Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Analog Signal
Output
• Time File
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
4 Signal Conditioning
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File
Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Sensor Conditioning Gain Alias ADC DSP
Protection
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
4 Signal Conditioning
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File
Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Sensor Conditioning Gain Alias ADC DSP
Protection
BLADES NACELLE
& HUB GEARBOX GENERATOR
& TOWER
• High power / high current /high frequency controlled electronics e.g.
• Long power wires
• Power cables to the grid in the ground have shown serious problems for
long microphone cables when doing outdoor sound power.
• Metal structures that are controlled by electrical engines can also present a
high frequency antenna that easily couples to strain gauges.
Easier Harder
Temperature changes?
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
4 Signal Conditioning
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File
Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Sensor Conditioning Gain Alias ADC DSP
Protection
WFT
• Tension
• Compression
• Force Fx, Fy, Fz • Sound Pressure
• Torque • Body accelerations
• Moment Mx, My, Mz • Brake pressure
• Local stresses • Subsystems
• Angle, speed • Air pressure - dampers
Force / Moment Displacement Temperature Others
Load Cells String pots Thermocouple • RPM
Torque Sensors LVDT • GPS – Global position
• CAN signals
• Video
• Absolute displ.
• Engine torque • Relative displ. • Engine
• Drive shafts e.g. damper, bushings • Gearbox
PCB
333Bxx
• DC accelerometers
PCB
3711B03
• For sensors that are electrically connected to ground, Floating supply (T8,
VD8, PQFA) is required for the removal of ground loop noise. Try using a
signal conditioner with a floating ground
Additional considerations:
• Use shielded Ethernet cable
• Use LMS-provided Ethernet adapter in the laptop
• Laptop must use a non-grounded power brick, or (if using DC
vehicle power) be grounded to the same point as the Scadas.
• Optional Scadas ground cables shown above are only required NOTE: SCADAS Mobile units require at least
if running off of internal batteries or other non-grounded power
11Vdc (with a max. of 42Vdc). Less than 11 volts
supply (e.g. auxiliary batteries).
can cause damage to the power supply.
• If using auxiliary batteries, use 2 connected in series to provide
24 volts.
• Remember: the entire measurement system must be grounded
at one point, and one point only!
6”
aluminum blocks
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
4 Signal Conditioning
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File
Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Sensor Conditioning Gain Alias ADC DSP
Protection
Electrostatic
• Electrostatic Fields - generated by the presence of
voltage with, or without current flow
• Mechanism: capacitive coupling, by which charges
of correspondingly alternating sign are developed
on any electrical conductors subjected to the field
• Example Fluorescent Lights
Magnetic
• created either by the flow of electric current or by
the presence of permanent magnetism
• In order for noise voltage to be developed in a
conductor, magnetic lines of flux must be “cut” by
the conductor
• Examples Electric Motors and Transformers
Electrostatic shield wires ineffective, requires different shielding principle that bends or
shunts the magnetic field
Ensure that noise voltages are induced equally in both sides of the amplifier input
• Common Mode Noise Reduction: covered in Signal Conditioning
The noise voltages (V1 and V2) induced in the signal wires will therefore depend
greatly upon their distances from the current-carrying conductors
• Twisting the signal conductors together tends to make the distances equal, on the
average, thereby inducing equal noise voltages which will cancel each other.
Special attention required for cables running in parallel with high current lines. (Current
produces magnetic fields).
