª\us ;+/rgfeGbf
leGg_ nfO{ k|ltlglwTj u/]sf] lyof] eg] kNnLn] klg cltsNkgf / oyfy{sf]
k'gl;{h{g u/L jt{dfg j}lZjs kl/j]zdf /f]huf/Lsf l;nl;nfdf g]kfnL gful/sn]
ef]u]sf >dut oyfy{nfO{ k|:t't u/]sf] 5 . pgsf cfVofgfTds s[lt gf6sn]
g]kfnL ;flxTosf] ;dsfnLg ofqfnfO{ g]t[TjbfoL df]8 k|bfg u/]sf] cj:yfdf
o; pkGof; s[ltn] klg cfˆgf] cnUu} d"No :yflkt ug{ ;Sg] 5 . ;dsfnLg
g]kfnL pkGof;n] ;:tf / gf/fjfhLk/s ljifonfO{ p7fg ug]{, snfTdstfsf]
Go"gtf /xg] of}gsf] ahf/Ls/0f ug]{ h:tf kIfnfO{ cxd\ 9ª\un] cfTd;ft\ u/]sf]
;dodf zdf{sf] kNnL gjd"Nosf ;fy k|:t't ePsf] b]lvG5 .
dflos oyfy{ snfsf If]qdf ljZn]if0fsf] k|f¿k cGtu{t ;g\ !(@) sf]
bzsdf k|f/De ePsf] xf] . ;'?df nlntsnfsf If]qdf snfTds ;+of]hgsf]
ljsNk ag]sf] o; dfGotfn] ;flxlTos ljwfsf s[ltsf] l;h{gf / ljZn]if0fdf klg
* pkk|fWofks, ag{xf6{ sn]h, sf7df8f}+

bLklzvf ÷ 61
j|mdzM :yfg kfpg nfu]sf] xf] . k|:t't ;ª\lIfKt ljZn]if0fdf dflos oyfy{sf]
k[i7e"ld / kNnLsf] cfVofgsfof lgdf{0fdf o;sf] e"ldsfnfO{ x]l/Psf] 5 .

@= dlos oyfy{ M ;ª\lIfKt P]ltxfl;s ;}¢flGts :j¿k

dflos zAb d'VotM dfofjL, hfb', 6'gfd'gf, b}jL zlSt, sfNklgs hut\
/ To;sf kl/jlt{t e|d / cGw ljZjf;k/s e|dh:tf cjwf/0ff;Fu ;DalGwt
ljifo xf] . b}jL cfVofgx¿df dfofjL ¿k wf/0f u/]sf, cgf}7f, cgkTofl/nf
:j¿k u|x0f u/L cltdfgjLo sfo{ ;DkGg ul//x]sf ljifo dflos x'g\ .
snfhut\df dflos oyfy{sf] k|of]u / ljZn]if0fsf] Oltxf; x]bf{ sl/a
Ps ztfAbLsf] cjlw b]vf kb{5 . ;g\ !(@) sf] bzsdf nlnt snfsf
If]qdf k]lG6ªnfO{ ljZn]if0f ug]{ clek|fosf ;fy of] ;Dk|bfo b]vf k/]sf] xf]
-ca|fD;, ;g\ @))$ M !(%_ . o;nfO{ ;flxlTos s[lt / To;sf] ;f}Gbo{
ljZn]if0fsf lglDt leq\ofpg] >]o ch]{lG6gL n]vs n'O; af]u{;, sf]nlDaofnL
n]vs u|flaon ufl;{of dfs]{h, lrlnog n]vs Pjn Pa]lG8g, hd{g]nL n]vs
u'G6/ u|f; / O6fn]nL n]vs O6fnf] sflNegf]nfO{ hfG5 . o;n] dflos ljZn]if0f
/ l;h{gfsf] If]qut lj:tf/nfO{ k'li6 ub{5 . e6\6/fO{ klg hh{ n'O; af]u{; tyf
ufla|on ul;{of dfs]{hnfO{ dflos oyfy{sf] pTs[i6 k|of]Stfsf ¿kdf l:jsfb{5g\
-@)^$ M @(^_ . o:tf] dflos oyfy{nfO{ e"d08nLs/0fsf] oyfy{ dflgg] a;fO
;/fO, cfk|jf;g;Fu klg hf]8]/ x]g{'kg]{ dfGotf kfOG5 . cfˆgf] ;flassf] b]z /
;+:s[lteGbf 6f9f uO{ a;]sfdf peo ;+:s[lt x'G5 / ltgn] oyfy{sf] k'gl;{h{g
ug]{ j|mddf snfdf dflos oyfy{sf] lrq0f ub{5g\ . To;}n] logLx¿ k/fb]zLo,
k/f;f+:s[lts / ldl>t lsl;dsf] r]tgfn] clee"lift x'G5g\ . To;}n] ;flas
b]z >Lnª\sf eP klg Sofg8fsf] cfk|j;gdf /xL snf l;h{gfdf /d]sf dfOsn
cf]Gbfh]sf] /lgª Og lb ˆofldnL klg dflos oyfy{sf b[li6n] pRr sf]l6sf]
dflgG5 -e6\6/fO{, @)^$ M @(*_ . snfdf dflos oyfy{sf] lrq0f ljz]iftM
;f+:s[lts peotfdf afFr]sf ;|i6fdf a9L e]l6g] k|:6 x'G5 . ?:bL -ef/tLo /
a]nfotL_, 3f]; -ef/tLo / cd]l/sL_, cf]Gbfh] ->Lnª\sg / Sofg8]nL_,
sf]T;L -a]nfotL / clk|msL_ cflb x'g'n] o;}sf] k'li6 u5{ .
g]kfnL ;flxTosf ljljw ljwfdf dflos oyfy{sf] k|of]u / To;sf]
;f}Gbo{ut dxŒjsf ljifodf vf; cg';Gwfgsf] vfFr} 5 . dflos oyfy{sf
ljifo, z}nL / rl/qut pkof]usf b[li6af6 dfWolds g]kfnL uBfVofgx¿
pkof]uL b]lvG5g\ . hfb', 6'gfd'gf, b}jL nf]s, b}jL zlSt / cltzo ljb|"kfTds
qf;bLk"0f{ ljifosf b[li6n] of] sfnv08 dxŒjk"0f{ dflgG5 . jL/l;Ssfsf

62 ÷ bLklzvf
kfqx¿sf] dfofjL Jojxf/ / l5gl5gdf sfofsNk kl/jt{g u/L lxF8\g] k|s[ltsf
sf/0f ljz]iftM pNn]Vo dflgG5 . dfofjL oyfy{ lrq0fsf] ;f]nf]8f]nf] Oltxf;nfO{
x]bf{ 8fodg;d;]/sf] ;]tf]af3, w|'jrGb| uf}tdsf] clUgbQ±clUgbQ, ;?eStsf]
kfuna:tLsf] lsQfdf df]xg/fh zdf{sf] kNnL klg hf]l8g cfpF5 . o;sf
cltl/St cfVofgfTds ljwfsf b[li6n] w|'jrGb| uf}tdsf] e:df;'/sf] gnLxf8,
df]xg/fh zdf{sf] a}s'G7 PS;k|];, ;?eStsf] lgdfjLodf k|:t't 6]lSgsnfO{ klg
dflos oyfy{k/s lrq0fsf gd'gfsf ¿kdf lnOG5 .
dfof zAbsf] sf]zLo cy{ cjf:tljs, e|fds, OGb|hfnLo hfb'u/L xf]
eg] dflossf] sf]zLo cy{ cjf:tljs eP klg jf:tljs h:t} b]lvg], hfb'u/L
5fF6sf] xf] -g]kfnL a[xb\ zAbsf]z, @)%* M !)!!_ . ;flxTo snfsf If]qdf
dflos oyfy{jfb -Doflhs l/oflnhd_ sf] ;dfgfyL{ kbsf ¿kdf k|o'St
ePsf] xf] . ljz]iftM lrqsnfsf If]qdf Doflhs l/oflnhd / ;flxTosf If]qdf
Doflhsn l/oflnhd k|of]u x'Fb} cfPsf] t/ g]kfnLdf b'a}nfO{ cYof{pg] kbfjnL
dflos oyfy{jfb -Doflhs l/oflnhd_ xf] eGg] dfGotf kfOG5 -e6\6/fO{,
@)^$ M @(@_ . To;}n] dflos oyfy{jfb sk6do, cjf:tljs, e|dk"0f{ /
hfn;fhsf] jf:tljs 9ª\udf k|of]u ug]{ snf xf] -cfK6], ;g\ !(^( M &(^_ .
o; lsl;dsf] e|dk"0f{ / cjf:tljs ljifonfO{ jf:tljs / ljZj;gLo 9ª\un]
lrq0f ug]{ snf, z}nL jf 6]lSgs ljz]if g} dflos oyfy{ xf] .
dflos oyfy{df cjf:tljsnfO{ jf:tljs h:t} b]vfPg cltGb|Lo ljifo,
e"tk|]t, lkzfr, b}jL zlSt, b}jL nf]s, ctLtf]Gd'vtf h:tf ljifo cfpF5g\ .
ltgLx¿ afFlr/x]sf] w/ftn oyfy{ em}F b]vf kb{5 . d/]sf] JolSt Ao'Ft]/ cfpg],
JolStdf b}jL zlSt k}bf eO{ cgkTofl/nf / cgf}7f Jojxf/ ug]{ k|j[ltnfO{ o;
6]lSgsdf ckgfOG5 . rl/qn] ;flassf] sfof kl/jt{g u/L sfofsNk x'g],
cljZj;gLo 9ª\un] nfdf] cfo' afFRg], p8Gt] xfjfbf/L / cltsfNklgs ljifodf
rl/q /Dg], ljlrqsf e|dk"0f{, cgkTofl/nf ;kgf b]Vg] / jf:tljstfdf em}F
¿k wf/0f ug]{ snfTds kIf dflos oyfy{df kfOG5g\ . k"jL{o Pj+ kfZrfTo
tGqzf:qsf sd{sf08Lo ljlw, df/0f, df]xg, j;Ls/0f, :tDeg, pRrf6g cflb
tflGqs ;Gbe{x¿ klg o; cGtu{t kb{5g\ -uf}td, @)&) M #&@_ . o; cGtu{t
dflos rl/qx¿ bfgj, /fIf;, e"tk|]t, lkzfr, z}tfg, lsrsGof cflb ljifosf]
;d]t k|of]u / ljZn]if0f x'G5 . dflos oyfy{nfO{ pR5«]bs / cltj|mdfTds b'O{
wf/df /fv]/ JofVof ul/Psf] kfOG5 . pR5«]bsn] eO/x]sf k'/fgfnfO{ vf]tn]/
b]vfPg] cyf{t\ k'/fgf d"NonfO{ vf]tn]/ b]vfPg] tyf cltj|mdfTdsdf eO/x]sf
d"NonfO{ pl5g]/ cufl8 a9]/ b]vfPg] . oL b'a} 6]lSgsn] ljBdfg d"NonfO{

bLklzvf ÷ 63
e~hg u/L ;Ldf ljvl08t ub{5g\ . jf:jljs / ;To elgPsf j:t', ljifo /
;TonfO{ tf]8]/ e|dk"0f{, cljZj;gLo / hfn;fhLo'St agfOlbG5g\ .
plNnlvt tYo / ljdz{sf cfwf/df dflos oyfy{jfb k|f/Dedf
nlntsnfdf k|o'St eO{ xfn ;flxlTos /rgfsf] ljZn]if0fdf lelqPsf] l;¢fGt
xf] . e"d08nLs/0fsf sf/0f snfsf/ tyf ;flxTosf/n] a;fOF;/fO / cfk|jf;gsf
l;nl;nfdf j}lZjs kl/j]zdf cfkm"nfO{ k|:t't ug{ yfn] / ax';f+:s[lts tyf
peo ;f+:s[lts dfGotfnfO{ cfˆgf s[ltdf k|:t't ug]{ j|mddf dfofjL lsl;dsf]
n]vgnfO{ cfTd;ft\ ug{ yfn] . To;}n] logn] jf:tljs tyf ;To elgPsf,
;gftg / ;flassf dfGotfNffO{ pR5«]bg / cltj|mdfTds 9ª\un] k|:t't ug]{ j|mddf
cltGb|Lo, b}jL, k/fdfgjLo / k/fnf}lss ljifosf] rog ug]{ k/Dk/f a;fn] .

#= …kNnLÚsf] dflos oyfy{jfbL k7g

kNnL cfVofgsf/ df]xg/fh zdf{sf] gjLgd pkGof; xf] . logn] cluNnf
cfVofg / cfVofgfTds s[ltdf ckgfPsf] k|of]usf] cfofdaf6 dfgj hLjgsf
oyfy{nfO{ k|:t't ug]{ snfsf] lg/Gt/tf o;df klg lbPsf 5g\ . ;fdfGo dfgj
kl/j]z / hLjg w/ftneGbf leGg, cgf}7f] Pj+ ljlIfKt lsl;dsf j:t' rogn] of]
pkGof; dflos oyfy{k|wfg ag]sf] 5 . /fqL, :jKg, lgb|f, e|flGt, tGb|f, emNsf,
lj:d[lth:tf 6]lSgssf] pb]snfUbf] k|of]un] dflos oyfy{sf] k|of]Stf;Fu o;n]
s8f 6Ss/ ub{5 -e6\6/fO{, e"ldsf M cfj/0f k[i7_ . ljz]iftM o; pkGof;df
/x]sf @$ cf]6f pkzLif{sdWo] k|yd b'O{ / clGtdsf] Ps u/L ltg pkzLif{sdf
hf]gfygnfO{ s]Gb|Lo rl/qsf ¿kdf cfTd;ft\ u/L oyfy{sf] dflostf k|:t't 5
eg] afFsL PSsfO; cf]6fdf hgfb{gsf] oyfy{nfO{ dflostfdf k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 .
o;} cfwf/df k|:t't ljZn]if0fdf kNnLleqsf dflostfsf cfofdnfO{ cWoog
ul/Psf] 5 .

#=!= hf]gfygdf dflos oyfy{sf] k|of]u

hf]gfyg o; pkGof;df k|yd b'O{ pkzLif{sdf ;dfVoftf rl/q xf] .
rl/qsf] gfds/0f, cfjf; u[x tyf To;sf] Joj:yfkgsf sf]0faf6 x]bf{ p;n]
ef]u]sf] lbs\sfn ljsl;t tyf cfly{s ;d[l¢n] o'St klZrdL b]z ;ª\s]t
ub{5 . /f]huf/Lsf l;nl;nfdf knfog ePsf sltko g]kfnLn] ug]{ sfd d;fg
3f6df lrxfg vGg] xf] eGg] ;dfrf/ cfO/x]sf] ;dodf pm -hf]gfyg_ klg o;}
sfo{df ;+nUg 5 . To;}n] of] rl/q j}b]lzs /f]huf/Ldf k'u]sfx¿sf] oyfy{tfsf]
cltj|mdfTdstf xf] . zdf{n] lsG8ndf hf]gfygsf] cfVofg kl9/x]sf 5g\ .

64 ÷ bLklzvf
ljB'tLo k':ts -lsG8n_ df ;l~rt -8fpgnf]8_ ul/Psf k':tssf] k7gaf6
hf]gfygsf] Oltj[lQ v'Ng yfNb5 . afa' :ofd'onn] kTgLsf] d[To'kZrft\ lgs}
si6sf ;fy hf]gfygnfO{ x'sf{Psf], Ps lbg :ofd'on :nd a:tLsf] glhs}
/x]sf] lrxfg 3f6af6 sª\sfn Nofpb} ubf{ ufpFn]n] rf]/ 7fg]/ p;nfO{ lg3f{t
9ª\un] lk6L df/]kl5 pm 6'x'/f] eof] . hf]gfygn] cGttM afa's} k];f -sª\sfn
Joj;fo_ ;DxfNof] .
afa'sf] k'R5/ nfu]/ lrxfg vf]l;F|bf hf]gfygn] klxnf] k6s
ckf6{d]G6eGbf w]/} 6f9fsf] blnt a:tLdf dflg;sf] vKk/ 5f]Psf]
lyof] ========= lrxfg vg]/ ;/Ss dfn aflx/ lemSg], sf]7fdf glau|g]
u/L /fvgw/g ug]{, u|fxssf] dg;fo a'em]/ s'/fsfgL ug]{ sfddf
pm laR5L alg;s]sf] lyof] . p;n] dg nufP/ sfd u/]sf] b]vL
p;sf afa' km'?ª\u ky{] -k[= %_
sª\sfn / x8\8Lsf] sf/f]af/ ug{ hf]gfygn] afa'af6 l;Sof] . gfd'b
Jofkf/L klg aGof] . cfhLljsfsf] d'Vo d]nf] klg agfof] . ;fdfGotM lrxfg
dfG5]sf] /f]huf/Lsf] cfsif{0f xf]Og . To;dfly klg ufl8Psf nf;dflysf]
cfoJoosf] cfwf/ vf]Hg] sfo{ k|rlnt xf]Og . of] ;flassf] jf:tljstf xf]
t/ oxfF o;}sf] cltj|mdfTds cj:yf 5 . To;}n] of] oyfy{sf] dflos 9ª\un]
ul/Psf] k'gl;{h{g xf] . o;nfO{ hf]gfygsf] ckf6{d]G6df sfdsf] vf]hLdf k'u]sL
o'jtL d]/L / l:dy;Fusf] ;+jfbn] klg k'li6 u5{ . pgLx¿ ;f]R5g\ sfd ;f]r]h:t}
jf ;flassf] xf]nf t/ ;+jfbaf6 /x:o v'Nb} hfG5 . sfd sª\sfnsf] b]vefn,
;+/If0f / /vjf/L ug'{ . To;kl5 b'a}n] ljbf dfU5g\ . of] o; pkGof;df
hf]gfyg;Fu ;DalGwt oyfy{sf] k'gl;{h{g xf] . To:t} hf]gfygn] ;xof]uL Pj+ hLjg
;fyLsf ¿kdf ;d]t sfo{ ug{ ;Sg] JolStsf] vf]hLdf Dofl/h Ao'/f]sf] ;xfotf
lnPsf] 5 . Dofl/h Ao'/f]df k6s k6s tfs]tf ubf{ klg cfˆgf] sfd cg'¿k
;xh x'g ;Sg] o'jtL km]nf gkg'{sf k5fl8 klg log} sf/0f x'g\ . ==========c¿
s'/f ldn] klg sª\sfn;Fu gl3gfpg] / g8/fpg] sGof vf]Hg c;dy{ eof}F eGg]
hafkm ;'Gg'kof]{ -k[= !&_ n] klg hf]gfygsf] cfhLljsfsf] d];f] dflos oyfy{df
cfwfl/t /x]sf] k'li6 u5{ .
Dofl/h Ao'/f]af6 cfˆgf] ;d:ofsf] xn gb]v]kl5 hf]gfygsf] dfgl;stfdf
uDeL/ cf3ft kb{5 . pm k|To]s sª\sfnsf ljlIfKt vKk/df ljZj rlr{t ;'Gb/Lsf]
sNkgf u/L ltgaf6 cfˆgf cGt/sf rfxgf / sfd]R5fnfO{ k"/f ug{ yfNb5 .
6«osf] o'¢df lu|;]nL ¿k;L x]n]gsf] p¢f/ u/]sf] tyf x]n]g;Fusf a;fp7Ldf
k]|d Knfljt ePsf] sfNklgstfnfO{ oyfy{ em}F /ª lbP/ zdf{n] b]vfPsf 5g\ .

bLklzvf ÷ 65
x]n]gsf dfbs cFufnfdf sl;g k'u]/ h;} p;n] r'Dag lng vf]Hof], p;sf] y't'gf]
cfkm"n] ;fa'g bn]/ w'Fb} u/]sf] yf]tf] d'vdf 7f]l;g k'Uof] -k[= @!_ . hf]gfygdf
/x]sf] of}gut ct[Kttfn] cltsNkgfsf sf/0f dfofjL ¿k wf/0f u/]sf cGo klg
cfwf/ 5g\ . lrxfg vGg] l;nl;nfdf g} p;n] OlhK6]nL ;'Gb/L lSnof]k]S6«fnfO{
gbL lsgf/df ;jf{ª\u gfª\uf] ¿kdf kfof] . jo:s o'jtLsf] ;'8f}nnfO{ olt
glhsaf6 lgofNg] cj;/ kfPsf]df p;n] cfkm"nfO{ wGo 7fGof] -k[= @#_ .
To;} u/L vKk/nfO{ d';fg]{ j|mddf ljZj k|l;¢ k|]d hf]8Lsf ¿kdf cfkm"nfO{ kfO{
h'lno6;Fu} r'Dagdf ;xefuL ePsf] dflos cj:yfdf klg hf]gfyg cfPsf] 5
-k[= @$_ . o;/L hf]gfyg Dofl/h Ao'/f]af6 cfˆgf] ;d:of ;dfwfg gePkl5
k6s k6s ljZj k|l;¢ clgGB ;'Gb/Lsf ;fydf d'5{gfdf k/L /dfPsf] cj:yf
cltGb|Lo / cltsNkgfsf] a]hf]8 gd'gf xf] . o;n] dflostfsf] k'li6 ub{5 .
Psflt/ sª\sfnsf] Joj;fodf nfUg'nfO{ ;fdfGotM dflostfsf] sf]0faf6 x]g{
;lsG5 eg] csf{lt/ ljZjljVoft ;'Gb/Ll;tsf] k|]d /;/ª\udf /d]sf] b]vfPg'nfO{
klg dflos oyfy{sf sf]0faf6 x]g{ ;lsG5 . o;kl5sf pkzLif{sdf pkGof;sf/
zdf{n] hf]gfygsf g]kfnL ;+:s/0fnfO{ cfVofgdf hf]8]sf 5g\ . clGtd zLif{sdf
6'ª\UofpgL M kv{g'xf]nf x} cGtu{t lsG8ndf ;lsPsf] rfh{ e/]kl5 d k'gM
hf]gfygnfO{ g} hf]8\5' egL cGTo ul/Psf] 5 . o;n] cfVofgnfO{ v'Nnf 9fFrfdf
5f]l8Psf] k'li6 u5{ eg] cfVofgsf/n] o;}nfO{ j|mlds z[ª\vnfdf hf]8\g] k|fof]lht
rfxgf cg'¿k csf]{ pkGof; l;h{gf ug{ ;Sg] sNkgfnfO{ klg AoF'tfOlbG5 .

#=@= hgfb{gdf dflos oyfy{sf] k|of]u

hgfb{g o; pkGof;df lsG8nsf] cfVofg k7gdf cj/f]w k}bf ePkl5sf]
k'gl;{h{gdf hf]l8Psf] rl/q xf] . pm sª\sfn / xf8vf]/sf] sf/f]af/df ;+nUg
g]kfnL ;+:s/0fsf] Jofkf/L xf] . lsG8nsf] hf]gfygn] ;xof]uLsf ¿kdf sfd ug]{
kTgL kfPg / clt sNkgfdf k'uL d'5{gfdf ;'Gb/L;Fusf] k|]d Knfljt If0f ef]Ub}
lyof] t/ hgfb{gn] oxfF kTgLsf ¿kdf kNnLnfO{ kfPsf] 5 . p;n] kfPsL kNnL
s]jn zf/Ll/s ¿kn] pkl:yt dfq eO{ of}lgs ¿kn] kTgL x'g ;lsg . To;}n]
hGg' -hgfb{g_ PsfGt e]6\g]lalQs} :jKgdf x/fpg yfNof] . h}t'sf bf]sfgaf6 d'8L
/ KofhLsf] vfhf lnP/ 3/ kms]{sf] hGg'n] ;'xfu /ftsf lbg df}/Lsf rfsfaf6
dx tKs]nf eGg] cfzf kfn]sf] t/ sª\sfn / xf8vf]/sf sf/f]af/L ePsf sf/0f
zf/Ll/s ;dfudaf6 lj/lStPsL kNnLaf6 ;Gt'li6 kfpg ;s]g / :jKgdf x/fof] .
==========clg p;n] gfeLb]lvsf] an lgsfn]/ cfkm"lt/ tfGof]
t/ klg Tof] k6Ss} tflgPg . ;k{nfO{ tfGg' t stf xf] stf

66 ÷ bLklzvf
 pN6} pm kf] cgf}7f];Fu ;k{af6 tflgg yfNof] . pm tflgb} uof],
tflgb} uof] / ========p;sf] ;kgf 6'6\of] . p;sf] of] ;'xfu/ft
dgfpg gkfP/ bldt x'g k'u]sf] OR5fsf] lgsf; lyof] . To;}n]
;kgfsf ;k{x¿ ;k{ lyPgg\, p;s} c;Gt'i6 k'?if of}gfª\u
lyof] eGg] p;nfO{ s] yfxf -k[= &#_ <
hgfb{g oxfF ct[Kt ;Def]u rfxgfnfO{ ;kgfsf dfWodaf6 ef]Ub} 5 .
o;s} ;dfg cj:yf k"j{jtL{ rl/q hf]gfygsf] klg lyof] t/ pm k|To]s sª\sfndf
ljZj k|l;¢ ¿k;L ;'Gb/LnfO{ sNkgfdf ef]UYof] . ;'xfu/ftsf] lbg kTgLl;tsf]
;Def]u lj|mof oyfy{ xf] t/ x8\8Lsf] sf/f]af/L x'g' / ;Def]unfO{ :jKgdf ef]Ug'
klg zdf{sf] dflos 9ª\usf] k|:t'lt xf] . xf8vf]/df lgdUg x'g' p;sf] b}lgsL
g} xf] . /fqL sfndf kNnL;Fusf] a;fp7Ldf ;Dk"0f{ :qL ;f}Gbo{nfO{ b]v]sf]
t/ gef]u]sf sf/0f dWofGxsf 3fddf p;n] d]rL au/df km]l/ dfofjL ;f}Gbo{
b]Vof] . cs:dft\ au/df 7'nL b]vf kg'{, kfgL emdemd k/]sf sf/0f 5ftfsf]
cf]t nfUg] cfzf k|s6 ug'{, s'/fsfgLsf l;nl;nf cufl8 a9\bf x/fPsf ufO{
;fF9]af6 cufPkl5 cfOxfN5g\ lg egL lglZrGttf k|s6 ug'{ / If0fe/d} cnk
eO{ x/fpg' -k[= !)^_ n] klg dfofjL zlSt jf cfb\e"ltstfnfO{ snfTds ¿kdf
k'li6 u/]sf] 5 .
k'gM d]rL au/df cs:dft\ gf/L b]x p;sf cufl8 v:of] .
s]xL If0fdf p;n] af]tnsf] kfgL 5s]{/ Ao'FtfPkl5 km]l/ csf{]
cb\e"ltstf b]vf k¥of] . rGb|jfx' gfdsf zf]ifsn] cfˆgf
bf;nfO{ 3/ glhs} 5fk|f] agfO{ /fv]sf, tL o'jtL / pgsf
nf]Ug]sf] hGd cfdg];fdg]sf] 5fk|fdf Ps} lbg laxfg / a]n'sf
ePsf], rGb|jfx' cToGt ubub eO{ ltgsf] hf]8L to ub{]sf,
tL o'jtLsf nf]Ug] / rGb|jfx'k'q bL3{{jfx';Fu} :s'n k9]sf t/
o'jtLsf] nf]Ug] k|yd ePsf sf/0f 9f]n, gu/f ahfO{ l;Fufl/Psf]
xfQLn] s'NrfP/ dgf]/GhgfTds 9ª\un] lklrSs kf/]/ df/]]sf]
k|;ª\u 5 -k[= !)*–!!^_ .
o; k|;ª\un] klg oyfy{dflysf] e|dk"0f{ lrq0fnfO{ k|dfl0ft ub{5 . gf/L
b]x cs:dft\ au/df emg{', rGb|jfx'n] 9f]n, gu/f / afhfufhf ;lxt l;Fufl/Psf]
xfQLn] s'NrfP/ lklrSs kf/L dfg{' eofgs, qf;b / dflos ljifo x'g\ . o;}n]
zdf{ hgfb{gsf sf]0faf6 klg dflos oyfy{nfO{ cfVofgdf hf]8\b5g\ .
zdf{ kNnLleqsf k|To]s pkzLif{sdf k|foM cltsNkgf / :jKgsf] k|of]u
u/L dflos ljGof; ub{5g\ .

bLklzvf ÷ 67
 hgfb{g lbge/ d]rL au/df Jo:t /xFbf cf/fdsf lglDt glhssf
l;ofndf k'UYof] / ;kgf b]VYof] . Ps lbg pm cf/fdsf lglDt
au/df kN6\of] . p;n] ;kgfdf l6aLn] /ut} 5fb]/ afa' d/]sf],
afa'nfO{ uf8]/ ;b\ut u/]sf], sª\sfn vf]hLsf j|mddf Ps lbg
p;n] jo:s dfG5]sf] sª\sfn cFWof/fdf km]nf kf/]sf] / v';L x'Fb}
l;dfgfsf] ahf/ gS;naf8L k'uL kl/lrt Jofkf/LnfO{ a'emfPsf] /
ePsf] k};fn] aª\ufnL j]Zof sgf]gjfnfsf] sfvdf lgbfO{ kms{]sf]
/ cluNnf] lbg lal;{Psf] sf]bfnf] vf]Hb} hfFbf afa'sf] lrxfgd}
b]Vof] -k[= !@)–!@@_ .
o;n] cfVofgsf] ;+of]hgdf sª\sfn Jofkf/Lsf] j[lQ / ;+of]usf sf/0f
cfˆg} afa'sf] sª\sfnsf] d"Nodf j]Zofudgsf] ljifonfO{ k|:t't u/]sf] 5 .
To;}n] of] klg dflos snfsf] csf{] k|df0f xf] .
>LdtL;Fusf] k6s k6ssf] ;xjf;sf] c;kmntfsf sf/0f k}bf ePsf]
dfgl;stfn] hgfb{gnfO{ ;kgfsf] ;+;f/df k'¥ofO/x\of] . pkGof;sf/ zdf{n] ct[Kt
of}gsf lglDt ckgfPsf] :jKgjt\ k|of]u lgs} snfTds 9ª\un] k|:t't ePsf] 5 .
;kgfdf p;n] crDdsf] h'n'; b]Vof] . h'n';df sf6s'6 ug]{
;a} 3/]n' ;fwgx¿ ;fd]n lyP . sb{, rSs', 5'/L, kQL, p:t'/f,
cf/f t/af/, v'8f, v8\u cflb ;fgf7"nf ;a} cf}hf/ 5ftL
prfn]/ gf/f nufpFb} lyP . To; cgf}7f] h'n';df pm cfkm" klg
Pp6f ;fgf] sb{sf ¿kdf ;fg;Fu lxF8\b} xfjfdf d'8\sL ahf/]/
;fg;Fu lxF8\b} lyof] -k[= !#)_ .
plNnlvt c+zdf of}gsf k|tLssf] :jKgjt\ k|:t'lt 5 . hgfb{gdf k}bf ePsf]
of}g c;Gt'li6nfO{ dflos oyfy{sf sf]0faf6 b]vfPg] j|mddf :jlKgn ljwfg
k|of]u ePsf] 5 . o;sf] k'li6 cfVofgsf/n] o;/L lbPsf 5g\—
h'n';n] lgs}a]/ xNnfvNnf u/]kl5 aNnaNn af3åf/sf] 9f]sf
clnslt pl3|of] . cf}hf/x¿ Ps csf{nfO{ 7]Nb} / kG5fpb} tF5f8 /
d5f8 u/]/ leq l5g{ nfu] . 7]nd 7]n u/]/ ;a} leq l5/]kl5 pm klg
leq k:g 9f]sflt/ nfUof] . To;}a]nf crfgs 9f]sf aGb eO lbPsfn]
pm lar}df Roflkof] / c;x\o eP/ ?g s/fpg yfNof] . o;}sf ;fy
p;sf] ;kgfsf] ;Ghfn rF'l8of] / pm hfuf eof] . ;kgfdf b]v]sf
cf}hf/ p;}sf k'?if hg]Gb|Lo x'g\ eGg] p;nfO{ s] kQf] -k[= !##_ <
o;n] klg hgfb{gsf] jf:tljstfnfO{ :jKgsf] sf]0faf6 k"0f{tf lbPsf] 5 .
o; cfwf/df hgfb{g dflos oyfy{ ljGof;sf] s]Gb| aGg k'u]sf] k'li6 x'G5 .

68 ÷ bLklzvf
oyfy{sf] k'gl;{h{g / e|dfTds k|:t'ltdf zdf{n] jf:tljs ljifosf] klg p7fg
u/]sf 5g\ . k[YjL hutdf s'g} sfnv08df chª\usf 8fOgf];/x¿ lyP /
kof{j/0fLo k|lts"ntfsf sf/0f ltgsf] nf]k eof] eGg] lj1fg ;Ddt ljifonfO{
zdf{n] :jKgsf dfWodaf6 k|:t't u/]sf 5g\ . d]rL au/df chª\usf] sª\sfn
km]nf kg'{, vf]tNb} hfFbf Tof] 8fOgf];/sf] /x]sf] / cfkm" h'/fl;s kfs{df /x]sf]
hgfb{gn] kfpg', j|m]g / 7'nf] 6«ssf] ;xfotfn] xjfO{ hxfh;Dd k'¥ofpg', cfkm"
;d]t hxfhdf r9\g' / cGTodf ToxL sª\sfnsf] vf8ndf hf]ltP/ 6'j|mf6'j|mf
df;'df cfˆgf] cg'xf/ b]v]/ Ao'Femg' h:tf kIfnfO{ ;Tosf] e|dfTds k'gl;{h{g
u/]/ k|:t't u/]sf 5g\ -k[= !$!–!$$_ . ;To / e|dsf] snfTds ;+of]hg ePsf
sf/0f zdf{n] oxfF klg dflostfsf] k'li6 u/]sf] k|:6 x'G5 .
cGTodf hGg' / kNnjL b'a}nfO{ cfuf]sf] d':nf]n] Ps} 8Nnf] agfO{ 89fof] .
kNnLn] xf8vf]/sf] sf/f]af/ cGTo u/L ;fdfGo cWofj;fodf hGg'nfO{ nufpg
b]vfPsf] wDsLn] cGttM b'a} ;Fu} 89]/ d/], Pp6} kf]sf] k/] . o; lsl;dsf] qf;b,
b'vb, ljb|'kfTds, dfofjL / cltsfNklgs lsl;dsf] snfn] o; pkGof;sf]
rl/q hgfb{gdf klg dflostf k|:t't u/]sf] l;¢ x'G5 .

$= lgisif{
ljj]Ro pkGof; df]xg/fh zdf{sf] k|of]udf cfwfl/t cfVofg xf] . cfˆgf
cfVofg / cfVofgfTds b'a} /rgfdf cltsNkgf / dflos lsl;dsf] snf k|of]u
ug{ ?rfpg] zdf{n] o; s[ltdf klg pSt nonfO{ kj|m]sf 5g\ . dflos oyfy{
k|f/Dedf nlnt snfsf If]qdf b]vf k/]sf] k|of]u xf] . kl5 o;n] ;flxlTos
s[ltsf] l;h{g / ljj]rgdf 7fpF lnb} uof] . ljz]iftM e"d08nLs/0fsf sf/0f
lgjf{;g / cfk|jf;gdf /x]sf ;flxTosf/sf cltsNkgf / peo ;+:s[ltsf]
lrq0fdf of] lzNkn] d'Vo :yfg kfof] . g]kfnL ;flxTodf 8fodg;d;]/, w|'jrGb|
uf}td, ;?eSt, df]xg/fh zdf{ nufotsf ;|i6fn] o;sf] l;h{gfTds k|of]u u/]sf
5g\ . ljj]Ro pkGof; kNnLdf klg b'O{ wf/df oyfy{sf] cltj|mdfTds 9ª\un]
k'gl;{h{g kfOG5 . k|ljlwsf] cTolws ljsf;sf sf/0f lsG8ndf ;l~rt
cfVofgsf] gfos hf]gfyg Psflt/ 5 eg] csf{lt/ To;}sf] g]kfnL ;+:s/0f
hgfb{g 5 . hf]gfygdf cltsNkgfsf cfwf/df dflos oyfy{sf] k|of]u ul/Psf]
5 . ljz]iftM o; k'gl;{h{gdf cltj|mdfTdstfsf] k|of]u 5 t/ hgfb{gdf :jKgsf]
snfTds k|of]uåf/f oyfy{sf] k'gl;{h{g u/L dflostf k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . h'g
ljlw / snfsf] pkof]u ul/P klg k|:t't pkGof; dflos oyfy{ lrq0fsf b[li6n]
k|ltlglw 5 .

bLklzvf ÷ 69
;Gbe{ ;fdu|L ;"rL
cfK6], lzj/fd= ;g\ @))&= ;+:s[t lxGbL sf]z= -lå= ;+:s_= lbNnL M df]tLnfn
jgf/;Lbf; .
uf}td, s[i0f= @)^$= pQ/cfw'lgs lh1f;f= sf7df8f}F M e[s'6L Ps]8]lds klAns];g .
uf}td, nId0fk|;fb= @)&)= æljZj]Zj/k|;fb sf]O/fnfsf syfsf] cGtlj{ifos k7gÆ,
cfVofgsf/ ljZj]Zj/k|;fb sf]O/fnf M k'gkf{7= sf7df8f}F M g]kfn k|1f k|lti7fg .
9sfn, bLksk|;fb= @)&)= æljZj]Zj/k|;fb sf]O/fnfsf pkGof;df ;dfVofgfTds
Joj:yfÆ= cfVofgsf/ ljZj]Zj/k|;fb sf]O/fnf M k'gkf{7= sf7df8f}F M g]kfn
k|1f k|lti7fg .
k/fh'nL, s[i0fk|;fb -;Dkf=_= @)%*= g]kfnL a[xb\ zAbsf]z= sf7df8f}F M g]kfn k|1f
k|lti7fg .
e6\6/fO{, uf]ljGb/fh= @)^$= pQ/cfw'lgs ljdz{= sf7df8f}F M df]8{g a'S; g]kfn .
==== @)&)= æe"ldsfÆ= kNnL -n]=_ df]xg/fh zdf{= sf7df8f}F M cf]l/PG6n klAns];g
xfp; k|f=ln= .
zdf{, df]xg/fh= @)&)= kNnL= sf7df8f}F M cf]l/PG6n klAns];g xfp; k|f= ln= .
Abrams, M. H. 2004. A Glossary of Literary term . (7th ed.). Singapure :
Thomson Asia.

