Forming limit diagram

A forming limit diagram, also known as a forming
limit curve, is used in sheet metal forming for predict-
ing forming behaviour of sheet metal.[1][2] The diagram
attempts to provide a graphical description of material
failure tests, such as a punched dome test.
In order to determine whether a given region has failed, a
mechanical test is performed. The mechanical test is per-
formed by placing a circular mark on the workpiece prior
to deformation, and then measuring the post-deformation
ellipse that is generated from the action on this circle. By
repeating the mechanical test to generate a range of stress
states, the formability limit diagram can be generated as
a line at which failure is onset (see also formability).
1 Description
e1 - Major strain
the resultant diagram provides a tool for the determina-
tion as to whether a given forming process will result
in failure or not. Such information is critical in the de-
sign of forming processes, and is therefore fundamental
to the design of sheet metal forming processes. Through
the establishment of forming limit diagrams for a range
of alloys, the forming process and alloy behavior can be
matched at the metalworking design time by the process
engineer.
2 Modern determination
With the availability and use of optical strain measure-
ment system in combination with digital data processing
forming limit curves can be acquired in a more automatic
and productive way compared to the classic way as de-
scribed above. This procedure has been standardized and
is contained in an ISO document (12004). [4]

e2 - Minor strain
In order to obtain a full forming limit curve, test pieces
with different geometries are drawn by a punch (e. g.
with a diameter of 100 mm) until fracture occurs. Fric-
Deformation axis

tion is almost zero by using a complex tribo-system with

e1 foils and grease between sheet and tool. By use of an op-
tical strain measurement system spatial strain paths are
e2 evaluated immediately before failure of the test piece.
Using an interpolation method for the strain variation be-
tween the severely deformed and necked area – the limits
of this area are computed by a sign change of the second
derivative of the strain distribution – the major and mi-
nor strain values are obtained. Using an averaged value
for several cross-section evaluations and 3 test samples for
the same geometry a strain pair (one point in the forming
limit diagram) as forming limit is identified.
It is recognized by some authors that the nature of frac-
ture and formability is intrinsically non-deterministic,
Definition of the deformation axes in forming limit diagram mea-
surement since large variations might be observed even within a
single experimental campaign.[5] Therefore, the concepts
The semi-axes of the ellipse formed in this circle allow of Forming Limit Bands and Forming Limit Maps have
for the measurement of relative strain in two primary di- been introduced.
rections, known as the major and minor directions, which
correspond to the major and minor semi-axes of the el-
lipse. Under the assumption of path independent strain,
the relative strains will reach a critical value at which de- 3 Influence parameters
formations occur. Through repeated measurements, the
shape of the curve can be obtained experimentally. Al- Forming limit curves (FLC) for four steel sheet grades
ternately, a formability limit diagram can be generated by are displayed in the attached figure. All forming limit
mapping the shape of a failure criterion into the forma- curves have essentially the same shape. A minimum of
bility limit domain. [3] How ever the diagram is obtained, the curve exists at the intercept with the major strain axis

1
2 7
Probabilistic forming limit map
or close thereby, the plane strain forming limit. With the
definition of the onset of local necking (e. g. membrane
force reaches an extreme value) and the assumption of a
hardening law according to Hollomon (σ = K εn ) it can
be shown that the corresponding theoretical plane strain
forming limit is identical with the strain hardening coeffi-
cient, n. There is no thickness effect. Taking into account
the strain rate sensitivity of the material, which is obvious
in steel, along with the sheet thickness, the fact can be ex-
plained that practical forming limits, obtained by the use
of the above described method, lie well above theoretical
forming limits. Thus the basic influence parameters for
the forming limits are, the strain hardening exponent, n,
the initial sheet thickness, t0 and the strain rate hardening
coefficient, m. The lankford coefficient, r, which defines
the plastic anisotropy of the material, has two effects on
the forming limit curve. On the left side there is no in-
fluence except that the curve extends to larger values, on
the right hand side increasing r values reduce the forming
limits.[6]
4 M-K method
There is a widely used method for computation of FLCs,
introduced by Marciniak in 1967. It assumes an in-
clined band in the investigated plane sheet piece with
smaller thickness which denotes an imperfection. With
this model limit strains can be calculated numerically.
The advantage of this method is that any material model
can be used and limits can also be obtained for nonpro-
portional forming. However there is one drawback. Cal-
culated forming limits are sensitive to the imperfection
value. With the assumption of a strain rate sensitive mate-
rial model realistic forming limits may be obtained which
lie above theoretical limit strains. Basically with this cal-
culation method smooth forming limit curves are gener-
ated for materials for which only one experimental value
exists. A good overview of state of the art about FLC
REFERENCES
calculation methods is given in the proceedings of a con-
ference held in Zurich in 2006 and the Numisheet con-
ference in 2008.[7][8]
5 Use of FLCs
For many years forming limit curves have been used in
order to assess the sheet material formability. They have
been applied in the design stage of tools using the finite
element method as a simulation tool which is widely used
in a production environment...
6 See also
• Circle grid analysis
• International Deep Drawing Research Group (ID-
DRG)
7 References
[1] Marciniak, Z.; Duncan, J. L.; Hu, S. J. (2002). Mechanics
of sheet metal forming. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 75.
ISBN 0-7506-5300-0.
[2] Llewellyn, D. T.; Hudd, Roger C. (1998). Steels: metal-
lurgy and applications. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 28.
ISBN 0-7506-3757-9.
[3] Pearce, R.: “Sheet Metal Forming”, Adam Hilger, 1991,
ISBN 0-7503-0101-5.
[4] ISO TC 164/SC 2 N 477, ISO/CD 12004-2, Metallic ma-
terials — Sheet and strip - Determination of forming limit
curves — Part 2: Determination of forming limit curves
in laboratory, Jan 26th, 2006.
[5] Strano, M.; Colosimo, B.M. (30 April 2006). “Lo-
gistic regression analysis for experimental determination
of forming limit diagrams”. International Journal of
Machine Tools and Manufacture. 46 (6): 673–682.
doi:10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2005.07.005.
[6] Koistinen, D. P.; Wang, N.-M. edts.: „Mechanics of
Sheet Metal Forming – Material Behavior and Deforma-
tion analysis“, Plenum Press, 1978, ISBN 0-306-40068-5.
[7] Gese, H. and Dell, H.: “Numerical Prediction of the FLC
with the Program Crach”, FLC Zurich 06, Zurich, March
15 – 16th, 2006.
[8] Hora, P.: “Numisheet 2008 – Proceedings of the 7th Int.
Conf. and Workshop on Numerical Simulation of 3D
Sheet Metal Forming Processes”, Sept. 1-5, 2008, Inter-
laken, Switzerland.
 3

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