Building Effective Research Capabilities

for Pharmacy and Medical Technology Students

Teresita M. Coloma, Ph.D. , Maria Rosario R. Aranda, M.A.,

and Michelle A. Desierto, M.A.

C & E Publishing, Inc.

2013

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors wish to express gratitude to the following for their roles in the completion of
this undertaking:

Firstly, to the Almighty God who is the source of all wisdom and knowledge and enabled
the putting together of ideas into this book;

Secondly, to the Dean of the Faculty of Pharmacy, Prof. Priscilla C. Torres, Ph. D., for
the encouragement to publish teaching materials;

Thirdly, to the professors and students of Academic Writing whose inspiration led to the
writing of this book;

And to all, who in one way or the other, helped in the success of the writing of this book.

Teresita M. Coloma, Ph.D.

Ma. Rosario R. Aranda, M.A.
Michelle A. Desierto, M.A.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

PREFACE

I. UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE OF ACADEMIC AND TECHNICAL WRITING

Nature
Characteristics
Principles
Qualities of an Effective Academic and Technical Paper
Genres in Academic and Technical Writing
Types of Technical Papers
Class Activities
Knowledge Check-up

II. DOING RESEARCH THE RIGHT WAY

Nature
Types of Research
Qualities of an Effective Research
Purposes of Research
Methods of Research
Literature Reviews
Evaluating and Critiquing Sources
Preparing a Preliminary Bibliography
Criteria for Thesis Output

III. WRITING, PRESENTING, AND PUBLISHING THE ACADEMIC AND TECHNICAL

PAPER

Getting to Know the New Format

Properly Documenting the Research Report
APA style
Oral Presentations of the Research / Technical Paper
Preparing the Presentation Materials
Delivering the Technical Presentation

REFERENCES

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 PREFACE

This book is intended and designed to enable the higher education students in the
Pharmacy and Medical Technology programs to build effective academic and technical writing
skills. While there are many other materials and books on academic and technical writing, this
book has been developed in a manner that will appeal to the state of readiness of the target users
who are non-language experts and who are in the hard sciences like those stated above, who,
oftentimes are overwhelmed by the demands and expectations of the English and Research
professors.

Chapter 1 focuses on the understanding of the nature and characteristics of technical

writing illustrated by principles and examples.
Chapter 2 discusses doing research the right way and clarifying the types, qualities,
purposes, methods as well as statistical tools in research.
Chapter 3 deals with writing and publishing the research. It treats the technical aspects of
the traditional style and the thesis/dissertation by article which has recently come in use.
Chapter 4 includes properly documenting the research report using either the APA or
MLA styles.

It is hoped that this book will come in handy use in the undertaking and completion of the
students’ academic/ technical paper as well as research requirement.

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 UNIT 1: UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE OF ACADEMIC AND
TECHNICAL WRITING

The writing of academic and technical papers is of paramount importance to students in

the medical-related programs such as pharmacy and medical technology. The pharmacy and
medical technology fields and medical-related areas discuss about chemistry and pharmaceutical
and biochemical analyses. The varied tasks of the academic and technical writers include the
writing of case studies, progress reports, research proposals, scientific papers or theses, and other
scientific and technological developments. Thus, competency or skill in academic and technical
writing needs to be developed towards a stable and rewarding profession since the professions
they will get into require research and scientific-technical skills to be able to communicate
relevant, innovative, and significant findings in medical science.

Characteristics of Academic and Technical Writing

Academic and technical writing may be considered formal and scientific forms of
writing, which are characterized by its simple, formal language devoid of superfluous use of
words and lengthy sentence structures. Moreover, the choice of subject matter for academic and
technical writing is within the confines of the sciences such as the health and medical sciences
and their subsystems. The tone of the language in academic and technical is serious and clear to
the end that little or no difficulty in understanding the message is assured. Academic and
technical writing are the vehicles through which new developments in the sciences’ researches
are initiated, accomplished, validated as well as disseminated. Students’ exposure and
experiences in academic and technical writing provide them wide opportunities to develop
critical and analytic minds and the scientific art of presenting the results of their investigations.
Furthermore, their writing activities will lead them to explore the world of ideas in the libraries,
the web, and the environment.

Writing with Reasons

The varied reasons for writing can be informational, instructional, proposal, persuasive,
recommendatory, and action. It is informational if the writer conveys/articulates his ideas to his

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audience. Writing is instructional if it gives directions or procedures to be followed by his
audience. It is proposal if there is a suggested solution or possible solutions for a particular
problem. The text becomes persuasive if it convinces the audience to take an action, to change
the attitude, belief or opinion of the audience. If it requires formal suggestions and action to be
done for the benefit of humanity, recommendatory and action are required.

Knowing the Audience

Since technical writing is information transfer, it is just but right to learn who are the
audience or reader/s. Their knowledge/schemata, experiences, interest, abilities, and expertise
must be taken into consideration. Some of the audience are area specialists in their respective
field but others are just lay or ordinary people. For the latter, definition of terms is required for
them to understand and appreciate what is being read.

Giving Objective and Meaningful Information

Technical writing is grounded on factual, correct and objective information. Truthfulness,
correct, relevant, updated, and meaningful data are the cornerstones of technical writing. It is
essential that credible and reliable facts are expected by the audience. Thus, there is no room for
subjective, wrong, and opinionated information. Emotional matters are to be avoided, too.

Organizing Data Logically

Generally, all technical papers have clear, complete, and comprehensive parts:
Introduction, Body, and Conclusion. First, in the Introduction, you include the “big picture” or
the background of the study or the context. In short, you introduce what topic would be discussed
extensively in the body of your paper. This part motivates the audience to read your technical
paper in its entirety. Second, the Body covers the complete discussion of the topic with the
inclusion of technical details. This is the “flesh” or “meat” of your technical paper. Finally, the
Conclusion reminds the audience the “big picture” that is found in the Introduction. Thus, your
Introduction, Body, and Conclusion are interrelated to one another by using the principles of
unity, emphasis, and coherence.

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 Using Clear, Concise, and Concrete Words
According to William Strunk in Elements of Style, vigorous writing is concise. A
sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the
same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary
parts. This requires not that the writer makes all his sentences short, or that he avoids all details
and treat his subjects only in outline, but that every word tells something meaningful.
Using Strunk’s principles in writing, economy must prevail in academic and technical
writing. Technical papers should use clear, concise, and concrete words and phrases.
Consider the following examples:

Verbiage Efficient
12 midnight midnight
4 am in the morning 4 am
biography of his life biography
consensus of opinion consensus
each and every each
end result result
final completion completion
in spite of the fact that although
in the event that if
repeat again repeat

Providing the Correct Document Specifications

As academic and technical writers, you stick to a particular genre or document type. For
instance, you must know the necessary items to be included in writing a thesis; namely,
background of study, objectives of the study, significance of the study, scope and limitation of
the study, definition of terms and the conceptual framework or the theoretical framework in the
Introduction; the required sub-topics for the Body; and the summary and recommendations in the
Conclusion. There are also expectations in the writing of a memorandum, proposal, and other
kinds of reports. The format, font sizes, margins, spacing, type of outlining, labelling the graphic

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aids and other specifications have to be considered as well. For citing references, the American
Psychological Association (APA) style is widely recommended.
The conceptual framework consists of concepts, constructs, or ideas which illustrate the
directions of the research with the use of schematic diagram, while the theoretical framework
includes the theory bases of the investigation.

