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Weather- The term “weather” refers to the atmospheric conditions which exist in an
area at a particular time. The weather in a particular location can change from day to day
or even within a few minutes. If you speak of how rainy it was this morning or how hot it
was yesterday, you are speaking about the weather.
Climate vs Weather-Though some use the terms interchangeably, there are many
differences between “climate” and “weather.” Climate refers to the average
pattern of weather in a specific place over several years, while weather
encompasses the natural events happening in the atmosphere each day, including
temperature and rainfall. For example, a hurricane may occur in both Florida and
Connecticut (weather), but Florida’s climate is much warmer than Connecticut’s.
2. Elements of Weather
There are a number of elements which make up the weather. They are:
Temperature: This refers to how hot or cold the atmosphere is. It is measured in
degrees Celsius or degrees Fahrenheit. Temperature is measured using a thermometer.
When discussing the temperature of various areas, it is important to understand the
following terms:
o Diurnal temperature range: This is the difference between the highest and
lowest temperature in a day. It is also known as the daily temperature range.
o Annual temperature range: This is the difference between the average
temperature of the hottest and coldest months in the year.
Sunshine: Sunshine is the term used to refer to direct sunlight. It is measured in hours.
The instrument used to determine the amount of sunshine experienced in an area in a
day is a Campbell Stokes Sunshine Recorder.
o The sphere focuses the rays of the Sun onto a point on this card, burning a
small hole at that point. As the Sun moves across the sky its rays are focused
on different parts of the card. At the end of the day, the card can be
examined to determine the amount of sunshine the area experienced on
that day. An entire day of sunshine will create one long, unbroken burn on
the card. A day with many cloudy periods will create several small burns with
spaces in between them. The spaces represent periods when there was no
direct sunlight.
Precipitation: This term refers to the various ways in which water falls from the
atmosphere to the ground. This includes rain, snow and hail. Rainfall is measured in
millimeters using a rain gauge. The amount of precipitation that an area receives has a
major impact on the vegetation and soil in that area. Some areas receive very little
precipitation while others receive very much. In some areas rainfall is seasonal, while in
others it rains throughout the year.
Pressure: This refers to the weight of the atmosphere pressing down on the Earth’s
surface. It is measured in millibars (mb). The instrument used to measure atmospheric
pressure is the barometer. Low pressure is associated with rising air, which often results
in cloud formation and rainfall. High pressure is associated with descending air and fair
weather.
Winds: Winds blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. We are
concerned with two aspects of wind; its direction and its speed.
Wind direction is measured using a wind vane or wind sock. As the wind blows,
these instruments turn to indicate wind directon. Winds are named according to
the direction that they blow from. For instance, an easterly wind is a wind which
blows from the east.
Wind speed is measured using an anemometer. A commonly used type is the cup
anemometer. It is composed of three cups mounted on horizontal arms which are
attached to a vertical shaft. When the wind blows, it causes the cups to spin
around which causes the shaft to turn. The faster the wind blows, the faster the
cups spin and the faster the shaft turns. A device connected to the shaft gives the
wind speed in miles or kilometers per hour.
Humidity: This term refers to the moisture in the atmosphere. Absolute humidityis a
measure of the total amount of moisture in the air. However, the amount of moisture
that air can hold depends on its temperature. Relative humidity is the amount of water
in the atmosphere given as a percentage of the total amount of water that the air can
hold at that temperature. Therefore, relative humidity of 75% indicates that the air is
currently holding 75% of the total amount of water that it can hold at that particular
temperature. Relative humidity is measured using a hygrometer.
Clouds: Clouds form when water vapour condenses in the atmosphere. When air rises,
it cools. A rising current of air is called an updraught (also spelled updraft). As the air
cools, its ability to hold moisture is reduced. The water vapour in the rising air
condenses, forming clouds. When discussing clouds, we are concerned with cloud cover
and cloud type.
Cloud cover: The amount of the sky that is obscured by clouds is known as cloud
cover. Cloud cover is measured in oktas (eighths). One okta of cloud cover means
that one eighth of the sky is obscured by clouds. Four oktas of cloud cover means
that half the sky is obscured by clouds. Eight oktas of cloud cover means the entire
visible sky is obscured by clouds. The human eye is used to judge cloud cover.