Short Cable
Long cable
Impulse Response
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
4 Signal Conditioning
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File
Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Sensor Conditioning Gain Alias ADC DSP
Protection
V8 VD8 VDER VD8MO V24 VS8 VC8 VCF4MO VM8 VB8 DB8 DB8II VB8II BDS4 DCH4 T8 RV4 CN2/4 FR4 WFI2 CAM DAC4 AO16 XSI
Voltage AC x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Voltage DC x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
ICP, IEPE x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Charge x x x
Diff Charge x
Conv Mic x
Digital Audio (SPDIF) x
MEMS x x x x
Bridge Voltage x x x x x
Bridge Current x
Potentiometer x x x x x
AC Excitation x x
Digital Wheel Force x
Temperature x
CAN x o
Flex Ray x
GPS or IRIG o
Tacho x x
Encoder x o
Recorder o
Analog Out x x x x x
Video x
Comments Diff +/-32V 51Khz Floating
EMF
SCADAS output
Signal on wire
amplitude
FFT
60
frequency [Hz]
EMF
SCADAS output
+
-
Signal on wire
-
F F
F F
YES NO NO
Axial Torsion Bending
300e-3
0.02 9.34e-3 0.35 muE
200e-3
1.38e-3 1.01e-3 0.02 muE
100e-3
70e-3
50e-3
30e-3
20e-3
muE
Log
10e-3
7e-3
5e-3
3e-3
2e-3
1e-3
700e-6
500e-6
300e-6
200e-6
• Cable Shield
• If possible, make sure all parts of the loop are grounded on the
same physical ground. This also includes the amplifier.
• Try to switch off possible EMC sources in the vicinity of the test
table.
• Unplug data acquisition system from AC power run on battery
• If using AC power make sure grounding plug is working and if in
Lab with clean power and isolated ground use the Orange plug
• Use grounding strap
• Use Isolated Ground Transformer
• Any other ideas?
Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Sensor Conditioning Gain Alias ADC DSP
Protection
• Direct Coupling
FFT
Amplitude
Offset (DC)
+
Fluctuation (AC)
Amplitude
frequency
Amplitude
Net signal (AC and DC)
FFT
time
Two couplings on SCADAS Mobile. One coupling between 4pin LEMO cable and Tach1 channel and
one coupling between 7pin LEMO cable and dynamic channel1.
• Alternating coupling
2.5
• Allows only AC (non-zero) signals to pass through a 2.0 Acoustic Pressure
connection 1.5
1.0
• Removes DC offset so values fluctuate about zero 0.5
Pa
0.0
Real
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
17.50 17.60
s
Time (Throughput)
• Direct coupling
1.00
100.00
• Misnomer:
Allows both AC and DC signals to pass
55.00 (offset)
Real
Amplitude
uE
DC component the 55µE offset Strain with DC coupling
• DC coupling = AC+DC
-100.00 0.00
4.00 s 10.00
(Time)
AC or DC coupling?
2.5
ICP Microphone? 2.0 Acoustic Pressure
1.5
1.0
0.5
Pa
0.0
Real
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
AC!
17.50 17.60
s
Time (Throughput)
AC or DC coupling?
AC!
ICP Accelerometer?
AC or DC coupling?
Strain Gauge?
AC or DC?
Real
Amplitude
uE
• Elastic region?
-100.00 0.00
4.00 s 10.00
(Time)
0.01 0.019996001
0.02 0.039968038
(0.5, 0.707) 0.03 0.059892291
0.04 0.079745222
0.05 0.099503719
Amplitude 0.06 0.119145221
0.07 0.138647845
0.08 0.157990501
0.09 0.177152998
0.1 0.196116135
0.2 0.371390676
0.3 0.514495755
0.4 0.624695048
0.5 0.707106781
0.6 0.76822128
0.7 0.813733471
0.8 0.847998304
0.9 0.874157276
1 0.894427191
2 0.9701425
3 0.986393924
4 0.992277877
Frequency (Hz) 5 0.99503719
amplitude
amplitude
frequency [Hz] time [s]
frequency [Hz]
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝐵𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 =
2𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
Decrease range
Bin size
Decrease quantization error
-10V
.1 X100
.01 x1000
5V 32768
0.01V
2.5V 16384
65 bits to
discretize signal
1.25V 8192 -0.01V
DC accelerometer on Jupiter?