List of Academic and Technical Writing Examples

The following are some examples of academic and technical writing papers:

1. Feasibility reports deal with the details of a study that show the potentials of understanding
a certain project.
2. Process discussion / process documentation, policies and procedures, user guides, system
documentation pertain to the description of a technical or scientific process with guidelines to be
followed in arriving at a system.
3. Progress reports refer to a concise presentation of the progress of a certain program or
project.
4. Letters, memos, and e-mails are formal communications outside and within office confines
that may be routinely disseminated on paper or through electronic mail.
5. Instructions are formal messages that provide directions to a target reader.
6. Research proposals and journal articles are formal and technical in form, tone, and
language that follow prescribed institutional formats.
7. Thesis paper treats of a specific topic that addresses problems of significance.
8. Definitions include expanded explanations of ideas using illustrations, comparison and
contrast, description, classification, analyses, and the like.
9. Description is a technical discussion on the aspects, particularities, and uses and functions
of a scientific object, equipment, process or system.
10. Bio-note is a capsule form of information on the highlights of the life of the researcher/s.

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Principles of Academic and Technical Writing

Audience
It must be remembered that the audience or reader of an academic and technical paper is
intelligent but he needs to be more informed about the topic of discussion. A writer must always
bear in mind the following questions:
. Who will read this manuscript/ masterpiece? Who will be the audience?
. What are the arguments presented in this paper?
. What responsibilities do I have to contribute a lot for the success of this paper?

Purpose
Any academic and technical paper has a reason for being written. Gerson and Gerson
(2006) emphasized “examining your purpose” in all your writing activities. Most of the time, it
answers three questions namely: Why is there a need for this paper? What does this paper offer
to its intended audience or reader? How is it going to be delivered? Thus, whatever objectives
you have as writer, you have to be guided by an outline. This serves as a guidepost for a focused
direction on what you are going to accomplish in your paper. It is good to consider the three
most important parts of your paper; namely, the Introduction, Body, and Conclusion. Each main
topic has minor topics for its supporting details.

Language, Grammar, and Mechanics

For its language use, the four Cs are conciseness, clearness, coherence, and
completeness. Conciseness and clearness are the bywords. Coherence refers to sticking together
related ideas by using the correct transitional devices or signal words to enhance meaning.

Using good grammar and proper mechanics of writing refer to the basics of subject-verb
agreement. The use of graphics, typography and layout of the technical paper is also taken into
consideration.

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Physical Appearance

The paper’s appearance must be neat and clean to be presentable. It must be devoid of
erasures or corrections and superimpositions. The writer must remember that the paper is not
only a manuscript but a masterpiece to be proud of after exhausting time and talent in writing.

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 UNIT 2: DOING RESEARCH THE RIGHT WAY

Nature of Research

Research is defined in various ways. It is an in-depth study, a diligent effort to answer a

question (Guyette, 1983). Cambridge Dictionary defines research as a detailed study of a subject,
especially in order to discover information or reach a new understanding. According to Archer
(1995), a research is a systematic investigation whose goal is to communicate knowledge. It is
systematic because it is pursued according to some plan. It is an investigation because it seeks to
find answers to questions. It is goal-directed because the findings of the investigation must go
beyond providing mere information. It is communicable because the findings must be intelligible
to the target audience or readers and as it is located within some framework of understanding. It
is important to note that when you conduct a study, your primary purpose is to gather and
discover valuable pieces of information to develop a more thorough understanding of the topic
being researched.

Doing research is like breaking through the frontiers of knowledge. It is exhausting all
possible sources of information in order to arrive at a thorough output in answering identified
problems. As the saying goes, when doing research you must not leave any stone unturned.
Research etymologically means “looking or finding again.” This implies that doing research is
not like working from a vacuum; the subject matter has its roots, that is, it has been inquired into
at some point in time which needs looking into again to which the undertaking proceeds. Such is
the nature of research that shows its character of depth and breadth. It is not merely surface work
but a comprehensive, detailed one. When students ask the number of references that they are
required, the answer given them is as many as possible.

It is of utmost importance to put emphasis on the exercise of intellectual honestly in

doing research. Limiting data to one’s interest and personal conviction must be avoided.
Objectivity is a fast rule to be observed in research. Biases and prejudices as well as subjective
presumptions have no place in research. Committing plagiarism is a crime that destroys the

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virtues of scholarliness and intellectual integrity. In descriptive research, ethical issues must be
met with equanimity.

Several ways are used to approach a research problem. In this chapter, the following
types of research are discussed: pure, applied, descriptive, correlation, explanatory, exploratory,
qualitative, and quantitative.

Pure research is conducted to add knowledge to existing concepts or ideas. It is done

specifically not to answer research questions but to augment or broaden one’s understanding of
certain body of knowledge. In other words, pure research quenches a scientist’s curiosity in a
scientific question. Remember, the primary purpose of this research is to expand knowledge and
not to solve any scientific problem. Below are some examples of topics for pure research:

The Mechanism of Action of Aspirin

Various Methods for Studying the Human Brain
Symptoms of Clinical Depression

Applied research, on the contrary, attempts to influence the real world. It is conducted to
solve practical problems of the world or to improve human condition. Studies of this kind are not
done merely to acquire information or additional knowledge. A few examples of applied research
are:

The Use of Brown Algae Extract to Treat Diabetes

New Method of Knee Replacement
Intervention Program for Drug Dependents

Descriptive research intends to accurately describe a phenomenon. It is used to obtain

information concerning the current status of the phenomena to describe “what is” with regard to
the existing conditions of a situation. Finding out the best method for blood extraction among
children aged 5 to 10 is one example of a descriptive research. Another example is a study that
presents the hazardous effects of taking too much folic acid among pregnant women.

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 Correlation study is conducted to measure how associated or related two variables are.
The researcher investigates phenomena that already exist and determines if and in what way
those things are related to each other. This study aims to allow researchers to make a prediction
about one variable based on existing facts about another variable. One example of such is a study
of the relationship between the socio-economic status of families in one community and the
incidence of helminth infection. Another is a study on the different aspects of personality and life
events.

Explanatory research aims to answer the question “why.” This includes explaining things
in detail and not just mere reporting. In addition, explanatory research attempts to go above and
beyond descriptive research and identifies the definite reasons why a phenomenon occurs. For
instance, a researcher may want to find out what leads to the increase in number of HIV positive
among call center agents. Exploratory research is often conducted because a problem has not
been clearly defined as yet or its real scope is still unclear. It is considered an initial research and
would need more follow-up studies to establish veracity of data and to have more conclusive
results of the study. Exploratory research can draw on interviews and/or observations. This is
most employed by those in laboratories and those manufacturing medicines and equipment in
discovering which can guide them in creating more useful and therefore more marketable
products.
Other types of research include qualitative and quantitative studies. These two are
entirely different from one another. Qualitative research gathers information that is not in
numerical form; that is, open-ended questionnaires, unstructured interviews, and observations. It
is deemed that qualitative research is much more subjective than quantitative research simply
because some information from respondents can include personal opinions. In addition, analysis
of qualitative data might be challenging and thus require accurate description of participant
responses. Quantitative research, on the other hand, gathers data in numeric form. This type of
data can be used to create graphs and tables that will be much utilized in the discussion of the
results of the study. Moreover, quantitative research options are predetermined and a large
number of respondents are usually and most of the time involved. The sample size for a survey

13 
 
is calculated by statisticians to establish how large a sample size will be required from a given
population in order to achieve an acceptable degree of accuracy.
It has lately been noted, however, that qualitative and quantitative researches may be
jointly employed where both values render a significantly desired results.

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Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________

1. Choose a partner. Discuss what you understand about the nature of research. Ask how
you feel about doing research. Are you anxious to undertake a research? Ask what
researches you and your partner have read before.
2. Assignment: Divide the class into groups of five (5). Let them go to the library to find out
the researches available in their field of interest. Classify the researches availed of. On a
sheet of paper, write the title, author, year, and type of research.