70 ÷ bLklzvf
 e}/j cof{nsf] gjLgtd P]ltxfl;s s[lt M
/fhLgfdf
8f= /fdk|;fb 1jfnL*

!= ljifo k|j]z
e}/j cof{n g]kfnL xf:oJoª\Uo lgaGwsf s]Gb|Lo k|ltef x'g\ . xF;fpg]
/ Joª\Uo ug]{ sljtf, syf / lgaGwx¿ n]v] klg pgL d"ntM xf:oJoª\Uo
lgaGwsf/sf ¿kdf g} :yflkt 5g\ . sljtfaf6 ;flxTo ofqf k|f/De u/]sf e}/j
cof{nn] xf:oJoª\Uo lgaGwdf pTsif{ k|fKt u/] . k9\bf xfF;f] p7\g] / dd{ a'e\mbf
?g'kg]{ oyfy{sf] k|efjsf/L lgaGwfTds k|:t'lt lbgdf pgsf] hf]8f lgaGwsf/
g]kfnL ;flxTonfO{ cfh klg k|fKt 5}g . s?0f cg'e"lt, ljs[t ;dfh, e|i6
rl/q / a]d]n hLjgnfO{ h'g ;"Id af]wsf ;fy pgn] xf:oJoª\Uo lgaGwdf
¿kfGt/0f u/]sf 5g\ Tof] a]hf]8 5 . s'/f jf j:t' jf JolSt jf ;dfh h] xf]
/ h:tf] xf], To;nfO{ l7s ToxL ¿kdf klxNofpg ;Sg] cb\e't Ifdtf pgsf
lgaGwdf kfOG5 . ;dfh oyfy{ / hLjg ;TonfO{ leq;Dd k'u]/ a'e\mg] / ;xL
¿kdf kf/v ug]{ Ifdtfs} sf/0f pgL g]kfnL xf:oJoª\Uo lgaGwsf ;j{>]i7
;|i6f ag]sf x'g\ .
;fdfGo kf7sx¿ e}/j cof{nnfO{ xf:oJoª\Uo lgaGwsf/sf ¿kdf dfq
lrGb5g\ . s]xL kf7sx¿nfO{ e}/j cof{nn] xf:oJoª\Uo lgaGw afx]s syf,
;+:d/0f, ljrf/ k|wfg lgaGw / s]xL dfqfdf ;d;fdlos n]vgtkm{ klg snd
rnfPsf] hfgsf/L cjZo x'g'k5{ t/ pgL l;h{gfTds z}nLdf n]lvg] ;dfnf]rgfdf
klg cAan lyP eGg] s'/f yf]/} dfq kf7snfO{ yfxf /x]sf] kfOG5 . xfn;fn}
pgsf s]xL /rgfx¿sf] ;ª\sngsf ¿kdf /fhLgfdf gfdsf] s[lt k|sfzg ePsf]
* ;xk|fWofks, cf/=cf/= SofDk;, k|bz{gL dfu{, sf7df8f}F .

bLklzvf ÷ 71
5 h;df ljleGg kqklqsfdf k|sflzt / kf08'lnlksf ¿kdf /x]sf t/ st}
k|sflzt gePsf s]xL /rgfx¿ ;ª\slnt 5g\ . of] pgsf /rgfx¿sf] gjLgtd
k':ts xf] . o; k':tsdf e}/j cof{nsf] a]Un} k|ltlaDa d'vl/t ePsf] kfOG5 .
o;df kf7sn] cof{nsf] ;zSt ;dfnf]rsLo JolStTjl;t kl/lrt x'g] cj;/
k|fKt ub{5 eg] pgsf] /x:odo d[To'sf af/]df dfld{s ;fdu|L klg k|fKt ub{5 .
k|:t't n]vdf xfn;fn} k|sflzt o;} gjLgtd s[ltsf k|flKtx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg
ug]{ p2]Zo /flvPsf] 5 .

@= l;h{gf / ;dfnf]rgfsf] bf]efgsf ¿kdf …/fhLgfdfÚ

/fhLgfdf e}/j cof{nsf l;h{gf / ;dfnf]rgfx¿sf] gjLgtd s[lt xf] .
;flxTosf ljleGg ljwf÷pkljwfdf n]lvPsf km/s km/s k|s[ltsf PSsfO;
cf]6f /rgfx¿ o;df ;ª\slnt 5g\ . xf:oJoª\Uo, syf, ;+:d/0f, kq ;flxTo,
af}l4s tyf z}lIfs k|of]hg cg'¿ksf lgaGw / ;dfnf]rgfTds k|s[ltsf n]v
/rgfx¿n] ubf{ of] s[lt ax'/ª\uL ag]sf] 5 eg] e}/j cof{nsf] sxfnLnfUbf]
hLjgfGtsf af/]df hfgsf/L lbg] ;fdu|Ln] of] s[lt plQs} dfld{s aGg k'u]sf]
5 . o;df ;ª\slnt /rgfx¿df …cfTdsyfÚ, …s]xL pvfg / s]xL a'9LÚ,
…x[borGb|sf syfx¿Ú, …syfu'? u'?k|;fb d}gfnLÚ, …ljljwfª\uL hLjgsf a]9ª\uL
syfsf/ nIdLk|;fb b]jsf]6fÚ, …s]xL g]kfnL sfJodf k|0fo;l/tfsf] snsnÚ,
…nf]seSt efg'eStÚ, …/fhLgfdf M uf]/vfkq ;+:yfgnfO{Ú zLif{ssf n]v /rgfx¿
ljz]if dxŒjsf 5g\ . oL n]v /rgfx¿n] e}/j cof{nsf ljleGg l;h{gzLntf
-syfsfl/tf, lgaGwsfl/tf, ;dfnf]rgfTds ;fdYo{ cflb_ sf] kl/ro lbg'sf
;fy} pgsf] lgtfGt leGg JolStTjsf] kl/ro lbG5g\ . To;}n] of] k':ts pgsf
l;h{gf / ;dfnf]rgfsf] bf]efgsf ¿kdf /x]sf] 5 .

@=!= …/fhLgfdfÚsf ;dfnf]rgfx¿

/fhLgfdfdf e}/j cof{nnfO{ lnP/ af}l4s kf7snfO{ ;a}eGbf a9L
k|efj kfg]{ /rgfx¿df ;dfnf]rgfx¿ d'Vo 5g\ . x[borGb|sf syfx¿, syfu'?
u'?k|;fb d}gfnL, ljljwfª\uL hLjgsf a]9ª\uL syfsf/ nIdLk|;fb b]jsf]6f,
s]xL g]kfnL sfJodf k|0fo;l/tfsf] snsn / nf]seSt efg'eSt o; s[ltdf
;ª\slnt ;dfnf]rgfx¿ x'g\ . oL ;dfnf]rgfx¿ k9\bf e}/j cof{nnfO{
lgaGwsf/sf ¿kdf dfq k9]sf] t/ ;dfnf]rssf ¿kdf gk9]sf] kf7s rdTs[t
aGb5 / pgLk|lt yk gtd:ts aG5 . oL ;dfnf]rgfx¿df rlr{t ;|i6fsf c¿
;dfnf]rsx¿n] sd jf:tf u/]sf kIfx¿sf] pTvgg ug'{sf ;fy} j:t'k/s

72 ÷ bLklzvf
ljZn]if0f / s[ltk/s d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf] 5 . ;a}eGbf ;'Gb/ kIf t s] 5 eg]
oL ;dfnf]rgf ;dfnf]rgfsf zf:qLo aGwgx¿df dfq l7Fu'l/P/ gL/; ag]sf
5}gg\ . oL ;dfnf]rgfx¿ e}/j cof{nsf ltvf cfFvf, uDeL/ dd{af]w, ;6Ls
ljZn]if0f / s[ltk/s d"Nofª\sgsf ;fy} l;h{gfTds k|ltefn] ;/; ag]sf 5g\ .
To;}n] oL ;dfnf]rgf k9\bf kf7s ;dfnf]rgfsf] af}l4stfaf6 t k|efljt x'G5
g}, ;fydf l;h{gfx¿sf] cf:jfbg ubf{ em}F cfglGbt klg aG5 .
/fhLgfdfleq /x]sf] klxnf] ;dfnf]rgf …x[borGb|sf syfx¿Ú xf] . o;df
x[borGb|l;+x k|wfgsf syfx¿nfO{ lnP/ uDeL/ ljdz{ ul/Psf] 5 . g]kfnL
;flxTosf] k/Dk/fdf x[borGb|l;+x k|wfgnfO{ d"ntM xf:oJoª\Uo lgaGwsf/,
k|ultzLn pkGof;sf/, k|ultzLn gf6ssf/ / j:t'jfbL ;dfnf]rssf ¿kdf
lrlgG5 . sljtf / syflt/ klg pgsf] snd rn]sf] xf] t/ oL kIfsf
af/]df pgsf] of]ubfg s] xf] eg]/ rrf{ sd} ePsf] 5 . e}/j cof{nn] o;
;dfnf]rgfdf x[borGb|sf cGo rlr{t ljwfsf /rgfx¿sf] geP/ sd} rrf{
ul/Psf syf / syfsfl/tfsf] ljj]rgf u/]sf 5g\ . ljj]rgf ug]{ k4lt s]xL
P]ltxfl;s, s]xL t'ngfTds, s]xL ljZn]if0ffTds / s]xL l;h{gfTds lsl;dsf]
5 . o; ;dfnf]rgfsf] cWoog ubf{ kf7sn] ;lhnf], ;/; / ld7f] efiffz}nLdf
x[borGb|l;+xsf] syfsfl/tfsf af/]df k|z:t hfgsf/L k|fKt ug{ ;S5 . syfsf
d'Vo ljz]iftfx¿nfO{ ;xL ¿kdf 7Dofpg] / yf]/} zAbx¿df ;lhn} a'lemg] u/L
ltgsf ljz]iftfx¿sf] k/v ug]{ cof{nsf] Ifdtf b]Vbf dg k|;Gg x'G5 . h'g
ljwfsf /rgfx¿sf] ljj]rgf ug]{ xf] To;df dfq ;Lldt geO{ ;|i6fsf cGo ljwfsf
/rgf / ;dsflns cGo ;|i6fx¿sf /rgf wld{tf;Fu t'ngf ub}{ d"Nofª\sg ug]{
cof{nsf] ;dfnf]rgf k4lt a]hf]8 5 . x[borGb| ;DaGwL of] Pp6} ;dfnf]rgf
k9]/ dfq klg kf7sn] x[borGb|nfO{ ax'sf]0faf6 a'‰g ;S5 . pgsf] /rgf
wld{tfsf af/]df yfxf kfpg ;S5 . ;dfnf]rgf h:tf] uDeL/ / af}l4s n]vgnfO{
l;h{gfTds / /;k"0f{ agfP/ k|:t't ug]{ of] v'aL e}/j cof{nsf ;dfnf]rgfsf]
ljz]if k|flKt b]lvG5 .
csf]{ ;dfnf]rgf xf] …syfu'? u'?k|;fb d}gfnLÚ . o; ;dfnf]rgfdf
u'?k|;fb d}gfnLsf] syfsfl/tfsf d"n ljz]iftfx¿nfO{ ;xL ¿kdf 7DofP/ pgnfO{
cfw'lgs g]kfnL syf n]vgsf] u'?sf ¿kdf d"No k|bfg ul/Psf] 5 . d}gfnLn]
cfkm"eGbf klxn]sf] g]kfnL cfVofgdf /x]sf P]of/Ld"ns k|j[lQ, cltzotfd"ns
bGTosyf, ;fdflhstfeGbf w]/} 6f9fsf nfUg] cfbz{x¿ / ckl/is[t efiff cflbaf6
g]kfnL syfnfO{ s;/L a]Un} af6f]df df]8] < pgn] s;/L g]kfnL syfnfO{ p8Gt]
sNkgfsf] ;+;f/af6 oyfy{ ;+;f/df cf]/fn] < s;/L ;fdflhs tyf oyfy{k/s

bLklzvf ÷ 73
agfO{ cfw'lgstf k|bfg u/] < dfG5]sf ;an / b'a{n k|j[lQx¿sf] hLjGt lrq0f
s;/L u/] < dfG5]sf ef]s, of}g, cfzf, lg/fzf, cGw ljZjf;, å]if, O{iof{,
kfl/jfl/s tyf ;fdflhs lj36g / dgsf tLj|td cfj]u ;+j]unfO{ pgn] s;/L
syfdf ¿kfGt/0f u/] < cflb s'/fsf ;fy} g]kfnL syfdf pgn] lbPsf eflifs
of]ubfgsf] ;d]t uDeL/ ljZn]if0f o;df ul/Psf] 5 . o; ;dfnf]rgfdf e}/j
cof{n lg0f{ofTds ;dfnf]rgf ug]{ zlStzfnL ;dfnf]rssf ¿kdf b]vf k/]sf
5g\ . h'g ;flxTosf/sf af/]df ;dfnf]rgf ul/Fb} 5, ltgsf w]/}h;f] s[ltx¿sf]
cWoog u/]sf] dfq geO{ ltgsf ;dsfnLg ;|i6fx¿sf] ;d]t cWoog u/]/
t'ngfTds ljZn]if0fsf ;fy ul/g] ;dfnf]rgfsf] z}nLdf cfPsf] of] ;dfnf]rgf
kl/kSj ;dfnf]rgf b]lvG5 lsgeg] o;df efj'stfdf aUg] b'a{ntfaf6 cnlUuP/
j:t';Todf cfwfl/t ljj]rgf ug]{ sfd ePsf] 5 . d}gfnLsf syfx¿sf] d'Vo
ljz]iftfnfO{, tTsfnLg g]kfnL ;dfh / tTsfnLg g]kfnL dflg;sf cfGtl/s tyf
afx\o hLjgsf kqx¿nfO{ s]nfpg] pgsf] v'aLnfO{, s[ltleqsf k|flKtx¿nfO{ olt
;lhnf] z}nLdf olt /fd|/L a'lemg] u/L ul/Psf ;dfnf]rgfx¿ g]kfnL ;dfnf]rgfdf
sd} 5g\ . To;}n] of] ;dfnf]rgf klg o; s[ltsf] ljz]if pknlAw ag]sf]] 5 .
csf]{ pNn]vgLo ;dfnf]rgf xf] …ljljwfª\uL hLjgsf a]9ª\uL syfsf/
nIdLk|;fb b]jsf]6fÚ . o; ;dfnf]rgfdf syfsf/ nIdLk|;fb b]jsf]6fsf]
syfsfl/tfnfO{ uDeL/ cWoog ;lxt ljZn]if0f ul/Psf] 5 . nIdLk|;fb
b]jsf]6fsf] syf n]vgnfO{ lnP/ Tolt w]/} ;dfnf]rgfx¿ ePsf] kfOGg . e}/j
cof{nn] g]kfnL ;dfnf]rsx¿af6 sd} dxŒj lbOPsf] b]jsf]6fsf] o;} kIfnfO{
Wofgdf /fvL pgsf syfx¿sf] cWoogdf ?lr b]vfP . o; ;dfnf]rgfdf
syfsf/ b]jsf]6fsf syfx¿df kfOg] d'Vo kfFr k|j[lQx¿ 7DofO{ tL k|j[lQdfly
uDeL/ ljdz{ ul/Psf] 5 . o; j|mddf b]jsf]6fsf] syfsfl/tfsf d'Vo ljz]iftf
/ cfwf/e"t k|flKt ck|flKt s] x'g\ eGg] af/]df j:t'k/s ljZn]if0f ub}{ lg0f{ofTds
d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf] 5 . g]kfnL ;flxTosf kf7sx¿ b]jsf]6fnfO{ d"ntM slj /
lgaGwsf/sf ¿kdf lrG5g\ . b]jsf]6f / pgsf s[ltx¿nfO{ hf]8]/ x'g] rrf{x¿
d"ntM log} b'O{ ljwfsf /rgfx¿df s]lGb|t x'g] u/]sf] kfOG5 . b]jsf]6fn] cfˆgf
syfx¿df g]kfnL ;dfhsf dfld{s 7fpFx¿df 5f]P/ g]kfnL hLjgnfO{ ;Daf]wg
u/]sf] s'/fdf sd} ;dfnf]rssf] Wofg uPsf] kfOG5 . syfx¿df b]jsf]6f lgs}
a9L ;fdlos / plQs} ;fdflhs oyfy{sf glhs eP/ k|s6 ePsf 5g\ t/ pgL
o; ljwfdf slt w]/} ;d;fdlos lyP eg]/ vf;} rrf{ ePsf] kfOGg . e}/j
cof{nn] b]jsf]6fsf log} pk]lIft /rgfx¿dfly uDeL/ ljdz{ u/]sf 5g\ . o;
;dfnf]rgfdf b]jsf]6fnfO{ lgx'F agfP/ pgn] cGo ;|i6f / pgsf cg]s s[ltx¿lar

74 ÷ bLklzvf
ldNbf / gldNbf kIfx¿sf] t'ngfTds cWoog ug{ klg EofPsf 5g\ . o;
j|mddf b]jsf]6fsf ;dsfnLg cGo syfsf/x¿sf /rgf wld{tf;Fu b]jsf]6fsf]
syfsfl/tfsf t'ngfTds ljZn]if0f ul/Psf] 5 . u'?k|;fb d}gfnL / x[borGb|l;+x
k|wfg ;DaGwL ;dfnf]rgfdf h:t} o; ;dfnf]rgfdf klg lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sg
ug]{ hf]lvd p7fOPsf] 5 . u'?k|;fb d}gfnL, ljZj]Zj/k|;fb sf]O/fnf, ejfgL
leIf', afns[i0f ;d, ljho dNn, uf]ljGbaxfb'/ dNn uf]7fn] h:tf To; ;dosf
zlStzfnL syfsf/x¿sf syfsfl/tf;Fu t'ngf ub}{ b]jsf]6fsf] syfsfl/tfsf]
d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf] olt /fd|f] ;dfnf]rgf pgsf] ;do;Dd ;fob} csf]{ xf]nf .
of] ;dLIff k9]/ e}/j cof{nsf] uDeL/ cWoogzLntf, s'g} klg ;flxlTos
/rgfnfO{ ulxl/P/ a'‰g] pgsf] ;fdYo{ / lgw{Ss;Fu t'ngf u/L d"Nofª\sg ug]{
pgsf] ;fx;sf] k|z+;f ug{ dg nfU5 . g]kfnL ;dfnf]rgfdf kl5Nnf] r/0fdf b]vf
k/]sf cToGt gL/;, ?vf, c¿sf s'/f p4/0f u/L kfgfsf kfgf eg]{ t/ cfkm"n]
s[ltleq} k;]/ uDeL/ ljj]rgf ug]{ hf]lvd gp7fpg] h:tf b'a{n ;dfnf]rsLo
k|j[lQeGbf laNs'n} cnu /x]/ l;h{gfTds ;dfnf]rgf ug]{ cof{nsf] k|j[lQn]
;/; ;dfnf]rgfsf dd{1 kf7snfO{ k|efljt kf/L 5f8\5 .
…s]xL g]kfnL sfJodf k|0fo;l/tfsf] snsnÚ zLif{ssf] ;dfnf]rgf klg
uDeL/ af]w, Jofks cWoog / l;h{gfTds k|ltefsf] ;dfnf]rgf ag]/ cfPsf]
5 . o;df h'g lsl;dsf] efiffz}nL 5, Tof] x]bf{ of] s]xL lgaGwfTds, s]xL
sljtfTds / s]xL ;dfnf]rgfTds z}nLsf] ;+Zn]if0f h:tf] ag]sf] 5 . r'DasLo
efiffz}nLn] o; ;dfnf]rgfnfO{ ;Dk|]if0fLo agfPsf] 5 . g]kfnL sljtf sfJosf
k|f/De sfnLg k|ltefb]lv lnP/ of] s[lt /lrFbf;Ddsf k|ltlglwd"ns g]kfnL
sljx¿sf k|ltlglwd"ns /rgfsf klg k|ltlglwd"ns cleJolStx¿nfO{ cfwf/
agfP/ o;nfO{ tof/ kfl/Psf] b]lvG5 . o:tf] ;dfnf]rgf tof/ kfg{sf nflu
uDeL/ / Jofks cWoog tyf w}o{sf] cfjZostf k5{ . efg'eSt cfrfo{eGbf
klxn]sf g]kfnL sljb]lv efg'eSt / df]tL/fd x'Fb} ;d, b]jsf]6f, l/dfn, dfwj
l3ld/] / s]bf/dfg Jolyt cflb;Ddsf k|0fo ljifoL sljtfx¿sf] Jofks cWoog
/ uDeL/ af]w u/]kl5 of] ;dfnf]rgf tof/ kfl/Psf] b]lvG5 . cof{nn] of]
Pp6f ;dfnf]rgfsf nflu dfq klg w]/} ;do vr{ u/]sf] cg'dfg ug{ ;lsG5 .
o; Pp6} ;dfnf]rgfsf] cWoog u/L xfdL g]kfnL sljtf sfJosf] Ps nfdf]
sfnv08sf k|0fo s]Gb|L sljtfx¿sf ljz]iftf / k|flKtsf] hfgsf/L lng ;S5f}F .
ld7f] efiff / /f]rs z}nLdf ul/Psf] j:t'k/s / ;f]bfx/0f ljZn]if0fn] kf7snfO{
t[Kt agfpF5 . o; ;dfnf]rgfaf6 e}/j cof{nsf] cWoogut Jofkstf / ;Gbe{
;fdu|Lsf] ;ª\sng ug{ ;Sg] ljlzi6 v'aLsf] klg hfgsf/L ldN5 eg] o; Pp6}

bLklzvf ÷ 75
;dfnf]rgfn] dfq klg e}/j cof{nnfO{ cTolws k9Gt] ;flxTosf/sf ¿kdf
kl/lrt u/fpF5 .
k|:t't s[ltdf ;dflji6 kl5Nnf] ;dfnf]rgf efg'eSt cfrfo{l;t
;DalGwt 5 . …nf]seSt efg'eStÚ zLif{sdf /x]sf] o; ;dfnf]rgfdf efg'eSt
cfrfo{sf] sljTjdfly uDeL/ ljdz{ ul/Psf] 5 . cof{nn] efg'eStnfO{
cfWoflTds efjwf/fsf slj eP klg j}/fuL jf ;dfhnfO{ jf:tf gug]{ ¿9
cWofTdjfbL slj pgL lyPgg\ eGg] sf]0faf6 d"Nofª\sg u/]sf 5g\ . efg'eSt
h'g ;dosf slj lyP / pgL h'g cfg'j+lzs k/Dk/f / h:tf] kfl/jfl/s tyf
;fdflhs kl/j]zdf x's]{ a9], To;nfO{ x]/]/ To; ;do / ;dfhsf] ;fk]Iftfdf
dfq pgsf /rgfx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{k5{ eGg] cfzosf] ljZn]if0f o;df kfOG5 .
cof{nsf b[li6df efg'eSt cfrfo{sf] sljTjsf] d'Vo kIf eg]sf] cfWoflTds
j}rfl/stf / nf]slxtsf] efjfTdstf xf] . efg'eStn] ;fdGtjfbL p2]Zon] ;flxTo
/rgf u/]sf lyPgg\, pgL nf]ssf] lxt ePs} b]Vg rfxGy] / pgn] nf]ssf] lxt
;f]r]/ g} l;h{gf u/]sf x'g\ eGg] a'emfO cof{nsf] 5 . o; ;dfnf]rgfdf pgn]
efg'eStnfO{ nf]ssf] lxt ug{ sljtf /Rg] cWofTdjfbL sljsf ¿kdf d"Nofª\sg
u/]sf 5g\ .

@=@ …/fhLgfdfÚsf l;h{gfx¿

/fhLgfdfleq cg]s k|s[ltsf l;h{gfx¿ 5g\ . syf 5g\ . ;+jfb 5g\ .
;+:d/0f 5g\ . ofqf ;+:d/0f 5g\ . xf:oJoª\Uo 5g\ . ljrf/ k|wfg n]v 5g\ .
lr7L 5 . cfTdsyf 5 . …cfTdsyfÚ, …s]xL pvfg / s]xL a'9LÚ, …/fhLgfdf M
uf]/vfkq ;+:yfgnfO{Ú, …efiff Pp6L gf/LÚ, …;flxTodf snfkIfÚ, …kqsf/ hut\sf
k|yd Hof]lt– df]tLÚ, …dgf]l:yltÚ, …rGb|dfdf rf/ kfOnf kbf{Ú, …cfOtaf/Ú, …;ª\uLt
/ lzIffÚ, …g]kfnL jfª\dosf] ljsf;df dbg k'/:sf/Ú, …Pd=P= gu/L Totfk6\l6 x]b{}
x]lb{gFÚ / …cEo'Tyfgsf] dª\unfr/0fÚ cflb o; k':tsdf ;ª\slnt l;h{gfTds
/rgf x'g\ .
l;h{gfTds /rgfx¿df klxnf] / lgs} dxŒjk"0f{ n]v xf] cfTdsyf . o;
/rgfsf dfWodaf6 e}/j cof{nn] cfˆgf] ;flxTo ofqfsf af/]df cg]s dxŒjk"0f{
hfgsf/L lbPsf 5g\ . @)!# ;fnb]lv cfkm"n] xf:oJoª\Uo n]Vg yfn]sf]
:ki6f]lSt lbFb} cfkm"n] ;flxTo n]vgdf k|j]z ug'{sf] / xf:oJoª\Uo tyf cGo
n]v /rgf n]Vg yfNg'sf] k5fl8 /x]sf kfl/jfl/s, ;fdflhs, ;f+:s[lts, wfld{s,
jftfj/0fLo tyf z}lIfs sf/0fx¿sf] hfgsf/L lbPsf 5g\ . o; j|mddf ;flxTo
l;h{gfdf nfu]kl5 cfkm"n] ef]Ug'k/]sf kL8f, ckdfg / 56k6L, cfkm"n] n]v]sf

76 ÷ bLklzvf
sljtf 5flklbg] cfZjf;g lbP/ nUg] dflg;x¿n] tL sljtf pgLx¿s} gfddf
5kfPsf] b]v]/ ePsf] cf}8fxf / To:tf] a]OdfgL b]v]/ klg pgLx¿sf lj?4 s]xL
ug{ g;Sg] lg/Lx cj:yfsf] j]bgf kf]v]sf 5g\ . g]kfnL sljtfdf uB sljtfsf]
cfudg / To;n] kf/]sf] k|efj, sljtfsf] ;fdflhs tyf j}olSts zlSt, cfˆgf]
hLjgsf b}lgs cK7]/f / kfl/jfl/s hl6ntfx¿, cfkm"n] ef]Ug'k/]sf zf]s, ef]s,
cefj, ckdfg / dgf]åGå cflbsf] hfgsf/L klg o;df lbPsf 5g\ . of] /rgf
k9\bf s:tf] nfU5 eg] e}/j cof{nsf lgaGwx¿ hlt xf:o Joª\UofTds 5g\
Tof]eGbf a9L dfld{s 5g\ pgsf hLjgsf sf?l0fs ef]ufOx¿ . nfU5, pgsf]
x[bo j]bg} j]bgfn] el/Psf] lyof] . nfU5, pgsf] hLjg si6k"0f{ If0fx¿sf] ofqf
lyof] . nfU5, pgsf] hLjg cfzf / lg/fzfsf] r]kdf k/]/ lg;fl:;Psf] lyof] .
nfU5, pgsf] hLjg g}/fZon] yª\lylnPsf] / la8Dagfx¿n] el/Psf] lyof]] .
e}/j cof{nsf lgaGwx¿ k9]/ s'ts't xfF:g] kf7sn] ha of] n]v k9\5 ta pm
efj's x'g ljjz x'G5 . e}/j cof{nnfO{ >4f ug]{ kf7snfO{ of] n]v k9\bf w]/}
g} gld7f] cg'e"lt x'G5 . ;fy} of] /rgf k9]/ kf7s cfˆgf sdhf]/L :jLsf/ ug{
;Sg] / cfTdfnf]rgf ug]{ cof{nsf] ;fdYo{;Fu klg kl/lrt x'G5 . cfTdfnf]rgf
ug]{ ;fdYo{ la/n} dflg;;Fu x'G5 . hf];Fu of] ;fdYo{ x'G5 pm lgZro g} ;fdfGo
dflg;eGbf pRr :t/sf] x'G5 . e}/j cof{ndf of] ;fdYo{ k|z:t b]lvG5 h;sf]
k|z+;f ug{ dg nfU5 . ;f/df s] eGg ;lsG5 eg] of] n]v k9]kl5 ;fdfGo
kf7sn] e}/j cof{nsf] hLjg ofqfsf cGt/ª\u kIf;Fu kl/lrt x'g] cj;/
kfpF5 / pgsf] gofF ¿k, gofF 5lj laDa ag]/ kf7ssf] dgdf a:5 . pgnfO{
glhsaf6 glrg]sf] kf7ssf nflu of] n]v gofF, hfgsf/Ld"ns / ulx/f] 5fk
5f8\g] lsl;dsf] 5 . o;n] uDeL/ / lhDd]jf/ kf7ssf] dgdf efjk"0f{ k|Zgx¿
pAhfpF5— s] g]kfnL ;dfh olt j|m"/ 5 < s] g]kfnL ;|i6fsf] hLjg olt w]/}
si6s/ x'g] u5{ < s] xfd|f dfgs ;|i6fx¿nfO{ /fHon] olt w]/} pk]Iff ub}{ cfPsf]
5 < o:tf s]xL k|Zg kf7s dgdf pTkGg u/fpFb} cleJolSt lbg] of] n]v o;
s[ltsf dxŒjk"0f{ /rgfdWo]sf] Ps xf] .
…s]xL pvfg / s]xL a'9LÚ o; k':tssf] csf]{ pNn]vgLo /rgf xf] .
kf7sn] ha of] /rgf k9\5 ta Pp6} /rgfdf lgaGw, syf, gf6s, sljtf /
xf:oJoª\Uo kfP/ rdTs[t aG5 . o;df gf/Lsf :jefj, k|j[lQ, kL8f / gf/L;Fu
;DalGwt cgf}7f pvfgx¿sf] /f]rs k|:t'lt 5 . cd"t{ efjnfO{ d"t{ agfpgsf
nflu efjsf] d"tL{s/0f tyf b[Zo lgdf{0f ug]{ zlStzfnL z}nL o;df cFuflnPsf] 5
h;n] kf7snfO{ rdTs[t kf5{ . o;df lkt[;QfTds tyf ;fdGtjfbL ;+:s[ltaf6
pTkLl8t cfdfx¿sf j]bgfsf s'/f 5g\ . hl6n hLjg ef]Ug ljjz eP/ klg

bLklzvf ÷ 77
g]kfnL cfdfx¿n] u/]sf dxfg\ Tofu / ;dk{0fsf s'/f 5g\ . cfdfx¿n] ug]{
cfzf / tL cfzfdfly x'g] u/]sf t';f/fkftn] lgld{t pgLx¿sf] cgf}7f] dgf]bzf
/ /f]df~rs Jojxf/sf cgf}7f b[Zo 5g\ . o:tf] cgf}7f kIfx¿sf] lrq0fn]
o; n]vnfO{ dfld{s, cfsif{s / ;Dk|]if0fLo agfPsf] 5 . cleJolStdf st}
sf}t"xnsf] lgdf{0f 5, st} sljtfTds z}nLsf] k|:t'lt 5 eg] st} gf6sLotf
5 . kb kbfjnLsf] u'Dkmg / jfSo lgdf{0fsf] r'DasLo z}nLn] of] cleJolSt
k|efjsf/L ag]sf] 5 . of] syf h:tf] klg 5, gf6s h:tf] klg 5, lgaGw h:tf]
klg 5 / ;+:d/0f h:tf] klg 5 . o:tf] ljljwtfn] o; n]vnfO{ a9L ;'Gb/
t'NofPsf] kfOG5 .
o; k':tsleqsf] ;a}eGbf dfld{s / kf7snfO{ cfZro{rlst kfg]{ /rgf
…/fhLgfdf M uf]/vfkq ;+:yfgnfO{Ú xf] . l;h{gfTdstfsf b[li6n] of] pRr ;flxlTos
;fdu|L xf]Og t/ e}/j cof{nsf] sf?l0fs hLjg l:ylt / pgsf] /x:odo d[To'sf
af/]df lh1f;f /fVg] kf7ssf nflu of] ;a}eGbf dxŒjk"0f{ / o; s[lts} ;a}eGbf
dfld{s /rgf xf] . k':tssf] gfds/0f klg o;} /rgfnfO{ cfwf/ agfO{ ul/Psfn]
;Dkfbssf b[li6df klg of] o; k':tss} ;jf{lws dxŒjk"0f{ ;fdu|L xf] eGg]
b]lvG5 . k':tssf] clGtd ;fdu|Lsf ¿kdf /x]sf] o; /rgfnfO{ k9]/ ;Sbf g;Sb}
;+j]bgzLn kf7ssf] dg s6Ss sf6]/ cfpF5 . kf7s sdnf] dgsf] 5 eg] pm
efj's aGg k'U5 . of] /rgf e}/j cof{nn] uf]/vfkqsf tTsfnLg cWoIf tyf
dxfk|aGwsnfO{ n]v]sf] /fhLgfdf kq xf] h;df cfkm"n] To; ;+:yfgaf6 ;bf
;bfsf nflu gftf tf]8]sf] dfq geO{ ca hLjg / wtL{af6 klg ;bf ;bfsf nflu
labf lng nfu]sf] hfgsf/L u/fOPsf] 5 . cfly{s cefj, kfl/jfl/s lsrnf],
;fdflhs pk]Iff, ;+:yfut pkxf; / hl6n hLjg l:ylt cflbn] dxfg\ ;|i6fsf]
dgdf klg s;/L r/d g}/fZo pTkGg ubf{ /x]5g\ eGg] s'/f o;af6 yfxf kfOG5 .
;+;f/nfO{ ;'vL, ;Eo, ;DkGg tyf /ª\uLg b]Vg / agfpg rfxg] tyf To;} sfo{sf]
;kmntfsf nflu cfhLjg l;h{gf ug]{ ;|i6f g} cfˆgf] hLjg cfkm} ;dfKt kfg{
cfTdxTof ug]{;Ddsf] lg/fzfdf s;/L k'Ug ;S5 < b'lgofFnfO{ hLjg / cfzfsf]
;Gb]z lbg] ;flxTosf/n] s;/L cfˆgf] hLjgnfO{ cfTdxTofdf k'¥ofP/ lj;h{g
ug{ ;S5 < hLjgjfbL ;|i6f hLjg lj/f]wL kl/0ffddf s;/L k'Ug ;S5 < of]
;fgf] /fhLgfdf kq kl9/xFbf dfgjLo x[bo ePsf] kf7sn] cfˆgf] 5ftLdf ux|f}F
9'ª\ufn] lsr]sf] h:tf] cg'e"lt u5{ .
s] o; /fhLgfdf kqdf n]lvPsf] / o;n] ;ª\s]t u/]sf sxfnLnfUbf s'/f
;To x'g\ < o:tf] ePs} xf] t < s] Ps Odfgbf/, b]zeSt, efiff / ;flxTosf]
pTyfgsf nflu cfhLjg ;dlk{t, k|ltefjfg\ / k|ltlglw ;flxTosf/sf] hLjgsf]