Active
• Amplifiers included in a filter design can
be used to improve the performance and
predictability of a filter
• Main Use:
• AC Coupling
• Anti Aliasing
Passive
• RC
• RL
• LC
• RLC
•Ingersoll Rand
•Ingrown River
•Impulse Response
A A
t
Hz
Note: Impulse Response is the Inverse FFT of the Filter Frequency Response Function
A A
t
Hz
In block diagram:
x2 a2
y2
x4 x5 y3 y5
y0 y4
x0 x1 x3 a0 a1 a3 a4 a5
y1
• Filter is sharper
• Calculation takes longer
• Delay is greater
Wonder why?
Looks familiar!
Two Convolutions one with the previous inputs and one with previous outputs
Convolving functions are filter coefficients
http://www.bores.com/courses/intro/iir/5_eq.htm
IIR FIR
800e-3
600e-3
400e-3
200e-3
Amplitude
Real
0
/
-200e-3
-400e-3
-600e-3
-800e-3
-1
-1 F 1:square
F 2:1000Hz_LP
F 3:1000Hz_LP_0Phase
-1.50 0.00
2.229 2.230 2.230 2.231 2.231 2.232 2.232 2.232 2.233 2.234 2.234 2.235 2.235 2.236 2.236 2.236 2.237 2.238 2.238
s
1.00 1.00
400e-3
200e-3
100e-3
40e-3
20e-3
10e-3
4e-3
2e-3
1e-3
400e-6
200e-6
100e-6
40e-6
Amplitude
20e-6
Log
10e-6
/
4e-6
2e-6
1e-6
400e-9
F AutoPow er 1000Hz_LP
200e-9
F AutoPow er 1000Hz_LP_0Phase
100e-9 F AutoPow er square
40e-9
20e-9
10e-9
4e-9
2e-9
1e-9
300e-12
0.10e-9 0.00
0.00 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2500.00
Hz
0.01 0.019996001
0.02 0.039968038
0.03 0.059892291
0.04 0.079745222
0.05 0.099503719
0.06 0.119145221
0.07 0.138647845
0.08 0.157990501
0.09 0.177152998
0.1 0.196116135
0.2 0.371390676
0.3 0.514495755
0.4 0.624695048
0.5 0.707106781
0.6 0.76822128
0.7 0.813733471
0.8 0.847998304
0.9 0.874157276
1 0.894427191
2 0.9701425
3 0.986393924
4 0.992277877
5 0.99503719
Amplitude
V
V
0.00 0.00
180.00 180.00
°
°
-180.00 -180.00
0.00 order 16.00 0.00 order 16.00
Point1 (CH1) Point1 (CH1)
1.00 1.00
Order 1.00 Point1 Order 1.00 Point1
Amplitude (RMS)
Amplitude (RMS)
V
V
0.00 0.00
180.00 180.00
°
°
-180.00 -180.00
500.00 rpm 10100.00 500.00 rpm 10100.00
Tacho1 (T1) Tacho1 (T1)
0.05 0.05
Order 1.00 SR_CH1 Order 1.00 SR_CH1
Amplitude (RMS)
Amplitude (RMS)
Slope - Phased to Tacho Flat - Phased to Channel
V
V
0.00 0.00
180.00 180.00
°
°
-180.00 -180.00
500.00 rpm 10100.00 500.00 rpm 10100.00
Tacho1 (T1) Tacho1 (T1)
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
4 Signal Conditioning
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File
Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Sensor Conditioning Gain Alias ADC DSP
Protection
Nyquist frequency
(Bandwidth)
fs
f max
2
LMS System prevents Aliasing by the combination of an
Analog anti-aliasing filter and Over Sampling in the Sigma-
Delta Converter
t
1
Fs
t
Something strange?
Glass vibrates at 608 Hz,
while we see it vibrating at
2 Hz!
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
True
frequencies
Removes frequencies
that violate Nyquist from
1
analog signal before
digitizing
0
Frequency fs/2=fmax fs
0 80% of fs
Frequency
Alias-free
Sweep Speed
Amplitude
Frequency range
suffering from aliasing
Frequency
Page 156 Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2017 Siemens PLM Software
Practical Sample Rate Considerations
In order to ensure alias free data in the band of interest sample rates
are often:
f s 2.5 f max
250
100 * 2.5 250 125 125 * .8 100 Hz !Frequency Domain!