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 QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE RESEARCH

To come up with a good research, there are a number of qualities that must be taken into
consideration. Initially, a good research must be systematic. This means that the study is
structured with precise and specific steps with a distinct set of rules. There must be order and
organization in the procedures to be undertaken in conducting the scientific investigation.
Next, a good research must be empirical. It implies that the study is related basically to
one or more aspects of a real situation; it must likewise deal with tangible and existing data that
provide a foundation to external validity of research results. Moreover, a good research is
analytical and critical which means going deeper into the details of the facts presented in the
study. The data collected in the process must be carefully evaluated to avoid inaccuracy. Another
quality of a good research is that it must be verifiable and replicable. This allows the study to be
confirmed by duplicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for conclusions.
Additionally, the use of tables, graphs, and illustrations must be done judiciously and
must not result in a clutter of data.

PURPOSES OF RESEARCH

There are specific purposes why a research is conducted. One is to explore or gain some
familiarity with a particular topic. This enables the researcher to investigate an area or issue on
which little previous work has been done. In a community setting or in any scientific endeavor, a
study is carried out to determine whether or not a problem exists. Some researches, however,
have the purpose of description. This aims to gather information that elucidates relationships,
patterns, and links between and among variables. Likewise, this enables the researcher to gather
pertinent information, summarize, and map all data. Another purpose of research is speculative.
Sometimes a study is implemented strategically, where researchers take account of current
conditions and speculate as to their future implications to the community or to the entire
scientific process. For instance, the introduction of a specific method of bone marrow transplant
might raise implications for practitioners involved in its implementation. Research often has the
aim to explain. Explanatory research shows why certain relationships, patterns, and/or links

16 
 
occur. It enables the researcher to test and understand causal relations between and among
variables.

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Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________
Comprehension Check:
A. Identify the following:
_________ 1. That quality of research which shows its organized character and
orderliness
_________ 2. That quality of research which is based on actual experiential observation
_________ 3. That quality of research which delves into the depth of a phenomenon
_________ 4. That quality of research that looks at things in all its perspectives
_________ 5. That quality of research that allows its questioning and duplication

B. Answer the following questions:

1. Discuss the purposes of research.
2. Imagine what the world may be if there were no researches.

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METHODS OF RESEARCH

There are three general methods of research. As a researcher endeavors to conduct a

study, one can choose among the three, whichever is most appropriate: historical, descriptive,
and experimental. Historical method is the process of discovering and comprehending the
background and development of a chosen field of study. It is based on the events that happened
in the past and it may be used to interpret or understand the events that are happening in the
present. For instance, a researcher may choose to answer questions about the development of
methods on preservation of the dead or how local mothers nursed and treated their children’s
illnesses using folk medicines like herbs, “hilot”, etc.
Another method is the descriptive method. It includes surveys, case studies, documentary
analyses, developmental studies, and correlation studies. Nursing and medical schools and
hospital personnel are exposed to this type of research work. Mostly based on observations,
descriptive method aims to describe current situations or phenomena and investigate aspects that
affect and interact with them. An example is a study on patients behavioral responses to certain
treatments and how these treatments affect the pace of recovery.
The experimental method is a procedure which involves manipulating one variable to
determine if changes in it can cause transformation or modification in another variable. This
method heavily relies on controlled methods, random assignment, and the manipulation of
variables to test a hypothesis. This is usually considered to be the most scientific of all methods.
Likewise, an experiment is a study of cause and effect. It differs from those non-experimental
methods because it involves deliberate manipulation of one variable, while keeping all other
variables constant. One example is testing the extract of Euphorbia hirta (tawa tawa) leaves and
its effectiveness as an antidote to dengue hemorrhagic fever. Another is comparison between two
antibiotics as tested on Swiss mice. A very major problem with the experimental method,
however, concerns ethics. Inclusion of human participants in an experiment faces a number of
ethical issues. The most important is harm to human subjects. Harm can either be physical or
psychological such as stress and anxiety, and the researcher must make sure that the subjects
have informed consent to ensure their safety. It is also important to be acquainted with required
protocol in the use of animals in experimental research such as that of Institutional Animal Care
and Use Committee (IACUC).

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Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________
Give three topics that may be done using:

a. Descriptive method
b. Historical method
c. Experimental method
Descriptive Historical Experimental

1.

2.

3.

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STATISTICAL TOOLS

A variety of statistical tools is available for use in research. For the medical and allied
sciences, biostatistics is expected. Some of these software applications are simple and easy to
use, while others are complicated and frequently very specific for certain purposes. These
include SAS, SPSS, and Stata. However, various forms of survey data analysis can be done with
a spreadsheet program such as Excel, which is part of Microsoft Office. In a research that
involves analytical work, the most common operation is the comparison of data to quantify
accuracy and precision. There are a few simple convenient statistical tools such as t-test, F-test,
analysis of variance (ANOVA) and regression analysis. The importance of statistics is based on
arranging and simplifying data to allow some unbiased estimate as well as valid results, and to
show proof that an investigation is under control or that a change has occurred. It is likewise
important that the results of these statistical procedures are documented and can be recovered. As
with any kind of research, the nature of the study and of the data themselves will determine the
best statistical tool to use.
It is to be remembered, however, that mere statistical results presentation is not sufficient;
that the statistical data need to be discussed and analyzed and elucidated on their practical
meanings and implications.

CRITERIA FOR RESEARCH OR THESIS OUTPUT

Doing research work most often requires sound judgment about the implications of other
researchers’ evidence for one’s own working context. Whatever may be the nature of the study,
one essential thing to consider is that it must meet the common criteria of scientific method being
employed. It is worthwhile to consider some of the criteria for a successful research or thesis
output.
First, the purpose of the research must be precisely defined. It is important that common
terms which are used in a different context in the study or concepts that are not familiar to the
target readers are defined as well. Also, there must be a sharp focus that is supported by distinct
research questions.

21 
 
 Second, the research method to be used should be explained step-by-step and in adequate
detail to allow another researcher to replicate the study for further development or improvement.
This is necessary so that there is continuity of what has already been accomplished. Practical and
organized arrangement for gathering evidence pertinent to the research question must be done.
Moreover, these methods must show that the study will take place in relevant field of
investigation.
Third, the research design should be thoroughly mapped to produce results that are
unbiased as much as possible.
Fourth, the researcher must give details with absolute honesty and accuracy.
Fifth, the analysis of data must be comprehensive to show their importance, implications,
and significance to the entire study.
Last, the conclusions of the study must be restricted to those validated by the research
data; that is, only those data generated from the investigation should be the bases for making any
conclusion. An effective concluding paragraph should provide closure for a research leaving the
reader/s feeling satisfied that a thesis has been fully explained and that the research questions
have been appropriately answered. Conclusions must be brief and straight to the point. They
should provide a restatement of the thesis, a summary of the researchers’ findings, and perhaps a
solution to the problem, if that is at all applicable.
A presentation of recommendations based on the conclusions arrived at should include
relevant areas for further investigation by researchers in the same field of interest.

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Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________

Divide the class into groups of five (5). Each group chooses a leader. They are directed to go to
the library and browse through the theses and apply the criteria discussed. On the sheet below,
each member accomplishes the analysis of the theses he/she has read.