78 ÷ bLklzvf
cGTo olt b'MvfGt x'g ;S5 < oL k|Zg of] /fhLgfdf kq k9]kl5 o; n]vssf]
dgdf af/Daf/ pTkGg ePsf k|Zg x'g\ . olb oL s'/f / ;ª\s]t ;To x'g\ eg]
of] /fhLgfdf kq r/d g}/fZosf sf/0f dflg;sf] x[bodf pTkGg x'g] gsf/fTds
k|efj / To;af6 pTkGg x'g] hLjg lj/f]wL kl/0ffdsf] csNkgLo t/ oyfy{
k|:t'lt xf] . o;n] ;+j]bgzLn kf7ssf] x[bo xNnfOlbG5 . ;fydf s]xL k|Zg
klg pAhfpF5 o;n]— e}/j cof{nnfO{ o; l:yltdf k'¥ofpgdf sf] sf] lhDd]jf/
5g\ < ;dfh slt lhDd]jf/ 5 < ;Qf slt lhDd]jf/ 5 < k|zf;g slt lhDd]jf/
5 < k|zf;s slt lhDd]jf/ 5g\ < kl/l:ylt slt lhDd]jf/ 5 < kl/jf/ slt
lhDd]jf/ 5 < / pgL :jo+ slt lhDd]jf/ 5g\ < oL s'/fx¿dfly uDeL/ ljdz{
x'g' cfh klg h?/L g} b]lvG5 .
oL afx]s klg o; k':tsdf s]xL /rgf 5g\ / tL klg dxŒjk"0f{ g}
5g\ . b}lgsLsf] z}nLdf n]lvPsf] …efiff Pp6L gf/LÚ zLif{ssf] /rgf Ps k[i7df
;d]l6Psf] 5 . o;n] oyfy{ / cfbz{sf larsf] cgf}7f] åGånfO{ ;ª\s]t u5{ .
;ANofF6f] ult zLif{ssf] /rgfdf e}/j cof{nsf] hLjg bz{gn] 7fpF kfPsf] 5 .
hLjg eGg' ult xf] cyjf ult g} ;fy{s hLjgsf] cfwf/ xf] eGg] a'emfO o;df
k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . o; lgaGwdf sljleq /x]sf] ;"rgf 1fg / l;h{gf 1fg
ldl;P/ cfPsf 5g\ . ;flxTodf snfkIf ;f}Gbo{ lrGtg ug]{ lgaGw xf] . o;df
snf ;flxTosf ltg cfwf/e"t tŒj …;Tod\, lzjd\, ;'Gb/d\Ú sf af/]df ljdz{
ul/Psf] 5 . uDeL/ s'/fnfO{ ;/n / af}l4s efiffz}nLdf k|:t't ul/Psfn] of]
lgaGw k7gLo ag]sf] 5 . dg'ioåf/f lgld{t ;flxTon] dg'ios} enfO ub}{g eg]
To:tf] ;flxTosf] l;h{g Joy{ 5 eGg] ;f/e"t dfGotf cufl8 ;fl/Psf] o;
lgaGwdf cof{nn] ;flxTosf] k|of]hg ;DaGwL cfˆgf] wf/0ff JoSt u/]sf 5g\ .
;To xf];\ jf lzj xf];\ jf ;'Gb/ xf];\, oL ltg} s'/f ;do, kl/j]z / JolSt
;fk]If x'G5g\ / ;fk]Iftfdf kl/jt{gzLn x'G5g\ cyf{t\ oL zfZjt s'/f geO{
ultzLn, kl/jt{gzLn / ;fk]lIft s'/f x'g\ eGg] lgisif{ o;df k|:t't ul/Psf]
5 . cof{nsf] of] a'emfO j:t'k/s 5 .
df]tL/fd e6\6nfO{ ;DemFb} tof/ kfl/Psf] /rgf …kqsf/ hut\sf k|yd
Hof]lt– df]tLÚdf g]kfnL kqsfl/tfsf] k|f/De / ljsf;df df]tL/fd e6\6sf]
P]ltxfl;s of]ubfgaf/] ljdz{ ul/Psf] 5 / pgsf] of]ubfg dxfg\ / P]ltxfl;s
dxŒjsf] ePsfn] pgsf] gfd, ;Ddfg / ;Demgfdf pgsf] hGdlbgnfO{ g} kqsfl/tf
lbj;sf ¿kdf dgfOg'kg]{ ;'emfj lbOPsf] 5 . of] ;'emfj ljrf/0fLo b]lvG5 .
csf]{ /rgf dgf]l:yltdf JolSt dgf]lj1fgsf af/]df ;fdfGo rrf{ ub}{ hLjgsf]
cf}lrTosf af/]df ;ª\s]t ul/Psf] 5 . rGb|dfdf rf/ kfOnf kbf{ zLif{ssf] lgaGw

bLklzvf ÷ 79
cWoog / sNkgfsf] ld>0f u/L tof/ kfl/Psf] tfls{s tyf af}l4s /rgf xf] .
o;df ;flxTosf :yflkt dfgs / k|rlnt laDax¿ lj1fgsf cg';Gwfgsf j|mddf
s;/L unt ;flat x'Fb} cfPsf 5g\ eGg] s'/fnfO{ b]vfOPsf] 5 . Jofks cWoog
/ uDeL/ af]waf6 lg:s]sf lgisif{nfO{ :yfg lbOPsf] o; lgaGwdf dfG5]sf ¿9
dfGotf / lj1fgsf gj gj cfljisf/sf] åGåaf/] k|ZgzLn wf/0ffx¿ k|:t't
ul/Psf 5g\ .
…cfOtaf/Ú o; s[ltdf ;ª\slnt ;+:d/0ffTds lgaGw xf] . of] ofqf
;+:d/0f klg xf] . cfkm"n] kqsfl/tf If]qdf /xL ;/sf/L hflu/ vfO/x]s} ;dodf
ljb]z ofqfk|lt cfˆgf] dgdf pTkGg ePsf efj, ljrf/ tyf ljb]z ofqf ug{
kfpg] cfzf, To; cfzfdfly yf]kl/Psf lg/fzf / cj;/ k|fKt ePkl5 ljb]zsf]
ofqf ubf{sf ax'/ª\uL cg'e"ltnfO{ /f]rs z}nLdf k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . of] /rgf
ofqf ;+:d/0f g} eP klg n]vsn] o;df JolStsf dgl:ylt / hl6n kl/l:yltsf
lar pTkGg x'g] t/ª\ux¿sf] ;"Id ljZn]if0f klg u/]sf 5g\ . afx\o åGå /
dgf]åGå tyf :jKgb[li6 / sNkgfsf] ;dGjo ePsfn] of] ofqf ;+:d/0f af}l4s
tyf /f]rs b'a} aGg ;s]sf] 5 . o:t} ;ª\uLt / lzIff zLif{ssf] ;fgf] cfsf/sf]
lgaGwdf lzIff / ;ª\uLtsf larsf] cGt;{DaGwb]lv afnsb]lv j[4;Ddsf
JolStx¿nfO{ ;ª\uLtsf] dfw'o{n] kfg]{ k|efjsf af/]df ;fdfGo ljdz{ ul/Psf]
5 eg] g]kfnL jfª\dosf] ljsf;df dbg k'/:sf/ zLif{ssf] l6Kk0fLd"ns n]vdf
k'/:sf/ / ;|i6fsf larsf] ;DaGw, k'/:sf/n] pTkGg ug]{ ;|i6fsf] dgf]/rgf /
kfg]{ k|efj tyf k'/:sf/ / ;|i6fsf] ul/dfsf af/]df uDeL/ l6Kk0fL ug'{sf ;fy}
g]kfnL jfª\dosf] ljsf;df dbg k'/:sf/sf] dxŒjnfO{ klg ;Daf]wg ul/Psf] 5 .
…Pd=P= gu/L Totfk6\l6 x]b{} x]lb{gFÚ zLif{ssf] afnsyf klg o; k':tsdf
/x]sf] 5 . o; afnsyfdf dgf]/~hgnfO{ ljz]if dxŒj lbPsf] b]lvG5 . o;df
Pp6f o:tf] kfqsf] lrq0f ul/Psf] 5 hf] ;fyL / ;dfhsf nflu pkxf; /
dgf]/~hgsf] ;fwg alg/xG5 . cGw ljZjf; / c¿sf] pS;fx6af6 clek|]l/t
of] kfq syfsf cGo kfqx¿sf nflu xfF;f]sf] ljifo ag]sf] 5 . ;fyLx¿ p;nfO{
luHofpF5g\ . :jf:gLn] ;d]t p;nfO{ 6]lb{gF . ;;fgf 36gfx¿n] pm cflQG5 . cfkm"
c¿af6 pkof]u ul/Psf] s'/f klg pm yfxf kfpGg . c¿n] prfNbf prflnG5,
c¿n] k5fbf{ k5fl/G5 . dgsf] cFWof/f]df ?dlNnPsf] o;sf] lhGbuLnfO{ d
kfqsf] clGtd ;xof]u / pTk|]/0ffn] gj hLjg k|bfg u5{ . ;Gb]zsf b[li6n] vf;}
k|efjsf/L geP klg kf7snfO{ lbSs gnfUg' o; afnsyfsf] k|flKt b]lvG5 .
o; afx]s …cEo'Tyfgsf] dª\unfr/0fÚ zLif{ssf] lgaGwdf cof{nn]
dfG5]sf] hLjg, ;dfh / b]zsf] cEo'Tyfgsf af/]df uDeL/ k|Zg p7fpFb} ljdz{

80 ÷ bLklzvf
u/]sf 5g\ . cEo'Tyfgsf] jf:tljs cy{ s] xf] < o;sf] cfwf/ s] xf] < s] e"ld
lj:tf/ cEo'Tyfg xf] < jf hftLo cl:tTj kfpg' cEo'Tyfg xf] < :jtGqtfsf]
k|flKt cEo'Tyfg xf] jf b]zelSt < cyjf oL ;a}sf] ;dGjodf cEo'Tyfg ;Dej
5 < o:tf k|Zgx¿ p7fpFb} ;a}sf] ;dGjodf cEo'Tyfg ;Dej 5 eGg] lgisif{
o; lgaGw dfkm{t k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 .

#= lgisif{
/fhLgfdf ljleGg kqklqsf / s]xL JolStx¿;Fu 5l/P/ /x]sf e}/j
cof{nsf n]v /rgfx¿sf] ;ª\sng xf] . of] uxlsnf /rgfx¿ ePsf] /
P]ltxfl;s dxŒjsf] s[lt xf] . of] k':ts b'O{ cy{df dxŒjk"0f{ 5 . klxnf], o;
s[ltn] e}/j cof{nnfO{ xf:oJoª\Uo lgaGwsf/eGbf leGg ;flxTosf ;|i6f /
l;h{gfTds ;dfnf]rssf ¿kdf lrgfpF5 . bf];|f], o;n] e}/j cof{nn] u/]sf]
cfTdxTof ;DaGwL hfgsf/L lbFb} To:tf] JolStn] cfTdxTof h:tf] b'Mvb af6f]
;dfTg'kbf{sf s]xL sf/0fx¿lt/ ;ª\s]t u5{ . kf7sx¿n] e}/j cof{nsf lghL
hLjgsf cft{gfb ;'Gg rfx]df of] Hofb} pko'St ;fdu|L xf] . o; s[ltsf] k|sfzgn]
kf7sx¿nfO{ Pslqt ¿kdf cg]s hfgsf/L lbG5 / e}/j cof{nk|ltsf s]xL
lh1f;fx¿sf] zdg klg u5{ eg] e}/j cof{nsf] hLjgsf s6'td cg'e"ltx¿;Fu
kf7snfO{ kl/lrt klg u/fpF5 . pgLk|lt yk >4f a9fpF5 . o:tf] dxŒjk"0f{ s[lt
kf7s;Dd k'¥ofpgsf nflu ;fdu|L ;ª\sng ug]{, ;Dkfbg ug]{ tyf k|sfzg ug]{
;a} JolSt / ;+:yf wGojfbsf kfq 5g\ . of] s[lt g]kfnL efiff ;flxTonfO{ dfof ug]{
/ ljz]if ¿kdf e}/j cof{nnfO{ dfof ug]{ ;a}sf nflu k7gLo / ;ª\u|x0fLo 5 .

bLklzvf ÷ 81
 g]kfndf Jofjxfl/s Joj:yfkg lzIffsf]
cfjZostf
s[i0fxl/ afF:sf]6f*

jt{dfg o'u eg]s} Joj:yfkgsf] o'u xf] . x/]s sfo{ ;Dkfbg ug{
Joj:yfksLo sf}zn h?/L kb{5 . dflg;n] s''g} ljifo hfGg' Pp6f s'/f xf] t/ ;f]
ljifonfO{ ;xL 6'ª\uf]df k'¥ofpg' csf]{ ljifo xf] . ;fwg / ;|f]t pknAw eP/ klg
xfdLn] ck]lIft kl/0ffd lgsfNg ;s]gf}F . pks/0f eP/ klg tf]lsPsf] cjlwdf
sfd ;DkGg x'Fb}g . oL ;a} s'/f Joj:yfkgsf] sdL sdhf]/Lsf sf/0f xf] . o:fn]
3/ Jojxf/ rnfpg]b]lv /fHo xfFSg];Dddf Joj:yfksLo sf}zn x'g h?/L 5 .
o:tf] Joj:yfksLo sf}znleq cg]sf}F kIf x'G5g\ . tL ;a}sf] plrt ;+of]hgaf6}
dflg;sf] hLjg / dflg;n] ;Dkfbg ug'k{ g]{ sfdsf] ;fª\uf]kfª\uf] ldn]/ hLjg ;fy{s
x'g] / sfd ;DkGg x'g] ub{5 . o;} ;Gbe{df s]xL kIfsf] ljZn]if0f x'g h?/L 5 .

-s_ g]t[Tj l;k

Joj:yfkg lzIffsf] ;a}eGbf dxŒjk"0f{ kIf dfG5] xf] . dfG5]df klg
g]t[Tj l;ksf] ;jf{lws dxŒj x'G5 . ;dfg kbdf /x]sf s'g} JolStn] ;f]xL sfd
;lhn} ;Dkfbg ul/lbG5g\ eg] csf]{nfO{ ;f]xL sfd ;Dkfbg ug{ k|foM c;Dej
x'G5 . o;sf k5fl8 JolStdf /x]sf] g]t[Tj l;k / Ifdtfn] cxd\ e"ldsf lgjf{x
ul//x]sf] x'G5 . Ps y/L dflg;sf] a'emfOdf g]t[Tj Ifdtf hGdhft u'0f xf]
eg] csf{ y/Lsf] dtdf of] l;k cg'ejaf6 l;Sg ;lsG5 . g]kfnLdf Pp6f
egfO 5– …afpGg 7Ss/ lqkGg 3':;f vfPkl5 dflg; g]t[Tjsf] kbdf ;Ifd
7xl/G5 .Ú g]t[Tj l;k ePsf] JolStn] tf]lsPsf] sfo{ ;Dkfbg ug{ dflgx¿nfO{
* k|d'v cfo'Qm, /fli6«o ;"rgf cfof]u .
82 ÷ bLklzvf
;fydf lnP/ xfFSg ;St5 . cfkm"n] xf]:6] eGbf afFsL ;a}nfO{ x}F;] eGg nufpF5 .
ha ls xf]:6] eg'Gh]n af6f]df 9n]sf] d'9f] 8]u klg rn]sf] x'Fb}g eg] x}F;] eGbf
;f] d'8f] u'8\g] x'G5 . o;/L g]t[Tj snfdf cfkm"n] ug]{ eGbf klg c¿af6 sfd
u/fpg] l;k rflxG5 . To;}n] Joj:yfkgsf] l;4fGtdf sfdnfO{ sfdbf/;Fu /fv
/ sfdbf/;Fu ;'k/efOh/ a; eGg] ul/G5 . csf]{ pbfx/0f lng] xf] eg] JofG8
df:6/n] cfkm"n] s'g} klg afhf ahfpFb}g . t/ p:fn] rnfPsf] n6\7Lsf cfwf/df
;a}n] afhf ahfO{ dw'/ w'g lgl:sG5 .

-v_ lg0f{o Ifdtf

w]/} ;+:yfx¿ ;dodf pko'St lg0f{o ug{ g;s]/ w/f;foL ePsf 5g\ .
l56f] lg0f{o ug]{x¿ klg km';b{df k5'tfPsf 5g\ . o;/L Joj:yfkgsf] sf}znleq
lg0f{o ug{ ;Sg] Ifdtfsf] ljsf; ug'{ klg Pp6f dxŒjk"0f{ kIf xf] . ;fdfGotM
lg0f{o ug'{k"j{ ;d:ofsf] klxrfg / j:t'l:yltsf] ljZn]if0f ug'{k5{ . tt\kZrft\
;Defljt lg0f{osf ljsNkx¿ s]nfpg'k5{ ;fy} ;a} ljsNksf ;an / b'a{n
kIfsf] klg ljZn]if0f ug'{k5{ . o;af6 :jtM ;xL lg0f{oo'St ljsNk 5gf]6 ug{
;lsG5 . csf]{ dxŒjKf"0f{ s'/f, lg0f{o u/]/ dfq} k'Ub}g, To;sf] sfof{Gjog klg
ug'{k5{ . o;y{ lg0f{o;Fu} lg0f{o sfof{Gjogsf] of]hgf klg th'{df ug]{ Joj:yfkg
l;k ePsfx¿ g} ;kmn x'G5g\ .

-u_ cGt/ ;DaGwsf] ljsf;

jt{dfg ;+;f/df PSn} s]xL klg ug{ ;lsGg . Ps k|sf/n] ;a} kIf
/ If]q Ps csf{df cGt/lge{/ 5g\ . o;y{ Joj:yfkg l;k cGtu{t ;a};Fu
c;n ;DaGw / ;dGjo ug{ ;Sg'kb{5 . h'g If]qdf h'g lgsfo ljz]if1
;+:yfsf ¿kdf ljsl;t ePsf] 5, ;f]xL ;+:yfaf6 To:t} sfd u/fpg' a'l4dfgL
x'g] 5 . cGt/;DaGwn] Ps csf{sf] Ifdtf clej[l4 ug{ d2t k'U5 . oyf{ydf
c;n ;DaGwsf sf/0f g} k|foM c;Dej sfd klg ;Dej x'g] ub{5 . s'g} klg
;ª\u7gdf k|d'v / dftxt sd{rf/Llar cleefjs / ;xof]uLsf] cfbz{ ;DaGw
:yflkt x'g'kb{5 . h'g ;ª\u7gdf ;fd"lxs lg0f{o lng] / ;fd"lxs pQ/bfloTj
lng] k4lt ljsf; ePsf] 5 ;f] ;ª\u7g ;w}F ;kmn x'G5 .

-3_ cg'udg / lg/LIf0f

Joj:yfkgsf] sfddf cg'udg / lg/LIf0f klg kb{5 . s}of}F sfd o:tf
x'G5g\ Hf:fsf] ;Dkfbgsf r/0fdf cg'udg / lg/LIf0f h?/t kb{5 . Psflt/
bLklzvf ÷ 83
cg'udgn] sfddf Ps ¿ktf Nofpg d2t ub{5 eg] csf{lt/ ;ª\u7gdf
cg'zf;g sfod /fVg d2t ub{5 . ;ª\u7gleq ;fd"lxs ultzLntfdf sfd
x'G5 . o;y{ ;a} ;dfg ¿kdf ;Ifd / Odfgbf/ x'g h?/L 5 . o;sf] k/v,
cg'udg / lg/LIf0fsf dfWodåf/f ul/G5 .

-ª_ k|efj d"Nofª\sg

Joj:yfkgdf x'g'kg]{ csf]{ dxŒjk"0f{ u'0f cfkm"n] ljutdf ;Dkfbg u/]sf]
sfdsf] :jd"Nofª\sg / k|efj d"Nofª\sg ug'{ klg xf] . ePu/]sf sfdsf] k|efj
d"Nofª\sgaf6 gofF lg0f{o lng k[i7kf]if0f k|fKt x'G5 . s'g} klg sfd Psxf]/f]
ul//xg' x'bF g} . lglZrt ;dosf] cGt/fndf pSt sfdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug'k{ 5{ . o;}n]
xfnsf lbgdf gLlt lgdf{0f ubf{ ;Dfo ;Ldf tf]lsPsf] x'G5 . …kf]ln;L 6ld{g];gÚ;Fu}
gofF gLlt lgdf{0f ug{ ;'ud x'G5 . o;} u/L …;g ;]6 nÚ cGtu{t sfg'g lgdf{0f x'Fbf
klg ;do tf]s]/ hf/L ug]{ k|rng 5 . o;af6 k|efj d"Nofª\sg ug]{ 7fpF /xG5 .
oxL nfu' ul/Psf] sfg'gsf] k|efj cg's"n g} b]lvPdf lg/Gt/tf lbg afwf kb}{g .

-r_ nIo tf]s]/ sfd ug]{

Joj:yfkgsf] dxŒjk"0f{ sf}znleq nIo tf]s]/ sfd ug]{ k4lt klg
kb{5 . cfkm\gf] uGtJo s] xf] < ;f] olsg ug'{k5{ . olt ;dodf olt sfdsf]
pknlAw xfl;n ug]{ egL nIo tf]lsPkl5 cfkm" ;kmn jf c;kmn s] eOP5
egL :jo+ hfGg ;lsG5 . ljgf nIo sfd ubf{ k|fKt ePsf] pknlAwaf6 ;Gtf]if
lng ;lsGg t/ nIo tf]s]/ sfd ubf{ nIodf k'u]kl5 ;Gt'li6 k}bf x'G5 . o;af6
yk sfd ug]{ pT;fx / hfFu/ hfu[t x'G5 . Go'lhNofG8af6 cf/De ePsf] sfo{
;Dkfbg s/f/ ;Demf}tfn] o:tf] l:ylt k}bf ul/lbG5 . g]kfndf klg @! cf]6f
/fli6«o uf}/jsf cfof]hgfdf tfn's dGqfnosf ;lrj / cfof]hgf k|d'vlar
s/f/ ePsf] 5 . ;a} ;fj{hlgs kbdf a:g]n] o:tf] s/f/ ug'{k5{ .

-5_ bL3{sfnLg ;f]r /fVg]

h'g;'s} sfd ubf{ klg tTsfn xfl;n x'g] pknlAw / eljiodf ;f]af6
k|fKt x'g] nfelar 7'nf] km/s x'G5 . o;y{ eljiodf s] k|flKtsf nflu cfh
of] sfd ul/Fb} 5 eGg] hfGg h?/L x'G5 . o;y{ lxhf]cfh k|To]s ;ª\u7gn]
cfkm\gf] b"/b[li6 (Vision) tof/ ug{ yfn]sf 5g\ . xfdL klg a]nf avtdf …p2]Zo
s] lng' p8L 5'g' rGb| PsÚ eGg] nIo /fvL sfd ub{5f}F . o;}n] Jojyfkgsf
dfWodåf/f ;kmntf xfl;n x'G5 .

84 ÷ bLklzvf
-h_ kf/blz{tf / ahf/Ls/0f
Joj:yfkgn] cfˆgf sfdsf] j}wtf k|fKt ug'{kb{5 . o:fsf] cr's bafO
eg]s} kf/blz{tf xf] . ljz]if u/L k|lj|mofut kf/blz{tf ckgfO{ ul/Psf] lg0f{o
;a}nfO{ :jLsfo{ x'G5 . o;n] …6f]6n Sjfln6L Dofg]hd]G6Úsf] k|Tofe"lt ;d]t
k|bfg ub{5 . csf]{ s'/f, k|hftGqsf] Pp6f TfŒj kf/bzL{ Joj:yfkg xf] . To;}
u/L cfkm"af6 ;Dkflbt sfdsf] ahf/Ls/0f cyf{t\ k|rf/ k|;f/ klg ug'{k5{ h;n]
…P8ldlg:6«]l6e dfs]{l6ªÚ u5{ p;n] oyf{ydf cfˆgf] Joj:yfksLo sf}zn k|bz{g
u/]sf] 7flgG5 .

-em_ pQ/bfloTj / lhDd]jf/Laf]w

cfw'lgs sd{rf/LtGqsf hGdbftf ljåfg\ DofS; jfOe/n] ;fj{hlgs
k|zf;gdf sd{rf/Lx¿ cj}olSts x'g] s'/f atfPsf lyP t/ ;do / kl/l:yltsf]
kl/jt{g;Fu} casf] o'udf h;n] h'g sfd ;Dkfbg ub{5 To; sfdsf] p;}n]
pQ/bfloTj jxg ug'{kg]{ ePsf] 5 . oyf{ydf sfdk|lt ckgTj /fvL ;Dkfbg
ePsf lj|mofsnfkdf lhDd]jf/Laf]w klg ug'{kb{5 . o;}af6 JolStnfO{ k'/:s[t jf
bl08t ug{ ;lsG5 . lhDd]jf/Laf]w u/]/ sfd u/]kl5 sfd lalu|g], u'0f:t/xLg
sfd x'g], sfdaf6 gf]S;fgL x'g] nufotsf ;Defjgf :jtM Go"gLs/0f eP/ hfG5 .

-~f_ gjLgtd\ ;f]rdf cfwfl/t Joj:yfkg

Joj:yfkgsf If]qdf ;w}F gofF gofF b[li6sf]0f / ;f]rx¿ ahf/df b]vf
kg]{ ub{5g\ t/ k|To]s Joj:yfksn] cfˆgf] df}lnstf / gjLgtd ;f]rnfO{ cufl8
;f/]/ sfo{ ;Dkfbg ug{'k5{ . o;af6 ;]jfu|fxL hgtf jf u|fxsnfO{ clws ;Gt'li6
lbg ;lsG5 . dflg; olt w]/} sNkgfzLn k|f0fL xf] ls p;n] ;a} s'/f gofF
tl/sfaf6 ;f]Rg ;S5, s]jn l;h{gf ul/Psf] ljrf/nfO{ sfof{Gjog ug]{ r'gf}tL
x/sf]xLnfO{ cfOk5{ . o;y{ gofF / l;h{gzLn s'/f sfof{Gjog ug]{ zlSt /
;fdYo{ cfkm"df k}bf u/L …;'wf/jfbLÚ aGg] sf]l;; ug'{k5{ .
o;/L Joj:yfkgsf ce]Wo / y'k|} kIfdf nfd} vf]htnf; / ljZn]if0f
k|:t't ug{ ;lsG5 . d"Nf s'/f] x/]s JolStdf h] ug{ klg Joj:yfksLo sf}zn
cfjZos kb{5 . /fd|/L hLjg ofkg ug{ xf];\, /fd|/L hflu/ vfg xf];\, /fd|/L
;]jf k|jfx ug{ xf];\, /fd|/L k|:t'tLs/0f ug{ xf];\, x/sf]xLnfO{ Joj:yfkgsf]
1fg x'g h?/L 5 . o; cy{df g]kfndf Jofjxfl/s Joj:yfkg lzIffsf] dxŒj
cTolws /x]sf] k|:6 x'G5 .

bLklzvf ÷ 85
 :t/Lo d"Nofª\sgdf ;d:of,
;Defjgf / pkfo
k|f=8f= l8NnL/fh g]jfM*

d"Nofª\sg dfgj hLjgdf x/kn, x/38L x/;do s'g} g s'g} ¿kdf

;~rflnt eO/x]sf] x'G5 . ;xL, l7s, a]l7s, pko'St, cg'ko'St, /fd|f], g/fd|f],
x'G5, x'Fb}g, jf:tljs, cjf:tljs cflb s'g} klg j:t' JolSt ljz]if, 1fg ljz]if,
ljrf/ ljz]if, sfo{ ljz]if, ;f]r ljz]ifsf af/]df JolStut dt hfx]/ ug'{ jf x'g'
jf n]vfhf]vf ug'{ d"Nofª\sg xf] . ctM j:t', JolSt, 36gf jf ljrf/sf af/]df
d"No :yflkt ug'{ jf k|ltlj|mof k|:t't ug'{ jf lgwf{/0f ug'{ d"Nofª\sg xf] . of]
afx\o k|:t't÷k|ltlalDat d"No lgwf{/0f ug'{ xf] . OG6/g]6df x]g]{ xf] eg] o;sf]
cy{ o;/L pNn]v ePsf] kfOG5— Evaluation zAbdf E sf] cy{ External /
Valuation sf] cy{ d"No :yfkgf ug'{ xf] . Stuflebeam sf cg';f/ Evaluation
is to judge the intrinsic and extrinsic value g} d"Nofª\sg xf] .
lzIff If]qdf ljz]if u/L lzIff ;ª\sfo hxfF c;ª\Vo ljBfyL{x¿
cWofkgdf nfUg] lzIfsx¿sf] tof/L ul/G5 . o;sf] k|of]hg ljBfyL{x¿sf] Ifdtf
jf k|ultsf af/]df lgSof]{n ug'{ xf] . Thurndike n] d"Nofª\sgsf] kl/efiffnfO{
o;/L pNn]v u/]sf 5g\— Evaluation is to decide formally the student's
progress.
d"Nofª\sg ljBfyL{x¿sf] cWoogsf cfwf/df pgLx¿n] xfl;n u/]sf jf
k|fKt u/]sf jf cfˆgf Ifdtfdf u/]sf k|ultsf af/]df lgwf] ug'{ xf] . lzIff If]qdf
cGo ;ª\sfodf eGbf :t/Lo d"Nofª\sgdf s]xL a9L Wofg lbg'kg]{ x'G5 . of] sfo{
jf k|lj|mof PstkmL{ dgu9Gt] x'g' x'Fb}g . o;sf] n]vfhf]vf jf d"Nofª\sg x'g
* pkk|fWofks, sf]6]Zj/ ax'd'vL SofDk;, sf7df8f}F .

86 ÷ bLklzvf
;xL, :t/Lo / ljZj;gLo x'g h?/L 5 . ;j{dfGo, ;a}n] pko'St eGg nfpg',
plrt xf] eGg nfpg', ;xL xf] eGg nfpg' / o;sf glthfn] c¿nfO{ klg enfO
x'g ;Sg', …;j{hg lxtfo, ax'hg lxtfoÚ x'g' jf t'ngf ug{ ;Sg] vfnsf] x'g'
:t/Lo x'g' xf] . o;/L ;xL glthfn] h'g;'s} ;do / 7fpFdf k|of]hgdf Nofpg
;Sg', pkof]udf Nofpg ;Sg' :t/Lo d"Nofª\sg xf] .
ljBfyL{x¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ;xL, jf:tljs, z'4, ;Gt'lnt tyf :t/Lo
x'g' h?/L 5 / o:t} d"Nofª\sgn] ;dfh, /fi6« / dfgj sNof0fdf ;3fpF5 .
ca k|Zg p7\5 ls lzIf0f If]q k|fdfl0fs d"Nofª\sg :t/Lo xf] t < o;sf]
l7s zt k|ltzt ;sf/fTds pQ/ lbg jf k|dfl0ft ug{ ;Dej gx'g ;S5 . olb
lzIff If]qdf :t/Lo x'Fbf] xf] t g]kfnL k|j]lzsf k/LIffdf ;/sf/L jf ;fd'bflos
ljBfnosf] glthf lghL jf ;+:yfut ljBfnosf] t'ngfdf Go"g gx'g'kg]{ xf] . @)&)
;fnsf] 3f]lift glthfcg';f/ g]kfnL k|j]lzsf k/LIffdf ;lDdlnt ePsfx¿dWo]
$#=(@ k|ltzt dfq pQL0f{ ePsf] kfOG5 h;df ;+:yfut ljBfnodf (#=@%
k|ltzt pQL0f{ ePsf] / To;sf] klg ;fd'bflos ljBfnosf @*=!( k|ltzt
dfq pQL0f{ ePsf] kfOG5 -sflGtk'/ h]7 #! ut] zlgaf/ @)&!_ . jf:tjdf
cWoog ug]{ xf] eg] ;fd'bflos ljBfnodf tflnd k|fKt jf lzIffzf:qdf pkflw
kfpg]x¿sf] ;ª\Vof a9L 5 . o;df lzIfsx¿n] lzIf0f ljlw, afn dgf]lj1fg,
;'wf/fTds lzIf0f jf 1fg k|fKt u/]sf 5g\ . c/af}F nufgL u/] tfklg ck]lIft
pknlAw k|fKt ug{ g;Sg' / lzIf0f k|0ffnL g} c;kmn x'gsf k5fl8 kSs} klg
k|j]z k4lt, lzIf0f k4lt, d"Nofª\sg k4lt Jofjxfl/s / :t/Lo gx'g' xf]
ls < o;sf cj/f]wx¿ s] s] x'g\ < ;}4flGts / Jofjxfl/s cfwf/df x]g'{ km/s
x'G5 . cf}krfl/s jf k|df0fkq k|flKtsf nflu dfq geP/ Jofjxfl/s cfwf/df
eGg'kbf{ :t/Lo d"Nofª\sg ePsf] eGg ;lhnf] kSs} klg gx'g ;Snf .
:t/Lotf eGg' ljifout, k|lj|mofut, k|Zgut, k/LIf0fut cy{df Ps
¿ktf x'g' xf] . Anatasi sf kl/efiffcg';f/ :t/Lotfsf] cy{ k|lj|mof, k/LIf0fdf
Ps ¿ktf x'g' xf] . “Standarzation employ the uniformity in process,
administration and scoring." o:t} Rose sf cg';f/ ljifoj:t', k/LIf0f,
d"Nofª\sg x'g' tyf JofVofTdsdf ;dfgtf sfod ug'{ :t/Lotf xf] . olb lglZrt
dfgssf cfwf/df d"Nofª\sg :t/Lo 5 t o;sf cj/f]wx¿ s] x'g\ eGg] af/]df
rrf{ ug'{ pko'St x'G5 . jf:tljs jf ;xL d"Nofª\sg jf :t/Lo d"Nofª\sg
x'gdf cj/f]w ug]{ sf/s tŒjx¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M
!_ k|Zgsf cfwf/df
@_ lgoldt cWoogsf cfwf/df

bLklzvf ÷ 87
#_ kf7\oj|md÷kf7\of+zsf cfwf/df
$_ k/LIff ;~rfngsf cfwf/df
%_ k/LIf0fsf cfwf/df
^_ k|df0fLs/0fsf cfwf/df
&_ a'emfOsf cfwf/df

!= k|Zgsf cfwf/df :t/Lotf x'gdf cj/f]w b]lvG5 . k/LIffdf k|of]u ul/g]

k|Zgkq ljz]if u/L lzIffsf] :gfts txsf] ljifout / j:t'ut k|Zg xf] .
k|Zg lgdf{0fdf lglZrt k|lj|mof cjnDag u/] tfklg k|foM ;}4flGts ¿kdf
:t/Lotf ug]{ k|lj|mof cjnDag r/0fa4 k|lj|mofsf cfwf/df k|Zg lgdf{0f
gx'g' d'Vo cj/f]w xf] . k|foM k|Zg lgdf{0fstf{sf] JolStut ;fdu|L, ;f]rsf
cfwf/df k|Zg lgdf{0f x'g', ljlzi6Ls/0f tflnsf, ljifout ljz]iftfsf
cfwf/df geO{ Hodge Podge sf cfwf/df lgdf{0f x'g', j:t'ut k|Zg
lgdf{0f k|foM 1fg tx, jf lgDg txsf k|Zg ;f]wfO jf cfk"m;Fu /x]sf
k':tssf cfwf/df dfq k|Zg lgdf{0f x'g hfgfn] klg :t/Lotf gx'g', k|Zg
;f]wfOdf efiffut -cª\u|]hL efiff_ ;d:of tyf k|ToIf ;f]wfOdf dfq
;Lldt x'g' jf k|Zgdf q'l6 x'g'÷låljwfTds k|Zg h:tf cj:yfn] ubf{ klg
To:tf k|Zgsf cfwf/df ck]lIft pQ/ gx'g'n] ubf{ :t/Lo d"Nofª\sg x'g
g;Sg' xf] .
@= lgoldt cWofkgsf] cfwf/ klg :t/Lotfdf cj/f]w tyf ;d:ofsf
¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . ljBfyL{x¿sf] cWoog cjlw Go"gtd\ !*) lbg
x'g'kg]{df jf &%Ü pkl:yt x'g'kg]{ eP tfklg k|foM s'g} klg SofDk;df
ljBfyL{x¿sf] pkl:ylt lng] k|rng g/x]sf] / lgoldt pkl:yt g/x]sf]
kfpg ;lsG5 . emG8} krf; k|ltzt ljBfyL{x¿ lgoldt x'Fb}gg\ . k/LIff
kmf/fd eg]{ k|foM egf{ ;ª\Vofsf ljBfyL{x¿n] k/LIff kmf/fd eg{] a'lemG5 .
k/LIffsf] s]xL ;do cufl8 dfq 3f]TNofOFsf cfwf/df geO{ 3f]sGtsf
cfwf/df jf ufO8 a'ss} e/df jf ;fyLefOs} e/df k/LIffdf ;lDdlnt
x'g] b]lvg' / To:tf ljBfyL{x¿ pQ/ gldn]sf] klg eGg g;lsg] ldn]sf]
eGg klg ufx|f] kg]{ / n]vfOdf÷pQ/df x'g'kg]{ MSC cy{, ;+/rgf / kl/j]z
pQ/ k|foM gx'g'n] ubf{ :t/Lo k/LIf0fsf] cjnDag ug{ g;Sg' k|foM
b]lvG5 .
#= kf7\oj|md÷kf7\of+zsf cfwf/df klg :t/Lotfsf] k|Zg lrGx v8f x'G5 .
kf7\oj|md lgdf{0f x'g] s'/f ubf{ ±@, aL=P8= tyf Pd=P8=sf sltko

88 ÷ bLklzvf
 ljifoj:t'df :t/Lo j|mda4tf sdL x'g' k|of]ufTds lg/Gt/tf :ki6tfdf
sdL b]lvG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu ljZjf;gLotf kf7 ±@ df, aL=P8= tyf
Pd=P8=df klg ;dfj]z u/]sf 5g\ t/ lglZrt ¿kdf Jofjxfl/s tyf
k|of]ufTds cg'ejdf hf]8 lbg'kg]{df sdL b]lvG5 . cWoog ubf{ aL=P8=,
Pd=P8= txdf 1fg tyf af]wsf] txdf dfq ;Lldt x'g' / cWofkgdf
vf; cGt/ g/x]sf] cg'ej ug{ ;lsG5 . kmn:j¿k txut :t/Lotfdf
vf; cGt/ gx'g' .
$= k/LIff ;~rfngsf cfwf/df eGg'kbf{ k/LIff s]Gb|sf k/LIffsf] cj:yfdf
g]kfnsf] ;a} :yfgdf Ps ¿ktf gx'g' . s'g} k/LIff s]Gb| s8fO, s'g} k/LIff
s]Gb| v's'nf] x'g' / Psgf; gx'g'sf sf/0fn] klg jf:tljs ljBfyL{x¿sf]
:t/Lo d"Nofª\sgdf k|efj kf/]sf] x'G5 . a9L s8fOsf s]Gb| ;a} g}
k9]sf Ifdtfjfg\n] /fd|f] n]Vg] / Gofof]lrt k/LIff x'g] ub{5 eg] v's'nf]
k/LIff s]Gb|sf k/LIffyL{x¿n] cGo cjf:tljs cfwf/df ;fyLefOsf]
;f]wfOsf cfwf/df jf OlGelhn]6/sf] ;xof]udf jf cGo s'g} clgoldt
pkfoåf/f pQ/ lbg] u/] tfklg k/LIf0faf6 ljBfyL{x¿sf] ;xL dfkg x'g
hfg] k|foM ;Defjgf /xG5 / jf:tljs Ifdtf d"Nofª\sg x'g'kg]{ xf] geO{
:t/Lotfdf cf3ft k'¥ofPsf] x'G5 .
%= k/LIf0fsf cfwf/df klg csf]{ Pp6f :t/Lotfdf k|efj kfg]{ kIf÷tŒj
xf] . pQ/ k'l:tsf k/LIf0f ubf{ lj:t[t cWoog gx'g' ;'?;'?sf n]vfOsf
cfwf/df kl5sf pQ/x¿ k/LIf0fdf k|ltlalDat x'g', lj:t[t cWoog tyf
n]vfOsf] :t/Lotfsf cfwf/df k/LIf0f ubf{ glthfdf k|lts"n k|efj kg]{
pbf/jfbL k/LIf0f ;dtnLo k/LIf0f x'g hfg], Pp6} skLdf 3G6f}F nufP/
kfl/>ldssf cfwf/df sl7g, JofVofg ;f]rfO tyf Ifdtf s]Gb|k|ltsf]
cjwf/0ff n]vfO{ :ki6tf tyf efiffut ;+/rgf, ljifout cfwf/df
h:tf cg]sg sf/0fåf/f klg :t/Lo, ;dfg, Ps ¿ktf d"Nofª\sg geO{
cfTdlgi7 k/LIf0f x'g'n] :t/Lotf d"Nofª\sgdf k|Zg p7\g ;S5 .
^= k|df0fLs/0fsf cfwf/df eGg] xf] eg] ljBfyL{x¿n] k|fKt u/]sf cª\ssf
cfwf/df pQL0f{, cg'QL0f{, låtLo >]0fL, k|yd >]0fL jf l8l:6ª\;g egL
3f]lift ug]{ k|rng /lxcfPsf] kfOG5 . s] tL ljBfyL{x¿n] kfPsf] cª\sdf
;xL jf ljBfyL{x¿s} jf:tljs Ifdtf k|:t't x'G5g\ < xfdL k|foM ;'Gg] ub{5f}F
/fd|f] n]Vg] hfFrdf km]n ePsf g/fd|f] 7fg]sf kf; ePsf jf /fd|f] pQL0f{ jf
k|fKtfª\s kfpg] JolStn] ljifout If]qdf cfˆgf sf}zn ljifout Ifdtf
k|dfl0ft ug{ g;Sg' . k/LIf0f Ps} JolStaf6 gx'g', k/LIf0fsf cfwf/df

bLklzvf ÷ 89
 lglZrt dfkb08sf] lgdf{0f gx'g' / dfgssf cfwf/sf] Joj:yf gx'g'
h:tf cefjdf :t/Lo d"Nofª\sg x'g g;s]sf] k|foM :jfefljs b]lvG5 .
plNnlvt ;d:ofsf cGo sf/s tŒjx¿nfO{ ;'wfg]{ k|of; ug]{ xf] eg] jf
lzIf0f l;sfO :t/Lo agfpg] xf] eg] lglZrt pkfox¿ cjnDag ug{ jf~5gLo
x'g cfpF5 . o;sf cfwf/df zt k|ltzt g} :t/Lo x'g] eGg'eGbf w]/} xb;Dd
;'wf/fTds :t/Lo d"Nofª\sg x'g] s'/fdf ljZjf; ug{ ;lsG5 .
!= z}Ifl0fs gLlt / lgodnfO{ kfng ug'{ – z}Ifl0fs ;qsf] ;'?df g}
k|j]z k/LIffsf] cjnDag u/L ljifout ;Ifdtf tyf cg's"n cfr/0f
ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ dfq k|j]z u/L lgodfg';f/ pkl:yltdf Wofg k'¥ofpg] /
To:tf lgoldt ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ dfq k/LIff kmf/fd eg{ nufpg] xf] eg]
kf7\oj|mdn] lgwf{/0f u/]sf nIo, p2]Zo ljifoj:t'sf 1fg l;k pknAwtf
xfl;n ug{ lzIf0f :t/Lo agfpg ljz]if 6]jf k'¥ofpF5 .
@= lzIf0fdf lzIfsx¿nfO{ ljifout cfwf/df ;dfgtf Nofpg ;do ;dodf
sfo{zfnf uf]i7L cfof]hgf u/L lzIf0fdf Ps ¿ktf Nofpg] cWofkgdf
:t/Lotfsf] k|of; ug{ ;do ;dodf lgoldt tyf clgjfo{ ;'wf/fTds
k/LIff ;~rfng ug{ ;s]df ljBfyL{x¿df ljifout cEof; u/L ljifout
lgk'0ftf Nofpg ;lsG5 .
#= ljZj ljBfnosf ;DalGwt ;ª\sfoaf6 cfˆgf dftxtsf cg'dlt k|fKt
lzIf0f ;+:yfx¿sf] lgoldt cg'udg ug]{ / cfjZos ;'wf/ ug{df
k[i7kf]if0f k|bfg u/L lzIf0f ;'wf/ u/fpg ;s]df :t/LotfnfO{ a9fjf
lbg ;lsG5 .
$= k|Zg lgdf{0fdf efiffut, ljifout :ki6tf, j}wtfdf Wofg k'¥ofO{ ljifout
1fg, af]w, k|of]u, ljZn]if0f, ;+Zn]if0f tyf d"Nofª\sg tx jf :t/Lo
k|Zgx¿sf] lgdf{0f ug{ nufpg] sltko ljBfyL{x¿ k|Zg g} ga'‰g] k|Zgdf
k|of]u x'g] efiff, zAb -ljz]if u/L cª\u|]hL efiff_ zAbx¿ lzIf0f l;sfO
cjlwdf g} cEof; u/fpg ;s]df ck]lIft pQ/ lbg ;Ifd x'g] / :t/Lo
d"Nofª\sg pGd'v k/LIf0f ug{ ;lsg] .
%= k/LIffsf] cj:yfdf ;'wf/ Nofpg k/LIff s]Gb|df k/LIf0f cj:yfnfO{
:j:y jftfj/0f, ef}lts k"jf{wf/, Gofgf] jftfj/0f, ;'k/Lj]Ifssf]
Joj:yfdf Wofg k'¥ofpg ;s] :t/Lo k/LIf0f jf jf:tljs k/LIf0fdf
6]jf k'¥ofpg ;lsG5 .
^= k/LIf0f sfo{df ljljwtf jf cfTdlgi7 k/LIf0f cj:yfnfO{ Ps ¿ktf
Nofpg ck]lIft pQ/ s'l~hsf (Scheme) tof/ u/L k/LIfsnfO{ pQ/

90 ÷ bLklzvf
 k'l:tsf ljt/0f ubf{ g} pknAw u/fpg ;s] k/LIf0fdf Ps ¿ktf Nofpg
/ cfTdlgi7 d"Nofª\sgeGbf j:t'lgi7 k/LIf0f u/fpg] xf] eGg] w]/} xb;Dd
:t/Lo d"Nofª\sg x'g ;3fp k'Ug] 5 .
dflysf pkfox¿nfO{ ;}4flGts kIfdf eGbf Jofjxfl/s jf sfof{Gjog
kIfdf nfu' ug{ ;s] :t/Lo d"Nofª\sg x'g'sf ;fy} :t/Lo lzIff k|bfg ug{ ;3fp
k'Ug] ljZjf; ug{ ;lsG5 .

bLklzvf ÷ 91
 Knowledge Management for
Organizational Effectiveness
- Ram Babu Nepal*

Introduction
Managing knowledge is vital to promote efficiency, save cost,
ensure consistency and to benefit from intellectual capital formed over a
period. As a result, knowledge Management (KM) has evolved in recent
years as one of the prominent Management concepts. Organizations
are in pursuit of appropriate processes, tools and techniques of KM for
them. It was born out of the need to achieve better productivity, and
effectiveness in efficient management of intangible assets or intellectual
capital of organizations.
This article aims to discuss the potential contributions of knowl-
edge and its management in enhancing effectiveness of organizations.