2
Page 157 Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2017 Siemens PLM Software
Aliasing Demo
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
4 Signal Conditioning
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File
Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Sensor Conditioning Gain Alias ADC DSP
Protection
A direct-conversion ADC
A successive-approximation ADC
A ramp-compare ADC
The Wilkinson ADC
An integrating ADC (also dual-slope or multi-slope ADC)
A delta-encoded ADC or counter-ramp
A pipeline ADC (also called subranging quantizer)
A sigma-delta ADC (also known as a delta-sigma ADC)
A time-interleaved ADC
An ADC with intermediate FM stage
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter
• where M is the ADC's resolution in bits and EFSR is the full scale
voltage range (also called 'span'). EFSR is given by
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta-sigma_modulation
http://www.beis.de/Elektronik/DeltaSigma/DeltaSigma.html
Amplitude 1
fs
t
fs Sample rate/Frequency
Time
t Time between samples
Nyquist frequency
t = 1/fs T = N t
(Bandwidth)
Shannon’s Sampling theorem
f max
fs f s 2 f max
2
Page 170 Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2017 Siemens PLM Software
Time Domain Sampling Considerations
1.00
Real
/
-1.00 F 1:10at1000Hz 1.00
5.00 s 6.00
0.90
Real
/
1.00
Real
/
1.00
Real
/
Amplitude
Amplitude
600e-3
(/) 1/2)
5.00 s 6.00 1.00 (/)^(1/2)
F 2:10at30Hz 0.87
(
500e-3
1.00 400e-3
-1.00
300e-3
5.00 s 6.00
F 3:10at50Hz 0.94 200e-3
100e-3
1.00
0.00 10.00 0.00
-1.00
1.00 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 50 6070 100 200 300 400500 1000.00
5.00 s 6.00
Hz
F 4:10at100Hz 0.96
Frequency
Time
Must sample very quickly to
capture amplitude in time domain!
5.4
F 1:1:+Z 5.38
4.5 Time F 2:4000Hz:+Z 5.25
4.0 F 3:2000Hz:+Z 4.64
3.5 F 4:1000Hz:+Z 4.58
3.0
2.5
Real
g
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.2
0.00 s 0.11
0.10
0.01 F PSD 1:+Z 0.0203
F PSD 1000Hz:+Z 0.0204
1.00e-3 F PSD 2000Hz:+Z 0.0202
100e-6 F PSD 4000Hz:+Z 0.0203
10.0e-6
/Hz
Log
1.00e-6
g2
100e-9
10.0e-9
1.00e-9
100e-12 Frequency
10.0e-12
10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 60.00 100.00 200.00 300.00400.00 600.00 1000.00 2000.00 3000.00 5000.00
Hz
Time
The continuous amplitude of the real time signal will be split up in discrete
levels = 2number of bits QUANTIZATION
Random (stochastic)
• If not at max range
• Considered as an additional random signal called quantization noise because of its stochastic
behavior
Proportional to input range
Proportional to the number of bits in the systems
At lower amplitudes the quantization error becomes dependent on the input signal, resulting in
distortion
In an ideal analog-to-digital converter, where the quantization error is uniformly distributed
between −1/2 LSB and +1/2 LSB, and the signal has a uniform distribution covering all
quantization levels, the Signal-to-quantization-noise ratio (SQNR) can be calculated from
Voltage
Bits
Levels
8 256
12 4096
16 65536
24 16777216
Precision of
conversion is
controlled by the
number of bits of
resolution in the
Analog to Digital
Converter.