Title of the thesis read: ___________________________________________________________

Purpose of the research: __________________________________________________________
Method of research: _____________________________________________________________
Research design: _______________________________________________________________
Accuracy of data: _______________________________________________________________
Analysis: _____________________________________________________________________
Conclusions: ___________________________________________________________________
Other remarks: _________________________________________________________________

23 
 
COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Since research is an integral part of university coursework, students are provided the
opportunity to go through the research process in order to prepare them for more demands on this
undertaking in their professional life. It is now a regular policy in the universities and higher
education schools to require a research proposal and even a completed research paper as a partial
requirement for graduation. This is based on the consideration that a student’s language, library
and organizational skills that have been honed in the span of one’s course may be ably evaluated
in the presentation of the research paper.

A research proposal may be drawn by a single person or a team of researchers. This,

when planned and made with strong determination because of the worthiness of the proposal,
may provide solutions to existing problems in health, in medicine, in the sciences and in life.
Before the research proposal of an individual or a team of researches among graduating
students may be approved, the proposal should have been shown or read or evaluated by their
research consultants or advisers – professors who are privy to the research needs and
requirements of the field of health, medicine, medical technology, pharmacy, biochemistry,
nursing and other health-related fields. This is referred to as proper consultation stage in the
research process. One’s peers or classmates may also be consulted. This consultation is primary
in planning. Doing research must be planned. It is not done haphazardly, that is, it is not rushed
nor is it done overnight. It is borne out from a rich exposure to and experiences in the vast
literature along the field of study.
The essential parts of the traditional research proposal are:
1. Introduction : This covers the following areas:
1.1. Background of the Problem. This refers to a clear discussion of the
situation where the problem exists; the reasons for looking into this problem and
proposing to address the problem with responsive solutions.
1.2. Statement of the Problem. Likewise, the introductory part also includes the
general statement, which captures what the research is all about in a capsule form;
the specific statement of the problem is in the form of questions that would
answer the questions What, Why, How, When, etc.

24 
 
 1.3. Objectives of the Study. This part presents the aims of the research and
provides the direction to which the research takes.
1.4. Scope and Limitations of the Study. This part of the research proposal
delineates what would be covered and how this would be covered in the study;
while the limitations treat of what would not be covered and why, such as
financial constraints, time constraints, etc.
1.5. Significance of the Study. This part is a clear discussion of the benefits of
undertaking the research, who will benefit, and how they will be benefitted.
1.6. Definition of Terms. This consists of an enumeration of terms which are
technical and even words that are common but assume an entirely different
meaning in their use in the research.

It is to be noted that some institutions include in the INTRODUCTION chapter the

conceptual framework of the research proposal. This includes the core concepts that underline
the research proposal and which are usually presented in a diagram or flowchart to illustrate the
flow of thought.

2. Review of Related Literature: This is the part of the research proposal which consists of
the discussion of relevant literature and studies that the researcher has read, analyzed, or
summarized and noted down in note-cards or index cards. It must be remembered to
always properly and completely write down the author, title of the material, publication
data that include place of publication, name of publisher and date of publication.
It is best to make notes either by summarizing what was read sometimes termed
Precis; or by paraphrasing, that is, saying the content of what was read in the writer’s
own words and sentence structure. If the ideas of the author that was read cannot be
better presented in the researcher’s words, then these ideas must be exactly quoted using
quotation marks and citing the pages where these are mentioned.
The presentation of the related literature may be done in thematic or topical
approach following the stated problems.
The review of related literature must not only be collected, collated, copied or
pasted, but should be an analysis, a critique, and a logical accounting of the studies

25 
 
 previously done. It may also show the similarities and differences of what had been done
before to that which is being proposed to undertake in terms of coverage, research design,
treatment of data, etc.
The review must be well-documented; that is, sources of data must be
acknowledged.

3. Research Method. This part discusses the research design, the subjects of the research,
the procedures, the materials needed, the step-by-step process as well as the instrument(s)
used, the validation of the instrument(s), the try-outs of the instruments. If statistics are
needed, statistical tools must be discussed.
4. Front pages. A research proposal requires also the front pages such as Title page,
Abstract, and Table of Contents. The back pages include the References, Timetable of the
Research, Budgetary Requirements, and a write-up of the Author’s Profile, sometimes
referred to as Bionotes.

The title page follows the format required by the institution. Following is an example of the title
page.

26 
 
Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature and Studies

Objective: To make a brief write-up of each of the reviewed related literature (no less than 10
materials of which at least seven are journals). Give an outline of Chapter 2 as guided by the
literature gathered.

27 
 
Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________

Chapter 3: Research Method

Objectives:
1. To make a rough draft or outline on the proposed procedure for the research using an
illustration or schematic diagram.

2. To explain essential parts of the proposed research method(s).

28 
 
 Abstract

This is a condensed form of the research proposal which should be about 70 to 80 words
that include the brief background of the study, the problem(s) intended to be addressed and
the research method to be used. At the bottom are the key words of not more than five words
which signal the coverage of the study. A sample abstract is found below:

ABSTRACT

Voacanga megacarpa, locally known as bayag-aso, is an endemic plant in the

Philippines. While there are no published studies yet for this plant, it is reported that its sister
species has established anti-cancer activity (Canoy at al., 2011). Angiogenesis, the formation
of new, unwanted blood vessels which bridge adequate blood supply to the tumor, plays part
in the growth and metastases of cancer (Kim et al., 2011). In this study, the possible
angiosuppressive property of the crude dichloromethane-methanolic leaf extract and its
alkaloidal fractions of V. megacarpa will be determined using the chicken chorioallantoic
membrane (CAM) assay.

Key words: endemic, metastases, angiosuppressive, assay

29 
 
Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________

Abstract

Objective: To formulate an abstract based on the Introduction Chapter and Research Method. It
should contain keywords.

30 
 
Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________

Proposed Plan of Action

Objective: To proposed plan of action for research showing the proposed budget and timeline.
Complete the tables.

A. Budget
PROPOSED BUDGET
Equipment/Supplies Local Travels (if any) Others Total Cost
Needed

31 
 
B. Timeline
Activity Proposal Gantt Chart
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct

32 
 
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

Scabies is a contagious, parasitic skin infestation caused by Sarcoptes scabiei
mite. It is characterized by intractable, nocturnal pruritus with mild cutaneous lesions
(Fitzpatrick et al., 2001; du Vivier, 2002). Scabies is a serious community health problem
in many less-developed countries. Around 300 million scabies worldwide are reported
each year (Vorou et al., 2007; Orion et al., 2006). The prevalence in South and Central
America is about 100 percent while in Bangladesh, scabies-infected children are
numerous than those with diarrhea and upper respiratory diseases (Fitzpatrick et al.,
2001).
The exact figures for the incidence of scabies infection in the Philippines are not
known. However, data on annual incidence of scabies at the Philippine General Hospital
in Manila showed a rate of 45 per 100 patients (Yang, 1994). In 2009, there were 456 and
6 scabies-infected patients at the UST Hospital and the Philippine Children’s Medical
Center OPD Dermatology Departments. In the Jose R. Reyes Medical Center Department
of Dermatology, 1730 patients were diagnosed in 2010.
The crowded conditions in temporary evacuation centers for internally displaced
persons (IDPs) due to armed conflict enhances the spread of scabies in temporary
evacuation centers for IDPs in Mindanao (UNICEF, 2006). According to the Health
Research Agenda of Mindanao: A Zonal Report, 2006-2010 by Marina Lacuesta et al.,
scabies is one of the leading causes of sickness, aside from other infectious diseases like
hepatitis, diarrhea, waterborne diseases, food poisoning, and dengue.
In patients with normal immune system, it has been found that the usual number
of mites is 10-12 during the first three months of infestation. Because of the low parasitic
burden, the diagnosis of scabies through skin scraping is not ideal and routinely done.
However, immune-compromised patients, particularly those living in impoverished