Concepts of knowledge and knowledge Management

Knowledge is basic to human being. We all possess some
knowledge. It is susceptible to multiple interpretations. The following
definitions will help to understand how it is perceived in daily life.
1. Awareness, consciousness or familiarity gained by experience
or learning.1
2. Knowledge is a means to understand the why, what, how, who,
when, and relative to carry out some action. Knowledge is the
product of organization and reasoning applied to raw data.2
3. Knowledge is intrinsically a human characteristics manifested in
the thinking, learning, artistic, behavioural, and problem solving
capabilities of human beings acting in a social context.3
*Lecturer, Koteshwor Multiple Campus
1 Collins English Dictionary
2 Knowledge Management in ADB, Asian Development Bank, June 2004, p. 3
3 Sami AlBanna – Knowledge Management and Strategies for Development in a Rapidly
Changing Global Environment, 2000, p. 12

92 ÷ bLklzvf
 The main function of knowledge is to make a sense of things.
It originates in our minds and gradually refined by the assessment of
results achieved through application of knowledge. It is a high-value
form of information ready to be applied in making decisions and
taking actions. It includes information, ideas, experience, insights
and awareness. It is the culmination of information about the context
and the consequence of events. KM involves the mental processes of
comprehension, understanding and learning. Application of skill,
learning attitude, observation and dialogue enriches knowledge base.
Knowledge is:
♦ the core of human competencies and encompasses the informa-
tion that has practical value in making decisions, performing
tasks and evaluating results;
♦ built and enhanced through education, training, work experi-
ence, dialogue, participation and social interactions; and
♦ used to improve performance and to solve problems and con-
tributes to career and personality development.
Knowledge may be perceived differently in the context of an
institution and individual. “Institutional knowledge is the collective
knowledge of all members of an institution.”4 It is the combination of
ideas, understanding and lessons learned over a period of time and
accessible to the future members of the institutions. An individual
gains and enhances knowledge through multiple processes including
constant and meaningful application of skill and intelligence in perform-
ing specific tasks, continuous learning, social interaction and analyzing
performance results. It is applied to accomplish tasks, to make decisions,
to advance career and to achieve higher productivity. Knowledge can
be categorized as follows:

Type of Knowledge Attributes

1. General Gained through the process of socialization, educa-
tion, self-study and observation. It helps widening the
vision and understanding prominent issues.
2. Specific Created and advanced through study, training and
working in a specific institution and work environ-
ment. It contributes in achieving specialization.
3. Explicit Knowledge that can be expressed, captured, docu-
mented and maintained in the forms of records,
databases and publications and can be transferred
with reasonable accuracy.

4 Nuclear Knowledge Management, Glossary of Terms, International Atomic Energy Agen-

cy, 2005, p.11

bLklzvf ÷ 93
 4. Tacit Hidden type of knowledge (subjective insights,
intuitions and hunch) gained through socialization,
observation, on-the-job training, mentoring and joint
activities. It is highly personal and hard to formalize.
5. Factual Knowing the fact (what happened and what was the
consequence, result or output). A person who was
involved in a specific event or has witnessed that
event possesses such knowledge.
6. Contextual Knowing the context of any specific event or decision.
A person involved in the process of developing a pol-
icy, program or interactions with related parties and
implementation process possesses such knowledge.
7. Procedural Knowledge of procedures to be complied with or to
be adopted to ensure rule of law and legitimacy of
the works accomplished. People who are involved
in various stages of development, approval, imple-
mentation, monitoring and evaluation of a policy,
program or project are expected to be knowledgeable
of procedures to be complied with.
8. Social Knowledge of those aspects that helps in understand-
ing and addressing social issues such as the skill of
building networks, managing social interactions and
negotiations among competing forces.

KM creates value from an organization’s intangible assets. It

is about the methods and processes of creating, capturing, enhancing
and reusing knowledge resources to achieve organizational objectives.
It encompasses the process of identifying, organizing and Managing
knowledge resources which include explicit and tacit knowledge in
the form of skills and competencies. KM is “an integrated, system-
atic approach to identifying, managing and sharing an organization’s
knowledge and enabling persons to create new knowledge collectively
and thereby help achieve the objectives of organization.”5 It promotes
conducive working environment in an organization. KM applies sys-
tematic approaches to help ensure that information and knowledge
emerge and flow to the right people, at the right time to create value.
By summarizing different views, KM can be defined as a systematic
and integrated process of creating, analysing, storing and dissemi-
nating knowledge resources, intangible assets or intellectual capital.
KM encompasses the processes of systematic, explicit and deliberate
building, renewal and the application of knowledge resources for an
institution’s interests and securing return from knowledge resources.
Intangible assets may include structured databases, textual information
5 Nuclear Knowledge Management, op. cit., p. 10

94 ÷ bLklzvf
such as policy and procedure documents, and most importantly, the
tacit knowledge and expertise that reside in head of people. The main
points to be considered in relation to KM are as follows:
1. It is about behaviour, culture, learning attitudes and trust among
people. It is motivated at better acquiring, storing and utilizing
knowledge. It depends on the competencies of human resources,
their intuition, ideas and motivations. Mutual trust must be
built and sustained to encourage efficient knowledge sharing
and transferring.
2. KM aims to boost the efficiency and effectiveness of organization
by creating, obtaining (receiving), analysing, verifying, storing,
preserving, retrieving and disseminating knowledge resources.
It supports organizations to achieve their goal by managing
and using information that is most meaningful, practical and
purposeful. KM is inextricably linked to the strategic objective
of the organization.
3. KM is an ongoing process. Change is inevitable in an organiza-
tion’s life. Knowledge resources identified as critical at a certain
point of time may not remain equally relevant due to a number of
reasons in course of time. Therefore, knowledge resources should
be constantly reviewed, tested and updated to stay relevant.
4. KM adds value by supporting organizations to achieve their goals
by providing reliable and relevant knowledge resources at the time
of need and preserving those resources in a systematic manner.
5. KM plays complimentary role in enhancing organization’s
effectiveness. It supports the management of resources of an
organization by supplying critical information and preserving
knowledge resources developed in course of time.
It should not be confused that KM has to do only with data-
bases, and Information and Communication Technology (ICT). An
efficient KM requires change in management culture and in mindset
to genuinely appreciate that it is not just the automation of processes
but much more. A favourable policy environment and integrated man-
agement of people, process and technology are fundamental to KM.

Importance of Knowledge Management

It is well recognized that knowledge is power. Knowledge-
able people are respected and requested for consultation and advice.
The skill to identify critical knowledge resources and use them in an
objective manner enhances competence, develops self-confidence and
leads to effectiveness. History has shown that an organization and a
state can prosper by the support and dedication of its people and their
knowledge not by the quantity of resources they own. People and or-

bLklzvf ÷ 95
ganization managing knowledge (reviewing and updating knowledge
resources periodically) and using them efficiently contribute substan-
tially in raising the standards of living. “Understanding how people
and societies acquire and use knowledge – and why they sometimes
fail to do so – is essential to improving people’s lives – especially the
lives of the poorest.”6 Lack of knowledge and skill to use available
resources and capability to develop resources are the major reasons
of backwardness. In the modern age of information, knowing is win-
ning. “Knowledge and innovation have played an important role in
the development of society throughout history. The key to economic
success is always linked to the advances in knowledge creation and
innovation and the ability to translate that knowledge into products
and services.”7 Development requires closing gap not only in human
and physical resources, but also in knowledge.
Change is an inevitable and an ongoing process. Rapid changes
in internal and external environment have posed serious challenges
to modern organizations. Efficient management of knowledge resources
and securing optimum benefit from those resources is one of the ways of
staying relevant and moving forward with confidence. The cost of creat-
ing and capturing knowledge may be very high. Efficient management
of knowledge can save time and resources. “Knowledge Management
programs are typically tied to organizational objectives and are intended
to achieve specific outcomes, such as shared intelligence, improved
performance, competitive advantage, or higher levels of innovation.”8
An effective KM practice helps an organization to better acquire, store
and utilize knowledge resources and to gain insight and understand-
ing from its own experience, ensures that decision maker has the best
information available and empowers many minds and provides benefits
to the organization by helping people to work together.
The major motivations for focusing on KM are to achieve or-
ganizational efficiency, to stay ahead of the competition, to maximize
organization’s potential, and to manage intellectual capital which
involves human, customer, structural and business intelligence. One
of the main contributors of success is responsiveness. Comprehensive
understanding of stakeholders and their expectations and the avail-
ability of accurate and useful information tailored to the organization’s
needs is critical to enhance responsiveness. Continuous improvement
in operational efficiency and productivity is essential to long-term
growth. The key to economic success is always linked to the advances
in knowledge creation and innovation and the ability to translate that
6 About the Report – Knowledge for Development, World Development Report 1998, www.
worldbank.org
7 Suliman Al-Hawamdeh – Knowledge Management: Cultivating Knowledge Professionals,
Chandos Publishing, 2003, p. 1
8 Knowledge Management – Wikipedia – the free encyclopedia, www.wikipedia.org

96 ÷ bLklzvf
knowledge into products and services. Gathering correct information
and using them properly is critical to stay ahead of competition. The
ability of an organization to innovate depends largely on the capacity
of managing knowledge. The good reasons to pay attention in strength-
ening KM practices are as follows:
 Technological breakthrough has made the world a global village.
The concepts of liberalization and globalization and the adoption
of the open market policies have promoted competition. Adopt-
ing and promoting measures that support in making organiza-
tion competitive is the only way of survival. “Knowledge is one
of the main bases of competitiveness. The traditional factors of
production (capital, markets and raw materials) remain impor-
tant but increasingly secondary to knowledge in establishing
competitiveness in the new global market place.”9 Economists,
development workers and business managers are seeing the birth
a new global economy, where knowledge is outstripping ma-
terial resources and capital as a source of wealth. Knowledge
economy is a recently coined term that refers to the stage of
economic growth in which knowledge, as opposed to land,
labour, and capital, is the key factor of production.
 Knowledge and capital are complimentary. Improved knowl-
edge enhances the return to capital. Incorporating knowledge
into the development strategy requires creating capabilities to
absorb and adapt knowledge (through investment in human
capital and in research projects), investing technologies to fa-
cilitate the dissemination of knowledge and creating knowledge
locally. Thus, a development strategy needs to outline a strategy
of knowledge management.
 Every member of organization irrespective of his/her position is
required to make some decisions. Many decisions require histori-
cal and contextual information. Decision makers always look for
information that helps them in making right decisions. A well
functioning KM system supports in making useful information
available for informed decision making.
 Institutions spend substantial resources in developing policies,
strategies and making decisions of strategic importance. Some
decisions may be implemented at various stages and by multiple
units independently or in collaboration. Managers implementing
decisions require credible data and information on the context
and basis of strategies and decisions for planning, program-
ming, budgeting, implementation, monitoring and evaluation
purposes.

9 Sami Albanna – op. cit., p. 2

bLklzvf ÷ 97
 An effective KM system contributes to: (a) improving the level of
performance by ensuring continuity and consistency in the ways
of doing things; (b) promoting transparency in decision making;
and (c) saving resources in making decisions by retaining critical
information; and (d) managing operations smoothly by bridging
the information gap between the departing and incoming mem-
ber of the organization.
 Organizations have to continue their operations even people with
critical knowledge change or leave. Systematic process of man-
aging and transferring knowledge helps new staff members to
learn about the work procedures, resources and environment
which contribute to enhancing professional skills and adopting
them in an efficient and effective manner.
 KM protects intellectual capital from deterioration, augments
intelligence and provides increased flexibility. Knowledge is
applied to problem solving and learning, forming judgments
and opinions; decision making, forecasting and strategic plan-
ning; generating feasible options for actions to achieve desired
results. Effective knowledge management in necessary to reap
the benefits of innovations and good practices which could be
developed over the years from the contribution of dedicated
human resources.
 KM helps networking to enable people to access knowledge
resources developed by other regions and countries and to learn
what worked well and what not. International development
institutions such as the UNDP, the World Bank (WB) and the
Asian Development Bank (ADB) consider that such networking
will be beneficial to its staff and also to member countries.

KM in governments and international organizations

The concept of KM gained prominence in recent years mainly be-
cause organizations realized that other resources can be more efficiently
utilized and operations can be cost-effective if knowledge resources are
well managed and supportive to their objectives. In addition, it was also
recognized that having knowledge resources is not sufficient for develop-
ment, but it must be constantly reviewed, updated and properly main-
tained to facilitate easy access. The aim of strengthening KM is to bring
strategically important knowledge resources into effective and common
use. “Governments are often thought to be late comers in management
reforms, sometimes for good reasons such as policy continuity, the need
to ensure that good checks and balances are in place, or concerns for
equity; often also because institutions, public processes of civil service
rules are designed in such a way that management changes are more

98 ÷ bLklzvf
difficult to implement.”10 The survey conducted by the OECD in 2002 on
the KM practices of ministries/departments/agencies of central govern-
ment in member countries highlighted its importance as follows:
1. Knowledge has become a critical determinant of competitiveness
for the public sector.
2. Private firms produce goods and services that are increasingly
intensive in intangible capital, directly competing with the goods
and services traditionally produced by the public sector.
3. Ageing civil servants and faster staff turnover also create new
challenges for the preservation of institutional memory and the
straining of new staff.
4. Increasingly knowledgeable citizens require governments to be
on top of newly created knowledge, as it is increasingly rapidly
produced by more differentiated actors.
5. Public policy goals have become more ambitious and complex
than before.
The survey used ‘knowledge Management’ to refer to a broad
collection of organizational practices related to generating, capturing,
disseminating know-how and promoting knowledge sharing within
an organization and outside world, including:
• Organizational arrangements (decentralization of authority,
opening up bureaucratic divisions, use of information and com-
munication technologies etc.).
• Personnel development (mentoring and training practices, mo-
bility etc) and management of skills.
• Transfer of competencies (database of staff competencies, outline
of good work practices etc.).
• Managerial changes and incentives for staff to share knowledge
(staff performance, assessment and promotion linked to knowl-
edge sharing, evolution of the role of managers, etc).”11
ADB states that its KM framework is based on the following
guiding principles:12
 Fostering a knowledge-supportive environment – ADB consid-
ers that a corporate culture that values learning and knowledge
sharing is essential to it. The KM framework aims to establish
an enabling culture for effective knowledge management to
promote staff contribution to knowledge activities, encouraging
every staff member to be a knowledge worker.
10 Conclusion from the Results of the Survey of Knowledge Management Practices for Min-
istries, Departments and Agencies of Central Government in OECD Member Countries,
op. cit., p. 5
11 Conclusion from the Results of the Survey of Knowledge Management Practices for Min-
istries, Departments and Agencies of Central Government in OECD Member Countries,
op. cit., p. 4
12 Knowledge Management in ADB, June 2004, p. 13

bLklzvf ÷ 99
 Ensuring results orientation and continued improvements –
The KM framework is designed to sharpen the results focus in
undertaking KM initiative.
 Enhancing operational relevance – To ensure that knowl-
edge management initiatives will improve operational effective-
ness, the KM framework will prioritize actions that have strong
operational relevance.
In 1996, the WB announced a change so that it would accomplish
its mission of reducing global poverty and become a knowledge bank
focused on disbursing the knowledge assets to poor and developing
countries in addition to the economic support for development projects.
The vision of the knowledge bank focuses on the following:
 Creating knowledge through economic and sector work research,
through learning from the outside world and learning from suc-
cesses and failures.
 Applying knowledge through products and services.
 Sharing knowledge with clients and partners.
The World Development Report, 1998 focused on knowledge
for development and concluded that knowledge is perhaps the most
important factor in determining the standard of living. The WB assumes
that “putting knowledge at the centre of our development efforts will
bear fruit in two areas. The first is increased social benefits – the more
effective provision of public goods, including better air and water qual-
ity, greater educational attainment and higher enrolments, improved
health and nutrition, and expanded access to essential infrastructure.
These benefits will accrue to the poor as well as to others in society.
The second is in better-functioning markets – for credit, education,
housing, and land that more efficiently coordinate resources and al-
locate opportunities across society. These improvements will benefit
the poor most, because they bear more than their share of the burden
of information failures.”13
The UNDP recognizes itself as the UN’s global development
network, advocating for change and connecting countries to knowl-
edge, experience and resources to help people build a better life and
the need of managing knowledge to improve its effectiveness. UNDP’s
Knowledge Management Roadmap states ‘UNDP generates a wealth
of development knowledge. Unfortunately, the organization does not
know what it knows. It neither fully understands what its knowledge
assets are, nor is it set up to leverage them to achieve maximum return.
It has identified six priority knowledge gaps and target deficiencies in
the organization’s ability to:

13 About the Report – Knowledge for Development, www.worldbank.org

100 ÷ bLklzvf
1. Leverage to global development and operational experienc-
es more effectively;
2. Maintain consistently high professional standards for project
design and development;
3. Attract, retain and ensure the continued professional growth of
top-notch problem-solvers and practitioners;
4. Identify, convene and deploy the best possible teams for specific
assignment, tasks and projects;
5. Tap the full potential of the virtual networks and other existing
collaborative tools; and
6. Provide timely and thorough reporting on development impacts
and results.14
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia
and Pacific (UNESCAP) considers KM as an initiative to help attain
its three objectives: (a) managing globalization; (b) reducing poverty;
and (c) addressing emerging social issues. The UN Office of Internal
Oversight Services (UNOIOS) reports on the thematic evaluation of
knowledge Management networks in the pursuit of the goals of the Mil-
lennium Declaration. According to the report, “there is no common
understanding of KM or knowledge sharing in the Secretariat, and
knowledge and information confused. Many develop KM strategy that
typically outlines how the organization:
 Communicates knowledge about programs and projects within
and outside the organization.
 Connects staff interested in cross-cutting topics to share ideas,
help each other.
 Learns from projects that make learning accessible to people in
other parts of the organization.
 Captures and organizes critical knowledge of staff as they
transfer or retire.
 Ties knowledge sharing to organizational goals.
 Deepens and develops knowledge critical to the organization’s
success.”15
Other organizations engaged in the management of develop-
ment cooperation have also initiated the process of strengthening KM
to achieve their objectives in a more cost efficient and effective Manner.
Business organizations are focusing on KM to achieve optimum benefit
from the investment made to develop intellectual capital and intangible
assets and to secure them from the affect of staff turnover.

14 Knowledge Management Roadmap – A Strategy for deploying Knowledge Management

in the UNDP, April 2004, p. 1
15 Report of the Office of Internal Oversight Services on the thematic evaluation of knowl-
edge Management networks in the pursuit of the goals of the Millennium Declaration - UN
Economic and Social Council, E/AC.51/2006/2, 24 March 2006

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Process, tools and techniques of KM
An organization can generate value from its intellectual and
knowledge-based assets by managing their assets in a systematic and
integrated manner. “To get the most value from an organization’s intel-
lectual assets, knowledge must be shared and provide the foundation
for innovation in products and services, enhanced employee retention,
process improvement, strategic decision making, improved client re-
lationships and greater prosperity.”16 Organizations need to create an
environment of trust and collaboration to retain good employees, to
share and to transfer knowledge. One step towards creating an envi-
ronment of trust is to install the sense of belongingness in the employ-
ees, and giving them more active role in building the future of their
organizations. It makes them feel that they are making an important
contribution to its success. Knowledge embodied in documents does
not necessarily translate into useful and usable knowledge unless it is
read, digested, manipulated and communicated from one person to
another. KM requires an infrastructure capable of supporting the cre-
ation and maintenance of knowledge repositories, and an environment
to facilitate knowledge sharing and organizational learning. The major
processes of KM are as follows:
1. Creation, capture and assimilation – Knowledge creation is a
gradual process of adding value to knowledge base through in-
novation, work experience, study, dialogue and interaction etc.
The process of preserving and maintaining knowledge resources
commences only after they are created. Explicit knowledge can
be captured at various stage of its development in the form of
documents, publications and decision. Tacit knowledge can be
created and captured by promoting dialogue, interaction and
attending seminars and workshops. Out of three components
of knowledge resources, knowledge is created and enhanced
through application of skill in specific work environment, assess-
ment of results and environmental factors etc. whereas data and
information may be created manually or though the application
of computerized systems. Knowledge resources should be as-
similated in a structured manner to enhance their usefulness.
2. Verification and classification – Data and information created
and collected in an organization Must be verified and analysed
to determine their significance and relevance before preserving
them. All information received or generated may not be of same
value for the future. This matter needs to be carefully addressed
by managers to prevent flow of data and information. Storing
16 Dan Boom – The Asian development Bank’s Knowledge Management Framework, KM4D
Journal 1 (2): 69 -75, www.km4dev.org/journal

102 ÷ bLklzvf
 and preserving all knowledge resources generated and received
today may not be practical for a number of reasons.
3. Preservation and Maintenance – Critical knowledge resources
including knowledge in people’s head (tacit knowledge), main-
tained in organization’s records, documents and publications
should be preserved safely. These resources can be stored
in hard copy or in electronic format. Records management
policy including retention period is critical to systematize the
preservation of knowledge resources. International Standards
Organization (ISO) also focuses that “organizations should
define and document a policy for records management. The
objective of the policy should be the creation and management
of authentic, reliable and usable records, capable of supporting
business functions and activities for as long as they are required.
Organization should ensure that the policy is communicated and
implemented at all levels in the organization.”17 Deterioration
in the quality of preserved knowledge resources could create
negative consequences. Physical security is critical to properly
preserve knowledge resources. In modern days, organizations
depend More on ICT for preserving knowledge resources.
Organizations that have no sufficient ICT resources maintain
knowledge resources in hard copies.
4. Knowledge sharing – It implies stimulating the exchange of
experiences, ideas and thoughts among people through social
interaction. It helps to refine and enrich knowledge. Its major
tool is ICT which connects people with the sources of explicit
knowledge. “The human factor in knowledge sharing focuses on
the drivers that trigger people to do what they do, on the pos-
sible levels of a person, and on the roles an individual play in
an organization.”18 Three conditions (social, organizational and
technological) support in sharing knowledge. Social conditions
imply motivation, values, attitude, moods, emotions, skill levels
and roles. Organizational conditions refer to strategy, structure,
systems, and style and shared values in organizations. These
elements significantly determine how a particular organization
plans to share the knowledge resources among its members to
empower them and to enhance their skills. Technological condi-
tions imply knowledge repository, knowledge route Map and
platform for sharing knowledge.
17 Information and documentation – Records Management, reference number ISO 15489-
1:2001(E), 1001-09-15, p. 5
18 Paul van den Brink – Measurement of Conditions for Knowledge Sharing, p. 1, www.
onthebrink.nl

bLklzvf ÷ 103
5. Knowledge Transfer (KT) - It is the process of transferring ideas,
knowledge and understanding from one person to another.
Knowledge that is not absorbed by the recipient is not transferred
in real sense. Efficient absorption contributes in enhancing recipi-
ent’s performance. KT makes potential users aware of knowledge
and/or technology opportunities and helps support, facilitate
and accelerate its evaluation and use. It involves: (a) transmis-
sion (sending or presenting knowledge to a potential recipient),
and (2) absorption (understanding of transmitted knowledge).
6. Retrieval and dissemination – Knowledge resources needs to
be retrieved in future to secure historic or contextual informa-
tion mainly to make decisions and to solve problems. The im-
pact of knowledge resources becomes minimal without proper
dissemination. Ensuring efficient dissemination of knowledge
resources is critical to add value in the system and processes of
operation. Selection of right means of dissemination is critical
in case of tacit knowledge. Proper indexing and referencing can
enhance efficiency in disseminating knowledge resources.
Effective combination of policy and strategy, process, technology
and human resources (people) is critical to Make KM Meaningful.
(1) Policy, strategy and approach – First of all government should
establish KM policy, develop strategy and outline approach it
wants to pursue to strengthen knowledge base, manage knowl-
edge resources to support organizational change, the creation of
opportunities and rapid adaptations to changing realities. Such
document should generally and cover the following matters:
(a) Contribution of knowledge resources in achieving orga-
nization’s objectives;
(b) Categories of knowledge resources that need to be cre-
ated and shared at different levels to facilitate smooth
operation;
(c) An outline of a plan for preserving and maintaining
knowledge resources that addresses the issues related to
people, process and technology.
(d) An outline of criteria to measure success in managing
knowledge resources.
Right mix of three approaches makes KM effective. Mechanistic
approach focuses on use of IT in the management of knowledge
resources. Cultural/behavioural approach focuses on work
culture and organizational behaviour to encourage people to
share, transfer and preserve those resources. Systematic ap-
proach focuses on on-going process of refining and updating
knowledge resources and rational analysis of knowledge related

104 ÷ bLklzvf
 problems and resolving techniques. A willingness to learn and
encourage learning is something that has to be fostered in the
organizational culture to be innovative and to stay relevant.
(2) Process – Organizations should identify and develop the meth-
ods and processes of KM considering nature of operations,
geographical dispersion, stakeholders, type and interrelation
between knowledge resources. Process should encourage the
courage of knowledge sharing. A culture of knowledge sharing
needs to be instilled and cultivated within an organization to
encourage free flow of information.
Education is vital to create new knowledge, to adopt the fast
changing working environment, to acclimatize to new socio-
political structures and to deal with the increasing amount of
information created every day. Four types of interactions as
follows within and beyond an organization help in managing
explicit and tacit knowledge and converting them from one to
another.
♦ Socialization - refers to the process of sharing tacit knowl-
edge between people. People feel confidence through
socialization which can be promoted by forming informal
groups and by encouraging people from different disci-
plines. Knowledge sharing can be between one-to-one,
one-to-many or many-to-many.
♦ Externalization – means the process of articulating and
codifying tacit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is gradually
converted into explicit knowledge through this process.
People with specialized knowledge and experience should
be encouraged to express themselves so that their unique
experience can be documented.
♦ Internalization – implies the process of absorbing and
utilizing explicit knowledge to convert into tacit. This
requires processing and analysing external knowledge
or information, understanding it, and then internalizing
it to create tacit knowledge. An individual gains practi-
cal skill and enhance his/her confidence by internalizing
explicit knowledge.
♦ Combination - refers to the process of sharing and trans-
ferring explicit knowledge. It can be shared and trans-
ferred via documents and e-mails. After accessing and
retrieving information, a reinforcing process takes place
whereby information is sorted, understood and contex-
tualized in different situations. Knowledge needs to be
translated into actions to enhance their practical value.

bLklzvf ÷ 105
 Knowledge gained in different situation and information
generated through application of knowledge and skill has
to be used to refine the current state and art of operation.
(3) People – As the overall objective of KM is to enhance produc-
tivity and effectiveness of organization, people play lead role
in making it happen. Senior Management should consider how
knowledge sharing is fostered and people related issues such
as training, succession planning, mentoring, job rotation and
cross training are addressed to facilitate KM. Tacit knowledge
cannot be transferred without encouraging people to interact
and share their experience, understanding and skill. As knowl-
edge is power, making knowledge widely available through
sharing might be seen as threat to career progression, hoarding
knowledge becomes a natural phenomenon. But hoarding of
knowledge does not help organization. The system of reward
and recognition can be introduced to encourage knowledge
sharing and reuse. A group of knowledge professionals can be
set up in an organization to support KM. Informal networks and
community of practice can also make positive contributions.
Succession planning is critical to protect from the loss of criti-
cal skills. Job rotation helps in bridging knowledge gap so that
people can adopt work environment efficiently.
(4) Technology – KM is not only about technology. But it plays an
important role in KM by facilitating the process of disseminat-
ing information, connecting people and systems and enhancing
access to repositories of information. Technology facilitates the
storage and organization of knowledge resources. IT is widely
used to generate data and information and to preserve them
although it captures only explicit knowledge. “Collaborative
applications such as e-mail, calendaring, scheduling, shared
folders/databases, and threaded discussions promote knowl-
edge sharing and transfer.”19 Internet is well recognized as the
platform for communication and collaboration between people
around the world and biggest repository of knowledge resources.

Organizational Effectiveness
Every organization is established with a specific mandate which
outlines the scope of operation, roles responsibilities and objectives to
be achieved. Effectiveness implies the capability to achieve objectives.
The common indicators of effectiveness are accuracy of data related
to results achieved, logical relation between program/project imple-
mented by organization and results achieved and relevance of results.
19 Suliman Al-Hawamdeh – Knowledge Management: Cultivating Knowledge Professionals,
op.cit., p. 61

106 ÷ bLklzvf
Resources are to be secured to play assigned roles achieve objectives.
Human resource is a key to manage other resources. Organization
cannot perform efficiently and play its role in a meaningful manner
and achieve objective which are fundamental to existence. Knowledge
of human resources in managing organization's activities, qualities of
service (timeliness, accuracy, reliability, preciseness, consistency and
responsiveness) is inevitable. Knowledge can be gained and enhanced
from a number of sources for which people in organization have to
take lead role. Setting policy, developing procedures for managing
knowledge, motivating people to make best use of available knowledge
resources, protecting integrity of knowledge resources, retrieving and
sharing them with current and future members of organization are
essential.
Organizations generally fail to achieve their objective when peo-
ple are not willing to perform well, lack commitment and seriousness
to their professional obligations. One of the main reasons of failure can
be lack of adequate of knowledge of data and information on what has
been done and what needs to be done in the future. Knowledge Man-
agement can be helpful in bridging gap between what must be known
and what knowledge is available with staff members.

Concluding remarks
KM is a crucial for every organization because it deals with the
fundamental processes in relation to systematic development, preserva-
tion and use of basic asset. Societies, organizations and individuals can
gain strength, enhance effectiveness and enrich potentials by utilizing
knowledge resources. Encouraging knowledge sharing and transfer is
indispensable for the continued improvement in performance, sustain-
able Management of resources, to ensure continuity and to enhance
effectiveness. Integrated management of people, technology and
process supported by favourable policy environment will make the
knowledge Management effective. KM is a two-way process. People
with knowledge should be willing to share and transfer and recipients
should also be willing to learn from predecessors. Unless and until the
culture of respect and willingness is established, KM is a still a dream,
which is yet to come true.

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Factors Influencing Purchase Intention
of Consumers in Buying Television
- Bharat Rai*

Introduction
Earlier, the Television set was considered as luxurious
products. Coming to the present time, the television has become a
necessity. Television today has become an integral part of almost every
households and folks. Television, abbreviated as TV has emerged to
be an important source of knowledge, information and entertainment.
Thanks to the inventors of television who made this possible.
In order to analyse the factors influencing the purchase intention
of consumers in buying Television, let us delve into some conceptual
understandings. The term “purchase intention” has been derived from
intention and is mainly used in understanding the intention of consumers
in making a purchase decision. Consumer purchase intention can be
defined as “the consumer’s self-instruction to purchase the brand (or
take another relevant purchase related action)” (Rossiter & Percy 1998).
Other researchers believe that purchase intention is “what we
think we will buy” (Park, J. 2002). It also describes the feeling or per-
ceived likelihood of purchasing the products that are advertised; more-
over, purchase shows the level of loyalty to products. Other scholars
like Daneshvary and Schower (2000) believe that purchase intention
has a relationship with demographic factors like age, gender, profession
and education (Lu, M. 2007). There is another statement that shows
that particular features of products, perception of consumers, country
of origin and perception of country of origin, all have an influence on
customer purchase intention (C. L. Wang, Li, Barnes, & Ahn, 2012).
Purchase intention can also be defined as the decision to act or physi-
ological action that shows an individual’s behavior according to the
product (X. Wang & Yang, 2008).
* Lecturer, Koteshwor Multiple Campus

108 ÷ bLklzvf
 Purchase intentions are personal actions or tendencies relating to
the product (Bagozzi et al. 1979). Intentions are different from attitudes
where attitudes are summary evaluations; intentions represent the per-
son’s motivation in the sense of his or her conscious plan to exert effort
to carry out behaviour (Eagly & Chaiken 1993). In Fishbein & Ajzen’s
(1975) formulation, attitudes influence behaviour through behavioural
intentions. Past studies indicate that the link between attitude toward
the object and behaviour is not always clear. In some cases, attitudes
have a direct effect on behaviours (Bagozzi & Warshaw 1992) but no
effect in Bagozzi (1992). An intention to buy a brand is based on a con-
sumer’s attitude towards buying the brand as well as the influence of
social norms about what other people expect.
Purchase intentions mean the consumer has purchase behaviours
after he/she has considered and evaluated the product. The behaviour
can be viewed as a key point for predicting consumers’ purchasing
behaviours as well as their subjective intentions (Keller, 2001). Ghosh
(1990) tried to combine some studies about purchasing behaviours
with consumers’ decision-making processes. The result was that when
consumers choose one good, the final decision depended on their inten-
tion. Therefore, most marketers think consumers’ purchasing intention
is an effective method of predicting purchasing.
The intention of a consumer to purchase a particular brand can
be defined as his willingness to buy that brand. After being exposed to
a TV commercial, a consumer might be interested about the product,
but being just interested in a product does not mean that the consumer
has the intention to buy the product.
Mowen and Minor (2001) maintain that consumer decision mak-
ing are a series of processing results from perceiving problems, search-
ing for solutions, evaluating alternatives, and making decisions. Indi-
vidual attitudes include personal preferences to others and obedience to
others’ expectation and unpredictable situations signify that consumers
change purchase intention because a situation is appearing, for ex-
ample, when the price is higher than expected price (Dodds et al., 1991

Statement of Problem
The television market has become highly competitive and
several manufacturers such as Samsung, Sony, Phillips, Hitachi
and many more are trying to attract more and more customers
through their style and quality of television sets. In order to attract
customers, manufacturers have come up with TVs having inbuilt
facilities such as radio, video, videogames etc. A new addition to this
list is the web television, which is a specially designed television with
Internet connection. This type of television is becoming quite popular
amongst many buyers.

bLklzvf ÷ 109
 The Nepalese television market is the particular interested
area to study because of its explosive development in recent years
and the dynamism that seems to characterize it. What makes it so
interesting from a brand research point of view is that formerly well-
established actors, which enjoyed market-leading positions for many
years, such as Sony, Philips, LG, Samsung, Hitachi. It is argued that
the engineering orientation of some of these well-established and
formerly competitive actors within the market of television technology
has weakened the company brand's market leading capability.