Cloud type: There are many types of clouds. Clouds are named according to their
appearance. The three basic cloud types are cirrus, cumulus and stratus.
o Cirrus clouds: These clouds form high in the atmosphere where they are
blown into thin, feathery formations by high level winds.
o Cumulus clouds: The word cumulus means “heap” or “pile”. Cumulus clouds
are puffy looking clouds formed when water vapour condenses as a result of
strong updraughts. They look like floating heaps of cotton.
o Stratus clouds: These clouds are formed in layers. A stratus cloud looks like a
sheet of cloud.
Many other types of cloud display features of more than one of the basic cloud types.
For instance a cirrostratus cloud displays features of cirrus as well as stratus clouds.
They are high level,thin, feathery clouds formed in layers. It is important to note that
the prefix “alto” is used to describe mid level clouds and the
terms “nimbo” or “nimbus” are used to describe clouds that produce rain.
Therefore, altocumulus clouds are mid-level cumulus clouds and nimbostratusclouds are
stratus clouds that produce rain.
A distinct type of cloud is the cumulonimbus cloud. This type of cloud forms when very
strong updraughts rise high into the atmosphere forming very tall clouds. The top of this
type of cloud may spread out, giving the cloud an anvil shape. Cumulonimbus clouds
produce heavy rain and thunderstorms. The diagram below shows various cloud types
as well as the altitudes at which they form.
Latitude and Altitude- Latitude, or how far one is from the equator, greatly affects the
climate and weather of an area. If you live close to the equator, the climate will be
warmer, while moving north or south from the equator brings a cooler climate. Altitude,
or how high one is above sea level, has a similar effect–the higher the elevation, the
colder the climate.
Distance from the sea- Land and water retain different amounts of heat. Land heats more
quickly than water, but water holds heat longer. Proximity to water moderates the climate,
while inland climates are harsher. Those living near the water will experience breezy, moist
weather, when the warm air from the land meets the cooler air from the water and and rises,
making for a windy climate with precipitation. The further inland one goes, the drier the climate
in most region.
Relief- Mountain areas are generally colder than surrounding land due to higher altitudes.
Mountainous regions block the flow of air masses, which rise to pass over the higher terrain.
The rising air is cooled, which causes condensation of water vapor, and precipitation. This being
the case, one side of a mountain, the windward side, will often have more precipitation and
vegetation; the leeward side is often drier.
Winds
Prevailing winds are the winds which blow more often from one direction than another.
Winds can greatly affect the amount of precipitation an area receives depending on the
amount of moisture they are carrying. These prevailing winds can move air masses from
the ocean onto a continent bringing moisture onto the continent. Or prevailing winds may
move air masses from continent to the ocean, moving drier air from the continent.
Prevailing winds affect the climate of an area.
Land and Sea Breezes- When the air over the land is warmer than the air over a body the
wind blows from the water to the land and is called a sea breeze. This often occurs in the
morning and can be called a morning breeze When the air over the land is cooler than the
air over the water, the wind will blow from the land to the water and is called a land
breeze. This usually occurs in the evening or an evening breeze.
o Precipitation- Another major characteristic of this climate is the high rainfall. These
regions usually experience 2000 mm of rainfall or more in a year. Rainfall is high for
most of the year. Many equatorial regions are affected by the ITCZ. As the ITCZ
passes over these areas it brings heavy rainfall and thunderstorms. In some areas,
the ITCZ causes two periods of very heavy rainfall every year. One occurs when the
ITCZ crosses these areas on its way north and another occurs when it crosses these
areas again on its way south. The climograph below shows the rainfall and
temperature pattern of an area which experiences an equatorial climate.
o Vegetation- In equatorial regions, the year round high temperatures and abundant
rainfall support plant growth all year round. These areas usually have equatorial
rainforests. These forests have very dense vegetation. Many different types of
trees and other plants can be found growing in a relatively small area of rainforest.
More species of plant can be found in a rainforest than in other type of plant
community. Four square miles of rainforest may contain as many as 750 species of
tree and 1,500 species of flowering plant. Rainforests cover only about 6 percent of
the Earth’s surface. However, they contain about half of the world’s known animal
species and provide about 40% of the world’s oxygen.
Tropical Marine Climate- Many islands and coastal areas located 10 to 20 degrees
north or south of the equator experience a tropical marine climate. These areas include
most Caribbean islands as well as coastal areas of territories such as Guyana. Central
America, Madagascar, the Phillipines and parts of East Africa also experience this climate.
o Temperature- Regions which experience a tropical marine climate have high
temperatures all year round. The annual temperature range is often quite small.
However it can be up 10 degrees Celsius in areas farther way from the equator.