Under-load AKA
improper Input
Range Setting
Overhead should
be used to
minimize overload
conditions
Chose a sensor
with proper
maximum range
24 Bit ΣΔ ADC
• How do I minimize
• Use Overhead when auto-ranging
• Select proper sensitivity sensor
• Minimize Noise
Simultaneous Sampling
• Eliminates time skew between channels
• Simplifies both time and frequency based analysis
techniques
Multiplexed Sampling
• Channels are sampled sequentially
• May require software correction for detecting certain
patterns
0.50
range:
0.20
Real
0.00
/
-0.30
-0.50
2ft
-0.80
-1.00 1.02 1.05
OR
t
1.00 1.041.06 1.08 1.10 1.12 1.141.161.18 1.20 1.221.241.261.28 1.30 1.32 1.35
s
Time domain
T0
t [s] 1 rad
Period: T0 [s]
2
Frequency domain
f [Hz]
Frequency: f0 = 1/T0 [Hz]
f0
[rad/s]
Pulsation / circular frequency:
0 0 = 2f0 = 2/T0 [rad/s]
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
4 Signal Conditioning
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File
Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Sensor Conditioning Gain Alias ADC DSP
Protection
Interface
The amount of measured data device
System Throughput Rate calculation for 960 accel's (320 nodes in 3 directions) for aircraft GVT
Channel count x Sampling frequency x bytes per sample @ 24 bit ADC
[#] [Hz] = [MSamples/sec] x [bytes/sample] [Mbytes/sec]
System Throughput Rate calculation for 40 accel's for high-speed turbine testing
Channel count x Sampling frequency x bytes per sample @ 24 bit ADC
[#] [Hz] = [MSamples/sec] x [bytes/sample] [Mbytes/sec]
600e-3
400e-3
Log
V
300e-3
200e-3
100e-3
60e-3
40e-3
30e-3
20e-3
0.01
0.00 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 500.00
Hz
10e-3
4e-3
2e-3
1e-3
Amplitude
400e-6
Log
g
200e-6
100e-6
40e-6
20e-6
10e-6
4e-6
2e-6
1.00e-6 0.00
0.000 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.00 7.50 8.00 8.50 9.00 10.000
order
Derived Order (EngineTacho)
Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Sensor Conditioning Gain Alias ADC DSP
Protection
Is the ratio between the smallest and largest possible signal that can be
measured with a measuring system
• Your ears is capable of hearing anything from a whisper to the
sound of the loudest rock concert.
• Your eyes can see objects in starlight or in bright sunlight.
The ratio between the value of the highest full scale input range voltage
and the highest spectral peak in the noise floor of the lowest input
range over a 20 kHz frequency bandwidth
The ratio between the rms value of an applied pure sine wave and
the rms sum value of all measured harmonics (usually only up to
the 5th) Good practice is to apply a signal with an amplitude of 70%
(-3dB) of the full scale range. The advised method to determine
THD is to perform an autopower measurement based on an FFT
with at least 16k points spectral resolution. Averaging up to 8 or 16
autopower spectra will contribute to having a clear view on the
instrument capabilities.
Specification
• Cross talk between any two channels: -123dB at 1 kHz typical,
independent of input range settings
20 x 10log(CH1 / CH2)
1 DSP Fundamentals
2 Aliasing
4 Spectrum vs Autopower
5 Filters
6 Amplitude Discretization
Frequency
Filters
Response
Spectrum vs Autopower
Functions
FIR and(FRFs)
IIR
Amplitude Discretization
Time
Frequency
Laplace
Time
Each domain can be Domain
thought of as a different Each domain
coordinate system that highlights a
is used to view or particular aspect of
describe the the characteristics of
characteristics of a transformation transformation a system or event.
system or event.
subset
Frequency Laplace
Domain parameter estimation Domain
• The time domain is usually the basis for a description of a system’s dynamic behavior.
e.g. differential equation of motion. Events are measured as a function of time.
• The frequency domain highlights the periodic characteristics of the system or event.
• The Laplace domain describes the system in terms of poles and zeroes or residues.
Time
Each domain can be Domain
thought of as a different Each domain
coordinate system that highlights a
is used to view or particular aspect of
describe the the characteristics of
characteristics of a
Uh, sounds a system or event.
transformation transformation
system or event.
FFT cool... But, WHAT
the #$%@ is it,
subset
and HOW does it
Frequency Laplace
work?
Domain parameter estimation Domain
• The time domain is usually the basis for a description of a system’s dynamic behavior.
e.g. differential equation of motion. Events are measured as a function of time.