Objectives of the Study

This study aims to explore the association between factors affect-
ing on purchase intention taking the reference of Television. Following
are the specific objectives set in this study:
• To identify the purchase intention of customers for buying of
Television set in Nepalese market.
• To examine the relationship between the price, quality and brand
image on purchase intention of consumers in buying Television
set in Nepalese market.
• To examine the association between independent variables and
purchase intention.
• To analyse the moderating effect of the demographic variables
(age and gender) on purchase intention of customers for televi-
sion set in Nepalese market.

Theoretical Framework
In this research price, Brand Image and Perceived Quality are
considered as independent variables that affects purchase intention as
dependent variable. Age and Gender are also taken as the mediating
variables in this research. Based on the review of available literature
in the field of purchase intention, the following framework has been
developed to undertake the study in systematic manner.

Figure 1.1 Diagram of the Theoretical Framework

Price

Purchase Intention
Perceived
Quality

Age
Brand Gender
Image

Independent Variables Moderating variables Dependent Variable

110 ÷ bLklzvf
Research Hypothesis
Based on the theoretical framework, the research hypotheses are
proposed as follows:
H1: There is significant difference on purchase intention be-
tween male and female.
H2: There is significant difference on purchase intention among dif-
ferent age groups
H3: There is a negative relationship between price and purchase
intention on television set buying.
H4: There is a positive relationship between perceived quality and
purchase intention on television set buying.
H5: There is a positive relationship between brand image and pur-
chase intention on television set buying.

Limitation of the Study

The followings are the major limitations of this study.
• Out of different factors affecting on purchase intention only
the price, quality and brand image are taken as independent
variables for this research. Other factors of purchase intention
are excluded in this study.
• The small size of sample is taken only on Kathmandu base location.
• Only the primary data is used for this study.
• Detailed rezsearch is not conducted in this research due to time
constraints.
• Respondents’ self-understanding sometimes has provided inac-
curate or incomplete information.
• The study covers only on television product.

Purchase Intention
Purchase intention can be defined as an advance plan to purchase
certain good or service in the future, this plan may not always lead to
implementation, because it is affected by ability to perform (Warshaw
& Davis, 1985). In other words, what the consumer think and will buy
in their mind represents the purchase intention (Blackwell, Miniard, &
Engel, 2001). Besides, purchase intention can also determine the pos-
sibility of a consumer’s action leading to actual purchase, and through
identifying the intensity of purchase intention, there is a high possibility
to purchase certain particular product when the purchase intention is
stronger (Dodds, Monroe, & Grewal, 1991; Schiffman & Kanuk, 2000).
Purchase intention shows that consumers will follow need recognition,
information search through external environment, evaluation of alterna-
tives, make purchase decision and post-purchase experience (Zeithaml,
1988; Dodds, Monroe, & Grewal, 1991; Schiffman & Kanuk, 2000)

bLklzvf ÷ 111
 Purchase intention is the implied promise to one’s self to buy the
product again whenever one makes next trip to the market (Fandos &
Flavian, 2006; Halim & Hameed, 2005). It has a substantial importance
because the companies want to increase the sale of specific product
for the purpose to maximize their profit. Purchase intention depicts
the impression of customer retention. There are certain functions of
the brand which have a strong influence on the purchase intention of
the customer’s i.e. brand image, product quality, product knowledge,
product involvement, product attributes and brand loyalty.

Product Perceived Quality

Perceived quality is defined as the consumer’s judgment about
the product’s overall excellence or superiority (Zeithaml, 1988).
According to Lutz (1986), for durable goods, quality is perceived to
be higher if the product can be assessed prior to purchase. In other
words, the higher the proportion of attributes that can be assessed
before purchase (search attributes) to those that can be assessed only
during consumption (experience attributes), the better is the quality
perceived for durable and industrial
Perceived quality of a brand influences the decision making
process of a consumer. It also directly influences the brand loyalty of
the consumers. Perceived quality has a greater influence in a customer’s
purchasing process and in brand loyalty. This influence is very im-
portant when customers are in a condition, which makes them unable
to make an analysis of the quality. Perceived quality can be used as a
helping tool when company intends to utilize a pricing strategy with
premium price and further extend a brand in several markets (Aaker
A David1991). All customers are conscious about the product quality.
The majority of people prefer to go for well-known brands car which
have a high reputation in the market for the different attributes of the
quality. There are many quality attributes which the customer looks
for, like the mileage, safety, design, durability, aesthetic, reliability etc.
Tsiotuso (2006) studied that, the perceived quality and overall
satisfaction of purchase intention. Researchers confirmed that there is
positive relationship between product quality and customer purchase
intention. Perceived quality can be considered as a summarization
of product attribute information (Olson and Jacoby 1972; Myers and
Shocker 1988; and Zeitham, 1988).

Perceived Price
Price is the value or amount of money that is sacrificed to obtain
particular product or services. Price is the value placed on what is
exchanged. Perceived price can be explained as the monetary amount

112 ÷ bLklzvf
above the average price received by multiple firms that sell a perfectly
duplicate product during a finite period of time (Ba & Pavlou, 2002).
Perceived price can be defined as the consumer’s perceptual
representation or subjective perception of the objective price of the
product (Jacoby and Olson, 1977). Although objective price is factor
often support for this finding, its association with quality value and
purchase intention, perceived price has been identified as a relevant
intermediate variable in the price quality value relationship (Monroe
and Chapman 1987; Zeithaml 1988).
Purchase intention tends to be reduced when the actual price on
products is higher than acceptable price range and vice versa (Dodds,
1991). If the price range is lower than acceptable price range customers are
believed to lack confidence towards the product’s quality (Peter, 1969).
According to Chang & Wildt (2006), researchers have found that
perceived quality and perceived price were significantly associated in
the expected direction and perceived quality is significantly associated
with the purchase intention. This finding is supported by other author
and they found that perceived price influences the purchase intention
(Moroe and Chapman 1987 & Zeitham 1988).
Chu & Lu (2009) agreed and state that in relation to sacrifice the
result demonstrate that the price significantly influences online Music
purchase decision.
Ibrahim et. al (2013) highlighted there is not significant relation-
ship between price and purchase intention of the television among the
young adults. Being within a line (Jacob and Olson, 1977) suggested
the price is a cue to stimulate consumer’s perception on purchasing
products and the price can reflects psychology response on consum-
er’s mind after contacting price. Furthermore Jacoby's model indicates
that standard is estimated by perceived quality and perceived sacrifice
(Monroe and Krishnan, 198). It means high price result in high product
quality eventually enhances purchase intention directly.

Brand Image
Brand image has a great effect on consumers' next behavior
(Johnson and Puto, 1987; Fishbein, 1967), and have great contribution
in the brand equity (Biel, 1992).
Brand image is an exclusive design-- a reliability surely to ensure
the quality and value added services as claimed by Chi, Yeh and Yang
(2008). According to them brand image can be influenced by the adver-
tisement Many surveys showed that there is a significant relationship
between brand image and purchase intention. Another similar type of
research is conducted by Taria, et. al (2013) which has found that there
is a relationship between brand image and purchase intention.

bLklzvf ÷ 113
 This research finding is also proved by other study of Wu & Wu,
and they have found that every dimension of brand image influence the
purchase intention of consumer. Similarly, other research conducted by
Eze et. al. have also found and proved that there is positive relationship
between brand and image and consumer purchase intention.

Demographic Variables
Academic researchers and marketers utilize consumer
demographics to identify consumers’ characteristics that will help
them segment the consumer market for automobiles. More important
is demographic factors which may provide information that will help
them predict consumer behavior in terms of consumers’ segmentation
with psychographic variables (Wang, et. al, 2001). Therefore, the study
utilized demographic factors of consumers to explore the correlation
of their intention to purchase new products. Demographic factors
of consumers can be separated into (a) gender, (b) age, (c) income,
(d) educational background, (e) race, and (f) Marital states (Kotler &
Keller, 2006).
This review only utilized two demographic factors to explore
the relationship with their purchase intention and they are: (a) age (b)
gender.

Age
Age is frequently used segmentation variable (Hawkins, Mothers
baught, & Best, 2007; Kerin, Berkowitz, Hartley, & Rudelius, 2003;
Kotler & Keller, 2006; Peter & Olson, 2008). Mafe and Blas (2008) found
that the age of a consumer had an impact on the purchasing behavior of
consumers who were shopping for televisions in the country of Spain.
The result showed that age was more significant than the impact of
gender, education, and income. Furthermore, the age of consumers
had a correlation to how loyal they were to a particular brand.
According to Khan, Ghauri & Majeed (2012) different age groups
have no great effect on brand purchase intention. They found that
different age groups have no different purchase intention of products.
Mo & Wong (2012) argued that the age is an influential factor that
influence the purchase intention of consumers who are interested in
purchasing automobile. This research indicates that young consumers
with less income have a higher intention to purchase an automobile
when compared with older consumers who have more income.

Gender
Another demographic factor that has been researched to explore
its influence on the purchase intention of consumers as it pertains

114 ÷ bLklzvf
to product categories is gender. Ritter (2004) conducted research on
healthcare purchases by senior citizen healthcare consumers in the
United States and he found that gender of consumers did not significantly
influence senior citizens’ healthcare coverage purchase decisions.
Summers et.al (2006) state that the gender does not affect the
consumer’ purchase intention. There is same purchase intention
between male and female customers. Ahmad and Juhdi (2010) found
on the purchase of organic foods, that women were likely to pay more
than men if the organic foods were not too expensive and more
available in Malaysia.
In addition, Mo & Wong (2012), found that gender of consumers
influence their purchase intention by moderating their level of
income. It means the purchase intention is influenced by gender.
Another similar type of research was conducted by Khan et.
al (2012) and they confirmed that both male and female have shown
the equal knowledge about brand and purchase intention. There is
no significant difference between male and female for showing the
purchase intention. Behavioral intention of the female customers
about the product is slightly higher than the male customers.

Population and Sample of the Study

The population of the study constitutes both residences within
Kathmandu valley and outside Kathmandu valley. Precisely, it consti-
tutes the numbers of Television users. Here, the total television users
are the targets of this study. The total population of Nepal as mentioned
in 2011 census is approximately 26.49 million and the total Television
user household are 36.45% of the total population and out of these
60.67% users in urban area and 30.66% users in rural area. According to
national report of National Population and Household survey Census
2011, the total population of television users are 1,976,603 and out of
them 1,342,271 populations reside in urban area and 634,332 popula-
tions reside in rural area.
The screening is initially based on a convenience selection of
respondent i.e. convenient sampling method is used to collect the
information. Information was collected from different locations of
Kathmandu; they are different outlet and stores of Television like shop-
ping malls and hospitals, colleges and departmental stores. Altogether
70 questionnaires were distributed to the respondents and out of them
54 responses have been successfully received.

Sources and Nature of Data

This study is based on primary source of data. Information about
the retention factors has been collected from the primary sources. The

bLklzvf ÷ 115
questionnaire has been used to collect the data required for undertak-
ing the proposed study.
For data collection purpose, questionnaire in 4 point Likert scale
were prepared measuring the brand image, perceived quality, price,
purchase intension. The expectation of respondents were generated
through four point likert scale anchored by “strongly agree”=1 to
“strongly agree”=4.

Data Processing and Analysis

Required information were collected, edited and entered in the
spread sheet. Analysis was done by using SPSS version 18. The follow-
ing tools were used to analyze the data.
Cronbach’s Alpha: Cronbach’s Alpha is used to test reliability of items
of questions used in questionnaire.
Descriptive Statistics: Average and percentage is used to present the
detailed overview of respondents’ profile.
Independent sample t-test: Independent sample t-test is used to test
significant difference between age groups and gender on purchase
intention.
Correlation Analysis: Correlation analysis is carried out to examine the
association between retention factors and purchase intention.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA): ANOVA is carried out to detect rela-
tionship between dependent and independent variables.

Data Presentation and Analysis

This section is organized into eight different sections. The first
section deals with demographic information based on the data set of 54
cases; second section describes the reliability test; the third section re-
veals the descriptive statistics; the fourth section describes independent
sample T-Test; fifth section describes analysis of variance (ANOVA) test;
sixth section deals correlation analysis; seventh section deals major find-
ings of this study; and eight sections present the table of test of hypothesis.

Demographic Information of Respondents

Demographic Information by Gender
Frequency Percent
Male 32 59.3
Female 22 40.7
Total 54 100

The result of the demographic profile by gender shows that ma-

jority of the respondents are male that consists of 32 (59.3%) and 22

116 ÷ bLklzvf
(40.7%) female. These percentages reflect the structure of balanced mix
of entire gender population.

Demographic Information by Age Group

Age group Frequency Percent
16 to 25 14 25.9
26 to 35 12 22.2
36 to 45 22 40.7
45 + 6 11.1
Total 54 100.0
The result of the demographic profile by age group shows
that majority of the respondents are at the age bracket of 36 to 45 (40.7%),
followed by 16 to 25 (25.9%), 26 to 35 (22.2%) and 45+ (11.1%).

Summarizes the Preferred Price Range in Buying TV Set

Preferred price range Frequency Percent
Up to Rs.10,000 2 3.7
10,001 to 20,000 18 33.3
20,001 to 30,000 12 22.2
30,001 to 40,000 18 33.3
above 40,000 4 7.4
Total 54 100.0
The sample consists of 2 (3.7%) respondents willing to pay up to
Rs 10,000 for buying television, whereas the sample consists of 4 (7.4%)
willing to pay more than Rs 40,000 for buying television. The major-
ity of the respondents 48 (88.9%) prefer to remain within the range of
extreme two end of the price range.

Reliability Test
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients have been utilized to measure the
reliabilities and internal consistencies of the scales used. According to
Cronbach (2004) when measuring the difference, it is appropriate to
undertake Cronbach’s. Cronbach’s alpha can be interpreted as a cor-
relation coefficient, it ranges in value from 0 to 1 (Coakes and Steed,
2007).
The result of reliabilities that are under 0.6 is considered to be
poor, while in the range of 7.0, the result can be acceptable and if the
result show range between 0.8, it is considered as a good result (Sekaran,
2003).

bLklzvf ÷ 117
 Following the procedure and criteria, the process of refinement
of measurement scales were carried out using SPSS version 18. In this
process, the items which do not meet evaluating criteria were eliminated
by Cronbach Alpha. After refinement, reliability of scales is re-assessed
by Cronbach Alpha. Criteria of refinement of items include: Cronbach
Alpha > 0.60.

Reliability Test Result

Variables Cronbach Alpha Result
Perceived price 0.809 Good scale
Perceived Quality 0.622 Good scale
Brand image 0.860 Good scale
Purchase Intention 0.875 Good scale
From the reliability analysis all factors were found to be of good
reliability with the Cronbach's alpha value of above 0.6 for all the
variables used under the study, which strongly supports the reliability
about the questionnaires which the researcher has developed.

Descriptive Statistics Analysis

Mean and standard deviation analysis are used in the descriptive
analysis. The higher mean value means, more respondents agreeing to
the variables could have a greater association or impact on purchase
intention. When analysing the mean and standard deviation of vari-
ables, it is important to note that a significantly large value of standard
deviation means that the data being tested is far away from the mean
whereas a smaller value means that the tested variable is closer to Mean.

Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error of Mean
Purchase intention 2.71 0.483 0.066
Price 2.67 0.699 0.095
Perceived quality 2.6 0.537 0.073
Brand image 2.87 0.764 0.104

The above table illustrates that the mean score of price, perceived
quality and brand image are 2.67, 2.6 and 2.87 respectively which are
0.095, 0.073 and 0.104 away from the zero mean. The effect of these
three independent variables on purchase intention of television in Nep-
alese Market is 2.71, which is measured as the mean score of purchase
intention which is 0.006 away from the zero mean.

118 ÷ bLklzvf
Group Statistics of Age Group
Purchase Intention
Std. Error
Age Group Mean N Std. Deviation
of Mean
16 to 25 2.99 14 .385 .103

26 to 35 2.77 12 .440 .127

36 to 45 2.57 22 .495 .106

45 + 2.46 6 .490 .200

Total 2.71 54 .483 .066

The above table shows that the mean score of purchase inten-
tion for age group 16 to 25 tends to be the highest (2.99) and the lowest
standard deviation (0.385), whereas the age group above 45 have the
lowest mean value for purchase intention (2.46) and high standard
deviation (0.490). It indicates that the age group 16 to 25 are more influ-
enced on purchase intention with the effect of price, perceived quality
and brand image for the television in Nepalese market. The age group
of above 45 are least influenced on purchase intention with the effect
of price, quality and brand image for television in Nepalese Market.

Table no 4.7 Group Statistics of Gender

Std. Std. Er-
Gender N Mean
Deviation ror Mean
Purchase intention Male 32 2.59 .416 .074
Female 22 2.88 .528 .113

The above table shows that the mean score of purchase intention
for female customers tends to be higher (2.88) in comparison with male
customers (2.59) under study, with the standard deviation of 0.416 and
0.528 respectively for female and male customers of television sets in
Nepalese market.

Independent sample t-test

Independent sample t-test is used for testing the significant of
two group Means. For this we need two variables. One quantitative
variable whose groups Means are being tested and other categorical
variable that defines the two group of interest.

bLklzvf ÷ 119
Table no 4.8 Independent Sample t-tests on purchase intention
across gender.
t-test for
Levene's Test for
Equality
Equality of Variances
of Means

F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Purchase Equal variances
2.648 0.11 -2.27 52 0.027
intention assumed
Equal variances not as-
-2.172 38.071 0.036
sumed

The result of Leven’s test for equality of variance indicates that

there is no significant difference in variance of responses towards the
purchase intention. Since, P value (.110) is greater than 0.05 (p>0.05),
it is insignificant, so the alternate hypothesis is rejected i.e. there is no
significant difference in the purchase intention of television in Nepal-
ese market across the gender.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Test

ANOVA is a technique for detecting relationships between
quantitative variable (dependent) and one or more categorical vari-
ables (independent). It enables to us to test for significant difference
between two or more groups as well as looks at the interaction of two
independent variables on the dependent variables.

ANOVA Table
Purchase Intention Among the Different Age Group
Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 1.942 3 .647 3.112 .034
Within Groups 10.401 50 .208
Total 12.343 53

ANOVA test shows the significant p value 0.034 which is less

than (p<0.05), hence the alternate hypothesis is accepted i.e. there is
a significant difference in purchase intention of television sets in the
Nepalese Market.
Due to having significant relationship among the different age
groups further Post Hoc analysis should be carried out for group com-
parison.

120 ÷ bLklzvf
Multiple Comparisons

Post Hoc Tests: Dependent variable: Purchase intention LSD

95% Confidence
Mean
(I) Age (J) Age Std. Interval
Differ- Sig.
Group Group Error Lower Upper
ence (I-J)
Bound Bound
26 to 35 .222 .179 .222 -.14 .58
16 to
36 to 45 .417* .156 .010 .10 .73
25
45 + .535 *
.223 .020 .09 .98
16 to 25 -.222 .179 .222 -.58 .14
26 to
36 to 45 .195 .164 .238 -.13 .52
35
45 + .313 .228 .176 -.15 .77
16 to 25 -.417 *
.156 .010 -.73 -.10
36 to
26 to 35 -.195 .164 .238 -.52 .13
45
45 + .118 .210 .578 -.30 .54
16 to 25 -.535 *
.223 .020 -.98 -.09
45 + 26 to 35 -.313 .228 .176 -.77 .15
36 to 45 -.118 .210 .578 -.54 .30
*. The Mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Post hoc analysis shows that there is significant difference on
purchase intention of television sets in Nepalese market between the
age group of 16 to 25 and 36 to 45 and age group of 16 to 25 and 45+
with p value of 0.010 and 0.020 respectively. However the insignificant
difference was observed between the age group of 16 to 25 and 26 to 35,
age group of 26 to 35 and age group of 36 to 45 and age group of 36 to
45 and 45+ with the p value of 0.222, 0.238, 0.176 and 0.578 respectively.

Relationship between Purchase Intention and Independent Variables

Karl Pearson’s Correlation coefficient is used to find out the
relationship between dependent and independent variables. In this
study, purchase intention is taken as the dependent variable; price,
perceived quality and brand image are independent variables. This
section analyses the relationship between influencing factors and pur-
chase intention of consumers for buying the television set. Correlation
coefficient between dependent and independent variables reflect the
relationship. Below table summarizes the association between purchase
intention and independent variables such as price, perceived quality
and brand image.

bLklzvf ÷ 121
Correlations between Independent Variables and Purchase Intention.
Purchase Perceived Brand
Price
intention Quality Image
Purchase intention 1
Price 0.878** 1
Perceived quality 0.408** 0.164** 1
Brand image 0.804** 0.633** -0.08** 1
* significant at 0.05 level of significant
** significant at 0.01 level of significant

The result shows that the television purchase intention is sig-

nificantly and positively correlated with perceived quality and brand
image at five per cent level of significance which is found to be in line
with the previous research.
Interestingly, the correlation between television purchase inten-
tion and price factor is found to be significant and positive, which is
against the price demand theory.
It also supports the finding by Jin and Suh (2005). He found
that price consciousness does not influence the consumer’s attitudes
regarding durable private label brand goods contrary to the case of
private label brand of non-durable consumer goods. So, it is consumer
durable goods, as well as in Nepalese society the television is taken as
luxurious goods, thus the purchase intention is positively influenced
by increased in the price.

4.8 Major Findings of the Study

Based on above analysis, major findings of the study are sum-
marized as below;
1. There is no significant difference between male and female in
purchase intention of television set in Nepalese market.
2. There is significant difference on purchase intention of television
set in Nepalese market among different age groups.
3. Customers tend to remain within the extreme end price of televi-
sion sets in Nepalese market, taken under this study.
4. There is highly positive and significant correlation between price
and purchase intention for buying television in Nepalese market.
5. There is moderately positive and significant correlation between
perceived quality and purchase intention of television set in
Nepalese market.
6. There is highly positive and significant correlation between
purchase intention and brand image for buying of television in
Nepalese market.

122 ÷ bLklzvf
7. Descriptive statistics shows that majority of the respondents 48
(88.9%) prefer to remain within the range of extreme two ends
of the price range.

Conclusion
The study concludes that there is positive and significant impact
of price, perceived quality and brand image for purchase intention of
television set in Nepalese market. There is no significant difference in
purchase intention of television set across the gender and it is observed
that there is significant difference on purchase intention across at least
one age group.
In general, customer’s perception on purchase intention of televi-
sion set product was positive with the effect of price, perceived quality
and brand image. However, the positive and significant effect of price
on purchase intention is little wonderful in context of Nepalese televi-
sion market. The result supports the previous finding of Jacoby's model
that standard is estimated by perceived quality and perceived sacrifice
(Monroe and Krishnan, 198). He found that the high price resulting in
high product quality eventually enhances purchase intention directly.
Since television is the consumer durable and luxurious products
for Nepalese market. The purchase intention is positively influenced
by increas in the price.
Based on the correlation analysis, the study also concludes that
perceived quality has moderate and significant effect on purchase
intention of television set. This finding supports Tsiotuso, 2006. He
found that product quality creates customer’s satisfaction. Researcher
agreed that the product’s quality has positive and significant effect in
the purchase intention of television sets among consumers in Nepal-
ese market.
The study further concludes that the brand image has the posi-
tive and significant impact on purchase intention of television sets in
Nepalese market which is within the line of findings by Shah et. al
(2012) i.e. the independent variable core brand image shows a positive
relationship with the dependent variable purchase intention. The brand
image has the positive direct effect on the purchase intention.
Finally, based on correlation coefficient result, there is positive
relationship between purchase intention and price, perceived quality
and brand image respectively. There is no significant difference be-
tween male and female age groups on purchase intention of television
set, as well as there is significant difference among the age group on
purchase intention of television set.

bLklzvf ÷ 123
Implications
Certain limitations of this study provide opportunity for the
further research. Based on the findings, there are few recommenda-
tions for the researchers in the future. First, it is recommended that the
additional factors affecting variables which are not captured for this
analysis must be used to know the real effect on purchase intention.
It would be better to increase the sample size for conducting further
research, because in the study only 54 samples is taken. Additional
analytical tools should be used to analyze the collected data.
Furthermore this research can also further be undertaken on the
basis of additional demographic variables. Future research could also
be conducted by focusing on the similar study of purchase intention
with some other products.
The study suggests that television producers should pay more
attention to build the brand image and quality of the product they of-
fer to the customers. However, the pricing of the television should be
decided with little precaution.

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Wang, Y. P., & Kan, W. H. (2002). The effects of quality image and country of
origin on consumers’ product evaluation. Management and innovation
seminar of National Taiwan University of Science and Technology.
Wu, H. W. (2002). The factors influencing the supported teams chose by pro-
fessional baseball fans, and the relationship among supporting factors,
loyalty and satisfaction. Unpublished Master thesis, National College of
Physical Education and Sports, Taiwan.
Wu, T. L. (2006). The impact of perceived quality and brand loyalty on purchase
intention of product extension: An empirical study of dual brand hand-
set customization of Mobile firms. Unpublished Master thesis, National
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end Model and synthesis of evidence. Journal of Marketing, 52, 2-22.

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Poor Public Service Quality; identifying
the culprits
- Dhruba Nepal*

1. Breaking the Ice

Everyday Nepali newspapers are rife with news and views
on dismal state of public service quality. Long queue to get passport,
citizenship certificates and absence of doctors and paramedical staffs
from health entities are few common ones. In addition, people are
found complaining about being forced to get job done by paying
lubricant money (bribe) to acquire some services like transferring land
ownership, registering vehicles and so on. Some services like health
services are either incomplete or of unsatisfactory quality. As the main
rationale of the state or government is to provide public services to its
people, if it fails in this matter, of course, a big question arises about
why people should be paying taxes, supporting the state management
system if the state fails to provide basic services to its people. That’s
why, it is imperative for the state or the government to pay attention
in improving service quality. Despite the issues relating to quality
of public service invite assorted debates and discussion, this subject
or topic is rarely contained and discussed in the books on public
administration, albeit, public service delivery topic is found, which
normally focuses on quantitative aspect rather than qualitative aspect.
This article tries to present conceptual framework relating to
public service quality – elements, determinants and ways to improve
them.

2. Concept of Public Service Quality

It is necessary to be clear in basic terms related with public
service quality (PSQ). The dictionary Meaning of these terms May not

* Lecturer, Koteshwor Multiple Campus

bLklzvf ÷ 127
be exactly the same as the operational ones. Operational definitions
are those used for study or work purpose.
Public – the government or the state related.
Service – tangible goods or intangible services provided to own people
or foreigners.
Quality - Meeting the wants and needs of targeted people, without
waste and within regulations, available resources and the control of
the service (Øvretveit, 2005).
In combined form, public service quality means the provision
of goods or the services that satisfy the wants or needs of the targeted
populations within certain constraints by the state to its own people
and even foreigners. So, everything tangible or intangible the state
produces and provides to people either free or with charge comes
under the domain of public service.
PSQ is seen as a late comer in new public management in
comparison to other elements like organizational transformations
(such as breaking bureaucratic organizations into separate agencies,
decentralizing management authority within public services from
setting policy) as well as changes in human resource management
(such as requiring staff to work to performance targets, and shifting
towards term contracts and performance-related pay) occurred earlier
than the focus on service quality (Rieper and Mayne, 1998).
Public service has another connotation as well, that is the body
of people employed by the state and paid their salary and allowances
from the state coffer. For example, civil service, police service, military
service, teachers/professors and employees of public enterprises. For
this article, public service is what government provides to general
people, not the body of employees.

3. Service Features
Quality of goods drew attention first of Japanese who paid more
attention and resources for its improvement. For them also, quality of
service was a late comer concept in private sector. It is evident from
the philosophy they were guided by: “zero defects doing it right the
first time”.
Crosby (1979) defines quality as conformance to requirements.
Garvin (1983) measures quality by counting the incidence of “internal”
failures (those observed before a product leaves the factory) and
“external” failures those incurred in the field after a unit has been
installed.
Service quality is different from goods quality due to its main
three features – intangibility, heterogeneity and inseparability (Parasura-
man, Zeithaml and Berry, 1985). Intangibility means service is intangible,

128 ÷ bLklzvf
which is not physical object, so cannot be taken home and stored. So, it
is difficult to develop the specification in detail as applicable to goods. In
addition, it makes difficult also to understand how consumers perceive
the service and evaluate service quality. Heterogeneity means too high
variation in service. The factors that affect service quality vary provider
to provider, customer to customer and time to time. It Makes diffi-
culty in maintaining uniformity in service quality. As service quality
is mainly judged on the basis of customer satisfaction and it may vary
quite high, it is difficult to measure. Inseparability means production
and consumption cannot be separated, as the service is produced, it is
consumed at the same time. For example, a medical check-up conducted
by a medical doctor is produced and consumed at the same time. In
labour intensive services, quality occurs during service delivery, usu-
ally in an interaction between the client and the contact person of the
service providing entity. The service providing entity may also have
less managerial control because client’s role in the determination of
service is quite significant.
Regarding service quality, following are the observations made
by different studies:
 Service quality is more difficult for the consumer to evaluate
than goods quality;
 Service quality perceptions result from a comparison of
consumer expectations with actual service performance;
 Quality evaluations are not made solely on the outcome of a
service; they also involve evaluations of the process of service
delivery.
Based on these observations, it can be said that service quality
can be evaluated from two dimensions: first, from the content of the
service itself, for example, whether a medical doctor diagnosed a patient
correctly, and second, the behaviour shown by a service provider to
his/her client. It means whether a doctor behaved nicely to a patient
(Walsh, 1991).
Two types of service quality exists: technical quality, which
involves what a customer is actually receiving from the service, and
functional quality, which involves the manner in which the service is
delivered (Groonroos, 1982). This classification of service quality is
quite the same as argued by Walsh.
The common definition of service quality says that a service
becomes of quality if it conforms the specification. This definition
is true only from static view because even the specification may not
remain preferable for different times. It changes, so the service quality
also needs to be adjusted as per new needs and desires. This is a
dynamic view. (Walsh, 1991)

bLklzvf ÷ 129
 As per the nature of service, a client may know about its quality
at two stages – before utilizing the service, so can look for quality,
it is known as search product (goods or service), and second one is
experience product. For consumer, it is impossible, impracticable or too
expensive to investigate before purchasing a product to know about
quality of such kinds of goods. To some extent all products will have
characteristics of two categories, but there are clearly goods that fall
predominantly into one category or the other (Nelson, 1970).

What’s more about public service quality?

Above discussion covered quality of service in common. What
can be specific to public service quality? Besides above features, few
others are specific to public service quality:
 Many public services are monopolistic, for example, passport
and citizen certificate issue, land registration and so on. Some
are competing with private providers like postal service. As
public service competes with private sector, the public service
is found normally of lower quality.
 The price of service is not based on cost of production, but
it is determined considering other factors rather than cost of
production. Private sectors fix the price of its services comparing
the price or fee rate based on comparable public services.

4. Dimensions of Service Quality

SERVQUAL – service quality is a widely used model to
understand service quality and assess the gap between expectation
and perception. This model was developed by a group of American
authors, 'Parsu' Parasuraman, Valarie Zeithaml and Leonard Berry,
in 1985. It highlights the main components of high quality service.
The SERVQUAL authors originally identified ten elements of service
quality, but in later work, they narrowed down into five factors -
reliability, assurance, tangibles, empathy and responsiveness - that
create the acronym RATER (Rieper and Mayne, 1998). Before falling
down to ten, they had identified 10 factors – competence, courtesy,
credibility, security, access, communication, knowing the customer,
tangibles, reliability and responsiveness.
Actually, this tool was developed for the application by private
sector service industry, but it has been used by public sector as well.
A research conducted to assess the service quality as a result of
innovation introduced by Pune Collectorate of Maharastra, India. The
initiative named as “Zero-Pendency and Daily Disposal” (ZPDD),
was aimed to streamline all the processes in the offices of Pune
Collectorate with a view to bring the transparency in the system and

130 ÷ bLklzvf
to enhance service quality for the citizens. That study was conducted
using the service quality scale of SERVQUAL (Mulla and Saini, 2013).
This provides evidence that though SERVQUAL was developed
for private service sector, it can be used also by public sectors with
tailoring as per suitability.
As the SERVQUAL model of service quality in its revised
version has identified five dimensions, it seems relevant also for
public service. Those five dimensions are (Parasuraman et al, 1985):
i) Reliability: The ability to perform the promised service
dependably and accurately.
ii) Assurance: The knowledge and courtesy of employees and their
ability to convey trust and confidence.
iii) Tangibles: The appearance of physical facilities, equipment,
personnel and communication materials.
iv) Empathy: The provision of caring, individualized attention to
customers.
v) Responsiveness: The willingness to help customers and provide
prompt service.
If these five dimensions are fully considered and public service
possess them, then it can be said that public service is with quality. PSQ
is relational and contextual phenomenon. It is relational because it tends
to be defined differently by different actors in various roles of producers
and users and in different positions relating to levels of organization.
It is contextual because the concept of quality should be specified not
only in relation to specific type of service (Reiper and Mayne, 1998).
SERVQUAL researchers identified five gaps that block the provi-
sion of high quality service in private sector (Parasuraman et al, 1985).
This gap may also be pertinent to public sector as well but needs to be
examined in public sector context.

Gap 1: Consumer expectation – Management perception

This gap arises when the management does not correctly perceive
what the customers want. For instance, hospital administrators may
think patients want better food, but patients may be more concerned
with the responsiveness of the nurse. Key factors leading to this gap
are:
• Insufficient marketing research
• Poorly interpreted information about the audience's expectations
• Research not focused on demand quality
• Too many layers between the front line personnel and the top
level management

bLklzvf ÷ 131
Gap 2: Management perception – service quality specification
Although the management might correctly perceive what the
customer wants, they may not set an appropriate performance standard.
An example would be when hospital administrators instruct nurses to
respond to a request ‘fast’, but may not specify ‘how fast’. Gap 2 may
occur due the following reasons:

• Insufficient planning procedures

• Lack of management commitment
• Unclear or ambiguous service design
• Unsystematic new service development process

Gap 3: Service quality specifications – service delivery gap

This gap may arise through service personnel being poor train-
ing, incapable or unwilling to meet the set service standard. The pos-
sible major reasons for this gap are:

• Deficiencies in human resource policies such as ineffective

recruitment, role ambiguity, role conflict, improper evaluation
and compensation system
• Ineffective internal marketing
• Failure to match demand and supply
• Lack of proper customer education and training

Gap 4: Service delivery-external communication gap

Consumer expectations are highly influenced by statements made
by company representatives and advertisements. The gap arises when
these assumed expectations are not fulfilled at the time of delivery of
the service. For example, the hospital printed on the brochure may have
clean and furnished rooms, but in reality it may be poorly maintained,
in which case the patients' expectations are not met. The discrepancy
between actual service and the promised one may occur due to the
following reasons:

• Over-promising in external communication campaign

• Failure to manage customer expectations
• Failure to perform according to specifications

Gap 5: Expected service-perceived service gap

This gap arises when the consumer misinterprets the service
quality. For example, a physician may keep visiting the patient to show
and ensure care, but the patient may interpret this as an indication that
something is really wrong.

132 ÷ bLklzvf
Fig. 1: Service quality Model

Source: Adapted from Parsuraman et al, op cit, p. 44

5. Realization of Poor Quality of Service by Government

Officials
Poor quality of public service has not only been the complaints
of service recipients but also of service providers. On the auspices
of PREPARE (Project to Prepare Public Administration for State
Reforms) under the Ministry of General Administration had
conducted panel group discussions in six district headquarters
(Dhading, Nuwakot, Morang, Kailali, Rupandehi and Dhanusa)
among civil employees (30-40 government officials in each district). In
each districts, four groups were formed, each one included six to ten
participants. They were asked to choose the closest status of public
service based on their perception. Possible statuses of public service
were given to choose:
i. Quantitatively and qualitatively satisfactory;
ii. Quantitatively satisfactory and qualitatively unsatisfactory;
iii. Quantitatively unsatisfactory and qualitatively satisfactory;

bLklzvf ÷ 133
iv. Quantitatively and qualitatively unsatisfactory.
Among above four, most of the discussion groups chose second
option that means the service quality provided by government offices
that are frontline service providers perceive that the service they have
been providing unsatisfactory in terms of quality though quantitatively
they are satisfactory within the given resources and conditions.1
Above perception of civil employees, general people’s complaints
expressed through different means in radio, television and print medias
about public service quality indicates the need to focus on improving
service quality.

6. Reasons for Dismal Quality Level

There are many reasons that negatively contributes to service
quality. A private organization is normally more flexible than
government organization in making decisions including service
quality and the cost of improved quality can be charged to clients. It
is not so with public organization. A government entity at frontline
encounters difficulty in making a decisions just to improve the quality
by raising the cost of service, so the analogy between private and
public sector decision making in respect to improving quality would
not be appropriate. For example, to change the structure of building
for making it more accessible to clients with disability is difficult
for frontline public office due to shortage of financial resource,
decision making authority to increase fee or charge against improved
service facility. The case with private organization would be different.
Taking into account these facts – relative rigidity at frontline in making
decisions, there are few factors that affect PSQ. These factors were
identified in course of conducting group discussions with government
officials at district headquarters of six districts as referred above.
i. Policy level: Insufficient number of service centres, inadequate
resource allocation, lack of rewarding and punishing based on
the service provided, over-politicisation of civil service and so on.
ii. Organization level: Insufficient number of staffs deployed,
improper office layout, ineffective control mechanism, so
corruption is rampant and so on.
iii. Individual level: Lack of knowledge and skill, attitude, language
barrier, indifferent from public officials value and ethics and
so on.