33 
 
 communities, diagnosed with crusted scabies can carry hundreds of mites (Heukelbach &
Feldmeier, 2006).
The clinical symptoms of scabies like vesiculopapular lesions with pruritus and
extensive scaling or crusting are the result of an adaptive immune response and usually
occur after sensitization (du Vivier, 2002). This explains the delayed onset of symptoms
in primary infestations. The immune response in scabies-infected patients is characterized
by mixed cellular infiltrates in the skin lesions and production of circulating antibodies
like IgG, IgA, and IgE (Roberts et al., 2005). An increased synthesis of various
inflammatory mediators like Interleukins 4,6,8 and monocyte chemoattractant protein
(MCP) are observed in both human and animal dermal cellular infiltrates (Roberts et al.,
2005; Arlian et al., 2003; Morgan & Arlian, 2010). Scabies mite as an allergen can
stimulate the migration of eosinophils, lymphocytes, and histiocytes into the infected area
as shown in skin biopsies (Heukelbach & Feldmeier, 2006). An increase in neutrophil
and macrophage levels in the cellular infiltrates of scabies-infected rabbits has been
reported (Arlian, 1994).
Scabies can be treated with oral or local agents. The commercially available
synthetic medicines like Crotamiton (Eurax ) and Permethrin (Kwell ) are expensive and
can impart various side effects like seizures, itching, and irritation (Vorou et al., 2007; du
Vivier, 2002). A natural alternative resource of medication for patients suffering from
scabies is Tinospora rumphii Boeri, also known as makabuhay vine. The lotion prepared
from the crude ethanolic extract of Tinospora rumphii Boeri exhibited excellent response
in 10 (33%) of patients, good response in 18 (60%), and fair treatment response in 2 (7%)
of the total patients (Llamasares, 2006). The efficacy of Tinospora lotion as an anti-
scabies therapy is comparable with Crotamiton Lotion as reported in parallel, double
blind clinical study (Llamasares, 2006). Moreover, in a clinical study performed by
Reyes-Marquez et al. (2008), the Tinospora lotion exhibits equal safety and efficacy as
the standard, 5 percent Permethrin lotion for the treatment of mild to moderate infestation
of scabies.
In spite of the clinical studies done on the Tinospora lotion proving its scabicidal
effect, its use is still limited due to lack of relevant studies regarding its

34 
 
 immunomodulatory effect on the inflammatory mediators present during scabies
infection and study on the prediction of its shelf-life.
This research will deal with the determination of the immune cell types like
Interleukin-1, Interleukin-6, Interleukin-8 and monocyte chemottractant protein-1 in the
blood serum samples isolated from Sarcoptes scabiei-infected patients. This study
proposes to assess the clinical efficacy of 50 percent Tinospora lotion based on the
appearance of signs and symptoms like pruritus, erythema, papules and vesicles, pustules,
excoriations, erosions and ulceration in comparison with a positive control, 5%
permethrin lotion. It also aims to determine the clearance time, which is the number of
days from initial application of the treatment to the disappearance of the lesion of scabies
applied with 50 percent Tinospora lotion.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

The initial symptoms of scabies include the development of papules and vesicles,
which often lead to secondary scabietic lesions such as crusts, excoriations and
eczematisations. In majority of cases, the primary and secondary lesions coexist because
of denudation caused by frequent scratching. At this stage, an adaptive immune response
triggers and increased synthesis of different inflammatory mediators which has been
noted in dermal cellular infiltrates of scabies-infected patients.
The ectoparasite mite produces antigenic molecules, which modulate the function
of the host’s immune cell types. This adaptation allows mites to avoid the inflammatory
and immune responses that eliminate them during early infestation, and favor the survival
of the parasite in the host’s skin (Morgan and Arlian, 2010). However, hypersensitivity to
remaining dead mites and mite products may cause postscabietic itching which may
persist for a week or more of post therapy. Therefore, despite the elimination of mites,
there remains the possibility that the host will continue producing inflammatory
mediators. The study aims to ascertain whether Tinospora lotion provides the necessary
immunosuppression during scabies infection.
Since the scabies mites have the ability to modulate the immune and
inflammatory responses of the host during infestation, it is therefore important to
determine the immunomodulatory activity of anti-scabies agents like Tinospora lotion on

35 
 
 specific inflammatory mediators normally expressed during scabies infection, as this will
affect the entire course of the infestation. The immunoregulatory activity will be
substantial evidence of the anti-scabies effect imparted by the Tinospora lotion.
This study intends to determine the immunomodulatory effect of the formulated
Tinospora lotion on scabies-infected patients and to predict its shelf-life.
This research seeks to answer the following questions:
1. What are the levels of the different cytokine expressed during the
treatment with Tinospora lotion in scabies-infected patients?
2. Will the Tinospora rumphii lotion up-regulate or down-regulate the
levels of the different inflammatory modulators like Interleukin-1, Interleukin-6,
Interleukin-8, and monocyte chemoattractant protein in the blood serum samples
derived from patients?
3. What are the local side effects of the Tinospora lotion?
4. What are the clinical effects of the Tinospora lotion in scabies-
infected patients in terms of:
a. Clinical diagnosis
i. Pruritus
ii. Erythema
iii. Excoriations
iv. Papules, vesicles, pustules
5. How stable is the formulated Tinospora lotion in terms of:
a. Physical characteristics
i. Organoleptic – color, odor, texture
ii. Viscosity
iii. pH
iv. Density
b. Chemical, and
c. Microbial limit test
6. What is the shelf-life of the formulated Tinospora lotion?

36 
 
 1.3. Objectives of the Study
The study aims to determine the immunomodulatory effect of the formulated 50
percent Tinospora lotion on scabies-infected patients. The following objectives are
pursued in order to obtain answers to the specific questions of the research study:
1. Determine the levels of inflammatory mediators like Interleukin-1,
Interleukin-6, Interleukin-8 and monocyte chemoattractant protein in the blood serum
samples isolated from scabies-infected patients before, during and after treatment with
Tinospora lotion using sandwich ELISA.
2. Correlate the serum levels of cytokine in patients before, during and after
therapy with the clinical endpoints of Tinospora lotion.
3. Evaluate the clinical efficacy of the lotion as anti-scabies agent based on
the appearance of signs and symptoms like pruritus, erythema, papules and vesicles,
pustules, excoriations, erosions and ulceration.
4. Determine the local side effects of the Tinospora lotion like pruritus,
erythema and burning sensation.
5. Determine the stability and hence predict the shelf-life of the formulated
Tinospora lotion.

1.4. Significance of the Study

This study provides information on the immunomodulating effects of the
formulated Tinospora lotion on scabies-infected patients. Specifically, it determines the
effect of Tinospora lotion as an immunomodulatory agent on Interleukin-1, Interleukin-6,
Interleukin-8, and monocyte chemoattractant protein expression during and after
treatment. This study provides basis for the anti-scabies effect of the lotion and its
immunomodulating effect against the cytokine secretion during scabies infestation aside
from clinical evaluation of its efficacy based on signs and symptoms of the disease.
This study provides a new, natural alternative source of medication for patients
suffering from scabies. It is known that commercially available synthetic medicines like
Crotamiton (Eurax) and Permethrin (Kwell) are expensive and can impart various side
effects like seizures, itching and irritation.

37 
 
 The result of this study could contribute to the country’s economy and health,
since the Tinospora rumphii lotion provides a cost-effective source of medicine, and will
solve the alarmingly high prices of medications. This can increase the demand for herbs
and can give an alternative business opportunity to local farmers.