• The frequency domain highlights the periodic characteristics of the system or event.
• The Laplace domain describes the system in terms of poles and zeroes or residues.
-1
-2
-3 Joseph Fourier
-4
(º1768 - †1830)
Théorie analytique de la chaleur (1822)
1.5
0.5
u 2u 2u
-0.5
k 2 2
-1
-1.5
-2
t x y
-2.5
Amplitude
Amplitude
Frequency
Time
(Hz)
(seconds)
For mathematicians …
Fourier integral:
xt
1
j t
X e d
For lowly humans … 2
3 2
2 1.5
1
1
0.5
0 0
-1 -0.5
-1
-2
-1.5
-3 -2
-4 -2.5
Amplitude
Frequency to Time
Time
t = 1/fs T = N t
No Information lost
Time domain
T0
t [s] 1 rad
Period: T0 [s]
2
Frequency domain
f [Hz]
Frequency: f0 = 1/T0 [Hz]
f0
[rad/s]
Pulsation / circular frequency:
0 0 = 2f0 = 2/T0 [rad/s]
2f time
Remember
1 second
Where:
f is in Hz
‘ω is in radians/sec
Amp Amp
time time
1 second 1 second
Amp Amp
time time
1 second 1 second
5 g Peak
5
3.5 g RMS (.707 of Peak)
Amp
0
time
-5
10 g Peak-to-Peak (2xPeak)
0.00
/
radians.
-0.30 It is equivalent to say
-0.50
the blue signal
“leads” the red by
-0.70
-0.80 315° or 7/4 radians.
-1.00 1.03
1.00 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.20 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.30 1.32 1.35
s
Log
Magnitude
Phase
Phase
Hz
•No physical
significance for NVH
or Durability to
negative Frequency
If double sided spectrum you may be off by 2
F 1:Displacement
B 2:Velocity
B2 3:Acceleration
5 Hz Sine Wave
x(t ) A sin(t )
700e-3
500e-3
Velocity 200e-3
Real
Real
Real
in/s
in
x(t ) A cos(t )
g
0
-300e-3
-500e-3
Acceleration
-800e-3
x(t ) A sin(t )
-1.00 0.00 0.05 -32.00 -2.56
2
0.00 20e-3 50e-3 70e-3 100e-3 100e-3 200e-3 200e-3 0.20
s
30
20
10
7
Converting from
6
5 acceleration to velocity /ω
4
In/s^2
in/s
Log
Log
Log
in
g
700e-3
600e-3
500e-3
400e-3 Converting from acceleration
300e-3
200e-3
to Displacement /ω^2
0.10 10.0e-6 9.49e-9
1.00 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 1000.00
249 copyright LMS InternationalHz- 2011
. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simpson's_rule
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapezoidal_rule
Three Point
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_differentiation
0.80 1.00
1. Up-sample 2x = 4x Bandwidth
F 3:accel:+Z Filter • RESAMPLING(CH1;2048;80;0.01;50;15)
2. Filter Integrate Acceleration to Velocity
3. Filter Integrate Velocity to Displacement
Amplitude
Real
in
Amplitude
in
0.00 0.00
92.00 s 157.00
t f t f
t f t f
t f t f
Time Frequency Time Frequency
Amplitude
Real
Real
/
/
-1.10 0.00 -1.10
0.50 s 0.60 0.00 Hz 1000.00 0.50 s 0.60
Amplitude
Real
Real
/
/
-1.10 0.00 -1.10
0.50 s 0.60 0.00 Hz 1000.00 0.50 s 0.60
Amplitude
Real
Real
/
/
-1.80 0.00 -1.80
0.00 s 1.00 0.00 Hz 1000.00 0.00 s 1.00
Real
/
/
-1.10 0.00 -1.10
0.00 s 1.00 1.00 Hz 1000.00 0.00 s 1.00
1.00
Real
/
2.01240
2.01120 F 1:Phase_0
-1.00
F 2:Phase_45
2.00 s 2.02
1.01
2ft
/
0.00
180.00
°
2.00
F 3:square
Real
/
-1.000 -1.000
1.30
Spectrum square
Amplitude
/
Hz
0.00 0.00 100.00 Linear 600.00
Phase
-180.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 Hz
300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Hz
2.00
F 3:square
F 4:triangle
Real
/
1.30
Spectrum square
Spectrum triangle
Amplitude
/
Hz
0.00 0.00 100.00 Linear 600.00
Phase
-180.00
0.00 Hz
Hz 600.00
FFT
Amplitude
Amplitude
FFT-1
Time Frequency
Acquisition Time?