7. Efforts to Improve PSQ

Many efforts have been made so far to improve PSQ. Some
salient ones are:
1 This finding is based on the author’s involvement is conducting said interactions.

134 ÷ bLklzvf
i. Citizen Charter (even with compensatory provision for six
selected services): To provide necessary information about
public service: the process, requirements to be fulfilled
by the service claimant, time required to provide service,
and responsible government official for the service. Every
government offices are mandated to make citizen charter
visible to every service seeker. We can see, every office has
been making it visible as someone enters a government
office premise, but practice is very low. Even the provision
of compensation if service is not provided in time has been
practiced in six government offices with high flow of service
like land registration, driving license and vehicle renewal etc,
but the practice of claiming compensation is not in practice and
the service quality is not improved.
ii. Hello Sarkar: In the Prime Minister’s Office, toll free telephone
line has been established with dedicated officials to receive
telephone calls from general people regarding their concern
with the government. This service was introduced in November
2011. Overwhelming number of complaints (26,811 complaints)
were filed since establishment and out of that 97.35 per cent
or 25,851 have been settled) as informed by Mr. Krishna Hari
Banskota, the Secretary of Prime Minister’s Office. As per him,
now about 800 complaints are registered every Month (www.
myrepublica.com).
iii. Social accountability tools: Different social accountability tools
like public hearing, disclosing progress and audit reports are
also in practice.
iv. Complaint box in government offices: The government has
introduced to put complaint box in government offices, but it
is considered less effective in making public service effective.
v. Stipulating the time of completion of the task in laws: Some laws
stipulates the time to complete the task, otherwise government
offices would be accountable for failing to do so. For example,
the Company Act has stipulated 15 days to register a company.
If the concerned office cannot register, it has to provide clearly
the reason.
Despite such efforts, the service quality is still in a dismal state,
corruption is rampant and impunity is like a national character.

8. Conclusion
Though public service quality improvement is the chief concern
of Nepali people, it has not been improved, which is evidenced by
Nepal’s dismal performance in different national and international

bLklzvf ÷ 135
indicators. There is no well acclaimed tool to measure the gap between
service quality expectation and perception, so the tool – SERVQUAL
devised for private sector service business, is used for public sector
tailoring.
It would be pertinent to understand why service quality in
Nepal is poor and why the efforts made so far is not proven effective.
To seek the answer of this question, different studies would be
relevant.

Bibliography
Mulla, Zubin R., and Saini, Gordhan K. (2013). Innovation in Public Service
Delivery: Zero-Pendency and Daily Disposal (ZPDD) Initiative in Pune
Collectorate, Indian Journal of Public Administration, Indian Institute
of Public Administration: New Delhi, India, October-December 2013.
Øvretveit, J. (2005). Public Service Quality Improvement in The Oxford
Handbook of Public Management edited by Ewan Ferlie, Laurence
Lynn and Christopher Pollitt, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 543
O. Rieper, O and Mayne, J. (1998). Evaluation and public service quality, Scan-
dinavian Journal of Social Welfare, 1998, p. 118
Parasuraman, A., Zeithml, Valarie and Berry, Leonard, (1985). A concep-
tual Model of service quality amd its implications for future research,
Journal of Marketing, Vol 49, (Fall 1985), 41-50
http://www.myrepublica.com/portal/index.php?action=news_
details&news_id=65648

136 ÷ bLklzvf
 Analysing The Guru of Love from
Perspective of Class Struggle
- Raju Prasad Bhusal*

The Guru of Love, by Samrat Upadhyay can be best read from

the Marxist perspective owing to the instances and evidences de-
picted in the novel. Based upon the political and economic theories of
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Marxism is a critical theory to make the
study of economic and social system. While it would take veritably vol-
umes to explain the full implications of the Marxist social and economic
ideology, Marxism is summed up in the Oxford Learners Dictionary as “
the political and economic theories of Karl Marx (1818-83) which explain
the changes and developments in society as the result of opposition
between the social classes” (942). Marxism is the antithesis of capitalism
which is defined by Oxford Learners Dictionary as “an economic system
in which a country’s business and industry are controlled and run for
profit by private owners rather than by the government” (219). Marx-
ism is the system of socialism of which the dominant feature is public
ownership of the Means of production, distribution, and exchange.
According to Marx, a class is defined by the relations of its mem-
bers to the means of production. He proclaimed that history is the
chronology of class struggles, wars, and uprisings. He further says in
The Communist Manifesto “The history of all hitherto existing society is
the history of class struggles” (30).Under capitalism, Marx continues, the
workers are paid a bare minimum wage or salary. That is not sufficient to
fulfil the basic needs of their family. The worker is alienated because he
has no control over the labour or product which he produces. The capi-
talists sell the products produced by the workers at a proportional value
as related to the labour involved. Unpaid value is the difference between
what the worker is paid and the price for which the product is sold.

* Lecturer, Koteshwor Multiple Campus

bLklzvf ÷ 137
 The plot of the novel revolves around three characters-- Ram-
chandra, Malati and Goma. Efforts have been made in portraying their
character, manner, situations, obstacles, intimacies, and so on. In doing
this very job, marxism has been used as a tool specializing in class-
conflict. In most of the situations these three main characters of the
novel, have been found emotionally attached. As they share same fate,
similar destiny, their problems and dreams also are nearly attached. In
the same manner high class people also share the same nature, culture
and trend. Their blood and mind expose the same opinion. The one
and only universal nature of high class is to dominate the low class.
While interpreting this text through Marxist view, Ramchan-
dra, Malati and Goma belong to lower class. In Marxist diction they are
proletariats or 'haves not'. Pandeys, Bandana miss and taxi driver rep-
resent high class that means bourgeoisie or ‘haves’. This world itself is
formed on the base structure of duality. It is natural to have the conflict
between two opposite parties and ideas. The conflict is transparent
between these classes. The class conflict is seen as the major driver
behind the failure of dream for these low class people. Ramchandra’s
dream to be an engineer fails because of the creditor of Lamjung. They
captured his property and chased him to an unknown city. Ramchan-
dra has potentiality and strength to be an engineer but his dream took
another route because of his father's untimely death. As a result, his
economic condition bankrupted and his property fell in the hand of
creditors of Lamjung. Initial failure of his dream commenced at this
stage. He had deep rooted desire to be an engineer that led him to the
town of opportunities, Kathmandu, with his mother. Sadly, his second
step also failed being captured in the hand of Pandey family. Pandeys
dominate him time and again in every meeting and gatherings. In the
school, Bandana miss dominates and exploits him in this and that way.
She has a high profile and belongs to high class. She always appears
dominating to him.
Pandeys stand as the Main cause behind the failure of his dream.
Neither they help him nor do they guide him. Neither they let him free
nor do they support him. Though he is a pure revolutionist, he turns
helpless since in every door of his dreams, these high class people play
the role of a pure villain. His dreams are personal, so he is unable to
get the support from other haves- not to kick out the blockade created
by the haves class.
Taxi-driver symbolically belongs to high class. Taxi is for
luxury. He exploits Malati physically in the name of love. He gives her
the dreams to suck the nectar of Malati's body. She is deceived by him.
Her dream to pass SLC and go to college fails. The causes of the failure
of her dream are Taxi driver and Malekha didi. Both of them belong to

138 ÷ bLklzvf
high class. For Goma, her parents stand as the cause behind the failure
of dream. They hang her, her husband and Child. A Mother hardly is
able to tolerate the oppression inflicted on her child. Similarly, no wife
can resist the constant offence and suppression done to her husband.
But Goma is not expressing orally her anger to her parents when they
are directly engaged in torturing her family. She is worried about her
dream to have her own house in the town.
In conclusion, after analyzing the text The Guru of Love
through Marxist reading, the result is drawn that the low class
people are made puppet in the hand of high class people. Their fate is
determined by high class people. Apparently, their destiny is captured
by high class people. Ramchandra neither gets his dream fulfilled nor
is able to maintain the existing family relation. At last he merely
repent in his inability to get involved in illegal activities for money-
making and fame earning. These three major characters have their
own specific dreams but could not get success in turning the dreams
into reality. Being tormented by his in-laws, teased and questioned
by other teachers and because of his only low level economic status,
Ramchandra heads straight to catastrophe.

Works cited
Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms.7th ed. New Delhi: Harcourt, 2003.
Adams, Hazard, ed. Critical Theory since Plato to Postmodernism. Florida: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, 1982.
“Capitalism” Def. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. 7th ed. New
Delhi: Oxford, 2005.
Habib, M. A. R. A History of Literary Criticism and Theory. Malden: Blackwell,
2008.
“Marxism” Def. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. 7th ed. New Delhi:
Oxford, 2005.
Marx, Karl and Friedrich Engles. The Communist Manifesto. Kathmandu: Pragati
Pustak Sadan, 2066 B.S.
Rosen, Judith. Rev. of The Guru of Love, by Samrat Upadhyay. Publishers Weekly
(18 Nov. 2002): 156-157. Print.
Seaman, Donna. Rev. of The Guru of Love, by Samrat Upadhyay. Booklist
(1 Nov. 2002): 476. Print.
Simonoff, Eric. Rev. of The Guru of Love, by Samrat Upadhyay. Publishers Weekly
(18 Nov. 2002): 42. Print.
Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory Today. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2010.
Upadhyay, Samrat. The Guru of Love. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co. 2003.

bLklzvf ÷ 139
 A Study on Women Entrepreneurs:
The Case of Bhaktapur Durbar Square
- Prakash Pokharel*

ABSTRACT
Women entrepreneurs can contribute significantly to economic devel-
opment in Nepal but their contribution has not been adequately studied and
developed. Although it is challenging for both men and women to start and sus-
tain a successful business, women face unique challenges to self-employment.
The objective of this study was to explore nature of women entrepreneurs, to
investigate background and motivational factor, to identify the challenges of
women entrepreneurs business in Bhaktapur Durbar Square area and to make
practical recommendations to enhance women entrepreneurship. A survey that
included 52 women-owned businesses was conducted. Women entrepreneurs
in this study were motivated by pull factors, such as the need for extra income,
empowerment and social recognition. They are currently facing obstacles, such
as high interest, lack of business management skill, pressure of childcare, lack of
self confidence and socio-culture environment (dual responsibility, restrictions
on Mobility). They furthermore, indicated financial support, business training
and advice, the need to network with other business owners and marketing
support as their main support needs. Practical recommendations are suggested
to stakeholders and women entrepreneurs to overcome these obstacles and to
ensure that women entrepreneurs can sufficiently contribute to the economy
and empower themselves economically.
Keywords: women entrepreneurship, family businesses,
motivational factors, obstacles, self-employment.

Introduction
Wave of modernizations actually started with breakthrough of
innovation. Discontinuities in every aspects like social, cultural, value,

* Lecturer, Koteshwor Multiple Campus

140 ÷ bLklzvf
perception, etc. lead us into new global paradigm. Therefore, this move-
ment equally produces opportunities as well as threats in modern
social and non-social aspects with failure, and political ideology on the
brink of collapse, economic trend and social value create difficulties in
existing environment under which new thought and innovations have
prevailed.
Women are the major founders of the society, yet women have
not achieved equality in relation to men. According to UNHRC, of the
world’s 1.3 billion poor people, it is estimated that nearly 70 per cent
people are women. 80 per cent of the world’s 27 million refugees are
women.
In Nepal they are socially, economically, culturally and politi-
cally dominated and they are excluded from the opportunities. Status of
women is primarily linked with family, society and the state structures.
The socio-economic status of women in Nepal is very poor.  Nepal is
a country of great geographic, cultural, ethnic, religious diversity but
no matter how much talented they are, they never get a chance to de-
velop. Central Bureau of Statistics shows that women’s literacy rate is
30 percent. The enrolment of women in higher education is only 24.95
percent. Women’ involvement in technical and vocational education
is also lower than that of men, so woman’s situation is very poor in
health, education, participation, income generation, self-confidence,
decision-making, access to policymaking, and human rights. But since
the last few decades, recognition has been given to the importance of
women’s entrepreneurship as a prerequisite for household level pov-
erty alleviation, national income development and the empowerment
of women.
“The social, economic, attitudinal, financial, institutional, legal
and political obstacles hamper them to move ahead and initiate their
business and receive maximum benefits as per their input and poten-
tial” (Ishwari Acharya: women in tourism industry of Nepal). Women
entrepreneurship can be enhanced from various sectors like industries
producing tourism items, services like home stay, money exchange,
tourist transport, agricultural production for which modern orientation
is toward organic product(veritable, coffee, food grand), construction
industries, furniture and furnishing, carpet, garments and floriculture
and many more other areas where women can perform with their great
potential.
Nepal is underdeveloping country with high unemployment
rates, low levels of formal and higher education, the migration of indi-
viduals from rural areas to cities, corporate restructuring and govern-
ment policies, and regulations that enforce the restructuring of larger
organizations.

bLklzvf ÷ 141
Focus of the Study
Women in the Bhaktapur Durbar Square area are indulged
in various professions which indicate their interest toward the
business. But a lot of work still has to be done in order to explore
their full potentially and capability. Therefore the main focus of the
study is to search and identify the active participation of the women
in the business sector and encourage them to work actively as an
entrepreneur. This study also motivates women and helps them to
identify the different challenges they face in the business environment.
Women are resourceful, revolutionary, productive & innovative of
social improvement. They are not only housewives; they can do many
things for us. Today is the age of entrepreneurs.

Statement of the problem

Lack of capital is general characteristic of Nepali society specially
of women because decision regarding wealth entirely rests on male
in Nepali culture. Nepal has got great potentiality of strengthening
economy of country through tourism with the availability of vari-
ous beautiful scenic places, cultural heritage sites (some of them are
listed in the world heritage) and many attractive places. Low access
to credit and marketing networks, lack of access to land and property
and reduced risk-taking capacity, lack of access to modern technol-
ogy, lack of personal security and risk of sexual harassment, severe
competition from organized units both in the domestic as well as the
international markets, low level of self-confidence, social and cultural
barriers such as exclusive responsibility for household work, restrictions
on mobility are the major problems faced by women entrepreneurs in
Nepal (ADB, Country briefing paper women in Nepal,1999).
This part of the study focuses mainly on identifying the involve-
ment of the women as an entrepreneur especially in business sector.
Involvement of women in entrepreneurship is very limited because of
various reasons such as lack of risk bearing capacity, family support,
level of education and awareness, patriarchal influence of social and
cultural practices of society, brought up practices as female are granted
limited practice from their very childhood. These all reasons murder
and confine creativity and sphere of thinking of women.
On the other hand, out of the total population of Nepal, the
number of female population exceeds male and without making them
involved in economic activities, the economic development of the
country is quite difficult.

Objective of the study

Human resources play a prime role in developing any nation.
Participation of women in economic activities is the most. Therefore,

142 ÷ bLklzvf
the government should frame policies and strategies enhancing partici-
pation of women entrepreneur in business. What helps to bring about
economic independency, establishing their own identity and creativity,
developing risk-taking ability and achievement of excellence and build-
ing confidence, equal status in society, greater freedom and mobility?
The main objective of the study is to gain an understanding on
the nature of women entrepreneurship in business sector of Bhaktapur
Durbar:
 To investigate factors for motivation of women entrepreneurs.
 To identify the challenges that women entrepreneurs are facing.
 To identify performance of women entrepreneurs in their cur-
rent business.

Literature Review
Entrepreneurship can be categorically studied from six schools
of thought,(Great person school, Psychological characteristics school,
Classical school, Management school, Leadership school and Entre-
preneurship school) each with its own underlying set of beliefs. Each
of these schools can also be categorized according to its interest in
studying personal characteristics, opportunities, management or the
need for adopting an existing venture.
As recommended by Botha (2006:293) in previous research, it is
important to determine the factors that motivate women to start their
own businesses. This knowledge regarding the profile of the woman
entrepreneur might enable policy-makers to create an encouraging
environment for women entrepreneurs to start their own businesses.
Heilman and Chen (2003:360) as well as Botha (2006:122) argued that
various push-and-pull factors exist that can motivate women to start
their own businesses. Maas and Herrington (2006:19) defined push
factors as the more negative factors, such as unemployment and re-
trenchment, which force people to become entrepreneurial in order to
survive. They regard pull factors to be the more positive factors, such
as government support and role models, which might influence people
to choose entrepreneurship as a career option. Ghosh and Cheruvalath
(2007:149) found that only one-fifth of women are drawn into entrepre-
neurship by pull factors. The rest are forced into entrepreneurship by
push factors. Refer to detailed discussions of these factors in the studies
by Kock (2008), Lebakeng (2008) and Meyer (2009).
According to Kuratko and Welsch (1994:332), women entre-
preneurs have long felt that they have been victims of discrimination.
Various studies examined the types of discrimination and some have
attempted to document them. This argument is supported by De Bruin,
Brush and Welter (2007:325). Researchers Sexton and Bowman-Upton

bLklzvf ÷ 143
suggest that female business owners are subject to gender-related dis-
crimination. In addition, Abor and Biekpe (2006:106) emphasize that this
discrimination against women seems to be even worse in sub-Saharan
African countries, such as Ghana, where the financial sector is male
oriented.
The performance of women entrepreneurs in their businesses
has become an important area of recent policy and academic debate.
Comparatively little rigorous and in-depth research, however, has
been undertaken on the issues of gender and business performance.
Performance is the act of performing; of doing something successfully;
using knowledge as distinguished from merely possessing it. However,
performance seems to be conceptualized, and measured in different
ways (Srinivasan et al., 1994), thus making cross-comparison difficult.
Among the most frequently used operationalisations are survival,
growth in employees, and profitability (Lerner, Brush, & Hisrich, 1997).
Amongst the most frequently used measures of performance are an-
nual sales, number of employees, return on sales, growth in sales, and
growth in employee numbers (Brush & Vanderwerf, 1992). Fischer et
al.’s (1993) study found that women’s businesses tend to perform less
well on measures such as sales, employment and growth, but concluded
that the determinants of gender differences in business performance
were far more complex than had been recognised in earlier studies.
Box et al. (1995) suggest that there are four elements which have
positive relationship with the business performance of Thai entrepre-
neurs, that is, previous experience as a member of an entrepreneur-
ial management team, number of previous starts, age and scanning inten-
sity. On the other hand, Hisrich et al. (1997) propose human capital (level
of education, years of experience and business skill), personal goals, and
strategy to assess the performance of men and women entrepreneurs.
The individual characteristics focus on the influence of resources,
in particular the level of education, occupation of parents, age, manage-
rial skill, previous entrepreneurial experience and industry experience
levels affecting entrepreneurial firm performance. Age and years of for-
mal education have been shown to correlate positively with the business
performance of women entrepreneurs. Dolinski et al. (1993) reckon that
less educated women may face financial or human capital constraints
which limit their business pursuits. At the same time, managerial skills
and particular strengths in generating ideas and dealing with people
(Birley & Norburn, 1987; Brush & Hisrich, 1991; Hisrich & Brush, 1984;
Hoad & Rosko, 1964) were important for a woman entrepreneur in
establishing a business. Box, Watts and Hisrich (1994) and Box, White
and Barr (1993) found that the entrepreneur’s years of prior experience
in the industry are positively correlated with firm performance.

144 ÷ bLklzvf
 An increasing number of scholars believe that the growth of a
business is, at least in part, determined by the entrepreneur’s motivation
(Shane et al., 1991). Psychological Motivations such as achievement,
independence, and locus of control (pull factors) have received signifi-
cant research attention to their influence on business start-up but less
attention has been paid to their relationship to business performance
(Brockhaus & Horwitz, 1986). Studies conducted by Storey (1994) and
Glancey et al. (1998) found that women pulled into establishing their
enterprises have more profitable and higher profit margin. According
to Brush (1990), individual motivations and goals such as profitability,
revenues and sales growth have been found to be related to performance
in women owned businesses, albeit their tendency to perform less well
than their male counterparts (Fisher et al., 1993). Researchers found that
women typically are motivated by a more complex set of objectives
for starting a business than male counterparts. Factors related to the
desire to achieve flexibility between work and family lives are valued
differently by the genders (Cinamon & Rich, 2002; Stephens & Felman,
1997)
Networks have long been hailed as essential to the survival of
female-run establishment (Blanco et al., 1996; Brodsky, 1993; Shim and
Eastlick, 1998). Women value their ability to develop relationships.
Hisrich and Brush (1987) suggested that support systems, mentors,
and advisors; business associates and friends; participation in trade
associations and women’s groups are the significant networks which
are positively associated with business performance.
From the above literature reviews following factors are consid-
ered to be important for women entrepreneurship.
1. Factors that motivate women to start their businesses
2. Challenges to women entrepreneurship
3. Performance of women entrepreneurs
4. Individual Characteristics and Performance
5. Entrepreneurial Orientation and Performance
6. Management Practices and Performance
7. Goals, Motivations and Performance
8. Networking and Performance

Research Methodology
This study follows descriptive research design. Descriptive ap-
proaches have been adopted mainly for describing the situation and
conduct a survey of opinions. This research design has been used for
searching adequate information about the nature of business owned
by women. Based on the self administered questionnaire survey, this
study attempts to assess the opinions and characteristics of women

bLklzvf ÷ 145
entrepreneur of Bhaktapur Durbar square. Analytical approach has
been followed to analyze the related data and the relationship among
variables. The collected data are analyzed by using arithmetic mean,
standard deviation, correlation etc.
Under the study the total number of women entrepreneurs
involved in business sector are the population, however this study is
confined to investigate the case of women entrepreneur in Bhaktapur
Durbar square. Convenience sampling techniques is used to select
women-owned businesses that could participate in this study.
This study is based on primary data. Primary data are collected
by questionnaire tool from the women entrepreneur. Each question-
naire includes a paragraph that guarantees the confidentiality of the
responses. Questionnaires are collected on same day. A total of 52
(98% response rate) usable questionnaires are returned, which were
subjected to further statistical analysis.

Limitation of the study

This study has attempted to identify the number of women
involve in the business sector in Bhaktapur Durbar Square and prob-
lems faced by them. For these purposes researcher used different tools
like pie chart, frequency table and hypothesis analysis. Every research
has more or less limitation. Lack of experiences, time, financial resources
and accurate information are some of limitation of the study. For the
completion of this study, some facts are to be considered as the limita-
tion. The study covers only an area of Bhaktapur Durbar Square.

Data Presentation and Analysis

Nature of Business and Initial Capital Investment
On the basis of product, this study found that there are five types
of business activities which are Handicraft, Clothes, Curio, Others busi-
ness and Tea and Coffee.

Nature of Business
Nature of Business  Frequency Percent
Handicraft 14 26.90
Clothes 14 26.90
Curio 11 21.20
Others 7 13.50
Tea and Coffee 6 11.50
Total 52 100.00
The above frequency table shows that out of 52 respondents,
26.90 per cent representing 14 women are involved in Handicraft

146 ÷ bLklzvf
and Clothes business each, 21.60 per cent representing 11 women
are involved in Curio business, 13.50 per cent representing 7 women
are involved in other business (general stores, sweet shop, tailor and
fruits shop) and 11.50 per cent representing 6 women are involved in
Tea and coffee shop. The following pie chart will make it clearer.

Initial Investment
Nature of Initial investment in nominal price (Rs.)
No.
business Mean Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum
Handicraft 14 370000.00 256312.61 25000 1000000
Clothes 14 336071.43 502057.99 20000 2000000
Curio 11 215045.45 155029.10 5500 500000
Others 7 220714.29 348358.40 15000 1000000
Tea and coffee 6 541666.67 807128.66 40000 2000000
Overall Business 52 327798.08 417204.70 5500 2000000

As we know that Bhaktapur Durbar Square is well known tourist
area so that the further analysis researcher classified the above busi-
ness activities in two categories. Handicraft and Curio business are
categorized into Tourist items business and remaining businesses are
categorized into Non tourist items business. The per cent of non tourist
items business is 51.92 per cent and tourist items business is 48.08.

bLklzvf ÷ 147
 Category of business tourist and non tourist items
Business Frequency Percent
Non tourist items 27 51.92
Tourist item 25 48.08
Total 52 100.00

Hypothesis testing of business category on age group, qualification

and ethnicity (Chi-square test at the 5% level of significance)
Broad age group (two categories designed up to 40 and over 40)
and category of business (two categories designed tourist item and non
tourist items).
The research hypothesis is – there is an association between age
group and category of business.

Test of independence of age and category of business

Category of business
 Age Row Total
Tourist item Non tourist item
18 21 39
Up to 40
(46%) (54%) (100%)
7 6 13
Over 40
(54%) (46%) (100%)
25 27 52
Column total
(48%) (52%) (100%)
Note: Figures within parentheses are row total percent Chi-square
value = 0.231 and p-value = 0.436
From the above analysis it shows that women of different age
group have no impact on the selection of business category.
Test of hypothesis on education and category of business.
The research hypothesis – there is an association between education status
and category of business.

Test of education status and category of business

Category of business Row
 Education status
Tourist Non tourist Total
12 21 39
Undergraduate
(36%) (64%) (100%)
13 6 13
Graduate
(68%) (32%) (100%)
25 27 52
Total
(48%) (52%) (100%)
Note: Figures within parentheses are row total percent
Chi-square value = 4.964 and p-value = 0.026

148 ÷ bLklzvf
 The above result shows that, according to education level, women
entrepreneurs perceive their degree of involvement into the different
types of business. So we can conclude that women in education status
have significant impact on the selection of category of business.

Hypothesis test on Ethnicity and category of business are tested and
analyzed to see the association between them.
The research hypothesis is – There is an association between ethnicity
and category of business.
Test of independence of ethnicity status and category of business
Category of business Row
Ethnicity
Tourist Non tourist Total
22 16 38
Newar
(58%) (42%) (100%)
3 11 14
Others
(21%) (79%) (100.0)
25 27 52
Column total
(48%) (52%) (100%)
Note: Figures within parentheses are row total percent
Chi-square value = 5.450 and p-value = 0.020

The p-value of the Chi-square-test is too small as compared to

0.05, there is sufficient evidence in the favor of research hypothesis. So
we accept alternative hypothesis that means there is significant differ-
ence between ethnicity and category of business.
Our focused area of study is Bhaktapur Durbar Square, which
is known as Newar ethnic society and the business considered by the
women entrepreneur is highly affected by their ethnic cast. From this
analysis we can also conclude that, there is majority of Newar custom-
ers and they prefer to purchase from newar entrepreneurs due to two
different reasons:-
First is the same language, which helps feel closer to each other.
Second is the business skill since it is generally accepted that Newar
entrepreneur has more business skill to attract the customer.

Motivational factors for the women entrepreneur

As per these research objectives, researcher has analyzed the
degree of motivation of the women entrepreneur in regard to the differ-
ent factors. According to ranking table, 37 women entrepreneurs have
chosen unemployment for most important (Rank 1) motivational factor,
27 women entrepreneurs are motivated by extra income (Rank 2), 19
women entrepreneurs have chosen family tradition (Rank 3) as a moti-
vational factor to do their business. Similarly, 22 women entrepreneurs

bLklzvf ÷ 149
have chosen empowerment (Rank 4) as motivational factor to do their
business and 20 women entrepreneurs have chosen social recognition
(Rank 5) as motivational factor to do their business. From this analysis
and mode value of these factors we can conclude that unemployment,
extra income, family tradition, empowerment and social recognition
factors are most important to least important factors for motivating
women entrepreneurship in Bhaktapur Durbar Square area.

Motivational factors for women entrepreneurship

Ranking( 1 for Most & 5
for least Important) Mode
Motivational Factors Total
Value
1 2 3 4 5
Unemployment 37 8 1 3 3 52 1
Extra Income 9 27 11 3 2 52 2
Family tradition 3 11 19 10 9 52 3
Empowerment 1 1 10 22 18 52 4
Social Recognition 2 5 11 14 20 52 5
  52 52 52 52 52

Challenges faced by women entrepreneurs

According to our study women entrepreneurs in Bhaktapur
Durbar Square area faced different kinds of challenges which can be
classified as financial and non financial challenges.

Financial challenge
Basically, this challenge is related to financial factor which is
the blood of the business so we ask financial factor related question to-
women entrepreneurs. According to our study, 94 percent representing
49 women think that there are difficulties to get loan and only 6 percent
representing 3 women entrepreneurs say that there are no difficulties
to get loan for business. For further analysis we ask the women entre-
preneurs what factors makes difficult to get the loan for business their
views are presented in the table below.
The table shows that 56 percent representing 29 women entre-
preneurs indicate the challenges of high interest rate, while 21 percent
representing 11 women entrepreneurs say that legal formalities to get
loan, 15 percent representing 8 women think that the challenge of lack
of faith upon women to receive loan, 2 percent representing 1 woman
says that lack of financial institutions to get loan and 6 percent repre-
senting 3 women do not answer our question.

150 ÷ bLklzvf
Difficulties to get loan
  Frequency Percentage
High interest 29 55.80
Legal formalities 11 21.20
Lack of faith upon women 8 15.40
Lack of Financial Institution 1 1.90
No response(Missing) 3 5.80
Total 52 100.00

Non financial challenge

Main non financial challenges to of women entrepreneurship
around our study area are different according to the respondents. The
table shows that 35 percent representing 18 women entrepreneurs,
lack business skills, while 29 percent representing 15 women entre-
preneurs, say that pressure of childcare, 19 percent representing 10
women entrepreneurs, perceive that lack of self-confidence and 17
percent representing 10 women entrepreneurs feel that socio-cultural
environment are the challenges for their business.
Factor Frequency Percentage
Lack of business skills 18 34.62
Pressure of childcare 15 28.85
Lack of self-confidence 10 19.23
Socio-cultural environment 9 17.31
Total 52 100.00

Family support towards the women business is quite significant,

from frequency table, 28 out of 52 respondents think that they have got
full support of business, which is 53.8 percent. Similarly 16 respondents
think that they have gone through support of family which is 30.8 per-
cent. From this finding we can conclude that there is "family business
nexus".
Family support on business
Factor Frequency Percent
Full support 28 53.8
Support 16 30.8
No support 6 11.5
Least support 2 3.8
Total 52 100

bLklzvf ÷ 151
 There is positive correlation 0.688 between family support and
social perception because that entrepreneur who is getting support and
full family support are also positively perceived by the society. There
are two different reason behinds this finding:-
First, they are keeping busy themselves into the productive sec-
tor, secondly, they are generating extra income for their family.
The two variables social perception and family support are tested
and analyzed to see the association between them.
The research hypothesis is – there is an association between society's
perception and family support.
Societies Perception and Family support Cross tabulation
  Family support
Societies Perception No support Support Total
6 3 9
Unfavorable
66.70% 33.30% 100.00%
2 41 43
Favorable
4.70% 95.30% 100.00%
8 44 52
Total
15.40% 84.60% 100.00%
Pearson Chi-Square 21.987 and P Value 0.000

The�����������������������������������������������������������
above analysis shows that there is strong relationship be-
tween societies perception and family support to women.

Performance of women entrepreneurs and current business

status.
Basically, growth rate of business and additional staff in last
three years, acquired of fixed assets and satisfaction level of the women
entrepreneurs are the major factors to measure the performance of
women entrepreneurs business.

Growth rate of business last three years

Our study shows that average growth of Handicraft, Curio,
Others, Tea and Coffee and Clothes business is 22.14 per cent, 21.82
per cent, 21.43 per cent, 20 per cent and 17.86 per cent respectively and
this indicates that there is no significant difference between nature of
business and growth of business. The overall business growth of busi-
ness owned by women entrepreneurs is 20.58 percent which is quite
satisfactory in the context of the economic conditions of our country.

152 ÷ bLklzvf
 Business growth rate percentage last three years
Growth rate of Business
Nature of business No. Std.
Mean Minimum Maximum
Deviation
Handicraft 14 22.14 11.88 10 40
Curio 11 21.82 9.82 10 40
Others 7 21.43 14.64 10 40
Tea and coffee 6 20.00 10.95 10 30
Clothes 14 17.86 11.22 0 40
Overall Business 52 20.58 11.27 0 40

Satisfaction level with Business

In this study satisfaction level is the another factor to measur-
ing business performance; the high level of satisfaction indicates the
high performance of the business and dissatisfaction represents the
low performance. Our study shows that 63.5 percent representing 33
women entrepreneurs are satisfied, 25 percent representing 13 women
are neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, while 11.5 percent representing 6
women are dissatisfied with their owned business.
Many research proved that there is a positive correlation between
satisfaction level and growth rate of business, we also want to recognize
that principle so we test the relationship between two variables. In
our study the correlation between growth rate and satisfaction is 0.77,
which is highly significant that means there is highly significant posi-
tive correlation between business growth rate and satisfaction level of
women entrepreneurs in Bhaktapur Durbar square.

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary/ Conclusion / Finding
• Women entrepreneurs in Bhaktapur Durbar Square area are Mo-
tivated to start their own business by pull factor which are
unemployment, extra income, family tradition, empowerment
and social recognition.
• The result of this study shows that the Handicraft and Clothes
are of equal priorities to establish their business than other
business items.
• Researcher finds that Clothes, Tea and Coffee as the maximum
initiate investment than other business in Bhaktapur Durbar
Square area.
• In this study researcher found that overall performance growth
rate of business quite satisfactory owing to the economy condi-
tion of our country.

bLklzvf ÷ 153
• Most of the women entrepreneurs are involved in their own
business so we conclude that there is no more contribution to
create employment from their business.
• In this study researcher found that more entrepreneurs (63%)
are satisfied with their business, they acquire additional assets
from their business.

Recommendations
• Since there is no association between age and category of busi-
ness, we recommended that entrepreneurs of any active age can
run any category of business.
• It is strongly recommended to Newar ethnicity to run business
in Bhaktapur Durbar Square area because of most the customers
are from the same ethnicity.
• The major motivational factor to push them into business is un-
employment problem and they are facing lack of business man-
agement skill and self confidence. So we recommended that skill
enhancement programmes are required.
• This study found that the high interest rate is one of the chal-
lenges for increment of capital. Therefore it is recommended
that, it would be better if government subsidies interest rate for
small and medium-sized business.
• There is a strong relationship between family support and society
perception. Therefore, it is recommended that the family should
support to enhance women entrepreneurship in the society.
• It is found that Most of the entrepreneurs are lacking self confi-
dence, risk taking ability and running in traditional way. Further-
more their business income is used for household consumption
expenditure so the growth of business is not satisfactory. It is
strongly recommended that the business should run and ongo-
ing entity concept.

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 Why We Write? : Three Nobel winners
define writing at Nobel Banquet
- Gaurav Bhattarai*

Three aspiring novelists sat together for a coffee table chit-chat

after they were bequeathed of some formal honors for their felt con-
tributions in the realm of writing. They shared all they have learned,
heard and underwent so far about writing.
Their topic of discussion kicked off from why we write to for
whom one write; revolved around the sense of audience , inspirations, the
inevitability of tradition; and each of them floated certain suggestions
and recommendations on writing. They excitedly entered the topic and
crawled back to the surface with an informed head.
Many sit in that style and argue on that manner at various cor-
ners of the world who relishes the world of words; who shuts himself
up in a room; sits down at a table; and retires to a corner to express
the meaning of literature.
But a day comes in a year when a Nobel Prize winner in litera-
ture speaks about writing, which is called Banquet speech. That day is
cherished as a memorable not by them alone. Their readers are always
therein to discover inspiration from their every statements and expres-
sions: whether it is through words in fiction or by means of speech at
a banquet. Defining about writing actually means philosophizing on
the art of expression through words. The way William Faulkner phi-
losophized in fifties, is still different from what Clezio did in 2008 and
Pamuk in the 2006.
Answers to the question why we write? are numerous and large.
Still the place where all dispersed foots, I guess, would tread together
and raise hands in agreement is --wherein one says writing is a way
of finding out how one feel about anything and everything. Usually
in the private. The latter part of the argument may draw only par-
* Lecturer, Koteshwor Multiple Campus

bLklzvf ÷ 157
tial agreement, for a writer is not necessarily a hermit, or a shy and
bashful.
Do we write only to give to others, what our predecessor en-
dowed on us after reading them! Or we write just to be published! Still
to be studied in schools and colleges!
This 8-paged Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) on Banquet
speech of William Faulkner, Gustav Le Clezio, and Orhan Pamuk is, to
be precise, an endeavor to reflect on trio's explanation on Why we write?
Some of their ideas are marked by correspondence or resemblance but
still differ in various lines.
Faulkner's speech at the Nobel Banquet at the City Hall in Stock-
holm, December 10, 1950 put stress on "the problem of the human heart
in conflict with itself which alone can make good writing"(1). Likewise,
Orhan Pamuk in his Nobel Lecture of December 7, 2006 said, a writer
writes when he/she has an instinctive need to write .For Pamuk "he
writes ,because he has "an innate need to write"(1). However, Jean-
Marie Gustave Le Clézio's Nobel Lecture of December 7, 2008 agrees
that writer s write to bear witness. For Clezio's "writer is nothing more
than a simple voyeur (4).
For Clezio, a good writing is the result of one's reflection on so-
ciety. On the other hand, for Faulkner, a good writing should portrays
a human spirit "which is capable of compassion, sacrifice and endur-
ance"(2). Pamuk takes a different stance. At the same time, a writer, says
Pamuk, talks of things that everyone know but does not know they know.
I have chosen them for they don't just talk as magicians don't
just talk about magic under the influence of applause, award and honor
for their remarkable contributions and incredible achievements. All
three had explained what writing means to them at the same occasion
when they were bestowed with honor and reward, but at different
periods of time. Faulkner made it shorter and philosophical; Pamuk
and Clezio made it longer, meditative and dramatic.
They all have argued on why anyone should sit alone and write
wherein they could be doing anything else. It reminds me of Jean Paul
Sartre debating in what is writing: each has his reasons: for one, art is
a flight; for another a means of conquering. But one can flee into a
hermitage, into madness, into death. One can conquer by arms. Why
does it have to be writing, why does one have to manage one’s escapes
and conquests by writing? (1)
Who do we write? has always been the question of a debate among
writers, readers, critics, journalists and others. One's motives to write
always depend on the time and space. There are still those groups who
believe that writing is something that only luxurious people peruse and
it would be a troublesome business to a poor illiterate boy as per the

158 ÷ bLklzvf
conventional suggestion that writing is undertaken by the educated and
well-cultivated scholars. It is not an easy question for a writer to answer
why he actually write. He may have one reason at one place and may
come up with the more advanced and progressive answer at the next
attempt. When the 19th century novels were being written, the art of
novel was in every sense a national art. Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, and Dick-
ens wrote for an emerging Middle class and they were seen speaking
to the nation. But today, the writing of novel holds different meaning.
Agreeing with what Pamuk said, in this age of global media, literary
writers are no longer people who speak first and only to the middle
classes of their own countries but are people who can speak, and speak
immediately to readers of “literary novels” all the world over. Today’s
literary readers await a new book by Garcia Marques, Coetzee, or Paul
Auster the same way as their predecessors awaited the new Dickens.
All three--American Faulkner, Turkish Pamuk, and French
Clezio, said through their Banquet speech how they fell in love with
words.
True and great literature emerged for Pamuk from his father's
suitcase .When he speaks of writing what comes to his Mind is not a
novel, a poem, or literary tradition, it is a person who shuts himself
up in a room, who sits alone and who turns inward. "To write means
to turn inward gazes into words... with patience, obstinacy and joy,"
uttered Pamuk at the Banquet speech.
Children's books, grandmother's dictionaries, biographies came
as a marvelous gateway to reading and writing for Clezio. Writing for
Clezio commences with a time for reflection, where writers "examine
every detail, explore every path, name every tree"(4). It is precisely that
realm from which the artist must not attempt to escape. Hence, writers
write for they would like to bear witness like James Joyce created Irish
ballad in Finnegans Wake.
What Faulkner said at the Banquet speech 48 years ago of Clezio's
is closer to what Pamuk understood on writing .For Faulkner, writing is
a life's work "in the agony and sweat of the human spirit"(1). Faulkner
thinks that it is writer's duty to create out of the materials of the human
spirit something which did not exist before.
The answer to the question Why we write? is tied up to the another
disputable subject matter , For whom one write? All three writers have
underlined the importance of recognizing targeted audiences in any
work of art. For Faulkner, the sense of audience is universal and to ad-
dress the universal audience, writer must teach himself the old universal
truths of the human heart, lacking which any story is short-lived and
doomed. Faulkner even suggests young writers not to abandon the old
verities and truths of heart .The writer should write of love and honor

bLklzvf ÷ 159
and pity and pride and compassion and sacrifice as it would be felt
by all people of the world, said Faulkner .He wants promising writers
to write of love, hope, pity and compassion, which are the universal
subjects. Write not of lust but of love, write not of glands but of heart,
said Faulkner, who declined to accept the end of man. For Faulkner, it's
writer's duty to speak of the inexhaustible voice burning in agony and
still talking. Faulkner does not agree that man is immortal because he
will endure but because he has a soul-- a spirit capable of compassion,
and sacrifice and endurance, and it is the writer's duty to write about
these things.
Still for Pamuk, shutting oneself away from crowds is literature's
eternal rule to be a good writer. To be a writer, patience and toil are not
enough, said Pamuk, who thinks the starting point of true literature is
the man who shuts himself up in his room with his books.
He said, once we shut ourselves away, we soon discover that we
are not as alone as we thought. We are in the company of the words
other people's stories, the other people's words. Over the issue of For
whom one write? Pamuk said, "a writer talks of things that everyone
knows but does not know they know"(7) so when a writer writes for
a reader the latter is visiting a world at once familiar and miraculous.
Pamuk holds a belief that all human beings resemble each other and
the others also carry wounds like that of his own and that they would
therefore understand what he writes. "All true literature rises from this
childish, hopeful certainty that all people resemble each other," said
Pamuk who believes that a writer shut himself up in a room to sug-
gest a single humanity about the experiences that the great majority
of people on this earth live with. He exemplified by mentioning that
the love and hate that the renowned Russian writer Dostoyevsky felt
towards the west has been felt by him too on Many occasion.
Poetic Mood of Pamuk was unveiled at the 2006 Banquet when
he eloquently stated his private reasons for writing anything on the
sidelines of narrating on his father's suitcase. He said, he writes because
of an innate need to write; because he cannot do normal work as other
people; because he want to read books like the ones he writes. He writes
because he want others, the whole world, to know what sort of life he
is living.
Like Faulker, Pamuk has also suggested the blossoming genera-
tion of writers, not to abandon the venture where one builds a new
world with words and urges to spend years seeking the second being
inside him with patience, obstinacy and joy. "Build the artworks like
someone build a bridge or a dome, stone by stone, but the stones we
writers use are words," urged Pamuk to the budding generation of
writers.

