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‘cement’
is restricted to the bonding materials used with stones, sand, bricks, building blocks, etc. The principal constituents of
this type of cement are compounds of lime, so that in building and civil engineering we are concerned with calcareous
cement.
Hydraulic cements consist mainly of silicates and aluminates of lime, and can be classified broadly as natural cements,
Portland cements, and high-alumina cements. The present chapter deals with the manufacture of Portland cement and
its structure and properties, both when unhydrated and in a hardened state.
Historical note
The prototype of modern cement was made in 1845 by Isaac Johnson, who burnt a mixture of clay and chalk
until clinkering, so that the reactions necessary for the formation of strongly cementitious compounds took
place.
The name ‘Portland cement’, given originally due to the resemblance of the colour and quality of the hardened
cement to Portland stone – a limestone quarried in Dorset – has remained throughout the world to this day to
describe a cement obtained by intimately mixing together calcareous and argillaceous, or other silica-, alumina-,
and iron oxide-bearing materials, burning them at a clinkering temperature, and grinding the resulting clinker.
Wet process
Semidry process
Dry process
1. Tricalcium silicate (C3S): Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set
and early strength. Ordinary Portland cements with higher percentages of C3S will exhibit higher
early strength.
2. Dicalcium silicate (C2S): Hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely responsible for strength
increases beyond one week.
3. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A): Hydrates and hardens the quickest. It liberates a large amount of
heat almost immediately and contributes somewhat to early strength. Gypsum is added to
Ordinary Portland cement to retard C3A hydration. Without gypsum, C3A hydration would
cause ordinary Portland cement to set almost immediately after adding water.
4. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF): Hydrates rapidly but contributes very little to strength. Most
ordinary Portland cement color effects are due to C4AF
Hydration of cement
The reactions by virtue of which Portland cement becomes a bonding agent take place in a wa- ter–cement
paste. In other words, in the presence of water, the silicates and aluminates listed in Table 1.1 form products of
hydration which in time produce a firm and hard mass – the hydrated cement paste.
Calcium silicate hydrates
Tricalcium aluminate hydrate and the action of gypsum
Setting
False set