Frequency Resolution?
Amplitude 1
fs
t
fs Sample rate/Frequency
Time
t Time between samples
Nyquist frequency
t = 1/fs T = N t
(Bandwidth)
Shannon’s Sampling theorem
f max
fs f s 2 f max
2
Page 264 Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2017 Siemens PLM Software
Sampling Parameters and the effects in Frequency domain
Information Discarded
USABLE FREQUENCY
RANGE
“BANDWIDTH”
No usable data
frequency
f
f max s fs
2
f s 2 f max
Shannon’s Sampling Theorem
f max 200 Hz
f s 400 Hz
Acquisition Time
Time FFT is
calculated over
spectral lines
FFT
Amplitude
Amplitude
t Time
f
Frequency
1 1
T
f Re solution
•Dictates your Spectral Lines and will determine your frequency resolution.
→This will dictate T, the length of time over which the FFT is
processed.
Keep in Mind:
Online Processing
Offline Processing
Frequency
Filters
Response
Spectrum vs Autopower
Functions
FIR and(FRFs)
IIR
Amplitude Discretization
5v
?
1 Hz Δf
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6
Hz Hz
Smaller amplitude
Smearing of
spectral content
T T = N t
YES!
Are these signals the same?
T T = N t
Original signal
Window function
x
0
=
Windowed signal
Expect
1.00
Amplitude
(m/s 2)
2
1.5
0.5
0 0.00
-0.5
0.00 Hz 100.00
-1
-1.5 0.00
-2 Log scale
-2.5
(m/s 2)
dB
2.5
2 -60.00
1.5
0.00 Hz 100.00
1
0.5
Actually See
-0.5 1.00
-1
-1.5
Linear scale
Amplitude
(m/s 2)
-2
-2.5
0.00
2.5 2.5 2.5 0.00 Hz 100.00
2 2 2
0.5
1
0.5
1
0.5
Log scale
(m/s 2)
dB
0 0 0
-1 -1 -1
A: Windows
AKA No Window
Freq. domain
No Window
Amplitude
600e-3
0.20
/
500e-3
Real
0.00
/
400e-3
300e-3
-0.30
200e-3
-0.50
0.00 50.00
-0.80
40 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 60
-1.00
Hz
5.00 5.02 5.05 5.07 5.10 5.12 5.15 5.17 5.20
Which Window
s
Would be best for a calibration?
What is the trade-off for better Amplitude resolution?