160 ÷ bLklzvf
 Pamuk's father resembles Clezio's maternal grandmother,
whom he calls 'an extraordinary storyteller (2). For Clezio, writer is a
daydreamer who is also fascinated with reality at the same time (2).
This realm of writing, for Clezio, is a place from which the artist must
not attempt to escape rather he/she must camp out there in order to
examine every detail, explore every path, name ever tree(2). This place
is the ' forest of paradoxes' in the words borrowed by Clezio from Stig
Dagermen.
At the Swedish Academy , Clezio even suggested the future
generation of writers to write, imagine, and dream in such a way that
his words and inventions and dreams will have an impact upon real-
ity, will change people's minds and hearts, will prepare the way for
a better world. Going through Clezio's speech, it seems true that one
writes for individual transformation, which in process of time also
brings about the social transformation ( when the text is able is arouse
readers, haunt them with meanings and suggestions, and inspire them
like of Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Gorky,).
If writing demands an act of shutting up oneself in room for
Pamuk, it is an act in solitude for Clezio. "Solitude is affectionate to
writers, and it is in the company of solitude that they find the essence
of happiness. It is a contradictory happiness, a mixture of pain and
delight, an illusionary triumph, a muted, omnipresent torment, not
unlike a haunting little tune (3).
Clarifying over the issue of for whom does one write, Clezio said at
the Banquet that the writer wants to speak for everyone and for every
era. Expanding his note on love for words, Clezio believed language
as the most extraordinary invention in the history of mankind, the one
which came before everything, and which makes it possible to share ev-
erything. "Without language there would be no science, no technology,
no law, no art, no love," justified Clezio on the importance of language
in human society. For Clezio, writers are the guardians of language
since when they write their novels, their poetry, their plays, they keep
language alive. "Writers keep language alive. They are not merely using
words-- on the contrary, they are at the service of language (6). Clezio
opined at the Academy that writers like him celebrate words because
language live through us and because of us , as it accompanies all the
social and economic transformations.
In a nutshell, these three Banquet speeches in particular, endues
a source of instruct and delight to those who always carry a book with
them, in their pocket or in their bag, usually in times of grief and sorrow.
These speeches as well answer the general questions on what Motivates
writers to write and for whom they write.

bLklzvf ÷ 161
 These speeches also come as an inspiration to those who love
to be in possession of another world: a fictional world which showers
on you happiness even amid an event resulting in great loss and mis-
fortune.

Works Cited
Faulkner, William. Banquet Speech. City Hall in Stockholm, December 10, 1950.
Gustave Le Clezio,Jean-Marie. Nobel Lecture. Nobel Prize Award Ceremony,
December 7, 2008.
Pamuk, Orhan. Nobel Lecture. Nobel Prize Award Ceremony, December 7,
2006.
Sartre, Jean Paul. “For Whom Does One Write?” What is Literature? Routledge
Classics, London, 1967.

162 ÷ bLklzvf
 Reading Challenges for
College Level students
- Gobinda Bahadur Adhikari*

Reading is a cognitive process of decoding meaning. In the

process of reading, a reader needs to get decoded meaning in the form
of acquisition. It is a complex interaction between the text and reader,
which is shaped by the reader’s prior knowledge, experiences, attitude,
and language community, which is culturally and socially situated.
The reading process requires continuous practice, development, and
refinement. Harmer says:
When we read for meaning, we do not need to read every letters
or every words, or nor even every words in each sentence. This is
because, provided the text makes sense, we guess much of what it
says as we read it. […] reading is an active process. When we read, we
do not merely sit there as passive receivers of the text; we also draw
on our own knowledge of the world and of language to help guess
what the text will say next. It is only if we are reading a series of words
that makes no sense at all (67).
When a reader undergoes the process of reading, he/she has
to take many things in mind to understand the passage. The reader’s
previous knowledge of vocabularies plays an important role to in
reading skill. With perquisites knowledge of prefix suffix, grammar,
syntactic and semantic the reader can get meaning of the text. Lipson
and Wixson say, “When students begin to read, they define vocabulary
in context” (45). First, they must explore the titles or headings, and then
underline unknown words. Second, they have to find word meaning by
using the context or sentences around it and relate to their background
knowledge. Third, using a dictionary or asking someone can help them
verify the correct meaning. Meaning of the vocabulary that the students
have known determine whether the passage is difficult or not. From

* Lecturer, Koteshwor Multiple Campus

bLklzvf ÷ 163
easy passage the students derive pleasure where as in difficult passage
the students do not show interest to read.
Accordingly, reading is an activity for pleasure and entertainment.
Students get a lot of pleasure from their reading. Reading becomes
interesting when the readers join their experiences with the text. The
experiences of readers play the greatest role to get enjoyment from
the passage. However there are instances wherein the readers find the
reading task difficult. According to Harmer:
One of the fundamental conditions of successful extensive reading
program is that students should be reading materials, which they can
understand. If they are struggling to understand every word, they can
hardly be reading for pleasure. [….] we need to provide either books
which by chance, or because they have been especially written, are
readily accessible to our students (283).
The students do not usually begin reading with completely
empty mind. Actually they have some idea what they are going to read
about. They will have certain questions in their mind before reading.
They may also able to make a number of predictions or guesses. Duff
says:
We usually have purposes in reading; there is something we want to find
out, some information we want to check and clarify, some opinion we
want to match against our own, and etc. We also have a purpose when
we read stories for pleasure: we want to find out how story develops,
“what happens next”(170).
Reading the text means to achieve the purpose. It also means
getting the meaning of the text, linking our ideas, feelings, emotions
with the text. That is why reading is not conducted in vacuum. It is
a goal oriented activity.�����������������������������������������������
����������������������������������������������
Reading task is not as easy. Reading is a cre-
ative mental activity process. If the students have not developed reading
from beginning age, they cannot develop reading process after crossing
critical period of hypothesis. After crossing 12 or 13 years, the students
cannot develop language acquisition process because the period prior
this age is known as fertile age of learning. It is applied in reading skill
also. Reading skill becomes difficult when it is started in latter age. Duff
further says:
Reading involves looking at sentences and words, recognizing them
and understanding them-It is a process of making sense of written
language. In early stages, it may also help to say the words but this is
not essential part of reading. So giving students sentences to look at
and understand will give them more useful practice in reading than
asking them to repeat written sentences aloud over and over again or
getting them to ‘spell out words’ (105).
Reading also means understanding the meaning. Many practices
in classroom help students develop proper habit of reading. College-
level students of Nepal are facing many challenges and problems in

164 ÷ bLklzvf
reading. The lack of reading comprehension tags those weak as com-
pared to others. Without proper understanding the passage they cannot
give the answers subjectively as well as objectively. Equally, they do
not fulfil the tasks of the atomicity and prosody and theme of the given
passage. Lack of comprehension makes them difficult to appreciate the
proper meaning of the words. Apart from the cognitive factors, the
problem in students could be due to various reasons. The first reason
worth mentionable in Nepalese context is the lack of well-developed
habit of reading. In present time they are forced to understand without
better syntactic pattern of language. They are confused because there
are differences between English and Nepali syntactic structures.
In Nepalese context, moreover at higher level, reading be-
comes more difficult for students because of the lack of proper cur-
riculum to address their specific needs. Similarly, Lederberg points
out difficult situations for students because of their parents and other
family members. He says:
Many students have limited language input as their parents,
family members, and teachers usually do not have fluent skills.
Parents don’t have better language or they often start to learn language
themselves when the detected. (59).
The society is another factor that creates barrier for students in
reading skill. In many areas the students feel alone because the society
doesn’t take interest in talking and understanding them. At home also
the parents don’t give interest to talk and teach because they don’t
understand the language Patten.
Linguistic is another barrier for them in reading. They have
not developed grammatical patterns and parts of speech and complex
difficult words which they do not want to learn. Nuttall explains these
problems of students in this way:
Complex noun groups, nominalizations, coordinating conjunctions,
participial phrases, and prepositional phrases are the main causes of
problems in reading comprehension of the students because they render
texts complex and difficult to understand (24).
Not only in the complex nouns, verbs, adjectives, the students
have problems in their complex sentences. The combinations of the
complex sentences also make them feel difficult in reading. Aebersold
& Field elaborate:
Complex and very long sentences also cause problems in reading
comprehension for students learning English as a second or foreign
language. Complex sentences are sentences that contain many clauses
or reduced clauses. Sentences with cohesive words such as however,
because, thus, although, and furthermore are also complex (106).
Problems are also seen in their channel of communication. The
channel of communication for them is considered only as in English
language. For them besides English Speaking Environment there is

bLklzvf ÷ 165
no Mode of communication. They do not understand the meaning of
difficult words that makes them vulnerable to lack of communication.
Alderson says:
In contradiction to hearing people who recognize language through the
auditory channel sometimes with support of visual channel, students
recognize language through reading channel sometimes with support of
auditory channel but the channel of auditory is very low for them (77).
Channel of communication is linked to their listening skill. How-
ever, they have been depending upon only the reading skill. Lack of
listening and speaking enforce them to look what the teacher teaches.
Nuttal further says:
Because most students are dependent on the visual modality for Lan-
guage reception regardless of whether they are acquiring a spoken or
listened language, they have to shift attention between their activities
and their language partners in order to obtain information both about
what is going on around them and about language itself (21).
Auditory mode of acquisition is lower in them. Their activities
of reading the text are just the matters forwarded from the teacher.
Owing to that factor, they lack power meaning of vocabulary, sentence
structure and grammatical patterns.
Language acquisition seems the barrier. Many students start
learning English when they reach at grade four or five. Padden and
Ramsey portray the same context in this way:
It is argued that readers must learn to exploit spelling as tools for read-
ing, and Must have guided practice doing so. They learn to do this ...
from teachers and from other readers in homes and in instructional
contexts where the set of skills needed to become a implicitly acknowl-
edged (39).
At home, they don’t get chance to learn spelling. Family mem-
bers don’t give interest in spelling and lacking of that phenomenon
in upper classes also creates problems in reading. Goldin-Meadow
and Mayberry similarly emphasize the crucial importance of building
an early language foundation if students are to develop strong reading
skills:
Despites tremendous challenges, the college level students are
seen making endeavour to sharpen the skills inevitable for reading
activities. Many teachers are providing them a lot of reading tasks
and in many colleges. The students are developing reading skills even
by being tech-friendly and through the constant use of email, blogs,
Facebook etc, which is undoubtedly a step forward to providing an aid
to resolve the reading challenges.

166 ÷ bLklzvf
 Leadership Behaviour of
Principal at School
- Laxman Ghimire

Principal is the head of an organization. He is expected to be more

qualified, experienced, inspiring, effective and good leader among
other members of the institution. If a principal is able to practice an
effective leadership style, it helps to bring about a positive kind of learn-
ing environment at school. As an effective leader of the organization
he must have better leadership qualities ( Sergiovani, 1995). Leadership
is important in developing an effective, innovative school and facilitat-
ing quality teaching learning(Dinham, 2005).
�������������������������������������������������������������������
An effective leader uses tactics and other social skills to encour-
age others to achieve their best and to motivate for further development
and change.( Kelly, 2005). The principal with an effective leadership
qualities is able to address the future of the students, investment of the
parents, vision, mission and goal of the educational institutions. School
principal has to deal with different types of problems and situations
so, good leading is crucial for it.
As a head of an institution, his experience, academic qualifica-
tion, exposure to training and development, maturity, ability, willing-
ness to work, leadership characteristic, and leadership functions play
a vital role (Robbinson & Coulter, 2007). As principal is a leader in an
institutional school, his leadership functions play an important role
for making a better academic institution. Principal is the key person of
the school and he has to focus his search for leadership on a particular
organizational corner (Ogawa & Bossert, 1998). So, the basic purpose of
this study is to determine the leadership functions and leadership style
for effective role performance of the principal as a leader. It is assumed
that the principal is a leader crucial to improve educational performance

* Lecturer, Koteshwor Multiple Campus

bLklzvf ÷ 167
and eventual quality (Cohen, 1983, Sergiovanni, 1994). Moreover, the
principal of an institutional school plays a highly significant role in
school Management with big responsibilities of the education service
( Huber, & West, 2002).
According to the education policy of Nepal, school principals
are made responsible for delivering leadership functions in schools.
The Education Regulation -2059 envisions the principal to perform 33
functions ascribed to them to properly run and manage schools. By
Education Act, overall role of the school governance and leadership is
given to School Management committee (SMC) and Parents’ Teacher
Association (PTA). Success of schools often depends on how effectively
principals use their leadership (Gerhardt, 2004). Competent leadership
covers a wide range of knowledge in the management aspects of the
school including: office management; curriculum management; staff
development. The form of the leadership requires that the leaders has
a clear and explicit goals and objectives and at the same time the abil-
ity to foster a cooperative of mutual support and guidance for better
performance. (Huber, 2010).
In the context of Nepal, the rise in number of private schools is
not due to “excess demand”. The poor quality of government aided
schools has pushed parents to look for better alternative schooling.
(World Bank, 1994). Due to this reason, parents have admitted their
children in institutional schools. Most urban residents, senior officials,
politicians and businesspersons choose institutional school for their
children (NSAC, 1998).
Effective school leadership is essential to improve the efficiency
and equity of schooling. Leadership is the ability to influence a group
toward the achievement of goals. Historically in Nepal, school educa-
tion has got top priority of the government during the past 20 years ever
since the planned development effort was initiated. Ongoing educa-
tion reform programs have also laid central focus on improvement in
school education with the assumption that a school is the place where
better education could be provided which may in turn bring about the
desired changes in the society.
Due to these reasons, institutional school’s academic qual-
ity, management system, leadership of the principal and physical
environment of the school became most important for all the interested
parents to admit their children in such schools. Due to this reason,
principal’s leadership, functions, leadership characteristics became an
important issues for all the stakeholders. As the demand of an insti-
tutional schools increased due to various reasons, as a principal his
leadership style and role performance became a issue of research and
further studies.

168 ÷ bLklzvf
 Institutional schools are growing rapidly but how the principal
of the schools are leading as an effective leader? This is an important
question in Nepalese context. Focusing on the top hierarchical organi-
zation –the principal’s leadership characteristics and functions directly
influence the all-round development of an institutional school. As an
important role model of the school, principals should be dynamic and
effective in his functions. But what should be the functions, character-
istics of the principals for better institutional school? It is an area of
study. How does he act as an effective leader? How does he function
as a main leader in institutional schools? There are various questions
concerning the leadership functions and characteristics of the principal.
To know about this leadership related issues, the institutional school's
principals should be able to manage the internal and external problems
of institutional schools and should be successful in this profession.
Education leadership agrees that effective principals are responsible
for establishing wide vision of commitment to high standards and the
success of all students.
The functions and charactistics of the principals have been ever
changing and turning into more challenging requirements in all contexts
(Beck & Murphy, 1993). Different nations have different leadership
functions and characteristics for the institutional school principals.
In the Nepalese context , principal’s leadership has been blamed
for not being a perfect leader to run the schools (Rijal, 2004).
In Nepal, many institutional schools emerged after the amendment
of education regulation in 1981. The expansion of institutional school
in Nepal can be explained in terms of market demand for quality
education, due to environment, English language, infrastructure,
teachers and curriculum etc. Privatization of an education is often
regarded as a strategy to increase resources in the education sector. By
allowing private schools as well as colleges to operate, governments
would be able to reduce their burden and help to broaden access to
education (psachroupoulos, Tan, and Jimenez, 1987,p.2)
Government adopts privatization for two reasons. The first reason is to
increase resources in education through private financing and reduce
the burden on public spending. The second reason is to broaden
the access without extra financial burden on public spending. Poor
quality of the government aided schools has pushed parents to look
for alternative schooling opportunity (World Bank,1994,p.41). For this
reason they are far More expensive than the public school. Kafle,(1999
pp.65-67) Tan and Jimenez(1987) have argued that “quality required
choice and choice required private enterprises”.

Leadership Behavior of Principal at School- a case study

First of all, researcher went to respondents with the open ended
questions to know about the principal’s leadership behaviour of an

bLklzvf ÷ 169
institutional school. Four different respondents of each institutional
secondary school were represented for this research work. When re-
searcher entered at the ‘Case A’ school, the principal was moving out-
side the school premises. All the students, teachers and the staff were
busy on their work. Principal was interacting with vice- principal by
standing outside. When researcher entered into the school premises,
the security went to inform about his visit to the principal. Principal
ordered the security to give permission to the researcher to enter inside.
After meeting researcher, principal of Case A school became ready for
the interview process. ‘How do you execute your leadership skills to run
this institution? Regarding the question, principal of case A replied;
“Surely, principal is the key person of an academic institution. His/ her
leadership capacity plays vital roles to bring about the drastic change in
the school. Dynamism directly influences all- round development of the
school. So, understanding the demand of the situation, I perform my
behaviour along with my subordinates and parents, students”.
There are various leadership styles. But, according to the demand
of the time; transformational, democratic, autocratic and situational
leadership styles should be applied. In my case;
“I basically prefer autocratic and democratic leadership skills but as
per the situation”.
The Case A school’s principal further explained about the leader-
ship behaviour and performance that:
“In the phase of making policies, leaders should be democratic and
while in the phase of implementation leaders should be autocratic. So,
I also follow this leadership style while behaving with teachers, staff
and with my students”.
The autocratic style of leadership refers to a situation whereby a
leader issues close instructions to his subordinates and makes most of
the decisions by him. It was necessary to ascertain the levels at which
the autocratic leadership style singularly influences school performance
in an institutional schools. Similarly, democratic leadership refers to
situation whereby the leaders can be close with subordinates, interact,
listen their voice, and implement for better result (Ezenne, 2003, P.32).
I use autocratic leadership style when I feel to do the things at
preferred time- Principal of Case A school answered;
Government policies which I’m supposed to implement have been com-
promised. For example, if teachers or parents want to pass a decision
that is in conflict with the implementation of the government policy
on the use .I advise them accordingly, but I have also to insist that the
policy takes precedent”.
According to Charlton (2000), head teachers who use strict con-
trol measures are likely to face resistance from student and teacher and
an increase in indiscipline because the teachers and students tend to
protest against dictatorial measures used. When a workshop of head

170 ÷ bLklzvf
teachers was organized by the Ministry of Education in 2005, it was
further indicated that:“Students hate harsh administrators who make
their academic performance record decline tremendously. Likewise,
teachers do not want commanding authority. Such authority makes
them lose morale and they neglect their duty or even think of work-
ing as a parttime in other schools which increases the labor turnover”.
In much the same way, descriptive statistics computed regarding the
parents’ opinions on the use of the autocratic leadership style to enhance
school performance, provides the same results. Parents perceive the use
of the autocratic leadership style in enhancing school performance in
negative light. Students need guidance and counseling into the learning
process other than coercing them to learn.
The principal of Case A school further added;
“Most of the institutional school principals use the democratic leader-
ship style compared to other leadership styles. Schools are composed
of intelligent people whose ideas are quite crucial in the day-to-day
operation of the schools. Teachers, students and parents, for example,
have the capacity to advise effectively on academic and other matters.
This has pushed many school policy makers to rely heavily on partici-
patory governance mechanisms or the democratic leadership style”.
While asking the same question to the secondary level teacher
of Case A school answered;
“Different people have different behaviour to lead an organization.
In the case of an institutional school, there should be the various
stakeholders in different nature. So, leading in such condition, leader
should be sometimes, autocratic, sometimes, democratic and sometimes
situational”.
In the case of our principal, he is democratic in nature, but
owing to situation he dictates and uses his full authority and power.
“Sometimes principal who uses autocratic style of leadership might
get good results. This is where the staff needs coercive methods for
them to be able to do the work as required. Sashkin and Sashkin also
supported the voice on it and he further added��������������������������
: ������������������������
“If there is some readi-
ness, evidenced by willingness, but inadequate skills, the supervisor
becomes a coach, guiding the employees through the details of the task
while providing encouragement. In that case, the leadership approach
is based on giving support, whilst refraining from giving directions.
This is because employees, like teachers, need good motivation and
support, but this can only be attained by having a very good teacher
with a good leadership style”(Sashkin & Sashkin, 2003. P.25).
School is the place of discipline, quality education, ECA
activities and other various programs, so, conducting all these
activities in a systematic procedure, principal must be dynamic to
understand the situational factors focused on leadership in specific
situations (Northouse, 2004). Situational theorists maintained that

bLklzvf ÷ 171
effective leaders varied their approaches of leadership in response to
environmental factors. These factors include the maturity of followers
with regard to the task they are being asked to perform as well as the
context in which the leader must act.
The teacher also reiterated that;
“There are situations where principal have to take decision without
consultations or when principal consulting will delay the process of
decision making so under such circumstances our school principal
dictate all the teachers/ staff and students”
Similarly, one student of Case A school participant answered
about the principal’s leadership behaviour like this;
“Our principal is a talented person but he always focuses on teaching
and learning not in ECA and other activities. It Makes us very mo-
notonous and unhappy. But when we request him, he behaves us as
like a dictator person. It depends upon his mood. Sometimes he is like
a flexible leader and sometimes like an autocratic leader. But in other
times he behaves us like a democratic leader”.
About the leadership skill of the principal, different view was
shared by the principal of Case B school;
“The leader shows the leadership quality which comes by birth. The
leader shows the leadership qualities that is inborn quality. By birth, I
deserved and other things learning by doing. So, contentiously reaches
up to the target”.
(Ezenne’s 2003) concludes that leaders usually establish direc-
tions by developing visions for the future in an organization. While
asking question about his leadership behavior, he shared ;
“Leader should have vision, leader should be visionary. Leader should
be far sighted natured and it should be approved by the subordinates.
Oh, I think, this one is the right path that’s why, we should go on this
way, leader should say but that is a bit despotic ruler. This is a bit
autocratic leader. Others are only followers. They may not show their
accountability. Forcefully they have been driven”.
In my own case;
“I am completely a democratic leader where I use my authority with
the combination of teachers, students and parents’ views. I don’t want
to dictate the followers but in some phases I have to take quick deci-
sion. May be I will be unable to interact with them”
Leadership means not ordering and dictating the followers like
a low level person. Leaders must understand their views, feelings and
ideologies for the further betterment. He pointed out ;
“My preference is collective decision, far sighted leader, visionary leader
and decision among the followers. Decision should be time –based,
decision should sake of the stakeholders. What is your motive, if you
want to earn only the income, which is bad������������������������������
.�����������������������������
If you think for the better-
ment of the quality of the students you decide your agendas which are
really important for the sake of the students, teachers and the parents”

172 ÷ bLklzvf
 After the interview with principal of Case B school, researcher
visited the secondary level teacher for an interview. The same
question was asked but it was “How does your principal perform his
leadership behavior among with followers to run this institution? In
this interview question he replied-
“Democratic leadership style is applied by my principal. He is
democratic with teachers and maintains the proper rules and
regulations assigned and mostly, he behaves as like the democratic
leader”.
He also added that;
“My principal listens the voice of subordinates. He organizes meeting
of teachers, also organizes the parents' meeting and he applies his own
decision with connecting the other’s ideas.”
In the same way, the researcher interacted with the grade ten
student of Case B school. The question was also same for him. In the
same question the student replied like this;
“Our principal motivates us for quality teaching and learning. He be-
haves softly and lovely with us. But when we request him to add some
facilities he becomes angry and takes his own decision. So, our demand
is not fulfilled by the principal. He takes his own decision in any action”.
The autocratic style of leadership refers to a situation whereby a
leader issues close instructions to his subordinates and makes most of
the decisions by himself (Ezenne, 2003). It was necessary to ascertain
the levels at which the autocratic leadership style singularly influences
school performance in secondary schools. While understanding the
leadership behaviour of the principal of case B school, researcher was
asked few questions to the parents. After asking the question about the
leadership behaviour of principal he replied;
“Our school’s principal doesn’t want to invest further but he wants to
collect more amounts with us. He softly behaves but hardly punishes
the students, if they do the simple mistakes. He looks like a democratic
person but autocratic in nature”
Similarly principal of Case C school expressed his own leadership
behaviour to lead his own institution;
“In school we deal with skill and educated manpower. Dealing with
skilled work force is also difficult job. So, if I am not a good leader or
I am not followed it will be difficult for me as well as to Management
to get common objectives. So, leadership skill is very much essential
to make collective effort to achieve the school’s goal producing practi-
cal students”.
Principal of Case C, focused in an importance of leadership and
so researcher again focused his question on leadership behaviour and
he further added;
“Still the concept of autocratic leadership style is in our mind. We think
that we have invested our own money and we have our own rule.
Although, I am trying to convert myself to democratic leadership style

bLklzvf ÷ 173
 but it is working like autocratic leadership style. Generally my view is
to be a task-oriented and result–oriented leadership style, embracing
all the views of the all members of the school”.
The voice of the principal of Case C and the parents of this
same institutional school was somehow different on this question. He
is nowadays focusing on task-oriented or result –oriented leadership
behaviour but one parent of this school said about the principal like
this:
“Our principal is highly qualified and dynamic. He understands us
and interacts very positively. He always focuses on results and posi-
tive attitude of the students. He is laborious and dedicated at work.
He is democratic and always listens the voice of parents and applies
it completely”
While interacting with the student of Case C school they shared
about the principal’s leadership behaviour- as like;
“In the case of my principal’s leadership behaviour, he is dedicated and
hardworking person. He loves working. So, all the students are also
following him like a role-model. Our school is progressing day by day
due to his laborious working style. So, he is democratic as well as result
oriented-leader. He expects good results in ECA and other activities”
In terms of the democratic leadership style, there is high cohe-
sion and involvement in the affairs of the institution, and staff members
show a positive attitude towards their leaders. The democratic style
of leadership uses discussion and bargaining to arrive at decisions.
This generates high morale among staff and promotes greater group
productivity (Ezenne, 2003.p .30)
The voice of the Case C schoolteacher also admired the principal
regarding latter’s leadership skills and he further expressed;
“Our principal is democratic leader who always focuses on work. He
advices us following the routine and system. He has divided different
ECA houses, focuses on other school activities and result of the school
is also excellent. teachers, parents and students are very happy and
satisfied with him. He is handling this school by understanding the
feelings of the stakeholders”.
However, Case D school principal expressed his leadership
behaviour as:
“I am not welll aware about the leadership behaviour or style . However,
I am democratic in nature and treat my teachers, students and parents
as democratic way. If the students and teachers don’t follow the rules
and system of the school, I deal as like a autocratic leader for a while.
If they obey and follow the system of the school, I lead as a democratic
leader. So, my behaviour depends upon the follower’s nature, working
styles and an environment”.
With the democratic leadership style, decisions are made demo-
cratically by the group, encouraged and assisted by the leader. Decisions
on various activities in the organizations are made after communication,

174 ÷ bLklzvf
consultation and discussions with various members of the organiza-
tions. In the democratic style of leadership, the leader also delegates
some of his responsibilities to his subordinates, providing them with
an opportunity to participate in the organizational decision-making
after they have been discussed. Similarly, in terms of the democratic
leadership style, there is high cohesion and involvement in the affairs
of the institution, and staff members show a positive attitude towards
their leaders ( Ezenne, 2003. P 26).
When the principal shared his view on his own leadership be-
haviour, parents also made the comments on it. One parent’s view:
“Our principal’s nature is democratic and he acts in a democratic way.
All the parents are satisfied with his working style. He is simple and
positive with others. He listens our voice and implements for the further
progress of school”.
When the parent expressed a positive view on principal’s lead-
ership behaviour, similarly a secondary level student’s voice was like
this;
“We are satisfied with the behaviour of our principal. He always focuses
on air quality education. He has made captain system in each class. He
organizes the captain students meeting once in a month. He interacts
with us and listens our voice to make a decision”.
But the voice of the teacher was somehow different than student
and one teacher teaching at secondary-level expressed;
“Surely our principal shows the democratic nature and he is very
flexible person. He organizes teacher’s meeting for formality. Even
he carefully listens our view on that meeting but don’t apply it. He is
a "Yes Man". Always says yes. But application part is not satisfactory
for all the teachers”.

Conclusion
There are different types of leadership styles to run an organiza-
tion. Which leadership style is more applicable and more effective? It is
very difficult to assume and give the exact answer. But in this research,
researcher tried to know the reality about how Nepalese institutional
school’s principal is running an institutional schools under his/her
leadership. Which leadership style is applied to run the school and what
is the result they are getting? Researcher interacted with principals,
teachers, students and the parents to get the real answer. According
to the researcher’s interview, observation and case studies, those who
are applying democratic leadership style, their performance is com-
paratively satisfactory. In the context of Nepali institutional school,
transformational leadership style is not applied. After the interaction,
it is found that they even dont have not clear succession planning.
Almost all the principals are applying autocratic leadership
styles. They have a feeling that “we are investing our money so, we have

bLklzvf ÷ 175
our own style” with this thinking, the institutional school principal’s
role performance is guided. As to run an institutional school, there is
position of principal. Principal acts as a top administrator at school.
So, school’s increment and decrement depends upon the principal’s
leadership styles and behaviour.

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bLklzvf ÷ 177
 Marxist-Feminist Reading of
Toni Morrison'’s Paradise
- Sachita Dhakal*

Toni Morrison’s Paradise reveals gender based inequality, oppres-

sion, subordination. She shows how males benefit from their gender
roles and how women deteriorate from their gender roles in capitalist
economic system. In Paradise, the male founders of Ruby own every-
thing including women; only males are seen a successor of property;
only males are lawmakers and only males are authentic interpreter of
god’s message. Women are only medium of producing male succes-
sor, only passive followers, and only listeners. Such subordination of
women began with the repetition of capitalist idea of private property
which New Fathers of Ruby inherited from their white masters.
Necessarily, capitalism is gender biased economic system be-
cause it creates private property from the exploitation based on divi-
sion of labour. Such division of labour is against the favour of women
which proves them less capable and keeps them out of labour force
confining them within domestic walls, limited to reproduction tasks as
desired by men. Mavis is exemplified by Morrison in this novel as such
woman who serves the role of domestic servant whereas her husband,
Frank enjoys every freedom possible, every material comfort possible
and holds command over the thoughts and desires of his children.
For men who produce more and more of everything wish to keep all
of it for themselves thus private property is created and to safeguard
it, patriarchy is improvised. Therefore capitalism supports patriarchy
to perpetuate its existence through sexual division of labour. Morrison
highlights gender consciousness when she examines male and female
identities, spaces work and destinies determined by such division.
In Paradise male characters mainly Steward Morgan, Deacon Mor-
gan and K.D. have internalized the roles of man in the family which
* Lecturer, Koteshwor Multiple Campus

178 ÷ bLklzvf
reinforce aggressive individualism, authoritarianism and a hierarchical
view of social relations, values that are fundamental to the perpetuation
of capitalism. Steward and Deacon are worried about their successor
who must be male to continue and regulate the system and culture
inherited from their forefathers. They choose their nephew K.D. as
their sole successor not because he is capable but only male left in their
bloodline. K.D. is a suitable heir because he has acquired qualities of
aggressive individualism and authoritarianism and has inflicted gender
oppression and exploitation on various women in Ruby and the Con-
vent to rule in existing system. So these male leaders of Ruby develop
animosity with the women who refuse to recognize such attributes.
Morrison’s female characters; Consolata, Mavis, Gigi are the
free women of the Convent. They have their own ideals of paradisiacal
society. In patriarchy, these women deserve only male surnames but no
economic privilege though their labour nurtures the whole family. Male
labour has exchange value but female labour is free and valueless. Fe-
males have been turned into machines, and have been objectified and
used for male’s selfish purpose. The Convent women refuse such male
hegemony and are successful to create exchange value of their labour.
They jointly share labour and produce pepper, nuts, pies, barbecue
sauce and chicken and jointly share the food. These women have al-
ready been victimized in one way or other by their former society so
they are reluctant to return back and they keep on living there though
they constantly speak of their departure from the Convent.
As material oppression of women is integrally related to their
psychological and sexual oppression, the women’s fight is incomplete
without raising issues. In this novel, Morrison has successfully raised
these issues through the fates of Consolata, Mavis, Gigi, Pallas. In do-
ing so, it can Make us all aware of how capitalism oppresses women,
not only by drafting women, taxing women and exploiting women in
job but by determining the way women think, feel and relate to each
other.
Throughout Paradise, the men are associated with fixed author-
ity, unitary meaning, and individual acquisition and control while
women are associated with movement, multiple meanings and shared
labour and goods. Nonetheless, the gender insight of Misner and Dea-
con Morgan by the end of the novel indicates these gender divisions
are not biologically determined but are social construct of a class. The
women of Paradise test the limit of racial and gender representations.
The male attackers of Ruby, after demolition of the convent and its
inhabitants realize and regret for doing the same thing from which
they have been escaping all their life. Their regret is Morrison’s regret
for them who ardently wish to belong to the Master's class that they

bLklzvf ÷ 179
exhibit the same behavioural patterns, dress in the same manners, use
the same language patterns and most unfortunately share the same
ideology as those of their oppressors’.
Morrison shows womanhood like blackness or as ‘other’ in the
society and the dilemma of women in a patriarchal society is parallel
to that of blacks in a racist one and advocates abolishment of such
co-equal and co-sequential products of capitalism through abolishing
patriarchy and its foster father, capitalism. Although Morrison does not
show any straightforward way-out for the oppressed women of Ruby
and convent, she creates the context through which readers get revo-
lutionized due to the extreme sense of injustice imposed upon them by
the men. Morrison wants to ridicule the ill practices of patriarchy that
are at work to oppress the innocent women of the convent and other
places on the basis of its private property. Morrison’s gender conscious-
ness identifies the principal enemy of females, that is, capitalism and
discovers positive Marxist principles in the society-- humanism, col-
lectivism and egalitarianism through her construction of the Convent
as a shelter and common front of womanhood.