1.5. Scope and Limitation

The study will consist of the preparation of the crude ethanolic Tinospora rumphii
stem extract by percolation and rotary evaporation and the compounding of the Tinospora
lotion using the formula as provided by Llamasares in 2006.
The immunomodulatory effect of the Tinospora lotion will be established in
clinically-diagnosed scabies-infected patients by determining the levels of inflammatory
mediators like Interleukin-1, Interleukin-6, Interleukin-8, and monocyte chemoattractant
protein in the blood serum samples using sandwich ELISA. This is used to correlate the
immunomodulatory effect of the lotion with its anti-scabies property as presented in the
clinical evaluation of the signs and symptoms of the patients.
Accelerated stability studies will be performed to predict the shelf-life of the
lotion by considering its physical, chemical and microbiological stability. Chemical
stability was assessed by Differential Thermal Analysis. Therapeutic and toxicological
stability were beyond the scope of this study.
Detailed chemical analysis and structure elucidation are not part of the study since
these were already done in the previous studies of the plant as may be noted in the review
of related literature.

1.6. Definition of Terms

The following terms are defined for a better understanding of the study. The
definitions are stated according to the context of the research.
Acaricidal - term used to describe compounds having lethal effect on mites
Alkaloids - basic compounds consisting of one or more nitrogen atoms,
exhibiting marked physiologic activities on man and animals
Antigen - a macromolecule which is capable of eliciting formation of
immunoglobulins or sensitized cells in an immunocompetent host

38 
 
 Chemokines - a large family of homologues cytokines, which enhance motility
(chemokinesis) and promote the migration of leukocytes toward the source of the
chemokine (chemotaxis)
Crust - developed when serum, blood, or purulent exudates dries on the skin
surface. It may be thin-delicate and friable or thick and adherent
Cytokine Expression - the production of soluble molecules that mediate the
interaction among immune cells as a response to the presence of an antigen
Diapedesis - the process by which cells are capable of moving from the
circulating blood to the tissues by squeezing through the wall of a blood vessel
Endothermic - the absorption of heat by a sample
Enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA) - an immunoassay that
employs an enzyme label on one of the reactants
Erosion - a defect only of the epidermis, not involving the dermis. It heals
without scar formation
Exothermic - the release of heat by a sample
Formula - consists of the name and amount of active and inactive excipients
present in the product.
Formulation - the preparation of pharmaceutical products into various dosage
forms containing the active ingredient
Herbolario or herbalist - a person who is skilled in collection, harvesting and
use of medicinal plants as remedies to certain diseases
Humoral immunity - a protection from the disease resulting from substances in
the serum
Immunoglobulin or Ig - a glycoprotein found in the serum portion of the blood,
and is considered part of the humoral immunity; also known as antibodies
Immunoglobulin E - the least abundant and the most heat-labile Ig, which is
responsible for allergic reactions by binding unto the basophil and tissue mast cells by
means of specific surface protein receptors
Immunology - the study of the reactions of a host when foreign substances are
introduced into the body

39 
 
 Immunomodulation - the adjustment of the immune response to a desired level,
as in immunopotentiation, immunosuppression, or induction of immunologic tolerance
Inflammation - the result of cellular and humoral mechanisms involved in the
overall reaction of the body to injury or invasion by an antigen or infectious agent
Interleukin-1 (IL-1) - a potent cytokine alarm which is first to react to any
allergen or stimulant in the host system
Interleukin-6 (IL-6) - a 26 kD cytokine, which is released in response to a
lipopolysaccharide; usually produced by mononuclear phagocytes, vascular endothelial
cells, fibroblasts and some other cells
Interleukin-8 (IL-8) - also known as monocyte-derived neutrophil chemotactic
factor; an inflammatory cytokine which is chemotactic for both neutrophils and T-cells
Macule - a circumscribed area of change in normal skin color without elevation or
depression and it is not palpable
Melting curve - represents the phase transition of the sample when subjected to
heat using the Differential Scanning Calorimetry
Monograph - a written treatise which includes the official title, scientific
synonyms, common names, morphological description, major constituents and the
specifications for the quality control of the plant material
Organoleptic - a term which refers to the descriptive evaluation by means of the
organs of sense and includes the macroscopic appearance of the drug (ocular), its odor
and taste, occasionally the sound or “snap” of its fracture, and the “feel” of the drug to
the touch
Papule - a superficial, palpable, solid lesion, generally considered less than 0.5 cm
in diameter
Parakeratosis - the abnormal formation of the stratum corneum in which the skin
cells retain their nuclei and this is due to increased rate of proliferation of skin cells
Plaque - a plateau-like elevation above the skin surface caused by repeated
rubbing of the skin
Pustule - a circumscribed, superficial cavity of the skin that contains a purulent
exudates that may be white, yellow, greenish-yellow, or hemorrhagic

40 
 
 Plasma cells - large, spherical or ellipsoidal cells with nucleus having heavily
clumped chromatin. Its main function is antibody production
Sandwich ELISA - makes use of a capture antibody on a solid phase, followed by
incubation with the patient’s antigen and the addition of an enzyme-labelled anti-
immunoglobulin after washing
Scabies - a contagious skin disease characterized by development of lesions,
vesicles and papules
Scaling - also known as desquamation, a process by which flakes of stratum
corneum or scales are produced as a result of increased rate of proliferation of epidermal
cells
Shelf-life (also shelf life) - the recommended time that products can be stored,
during which the defined quality of a specified proportion of the goods remains
acceptable under expected (or specified) conditions of distribution, storage, and display
Stability - the capability of a particular formulation, in a specific container or
closure system, to remain within its physical, chemical, microbiological, therapeutic, and
toxological specifications
Ulcer - a skin defect in which there has been loss of epidermis and the upper
papillary layer of the dermis
Vesicle - a circumscribed, elevated, superficial cavity containing fluid

41 
 
PARTS OF THE RESEARCH PAPER OR THESIS

The final manuscript of the research paper or thesis is prepared after the conduct of the
experiment or the survey for the descriptive research. With the needed data on hand, the
researcher has to analyze and discuss them clearly and comprehensively to address the questions
raised in Chapter 1 of the study.
The research paper or thesis is the printed results of the undertaking. Its format follows
the institutional requirements of which the main parts are the following:

I. Introduction
This includes those Chapters 1 (Introduction), 2 (Review or Related Literature) and 3
(Research Method) which were made in the proposal stage and therefore was expressed
in the future tense. This is changed into the past tense in the writing of the manuscript.

II. Body
This includes Chapter 4 which is titled Results and Discussion. This should be arranged
in the logical order following the statement of the specific problems. Here, the literature
review comes in most necessarily to show the relationships of the research results to
those in the previous literature and studies, that is, whether the research results confirm or
contradict those of previous results. It is important, therefore, that proper documentation
of sources must be needed.

III. Conclusion
This part consists of Chapter 5 entitled Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations.
The summary consists of a capsule form of the coverage of the research, the research
method, and the most important findings of the research.
The concluding part is a statement of what the findings generally imply. This would lead
to the presentation of the research undertakings that may be pursued by future
researchers.

42 
 
Special Methods Used in Pharmaceutical Analyses

It is useful to know the special methods that may be used in pharmaceutical analyses.
Following is a summary presentation of these methods based on Jenkins’ Quantitative
Pharmaceutical Chemistry (7th ed.) by Adelbert M. Knevel.