Temperatures are higher during the wetter season and lower during the drier
season. The climograph below shows the rainfall and temperature pattern of a
country which experiences a tropical marine climate.
o Vegetation-
Rainforest- In some areas the drier season is relatively short or there is
enough rainfall during the drier season to support plant growth. In
these areas, the ecosystems which develop are very similar to the true
rainforests which develop in equatorial climates. This is the case in the
wetter parts of many Caribbean territories including St. Lucia, Trinidad,
St. Vincent, Jamaica and Belize.
Mangrove- Mangrove trees grow in areas with low oxygen soils where
water flows slowly, allowing fine sediment to accumulate. Unlike many
plants, they are able to thrive in saline conditions or brackish water
where fresh water and sea water mix. There are over 80 species of
mangrove. They can usually be recognised by their stilt roots which
hold the trees up above the water level. Mangrove forests can be found
in coastal areas in tropical and subtropical regions. Mangrove forests
help stabilize the coastline. Their roots also serve as a breeding ground
or a habitat for many aquatic animals.
o Temperature-
Areas which experience tropical continental climates experience high
temperatures throughout the year. Annual temperature range is greater than that
of equatorial climates. An annual temperature range of about 8 degrees Celsius is
not uncommon. Generally, it is warmer during the wet season and cooler during the
dry season. The highest temperatures are experienced just before the start of the
wet season. The daily temperature range may be 15 degrees Celsius or even more.
This means that it is much colder at nights than during the day.
o Precipitation- A major feature of this type of climate is the fact that there are
distinct wet and dry seasons. Most of the rainfall occurs during a particular period
during the year (the wet season). During this time these areas are under the
influence of the ITCZ. The wet season may be as short as three months in some
areas and as long as seven or eight months in others. Areas closer to the equator
tend to have longer wet seasons and may experience over 1000 mm of rainfall per
year. Areas farther away from the equator tend to have shorter wet seasons and
experience as little as 300 mm of rain in a year. Rainfall is also less reliable in areas
farther away from the equator and they sometimes experience droughts. During the
dry season, there is little or no rainfall.
During the wet season, plants take advantage of the available moisture.
Grasses grow quickly and some types may become very tall. Many trees
produce new leaves and the entire savanna looks lush and green
During the dry season, the grass dries out, many trees drop their leaves and
the savanna takes on a completely new appearance (see photo below). Bush
fires are common during this period.
Tropical Waves- Tropical waves are troughs of low pressure which occur in tropical
areas. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) a
trough is “an elongated area of low pressure, usually not associated with a closed
circulation”. Tropical waves develop from atmospheric disturbances as far away as
eastern Africa. They then move toward the west travelling across the African continent
and over the Atlantic Ocean. They are carried along by the prevailing easterly winds
known as the trade winds.
Tropical waves are very large systems. Travelling at about 20 – 30 km per hour, the
entire system may take up to four days to cross a particular location. To the west of a
tropical wave, air is descending and the weather is fair. Wind blows from the north-east.
As the trough of the wave passes over an area, the atmosphere becomes unstable and
there are strong updraughts (rising currents of air). Cumulonimbus clouds form,
resulting in heavy rain and thunderstorms. To the east of the wave, the wind blows from
the south-east.
There are about 60 – 65 tropical waves in a typical year. They are especially common
from April to November, when a new wave leaves the African coast every 2 – 4 days.
Under certain conditions, a tropical wave may develop into a hurricane.
Hurricanes- Hurricanes are powerful cyclonic (rotating) storms with maximum sustained
winds of 74 miles per hour (119 km per hour) or higher. In the Pacific, they are called
typhoons while in the Indian ocean they are known as cyclones. Hurricanes develop
over warm seas and oceans from atmospheric disturbances such as tropical waves. In
order for a hurricane to develop, the surface temperature of the sea or ocean must be
at least 27 degrees Celsius (80 degrees Fahrenheit).
A tropical depression may develop into a tropical storm under the right conditions.
Sustained winds must be at least 39 miles per hour (63 km per hour) in order for a
system to be classified as a tropical storm. The atmospheric pressure in a tropical
storm is usually between 990 mb and 1000 mb. When a system becomes a tropical
storm, it is given a name from a predetermined list. Storms are named in
alphabetical order. The first storm of the year is given a name which starts with
“A”, the second one gets a name which starts with “B” and so on.