Amplitude
600e-3
0.20
/
500e-3
Real
0.00
/
400e-3
300e-3
-0.30
200e-3
-0.50
0.00 50.00
-0.80
40 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 60
-1.00
Hz
5.00 5.02 5.05 5.07 5.10 5.12 5.15 5.17 5.20
Which Window s
Would be best for a calibration? Flat Top
What is the trade-off for better Amplitude resolution? Frequency Res
900e-3
500e-3
400e-3
300e-3
200e-3
100e-3
1 1.00 /
F
F
AutoPow er Sine 50.5 Hz Hanning
AutoPow er Sine 50.5 Hz Flattop
window has
400e-3
200e-3
significant
100e-3 smearing across
40e-3
20e-3
broad frequency
10e-3
4e-3
range
Log
/
2e-3
1e-3
400e-6
200e-6
100e-6
40e-6
20e-6
10e-6
3e-6
1.00e-6 50.00
1.00 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 100.00
Hz
1 DSP Fundamentals
3 Spectrum vs Autopower
4 Spectrum vs Autopower
5 Filters
6 Amplitude Discretization
Frequency
Filters
Response
Spectral Function
Functions
FIR and(FRFs)
IIR
Amplitude Discretization
Spectrum
• Complex number the form of a+ib from FFT calculation
• Provides amplitude and Phase information
Autopower Spectrum
• Magnitude of the spectrum squared
• Provides amplitude only information
Cross Power Spectrum
• Complex number of the form a+ib
Power Spectral Density Function (PSD)
• Magnitude only spectrum normalized by frequency
resolution
•Spectrum is Referred to as Sx
•The Zero Hz value represents the mean in the signal
•Effects of averaging:
•Phase must be relative to fixed point or spectrum will average to
zero – Uncorrelated noise will average out
•Units: Linear (not squared)
•Applications:
•ODS, Crosspower Calculations, Phase referenced spectrum
2.00 1.00
Amplitude
Amplitude
/
0.00 0.00
5.00 s 5.10
F 1:50HzMean_1
Amplitude
/
=
AVE
Gxy S S y
*
x
Gxx
PSD
f
60.00
dB
Pa
10.00
0.00 Hz 6400.00
Frequency
Structure
Signal DSP
Sensor Gain Alias ADC DSP To
Conditioning
Protection Computer
To Computer
for Data FFT Processing
Processing
• Function Auto-power, Spectrum, PSD etc…
• Window type
• Block Size / Frequency resolution / Spectral lines
• Scaling – Peak / RMS
0.10 2.00e-3
Amplitude
Amplitude
V2/Hz
V
0.02 200e-6
0.00 Hz 1100.00 0.00 Hz 1100.00
0.50 0.50
Curve 500.00 Hz Curve 500.00 Hz
0.50 V^2 0.50 V^2/Hz
0.50 V^2 0.25 V^2/Hz
Amplitude
Amplitude
V2/Hz
V2
Pitcher = Signal
Cup = Spectral Line
Pitcher = Signal
Cup = Spectral Line
Pitcher = Signal
Cup = Spectral Line
Pitcher = Signal
Cup = Spectral Line
Pitcher = Signal
Cup = Spectral Line
3
Person
Party
Pitcher = Signal
Cup = Spectral Line
3
Person And makes sine
Party
amplitudes different
Pitcher = Signal
Cup = Spectral Line
Noise Reduction
Peak Hold Interested in Energy
No constant Phase
Log Average
Exponential Average
0.05
50e-3
40e-3
40e-3
40e-3
30e-3
Amplitude
F Spectrum Point8
V
F AutoPow er Point8
30e-3
20e-3
10e-3
10e-3
5e-3
0.00
0.00 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100.00
Hz
Amplitude
/
Spectrum - Amplitude reduced
10 averages
Hz
0.00 0.00 Linear
2.70 1100.00
180.00 0.00 Linear 1100.00
Phase
°
Hz
-180.00
Amplitude
0.00 Hz 1100.00
/
Hz
20 averages
0.00 0.00 Linear 1100.00
Phase
2.20
180.00 0.00
°
-180.00 Linear 1100.00
0.00 Hz 1100.00
Amplitude
/
40 averages
Hz
0.00 0.00 Linear 2.101100.00
Phase
180.00
-180.00 0.00 Linear 1100.00
°
0.00 Hz
Hz 1100.00
Amplitude
/
Hz
0.00 0.00 Linear 1100.00
Phase
180.00
-180.00 0.00 Linear 1100.00
°
0.00 Hz
Hz 1100.00
•Where f1 and f2 are the frequency range you are taking the
RMS value over
•Sometimes called Narrow Band RMS
A02 K 1 2 Ak2
Spectrum RMS Ai
2 i 1 2
A0 K 1 A
Autopower RMS Ai 0
2 i 1 2
A0 f K 1 A f
PSD RMS Ai f 0
2 i 1 2
1 k 2
Time Domain RMS
k 1 i 0
yi
RMS Level in Frequency Domain