Works Cited
Awkward, Michael. “ The Evil of Fulfillment : Scapegoating and Narration in
The Bluest Eye”. Toni Morrison: Critical Perspectives Past and Present. Eds.
Henrey Gates Jr. and K. A. Appiah ,New York: Amistad 1993. 175-207
Bhattarai, Sajal. Gender. Kathmandu: National Book Center, 2004
Dalsgard, Katrina. “The one all-black town worth the pain: (African) American
exceptionalism, historical narration and the critique of nationhood in
Toni Morrison’s

180 ÷ bLklzvf
 Internet in Nepal: Achievements and
Challenges
- Manoj Kumar Karna

The Internet
has revolutionized the
computer and com-
munications world
like nothing before.
It is at once a world-
wide broadcasting ca-
pability, a mechanism
for collaboration and
interaction between
individuals and their
computers without regard for geographic location.
About half of the world’s population uses internet and the number
is increasing vigorously. Nepal joined the "Internet revolution"
relatively late. It was around 2050 B.S. when Nepal got a first glimpse
of the technology. Many in the private sector and the government are
ambitious about the Internet's potential. The result activities related to
the Internet are no longer confined to discussions in popular media.
In a short span of two decades there has been a huge investment
towards the development of the infrastructure to facilitate Internet
use. Furthermore, it has established itself as an active research area
and a major component of rigorous academic programs. Being part of
this world, Nepal has also been affected by the rising trend of Internet
usage. Although the internet was initially limited only to email services,
in 1995, a company Mercantile Communications finally started the
internet services in the country. In 1998, Nepal Telecommunications

* Lecturer, Koteshwor Multiple Campus

bLklzvf ÷ 181
Authority (NTA), a telecommunications regulatory body, was formed
as per the Telecommunications Act 1997. NTA holds the power to
issue license to the Internet Service Providers (ISPs) in Nepal. Along
with growth in internet users, Internet Service Providers (ISPs) are
also emerging in significant numbers. The credit for introducing
internet among the people mainly goes to the private sector.
In Nepal, some of services provided by ISPs are ADSL, wireless,
cable, mobile broadband that differ from each other on specification and
costing. Services provided by the following ISPs are NTC, Ncell, World
Link, Broadlink, Subishu, Classic Tech, UTL, Web Surfer, Mercantile,
Vianet, CWC.
Meanwhile, the number of internet users has increased by con-
siderable amount. While it was just about 0.2% of the total population
in the year 2000 who had access to internet, it increased to about 2.2%
by the year 2010 (Source : International Telecommunication Union).
Internet users in Nepal were last measured at 2375777.57 in 2010,
according to the World Bank. The advancement in technology due
to the advent of smart phones and tablet PCs has helped to increase
the public awareness and raise their interest towards technology to a
great extent. And it can be felt in the latest statistics of internet users
in the country (for the year 2012). The number, according to NTA, has
increased to more than 4 Millions now (which also include the number
of people accessing internet via GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)). Internet users are people
with access to the worldwide network. As per Nepal Telecom Author-
ity latest report (August 2012), we got around 50 lakhs internet users
from Nepal among which 46 lakhs are the GPRS users. We got high
penetration rate but the huge number of GPRS users. This distinctly
shows that we are back in broadband and yet we are still using our
phone and GPRS for only social communication purpose.
Nepal Telecommunications Authority (NTA) published its
latest monthly report on internet penetration and mobile penetration
data on February 2014.The February report shows that Nepal with its
population of 26,494,504 (Source: cbs.gov.np) has 84.77% telephone
penetration rate. The data shows there is a 74.97% mobile penetration
rate among the telephone users. Ncell has the highest number of cus-
tomers with 10,867,307. At current, Nepal has an internet penetration
rate of 28.63% with 7,585,761 users out of its population of 26,494,504.
Although there are a lot of encouraging signs for Nepal in the
field of IT, the current quality of IT services and education still seeks
more endeavours. Considerable amount of work needs to be done and
the initiative should be taken early if we are to keep up with the world
in the field of technology. 21st century demands globalization. Hence,

182 ÷ bLklzvf
investment and development in the field of technology and computing
cannot be overlooked to achieve it.
We have experienced failure in completely implementing the
policy and over the last few years with scarce resources tied up in
security efforts, implementation of the IT policy has slipped from the
government’s priority list. Although the institutional provisions have
been put in place, the key implementing body is too under-resourced
to effectively oversee implementation. We also know that e-governance
in Nepal is being enhanced but still not fully developed. But we can
assume this process of finalizing the IT policy was a long but inclusive
one.
Today we have still many problems. Political and social in-
stability, funding depend upon highly politicized and very limited
facilities is provided by government which is not enough. So learning
the lesson from previous chapter of implementing and developing IT
Policies, we have to address every aspect that reflect IT Sectors, and IT
Bill outlining action plans for the sector has been drafted and is await-
ing Parliamentary approval. The Ministry of Science and Technology
launched a subsidized programmed to provide IT training. At least four
universities of Nepal have computer science or computer engineering
degrees at the Bachelor level and roughly 5,000 graduates are expected
to emerge from these programs over the next few years. The Ministry
is planning to establish two new institutes: The Institute of Information
Technology (in the IT Park in Kathmandu) and the Institute of Technol-
ogy (in Western Nepal, focusing on biotechnology and IT research).
At last the future directions can be viewed as: although the insti-
tutional provisions have been put in place, the key implementing body
HLCIT (High Level Commission for Information Technology), NITC
(National Information Technology Center) and Ministry of Science and
Technology is too under-resourced to effectively oversee implementa-
tion. An implementation program involving both the government and
private sector still needs to be encouraged and supported to maximize
the potential for IT in Nepal.

bLklzvf ÷ 183
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u'0f :t/Lo, k|fljlws / ;do ;fk]If 1fg cfh{g ug{ k|To]s jif{ ljBfyL{x¿
ljb]l;g] u/]sf 5g\ . o;y{ ;do / /fli6«o cfjZostfnfO{ kl/k"lt{ ug]{ nIo
;lxt lzIff gLlt, kf7\oqmd / k|fWofkg x'g' lgtfGt h?/L 5 cyf{t\ ca z}lIfs
;+:yfn] u'0f :t/LotfnfO{ lj:tf/ ug'{kb{5 . u'0f :t/Lotf xfd|f] d"No / l;4fGt
aGg'kb{5 . z}lIfs ;+:yfsf] u'0f:t/ dfkg ug]{ dfkb08 eg]s} ;+:yf Quality
Assurance and Accreditation (QAA) af6 k|dfl0ft x'g' xf] . Quality Assur-
ance and Accreditation (QAA) eg]sf] s'g} klg pRr z}lIfs ;+:yfn] ;+:yf
;~rfngfy{ cjnDag ug]{ k4lt a;fnL k4lt ;ª\ut ;+:yfnfO{ lxF8fpg' xf] .
cfk»mnfO{ cfk»mn] :yflkt u/]sf] dfkb08cg';f/sf] l;4fGtadf]lhd rlnof] jf
rlnPg egL cfTd d»Nofª\sg u/L ;lRrP/ cufl8 a9\g'kg]{ cfwf/lznf xf] .
t;y{ ca z}lIfs ;+:yfdf lzIfs, ljBfyL{, z}lIfs sfo{qmd, ef}lts k»jf{wf/,
;+:yfsf] ;'zf;g cflb k»0f{ ¿kdf u'0f :t/Lo x'g' lgtfGt h?/L 5 . z}lIfs
;+:yfn] x/]s If]qdf u'0f :t/LotfnfO{ hLjg d»No agfpg'kb{5 .
* SofDk; k|d'v, sf]6]Zj/ ax'd'vL SofDk; .

184 ÷ bLklzvf
• z}lIfs ;+:yfsf] u'0f :t/Lotf dfkg ;DaGwL cfwf/e"t dfkb08
!= gLlt lgod (Governance/Policy):– s'g} klg ;+:yfsf] k|f0f eg]s}
ToxfFsf] ;'zf;g (Good Governance) xf] . ;+:yf gLlt, lgod / k4ltdf
rNg'kb{5 . o;sf nflu tfn's lgsfosf gLlt, lgod / k4lt klg dfu{
bz{s x'G5g\ . ljlw / k4ltdf rnL kf/bzL{ tj/n] cfˆgf sfo{qmdx¿
;~rfngdf /x]sf] x'g'kb{5 . u'0f :t/Lotf crfgs b]vf kg]{ s'/f
xf]Og . of] t lg/Gt/sf] ldlxg]t, ;dk{0f efjn] ul/g] sd{sf] kmn xf] .
;+:yfdf ;'zf;g sfod ug'{ eg]sf] ;+:yfdf P]g, lgodfjnL, ljlgod,
lgb]{lzsfx¿sf] ;d"lrt k|of]u ug'{ xf] . ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿sf] ;xeflutfdf
sfo{x¿ ug'{kb{5 . ljlwsf] zf;gnfO{ d"n dGq agfpg'kb{5 . sfg'gsf]
kf/blz{tf, k|lqmofsf] :jR5tf, ljlwsf] ;jf]{Rrtf / ;fª\ul7gs ;bfrf/
sfod /fvL z}lIfs ;+:yf ;~rfng ePdf To; ;+:yfsf] ;'zf;g dflgG5 .
@= kf7\oqmd (Curriculum):– kf7\oqmd ;do ;fk]If x'g' hlt h?/L 5
kf7\oqmdn] tf]s]adf]lhd z}lIfs lqmofsnfk ug'{ Tolt g} dxTTjk"0f{ 5 .
;dosf] dfucg';f/sf ljifoj:t' / Jofjxfl/s k|of]ufTds lzIf0f ljlw
ckl/xfo{ x'G5 .
#= lzIf0f k4lt M– lzIf0f l;sfO k4lt k|efjsf/L x'g'kb{5 . z}lIfs
lqmofsnfk z}lIfs Sofn]G8/cg';f/ Jojl:yt ul/g'kb{5 . k/LIff /
d"Nofª\sg :t/Lo aGg'kb{5 . ljBfyL{ s]lGb|t lzIf0f k4lt / :jfanDaL
agfpg] d'Vo Wo]osf ;fy sfo{qmdx¿ cufl8 a9fpg'kb{5 .
k|j]z k/LIff, cfGtl/s k/LIff, ;'wf/fTds cltl/Qm sIffx¿ z}Ifl0fs
of]hgf, dfgj ;+zfwgsf] ;'Jojl:yt lgo'lQm k|lqmof, sfo{ ;Dkfbgsf]
d"Nofª\sg cflb ckl/xfo{ tTTj x'g\ .
$= cg';Gwfg k4lt M– z}lIfs ;'wf/sf] dxTTjk"0f{ kf6f] eg]sf] cg';GwfgfTds
z}lIfs ;+:s[lt sfod ug'{kb{5 . ljifo lzIfs cfˆgf] ljifo;Fu ;Dal-
Gwt ljifodf lg/Gt/ cg';Gwfgdf nfUg'kb{5 . ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ klg
cg';Gwfgd'vL agfpg'kb{5 .
%= ef}lts k"jf{wf/ Joj:yfkg M– :j:y z}lIfs jftfj/0fsf nflu ef}lts
k"jf{wf/ ckl/xfo{ tTTj xf] .
^= ljBfyL{ ;xof]u M– ljBfyL{ eg]sf z}lIfs ;+:yfsf cj}tlgs b"t x'g\ .
ljBfyL{x¿ z}lIfs lqmofsnfkaf6 k"0f{tM ;Gt'i6 aGg'kb{5 h;sf nflu
ljBfyL{sf] /rgfTds ;xof]u h?/L x'G5 .

bLklzvf ÷ 185
&= ;"rgf k4lt M– Joj:yfkg ;"rgf k4ltnfO{ Jojl:yt agfOg'kb{5 .
z}lIfs clen]v k4lt r':t, b'?:t agfOg'kb{5 .
*= Public Relationship :- ;d'bfok|lt ;'dw'/ ;DaGw :yflkt ug'{kb{5 .
oL dflysf cfwf/e"d dfkb08 ;+:yfn] k'/f u/]df JolQmsf] j}olQms
¿kfGt/0f ;Dej x'G5 .
;+:yfn] /0fgLlts of]hgf tof/ gkf/L ;+:yf rnfPsf] eP uGtJo
gklxNofO{ ofqf ul//x]sf] h:tf] x'G5 . ;+:yfsf] bL3{ sfnLg p2]Zo xfl;n ug{
cNk sfnLg / bL3{ sfnLg /0fgLltx¿ ;d]6L uGtJo tof/ kfg'{kb{5 . o;n]
;+:yfsf] /0fgLlts b[li6sf]0fnfO{ lglb{i6 ub{5 . /0fgLlts ¿kdf vf; dxTTjsf]
If]q cf}FNofO{ b|"t ultdf kl/jt{g eO/xg] cfGtl/s / afXo jftfj/0fdf ;+:yf
;fdh:o x'Fb} cufl8 a9\g'kb{5 . t;y{ /0fgLlts of]hgf eg]sf] eljiosf] oyfy{
lrq0f xf] .

QAA k|lqmofsf nflu cfjZos k"j{ ;t{x¿

;g\ !(() sf] bzsaf6 z}lIfs u'0f:t/ dfkgsf nflu QAA (Quality
Assurance and Accreditation) sf] s'/fsf] ;'?cft eof] . of] :yfgLo ¿kdf
k/LIf0f eO{ cGt/f{li6«o ¿kdf k|dfl0ft x'g] k4lt xf] . ;+:yfsf] u'0f :t/LotfnfO{
cGt/f{li6«o :t/df k|dfl0ft ug'{ xf] . g]kfndf ;g\ @))& b]lv UGC n] nfu'
ul//x]sf] 5 . g]kfnsf] ;Gb{edf SofDk;x¿sf] u'0f :t/Lotf lgwf{/0f ug{ /fHon]
tf]s]sf] c+u UGC xf] . g]kfnel/ !) cf]6f SofDk;nfO{ Pilot Program eg]/
Piloting Phase df ;'? u/]sf] lyof] . xfn clwsf+z SofDk;x¿ QAA k|fKt
ug{ k|of;/t 5g\ . QAA k|lqmof ;'? ug{sf nflu lgDglnlvt dfkb08 k'/f
u/]sf] x'g'kg]{ k"j{;t{ x'g] ub{5g\ M
• sDtLdf %)% k"0f{ sfnLg lzIfs x'g'kg]{ .
• z}lIfs k|zf;sx¿ ;+:yfdf k"0f{ sfnLg ePsf] x'g'kg]{ .
• sDtLdf @ Aofh :gfts tx pQL0f{ u/fO;s]sf] x'g'kg]{ .
• ;+:yfut cfa4tf /fVg] ;+:yfåf/f k|dfl0ft (Recoganized) ePsf]
x'g'kg]{ .
• kbflwsf/L tyf ljefuLo k|d'vx¿ klg k"0f{ sfnLg x'g'kg]{ .
• ;+:yfn] cfˆgf] SWOT Analysis tof/ kf/L ;+:yfsf r'gf}tLnfO{ cj;/df
kl/0ft ug{ nfu]sf] x'g'kg]{ .
• ;+:yfn] sDtLdf % jif]{ /0fgLlts of]hgf (5 years strategic Plan) tof/
u/L ;f]xLd'tflas ;+:yf ;~rfngdf /x]sf] x'g'kg]{ .
186 ÷ bLklzvf
• lzIfs sd{rf/Lsf] ;]jf, ;t{ / ;'ljwf cflb ;+:yfdf ljwfgtM Jojl:yt
x'g'kg]{ .
• lq=lj=sf lqmofsnfk z}lIfs kfqf]cg';f/ rnfpg'kg]{ .
• SofDk;sf lgodfjnL, ljlgod, lgb]{lzsf Jojl:yt x'g'kg]{ .
;fy}
• ;j{k|yd ;~rfns ;ldltn] ;+:yf QAA df hfg] eg]/ lg0f{o ug'{kb{5 .
• tTkZrft\ SofDk; k|d'vsf] cWoIftfdf %÷^ hgfsf] cfGtl/s QAA
k|lqmof tof/L ;ldlt agfpg'kb{5 .
• UGC af6 cfzokq k|fKt (LOI) :jLs[t ePkl5 SSR (Self Study
Report) k|ltj]bg tof/ ug{‘kb{5 .
• Budget Plan tof/ ug'{kb{5 .
• ;+:yfsf] sfo{ of]hgf Time Bound x'g'kg]{ 5 .
dflysf k"j{;t{x¿nfO{ dWogh/ ubf{ o; SofDk;n] w]/}h;f] k"j{;t{x¿
k'/f ul/;s]sf] / afFsL klg t'?Gt} k'/f x'g] u/L sfo{ ePsf] xF'bf of] SofDk; ca
QAA k|lqmofdf t'?Gt} cufl8 a9\g'kg]{ b]lvG5 .

sf]6]Zj/ ax'd'vL SofDk;sf ;an / lga{n kIf tyf efjL r'gf}tLx¿

• SofDk;sf ;an kIfx¿
1. bIf, cg'ejL tyf nugzLn k|fWofks
2. k4lt ;ª\ut ;~rfng k|lqmof
3. sfg'gsf] kf/blz{tf, k|lqmofsf] :jR5tf, ljlwsf] ;jf]{Rrtf / ;fª\u7lgs
;bfrf/
4. ;j{;'ne z'Ns
5. ;fd»lxs ;+:s[lt
6. cfjZostfcg';f/ k|ljlwo'Qm lzIf0f k4lt
7. ;'Jojl:yt cfGtl/s k/LIff
8. cWoog/t ljBfyL{x¿sf] cfd;Gt'li6
9. ljZj ljBfnosf] cf};t glthfeGbf s}of}F u'0ff pTs[i6 glthf
10. ljljw If]qsf bIf, k|efjzfnL / lj1 Joj:yfkg ;ldlt
11. cltl/Qm lqmofsnfksf] /fd|f] Joj:yf -Sofn]G8/df pNn]v ePadf]lhd_
12. cª\u|]hL / g]kfnL dfWodsf 5'§f5'§} sIffx¿
13. z}lIfs tyf cjnf]sg e|d0fsf] Joj:yf

bLklzvf ÷ 187
14. ;dosf dfucg';f/sf] ljifox¿ cWofkg u/fOg]
15. ;'ljwf ;DkGg sDKo'6/ Nofa tyf k':tsfno
16. ckgTjsf] efjgfsf] ljsf; h;n] ubf{ sfo{/t lzIfs tyf sd{rf/Lx¿sf]
sn]h 5f8]/ hfg] cg'kft Go»g
17. j[lQ ljsf; / z}lIfs k|fl1s pGgogsf nflu cfjZos Joj:yf
18. Merit Based /Need Based 5fqj[lQsf] k|aGw
19. :gftsf]Q/ txsf sIffx¿ ;GWof sfnLg ;dodf ;~rfngdf /x]sf]
20. ;+:yf ;~rfngfy{ cfjZos ;Dk"0f{ lgod, ljlgodx¿ tof/ eO{ ;+:yf
;~rfngdf /x]sfn] ;+:yfdf k"0f{tM ;'zf;g sfod ePsf] .
21. ;+:yfsf] u'0f :t/Lotf dfkgsf nflu dfly pNn]v ul/Psf dfkb08cg';f/
;+:yf cufl8 al9/x]sf] .
22. k':tsfnosf] oyf]lrt ;'ljwf ePsf] .
23. dlxg}lkR5] ul/g] cltl/Qm lqmofsnfksf cnfjf jif{df Ps k6s v]ns'b
;Ktfx xiff]{Nnf;sf ;fy ;DkGg x'g] u/]sf] .
24. cfly{s sfo{nfO{ kf/bzL{ agfpgsf] nflu n]vf k|0ffnLdf ;ˆ6j]o/sf]
k|of]u Jojl:yt agfO{ ;~rfngdf /x]sf] .
25. ljBfyL{sf] ;'ljwfnfO{ dWogh/ u/L Online Admission, tyf Online Form
fill up ug]{ k|lqmofsf] yfngL .
26. ;'ljwf ;DkGg sDKo'6/ Nofa tyf kqsfl/tfsf Nofax¿ ;~rfng
ePsf] .
27. z}lIfs Sofn]G8/cg';f/ k7gkf7g, k/LIff, e|d0f tyf cltl/Qm
lqmofsnfkx¿ ;DkGg x'g] u/]sf] .
28. k':tsfnonfO{ ljB'tLo ;"rgfd"ns agfpg] sfo{sf] yfngL ePsf] .
29. ;+:yfsf] cfk\mg} j]a;fO6 ;~rfngdf /x]sf] h;n] ubf{ SofDk;sf
;"rgfx¿ ;Dk"0f{ ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿n] ;xh ¿kdf k|fKt ul//x]sf] cj:yf .

• b'a{n kIfx¿
1. ef}lts ;fwgsf] ckof{Kttf
2. sIffsf]7fx¿sf] ckof{Kttf
3. xfn;Dd cfˆg} ejg gePsf] -hl8a'6L, sf7df8f}F #% df aGg] t/v/df
/x]sf]_
4. SofDk;nfO{ cfjZos kg]{ oftfoftsf ;fwgsf] cefj
5. kof{Kt k'FhLsf] cefj
188 ÷ bLklzvf
• efjL r'gf}]tLx¿
1. lghL lzIf0f ;+:yf;Fusf] c:j:y k|lt:kwf{df /xg'kg]{ .
2. SofDk;nfO{ cfly{s tyf ef}lts ¿kdf :yfloTj k|bfg ug'{ clgjfo{ 5
h;sf nflu SofDk;n] cfk\mg} ejg lgdf{0f ug}{k5{ .
3. k/Dk/fut ljifo / lzIf0f k4ltsf cnfjf cfw'lgs lzIf0f k4lt Pj+
;dosf] dfucg';f/sf k|fljlws, Jofj;flos / /f]huf/d'vL ljifox¿
cWofkg u/fpg' h?/L 5 h;sf nflu Go"g z'Nsdf cWofkg u/fpg'kg]{
afWotfn] k'FhLsf] cefj .

• cfufdL sfo{ of]hgf

• ;s];Dd rfF8} cfˆg} ejg lgdf{0f ;DkGg u/L cfˆg} :yfoL ef}lts
;+/rgf x'g'kg]{ .
• xfn ;~rflnt Joj:yfkg ;ª\sfosf] cnfjf cGo ;ª\sfosf ljljw
ljifodf :gftsf]Q/ txsf] cWofkg ;'? ug]{ .
• SofDk;sf z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿ Horizontal /Vertical ¿kdf Expan-
sion ub}{ hfg] .
• +2 tyf T.U. sf k/LIff glthfnfO{ zt k|ltzt ;kmn agfpg k|of; ug]{ .
• k':tsfnonfO{ k"0f{tM ljB'tLo ;"rgfd"ns agfO;Sg] .
• k|zf;gn] ;xcl:tTj / ;+:yfut ;+:s[ltdf ;+:yfnfO{ cufl8 a9fO{
;+:yfsf nIo / p2]Zo xfl;n ug'{kg]{ .
• SofDk;sf] cNk sfnLg, dWo sfnLg / bL3{ sfnLg /0fgLlts of]hgf
agfO{ Jojl:yt ¿kdf SofDk; ;~rfng ug'{kg]{ .
• SofDk;sf tkm{af6 ljBfyL{x¿sf] cfjZostfnfO{ Wofgdf /fvL
oftfoftsf] ;'ljwf oyf]lrt\ ¿kdf k|aGw ug]{ .
• gLlt / ljlwsf cfwf/df kl/l:yltnfO{ cg's'n agfpFb} SofDk;
rnfpg'kg]{ .

• sf]6]Zj/ ax'd'vL SofDk;sf] cfly{s tyf ef}lts cj:yf

of] SofDk; :yfkgfb]lv xfn;Dddf @% cf}F j;Gt kf/ ul/;s]sf] / l5§}
g} /ht dxf]T;j dgfpg] qmddf /x]sf] Joxf]/f cjut u/fpg rfxG5' . t/ of] nfdf]
;dosf] cGt/fndf klg SofDk;n] cfk\mg} ejg agfpg ;s]sf] 5}g . SofDk;n]
:yflkt u/]sf] z}lIfs u'0f:t/n] ubf{ ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof u'0ff]Q/ >]0fLdf j[l4 ePsf]

bLklzvf ÷ 189
5 . xfn sf]6]Zj/ ;/:jtL dfWolds ljBfnosf] ejgdf dfq sIffsf]7fx¿
gk'uL glhs} /x]sf] ;+:yfut ljBfno bLlksf cfjf;Lo cª\u|]hL ljBfnodf
!) cf]6f sIffsf]7fx¿ / SofDk; ejgb]lv sl/a !)) ld6/df /x]sf] 3/ b'O{
tnf ef8fdf lnO{ sIff ;~rfng eO/x]sf] 5 . SofDk;sf] cfly{s cj:yfsf]
s'/f ubf{ cf=j= @)&)÷)&! ;Dd cfOk'Ubf SofDk;sf] cfoJoo lx;fa !
s/f]8 *@ nfvn] gf3]sf] 5 eg] xfn;Dd ^& nfv !* xhf/ ;l~rlt k'u]sf]
5 . o; cf=j=df n]vf k/LIf0f k|ltj]bgdf pNn]v ePcg';f/ cfDbfgL tkm{
?= 1,82,44,414.73 / vr{tkm{ ?= 1,62,64,839.00 eO{ ?= 19,79,575.73 .
cf=j= @)&!÷)&@ sf] klxnf] rf}dfl;s;Dd lgoldt vr{ u/L ?= #^ nfv
%) xhf/ d'2tL art ug{ ;kmn ePsf 5f}F eg] df}h'bf cfDbfgL Pj+ t/ntf
Joj:yfkgn] vr{ ;lhn} wfGg ;lsPsf] cj:yf 5 . rf6{8{ PsfpG6]G6 /fhg
l3ld/] PG8 P;f]l;P6\;af6 n]vf k/LIf0f ;DkGg cf=j= @)&)÷)&! sf] cfly{s
ljj/0f o;} k':tssf] clGtd k[i7df pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . ;ª\lIfKtdf eGg'kbf{
SofDk;sf] cfly{s cj:yf klg dha't /x]sf] b]lvG5 .
• ljBfyL{ ljj/0f
z}lIfs ;q @)&)÷&! b]lv xfn;Ddsf] ljBfyL{ ljj/0f
+@ tkm{ (A)
;ªsfo
z}lIfs ;q sIff hDdf
Joj:yfkg dfgljsL lzIffzf:q
sIff !! 244 95 57 396
2071/072 sIff !@ 203 93 47 343
hDdf 447 188 104 739
:gfts tx tkm{ (B)
:gfts tx tkm{ (B.A., B.B.S./B.Ed.)
;ªsfo
z}lIfs ;q :gfts tx hDdf
Joj:yfkg dfgljsL lzIffzf:q
k|yd jif{ 200 80 85 365
låtLo jif{ 176 97 96 369
2071/072
t[tLo jif{ 139 116 107 362
hDdf 515 293 288 1096
:gfts k|yd jif{df egf{ hf/L /x]sf]n] ;ª\Vof j[l4 x'g] .
190 ÷ bLklzvf
:gftsf]Q/ txtkm{ (C)
:gftssf]Q/ tx (M.B.S.)
z}lIfs ;q :gftsf]Q/ tx hDdf
k|yd jif{ 40 -egf{ eO/x]sf]n] cg'dflgt ;ª\Vof_
2071/072
låtLo jif{ 25
hDdf 65
xfn cWoog/t hDdf ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof (A+B+C) = 739+1,096+65 = 1,900

z'Ns ljj/0f (Fee Structure)

+ @ tkm{
egf{ jflif{s w/f}6L dfl;s
;ª\sfo egf{ hDdf
kmf/fd z'Ns -lkmtf{ x'g]_ z'Ns
dfgljsL 300 700 1,550 750 3,300 600
Joj:yfkg 300 700 1,550 750 3,300 600
lzIffzf:q 300 700 1,550 750 3,300 600

+@ tkm{sf] cfGtl/s tyf k|flS6sn k/LIffsf] z'Ns ljj/0f

(Internal and Practical Exam Fee Structure)
ljifo sIff !! sIff !@
hg;ª\Vof cWoog 50 50
z}Ifl0fs ljlw 50 -
lzIf0f cEof; - 600
;dfh zf:q 50 50
Cfd ;~rf/ tyf kqsfl/tf 600 600
xf]6n Joj:yfkg 300 k|lt dlxgf 300 k|lt dlxgf
sDKo'6/ lj1fg 400 k|lt dlxgf 400 k|lt dlxgf
# cf]6f cfGtl/s k/LIff 750 750

bLklzvf ÷ 191
:gfts tx (B.A., B.B.S./B.Ed.) tkm{
egf{ jflif{s w/f}6L dfl;s
;ª\sfo egf{ hDdf
kmf/fd z'Ns -lkmtf{ x'g]_ z'Ns
dfgljsL 300 700 1,550 1,000 3,550 650
Joj:yfkg 300 700 1,550 1,000 3,550 650
lzIffzf:q 300 700 1,550 1,000 3,550 650

:gfts tx (B.A., B.B.S./B.Ed.) tkm{sf] cfGtl/s tyf k|flS6sn k/LIffsf] z'Ns ljj/0f
(Internal & Practical Exam Fee Structure)
B.B.S. B.B.S. B.B.S. B.Ed. B.Ed. B.Ed. B.A. B.A. B.A.
ljj/0f I II III I II III I II III
P]= kqsfl/tf - - - - - - 1,000 2,000 2,000
hg;ª\Vof cWoog - - - - 600 600 - - -
P]= cª\u|]hL - - - 600 600 600 - - -
lzIf0f cEof; - - - - - 1,500 - - -
u|fdL0f ljsf; - - - - - - - 700
g]kfnL kqsfl/tf - - - - - - - - 1,000
Project Work - - 1,000 - - - - - -
# cf]6f cfGtl/s k/LIff 750 750 750 750 750 750 750 750 750
dfly pNn]lvt z'Ns afx]s +@ tyf lq=lj= tkm{sf] btf{ / jflif{s k/LIff z'Ns
5'§} nfUg] 5 .
:gftsf]Q/ txtkm{
:gftsf]Q/ tx (M.B.S.) ;]d]:6/ k|0ffnLsf] z'Ns ljj/0ftkm{
egf{ ;]d]i6/ dfl;s z'Ns k':tsfno cfGtl/s
;ª\sfo egf{
kmf/fd z'Ns -^ dlxgfsf]_ z'Ns k/LIff z'Ns
Joj:yfkg 500 5,000 6,000 1,500×6 = 9,000 2,000 3,000

:gftsf]Q/ tx (M.B.S.) jflif{s k/LIff k|0ffnLsf] z'Ns ljj/0ftkm{

cfGtl/s
egf{ jflif{s k':tsfno dfl;s
;ª\sfo egf{ w/f}6L k/LIff
kmf/fd z'Ns z'Ns z'Ns
z'Ns
Joj:yfkg 500 3,000 1,000 5,000 1,500 1,200 1,200

192 ÷ bLklzvf
• cfufdL lbgdf ;~rfngn] Nofpg] z}lIfs of]hgfx¿
tx Subjects Streams
+@ Science Science
:gfts tx BSW Humanities
Health & Physical Education
ICT Education
One Year B.Ed.
BBA, BIM Management
MBA, MA & M.Ed.
:gftsf]Q/ tx (with different subjects)

• lzIfs tyf sd{rf/L ljj/0f

xfn sfo{/t lzIfs tyf sd{rf/Lx¿sf] ;ª\Vof o; k|sf/ /x]sf] 5 M
lzIfs ljj/0f
pkk|fWofks ÷
! uf]ljGbaxfb'/ sfsL{ Pd=P= cª\u|]hL
SofDk; k|d'v
k|f= /fh]Gb| ;'j]bL k|fWofks Pd=P= g]kfnL
s'ngfy l/hfn pkk|fWofks Pd=P= cy{zf:q
kbdaxfb'/ af]u6L pkk|fWofks Pd=P= Oltxf;
s[i0faxfb'/ v8\sf pkk|fWofks Pd=la=P;= Joj:yfkg
pkk|fWofks
>Lw/ cof{n Pd=P= cy{zf:q
ljefuLo k|d'v
8f= hËaxfb'/ lu/L pkk|fWofks lk=Pr=8L= /fhgLltzf:q
pkk|fWofks Pd=la=P= Joj:yfkg
k'ik/fh s'Fj/
ljefuLo k|d'v Pd=P8= O=lk=Pd=
wL/s'df/ >]i7 pkk|fWofks Pd=P= g]kfnL
uf]ljGbaxfb'/ pkk|fWofks Pd=lkmn÷
cª\u|]hL
s6'jfn ljefuLo k|d'v Pd=
w'|j g]kfn pkk|fWofks Pd=lk=P= Joj:yfkg
huGgfy 1jfnL pkk|fWofks Pd=P= g]kfnL
clUg clwsf/L pkk|fWofks Pd=P= cª\u|]hL

bLklzvf ÷ 193
 g]qk|;fb ;'j]bL pkk|fWofks Pd=P= cª\u|]hL
b]jLk|;fb g]kfn pkk|fWofks Pd=P= g]kfnL
e/t /fO{ pkk|fWofks Pd=la=P= Joj:yfkg
z'sb]j 9sfn pkk|fWofks Pd=la=P= Joj:yfkg
/]zdk|;fb kf}8]n pkk|fWofks Pd=P= ul0ft
pkk|fWofks Pd=lkmn=,
afnfs[i0f clwsf/L g]kfnL
ljefuLo k|d'v Pd=P
dbg uf}td pkk|fWofks Pd=P= g]kfnL
rGb|jbgf /fO{ pkk|fWofks Pd=P8= lzIff
k"0f{axfb'/ yfkf pkk|fWofks Pd=P= hg;ª\Vof
Pd=lk=P=
/d]z s]=;L= pkk|fWofks Joj:yfkg
÷Pd=la=P
pkk|fWofks
kf7\oqmd tyf
gGbLs]z/ g]kfn ÷sfo{qmd Pd=P8=
d"Nofª\sg
;+of]hs
pkk|fWofks
;'dg kf]v/]n Pd=P= u|fdL0f ljsf;
sfo{qmd ;+of]hs
/fds'df/ /fO{ pkk|fWofks Pd=P8= hg;ª\Vof
k|f=8f= l8NnL/fh kf7\oqmd tyf
k|fWofks kL=Pr=8L=
g]jf d"Nofª\sg
ef]u]Gb| lnª\b]g pkk|fWofks Pd=P= cª\u|]hL
eb|sfnL kf]v|]n pkk|fWofks Pn=Pn=Pd= Jofj;flos sfg'g
n]vgfy l3ld/] pkk|fWofks Pd=P= kqsfl/tf
eLdk|;fb l3ld/] pkk|fWofks Pd=P= g]kfnL
r]tgfy l3ld/] pkk|fWofks Pd=P= kqsfl/tf
/fh'k|;fb e';fn pkk|fWofks Pd=P= cª\u|]hL
s[i0fk|;fb e§/fO{ pkk|fWofks Pd=P= cy{zf:q
lvdfgGb sf]O/fnf pkk|fWofks la=Pr=Pd= xf]6n Joj:yfkg
;]b'gfy 9sfn pkk|fWofks Pd=P= cª\u|]hL

194 ÷ bLklzvf
t'n;Ls'df/ sGbª\jf pkk|fWofks Pd=P= cª\u|]hL
wL/h a'9fyf]sL pkk|fWofks Pd=la=P;= n]vfzf:q
k|sfz kf]v/]n pkk|fWofks Pd=la=P;= n]vfzf:q
dgf]hs'df/ s0f{ pkk|fWofks Pd=6]s\= sDKo'6/ lj1fg
?b|k|;fb vltj8f pkk|fWofks Pd=la=P;= ljQzf:q
Pd=lkmn÷
hLjg v8\sf pkk|fWofks cg';Gwfg÷ul0ft
Pd=P8
;lrtf zdf{ 9sfn pkk|fWofks Pd=P= cª\u|]hL
;'/]z kf]v/]n pkk|fWofks Pd=la=P;= ljQzf:q
dgf]h clwsf/L pkk|fWofks Pd=P= u|fdL0f ljsf;
uf]ljGbaxfb'/ Pd=P=÷
pkk|fWofks cª\u|]hL
clwsf/L Pd=P8=
g/]Gb| ld> pkk|fWofks Pd=P= ;dfh÷dfgjzf:q
lbk]zs'df/ l3ld/] pkk|fWofks Pd=P= ;dfh÷dfgjzf:q
uf}/j e§/fO{ pkk|fWofks Pd=lkmn= cª\u|]hL
jGbgf uf}td pkk|fWofks Pd=P= cy{zf:q
z}n]zrGb| a/fn pkk|fWofks Pd=la=P;= n]vfzf:q
1fg' clwsf/L pkk|fWofks Pd=P= g]kfnL
;fljqL 9sfn pkk|fWofks Pd=P= cª\u|]hL
Zofdk|;fb e§/fO{ pkk|fWofks Pd=P= cy{zf:q
xl/s'df/ sfsL{ pkk|fWofks Pd=la=P;= Joj:yfkg
M.B.S. tkm{
8f= c?0fs'df/ rf}w/L ;xk|fWofks lk=Pr=8L= tYofª\szf:q
l/hg 9sfn pkk|fWofks Pd=P= cy{zf:q
gf/fo0f sf]O/fnf pkk|fWofks Pd=la=P;= ljQzf:q
z+s/ Kofs'/]n pkk|fWofks Pd=la=P;= Joj:yfkg
ls/0fk|sfz Gof}kfg] pkk|fWofks Pd=la=P;= n]vfzf:q
sd{rf/Ltkm{
;'bz{gk|;fb e§/fO{ sd{rf/L

bLklzvf ÷ 195
 s'df/axfb'/ v8\sf sd{rf/L
8'sxl/ lg/f}nf sd{rf/L
u+ufk|;fb lzjfsf]6L sd{rf/L
s]zj/fh sfˆn] sd{rf/L
ltnss'df/L du/ sd{rf/L
Gx'R5] dxh{g sd{rf/L
nIdL uf}td sd{rf/L
ljb'/ Gof}kfg] sd{rf/L
ch'{g s6'jfn sd{rf/L
;'GtnL s6'jfn sd{rf/L

SofDk;n] t'?Gt} ug'{kg]{ sfo{x¿

!= QAA k|lqmof ;'? ul/xfNg] .
@= ;+:yfsf] % jif]{ /0fgLlts of]hgf tof/ ug'{kg]{ .
#= ;+:yfsf] Vision, mission, goal / objectives nfO{ yk kl/dfh{g u/L
tof/ kfg'{kg]{ .

cGTodf, SofDk;sf] a[xQ/ lxt / k|ultsf nflu ;/f]sf/jfnf ;a}n]

SofDk;n] /fv]sf cfufdL sfo{ef/nfO{ k'/f ug{ cfcfˆgf] 7fpFaf6 oyf]lrt\ ;xof]u
k'¥ofO{ ;+:yfsf] u'0f :t/Lotf j[l4df e"ldsf v]Ng cg'/f]w ub{5' . dg, jrg /
sd{n] ;+:yfsf] u'0f :t/LotfnfO{ hLjg d"No 7fGg'kg]{ kl/l:ylt cfO;s]sf] 5 .

196 ÷ bLklzvf
 cf=j= @)&)÷&! sf]
n]vf k/LIf0f k|ltj]bg

bLklzvf ÷ 197
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bLklzvf ÷ 199
200 ÷ bLklzvf
bLklzvf ÷ 201
202 ÷ bLklzvf
bLklzvf ÷ 203
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bLklzvf ÷ 207
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