 Crude drugs and products derived from them

PURPOSES:
 to establish purity
 to determine the amount of therapeutically active constituent present for the purpose of
standardization
CLASSIFICATION:
 Chemical Methods
 Biological Methods – measure the effects of drugs upon microbes, animals or animal
tissues
A. Ash Determination
Ash Content
 The residue remaining after incineration
 Represent the inorganic salts naturally occurring in the drug and adhering to it
 May also include inorganic matter added for the purposes of adulteration
Ash Determination
 Furnishes a basis for judging the identity and cleanliness of a drug
 Gives information relative to its adulteration with inorganic matter
 GRAVIMETRIC METHOD OF ANALYSIS
 Careful control of temperature is the most important analytical factor to regulate
Temperature Equivalents – Electric Furnace
VERY DULL-RED HEAT 500 – 550˚C
DULL-RED HEAT 550 – 700˚C (to determine total ash, 675 ± 25˚C)
BRIGHT-RED HEAT 800 – 1000˚C
YELLOW-RED HEAT 1000 – 1200˚C

43 
 
 WHITE HEAT 1200 – 1600˚C
Total Ash
 Residue remaining after incineration
% Total Ash = (wt TA / wt Sx) x 100
= (wt. of residue after incineration / wt. of sample) x 100
Acid-Insoluble Ash
 Part of the total ash which is insoluble in diluted HCl
 Consists almost entirely of silica derived from the soil adhering to the drug
% Acid-Insoluble Ash = (wt AIA / wt Sx) x 100
= (wt. of acid-insoluble residue / wt. of sample) x 100
Residue on Ignition (also called Sulfated Ash
 Expensive chemicals
 Yields negligible amount of ash
Loss on Ignition
 Technique which provides a means of determining the percentage of test material which is
volatilized and driven off under the conditions specified
% acid-soluble ash = wt. of total ash – wt. of acid-insoluble ash x100
wt. of sample
B. Water Determination
Drugs official in the USP and NF contain varying quantities of water
i. Water of crystallization
ii. Water in the adsorbed form
To ensure uniformity in the official drugs
Computation:
% H2O = (wt H2O / wt drug) x 100

Method of Determination
1. Gravimetric Method A (Gravimetric- Method III of water content determination in USP 27
 For drugs containing no constituents other than water, volatile at 105˚C
% moisture = wt. of sample – wt of sample after drying to constant wt x 100
wt of sample

44 
 
2. Gravimetric Method B
 For drugs containing ether-soluble constituents volatile at 105˚C
Moisture content of drug = wt lost by the - wt of volatile ether-
Drug upon drying soluble extractive
3. Azeotropic Method (USP)
Xylene Method (US Forestry Service)
Moisture Method by Toluene Distillation (NF) – Method II of water content determination in
USP 27
 For vegetable drugs containing 2% or more of moisture
 Disadvantage – requires a comparatively large amount of drug
 Toluene boils at 110-111˚C, boils with water, immiscible with water, and lighter than
water.
% moisture in the sample = vol. of water collected x 100
wt. of sample

4. Karl Fischer Electrometric Titration Method

 Employs the use of Sodium tartrate (Na2C4H4O6.2 H2O) as primary standard for Karl
Fischer reagent or water-methanol solution of known concentration as secondary
standard
 Karl Fischer reagent – consists of I2, SO2, pyridine, and methanol
 End point of titration – increase current
 Water Equivalence Factor (F) – mg H2O / ml KFR
Standardization:
F = (mg of Na2C4H4O6.2H2O x 0.1566) / ml of KF reagent in standardization
2 H2O_____ 36. 04_ 0.01566
Na2C4H4O6.2 H2O = 230.08 =
F = W/V x 0.1566
Assay: % H2O = F x mL of Karl-Fischer reagent x 100
wt of Sx in mg

45 
 
Sample Problems:
Calculate the water equivalence factor of Karl Fischer reagent if a 180-mg sample of
Na2C4H4O6 . 2H2O required 15.00-mL of Karl Fischer reagent.
Calculate the percent moisture in aminosalicylic acid of 9.00-mL of Karl Fischer reagent,
having a water equivalence factor of 4.10, was consumed by a 5.100-g sample.
5. Dew Point Method
 To determine water content in very low concentration
6. Electrolytic Hygrometric Method
 Drugs with very low concentration of water

C. Extractive and Crude Fiber Content

Extractive – The soluble constituents of crude drug in a certain solvent
 An approximate measure of the amount of a certain constituent or group of related
constituents present in a drug
 Amount of a drug soluble in a given solvent is an index of its purity
 GRAVIMETRIC METHOD OF ANALYSIS
 Soxhlet Extraction Method
 Continuous extraction
 Uses the same portion of solvent repeatedly
 Separation of the solvent and solute after the extraction
Solvents for Extraction
1. Absolute Ether (Ex. From cocoa)
 Drugs which contain VOLATILE OILS – Total Ether-Soluble Volatile Extractives
(TESVE)
 Drugs having active constituents associated with VOLATILE MATTER – Non-Volatile
Ether-Soluble Extractives (NVESE) – These non-volatile ether-soluble extractives are
resin, coloring matter, and fixed oil
2. Alcohol
 Drugs with resinous matter (Ex. Assay of Benzoin) – Alcohol-Soluble Extractives (ASE)
 Method I (hot extraction method), Method II (cold extraction method)

46 
 
  The alcohol dissolves the resins, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, styrene, benzaldehyde,
vanillin, esters, etc. contained in balsamic resin.
Alcohol-soluble extractive = [(wt of Sx – wt of moisture) – wt of insoluble residue]
Wt of Sx

3. Diluted Alcohol
 Diluted alcohol-Soluble Extractives (DASE)
 Intermittent agitation
4. Water (Ex. Assay of aloe)
 Water-Soluble Extractives (WSE)
 Intermittent agitation
5. Hexane
 Drugs with fats and fatty oils – Hexane-Soluble Extractive (HSE)
% Hexane Extractive = wt of anhydrous residue x 100 = wt of extractive x 100
wt of Sx wt of crude drug
Crude Fiber Content
 The residue, consisting chiefly of cellulose, that remains undissolved after successive
treatment with boiling acid and alkali
 Important for detection of adulterants
 Limitations on the amount of substance that is insoluble in a given solvent serve to check
the purity and identity of the drug
 GRAVIMETRIC METHOD OF ANALYSIS

Sx placed in a porous paper extraction thimble

continuous [ether-to remove fats and waxes]
solvent (ether) extraction

Insoluble residue soluble constituent

dry at 105oC
1h
Successive treatment with  boiling  Volatile soluble  Nonvolatile soluble 
acid(H2SO4) and alkali (NaOH)  extractive  extractive 

Acid / base  Incinerate the  Weigh the ash 

insoluble residue  dried residue  (inorganic matter) 
47 
 
 Acid/base insoluble residue – cellulose, hemicellulose, pentoses, inorganic matter, etc.

% Crude Fiber = ( wt. of acid/base insol. residue – wt of ash after incineration) x 100
Wt. of ether insol. residue

Constants of Fats, Fatty Oils, Waxes, Balsams, Resins, etc.

 methods of analysis consist of the determination of physical and chemical properties or
values commonly known as constants
 which when taken in conjunction with color, odor, taste and special identity tests for the
given substance and for common adulterants are the basis upon which the purity and
quality of these substances are judged
 turbidity of oil sample is due to the separation of stearin

Chemical Constants
1. Acid Value – [Acid number / Acidity index] = Saponification value – Ester value
• number of milligrams of KOH necessary to neutralize the free acids and saponify the
esters in 1 g of sample (fats, oils, waxes, balsams, and other subs. of complex
composition)
Acid value in mg = (mL x N)NaOH x M.W. KOH (56.11)
g Sx
• number of milliliters of 0.1-N NaOH required to neutralize the free acid in 10 g of sample
Acid value in mL = mL of 0.1 N NaOH x 10 g
Wt. of Sx
• DIRECT ALKALIMETRIC METHOD
• presence of free acids due to the hydrolysis of esters and caused by chemical treatment,
by bacterial action or by the catalytic action of light and heat

2. Saponification Value - [Saponification Number / Koettsdorfer Number]

Saponification is a reaction of fat or oil with alkali to form soap and glycerol.