WATCH- https://youtu.be/OEPZOC6YHUc
o At the center of a hurricane is the eye. The eye of a hurricane is the “hole” in
the middle of the hurricane. A typical hurricane has an eye which is about 20
– 40 miles (32 – 64km) across. Conditions within the eye are relatively calm.
Winds are light and there is little or no rain. Within the eye, air is descending.
The sky may be clear. As the eye of a hurricane passes over an area, people
who don’t know better may think the hurricane has passed. The structure of
a hurricane can be seen in the diagram below.
The Movement of a Hurricane- Generally speaking, hurricanes move toward the
west at about 10 to 15 miles per hour. In the northern hemisphere, they tend to
curve toward the north-west. They tend to curve toward the south-west in the
southern hemisphere. However, some hurricanes do not follow this general
pattern of movement. In 1999, Hurricane Lenny developed in the Caribbean Sea
and headed east, crossing the Leeward Islands and heading out into the Atlantic.
Lenny is remembered as a hurricane which spent its entire lifespan heading the
wrong way.
o Before a hurricane makes landfall, the weather may be calm. Humidity is
high. Wind speed and cloud cover increase as the hurricane approaches.
When a hurricane makes landfall, the area experiences very strong winds.
Often, there is very heavy rainfall. Winds are strongest in the eyewall. As the
eye of the hurricane passes over an area, the wind dies down. It may even
stop raining. Once the eye has passed, strong winds start blowing again. This
time the winds blow in the opposite direction. As the eye moves away from
an area, the wind speed decreases.
o Warm seas and oceans are the source of a hurricane’s energy. As long as a
hurricane remains over a warm tropical sea or ocean it can continue to
sustain itself by “sucking up” warm, moist air. However, when a hurricane
makes landfall or moves over cold water, it is cut off from its energy source
and it begins to weaken. The video below shows how Hurricane Katrina
developed and then dissipated after making landfall in Louisiana.
o WATCH- https://youtu.be/z1ONNM_73-8
o While over a tropical sea or ocean, a hurricane may be weakened by what is
known as “wind shear”. Wind shear occurs when high level winds blow in a
different direction (or at a different speed) from winds near the surface.
Cold Fronts- When air remains relatively stagnant over an area for some time, it takes
on the temperature and moisture characteristics of the area. Therefore, air which
remains stagnant over a cold and dry area will become cold and dry. Air which remains
stagnant over the sea or ocean in the tropics will become warm and moist. A body of air
which has similar temperature and moisture characteristics throughout is known as
an air mass.
Over time, air masses may move out of the areas over which they develop. As they
do so, they encounter other air masses with different characteristics. When two
air masses with different characteristics meet, they do not readily mix. There is
usually a sharp or well defined boundary between the two air masses. This
boundary is known as a front. There are different types of fronts such as warm
fronts and cold fronts. Warm fronts occur when a warm air mass moves into a
region of colder air. Cold fronts occur when a cold air mass moves into a region of
warm air.
Cold fronts affect the Caribbean region (especially the northern part of the region)
during the northern hemisphere winter. During this period, cold air from North
America moves into the Caribbean. There is a well defined boundary where this
cold, dry air meets the warm, moist air of the Caribbean. The cold air is denser and
heavier and so it pushes its way beneath the warm air. The warm air, which is
lighter and less dense than the cold air, is forced to rise. There are strong
updraughts and tall cumulonimbus clouds are formed. There is often heavy rain
and thunderstorms
WATCH- https://youtu.be/huKYKykjcm0
ITCZ- The trade winds meet (or converge) in the zone of low pressure in equatorial
regions. This zone is called the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Atmospheric
conditions in the ITCZ are very unstable. There are strong currents of rising air known as
updraughts. As the air rises, the moisture within it condenses, clouds form and it rains.
The unstable conditions in the ITCZ make equatorial regions some of the wettest in the
world. These areas often experience heavy rainfall and thunderstorms.
The ITCZ is a very large feature which circles the globe. It affects many tropical
areas around the world including territories in the southern Caribbean. The ITCZ is
not stationary. It moves north of the equator during the northern hemisphere
summer, bringing heavy rain to Trinidad and Tobago and Grenada. It then moves
south, crossing the Equator and moving into the southern hemisphere. The ITCZ
reaches its most southerly point during the northern hemisphere winter, bringing
heavy rain to Brazil. The ITCZ crosses Guyana as it travels to the north and then
again as it moves south, giving this country two periods of heavy rainfall each year.
The map below shows the northernmost and southernmost positions of the ITCZ.