48 
 
  number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the free acids and saponify the esters
contained in 1 gram sample
 serves to aid in the detection of the presence of the glycerides of acids containing less
than 16 or more than 18 carbon atoms
 indicate adulteration with unsaponifiable matter
 inversely proportional to the mean molecular weights of the acids present
 ALKALIMETRIC METHOD USING BACK-TITRATION (w/ Blank Test)
Saponification value (S.V.) = (mLB.T. – mLA.T.)HCl x NHCl x KOH
Wt. of Sx
2. Ester Value - [Ester Number]
 number of milligrams of KOH required to saponify the esters in 1-g of sample
 important in the analysis of yellow and white wax – it serves to indicate the presence of
adulterants ( e.g. paraffin)
% Ester = (mLB.T. – mLA.T.)HCl x NHCl x M.W. ester/1000 x 100
Wt. of Sx
 ALKALIMETRIC METHOD USING BACK-TITRATION (w/ Blank Test)
 SV = AV + EV

Unsaponifiable Matter
 substances present in oils or fats that are not saponified by alkali hydroxides but are
soluble in ordinary fat solvents
 PHYTOSTEROL – vegetable origin
 CHOLESTEROL - animal origin
 indicative of the quality and purity of the oil
 GRAVIMETRIC METHOD OF ANALYSIS
% Unsaponifiable matter = wt. of residue x 100
wt. of Sx
4. Iodine Value - [Iodine Number]
 number of grams of iodine absorbed under specified conditions by 100-g sample
 quantitative measure of the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids present in a fat sample

49 
 
  serves to characterize fats and oils and to indicate whether they are pure or admixtures
 serves as an aid to indicate in a definite manner the class to which an unknown fat or oil
belongs
 when considered in conjuncture with saponification value, it serves as a means of
detecting adulteration
 IODIMETRIC METHOD USING BACK-TITRATION (w/ Blank Test)
 Classification of Oils
 DRYING OIL (Linseed, fish oil)
• very high iodine value
• usually above 120
 SEMI-DRYING OIL (cottonseed, sesame)
• intermediate iodine value
• between 100 and 120
 NON-DRYING OIL (olive, almond)
• relatively low iodine value
• below 100
N.B.
In case of animal fats, iodine value is not very high, usually being less than 90.

Methods for Determination of Iodine Value

I Hanus Method
II Wijs Method
Hubl’s Method – is not an official method of determining iodine value

Reasons for Blank Test

• corrects for the presence of impurities in the reagents
• corrects changes in volume at different temperature
• makes it unnecessary to know the normality of the iodochloride solution
Iodine Value (I.V.) = (mLB.T. – mLA.T.)Na2S2O3 x NNa2S2O3 x I/1000 (0.1269) x 100g
Wt. of Sx

50 
 
5. Hydroxyl Value - [Hydroxyl Number] = mL of 1 N NaOH x 56.11
Wt. of Sx
 number of milligrams of KOH equivalent to the hydroxyl content of 1-g of the sample
 gives an indication of the identity and purity of fatty substances possessing alcoholic
hydroxyl groups
 inversely proportional to the molecular weight
 an abnormally low value is indicative of adulteration with higher M.W. alcohols or with
non-alcoholic fatty subs. (paraffin, petroleum oil, etc.)
 INDIRECT ALKALIMETRIC METHOD (w/ Blank Test)

6. Acetyl Value of Fatty Acids

 number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the acetic acid obtained by the
saponiifcation of 1-g of acetylated fatty acids
 corresponds closely to the hydroxyl value of fatty alcohols and two constants (SV & AV)
have much the same significance with respect to identity and purity of substances
 Computation:
A = ( S – F ) / ( 1 – 0.00075 S )

A = acetyl value of free fatty acids

S = saponification value of acetylated fatty acids
F = acid value of original fatty acids
1-0.00075 S = corrects for the discrepancy bet. the mol. wt. of the acetylated oil (used for
determination of the saponification value) and that of the original fatty acids (used
for determination of the acid value)
0.00075 = number of grams of acetyl group that corresponds to 1-mg of KOH

WATER AND SEDIMENTS IN FATTY OILS

 moisture and non-fatty tissue residues in fatty oils of animal origin
 determination carried out in a pear-shaped graduated centrifuge tubes
 centrifuge that has a diameter of swing of 38 to 43 cm is operated at 1500 r/min

51 
 
  Computation:
% by volume = mL CF1 + mL CF2

ASSAY OF VOLATILE OILS - [ETHEREAL OILS ; ESSENTIAL OILS ; ESSENCES]

 complex products composed of mixtures of compounds of widely variant chemical
characteristics
 important chemical components of official volatile oils
 Hydrocarbons – acyclic series such as heptane and myrcene, isocyclic series (pinene,
limonene, camphene, bornylene, fenchene, dipentene)
 Alcohols – linalool, geraniol. Citronellol, terpineol, borneol, menthol
 Aldehydes – benzaldehyde, cinnamic aldehyde, salicyl aldehyde, citral, citronellal)
 Ketones – camphor, carvone, fenchone, menthone
 Phenols – anethol, eugenol, carvacrol, safrol, chavicol, thymol
 Acids – acetic, propionic, butyric, valeric, benzoic, cinnamic, hydrocyanic acid
 Sulfur Compounds – allyl isothiocyanate (mustard oil)
 analysis of volatile oils for the purpose of determining their purity and value is based on:
 the measurement of certain physical characteristics – appearance, odor, color,
etc., sp. gr., rotatory power, regractive index, solidifying pt., solubility,, and
behavior on distillation
 the quantitative estimation of certain components
 the qualitative tests for the various substances commonly employed as
adulterants

ASSAY FOR ESTER CONTENT

 are mostly the acetates of alcohols
 determination of the total esters when taken in conjunction with the official tests for
purity serves to detect adulteration and to establish the quality of oils valued for their
ester content
 ALKALIMETRIC METHOD USING BACK TITRATION (w/ Blank Test)
 Each milliliter of 0.5-N alcoholic KOH consumed in the saponification is equivalent
to 99.15-mg of total esters calculated as menthyl acetate (C12H23O2)

52 
 
ASSAY FOR ALCOHOL CONTENT
 alcohols present in volatile oils occur both free and combined as esters
 establish the purity and value of an oil with respect to its content of alcoholic
constituents
 determined by transforming the free alcohols into the corresponding acetates by
boiling the oil with acetic anhydride in an acetylization flask and then determining the
saponification value of the acetylized product
 ACETYLIZATION FLASK
\
% corrected = % uncorrected x [1 – (Ester%/100 x M.W. Acetyl radical ]
M.W. Acetate
ASSAY FOR ALDEHYDE CONTENT
1. Bisulfite Method
 form addition products with certain reagents
 bisulfite addition product dissolve in water
 non-aldehyde constituents as a water insoluble layer (residual layer)
 CASSIA FLASK
2. Hydroxylamine Method
 very small amounts of aldehydes
 contain other constituents that form water-soluble addition products
 INDIRECT ALKALIMETRIC METHOD (w/ Blank Test)

ASSAY FOR KETONE CONTENT

 only caraway oil and spearmint oil are assayed for their ketone (CARVONE) content
1. Bisulfite Method
 bisulfite addition product dissolve in water
 non-ketone constituents as a water insoluble layer (residual layer)
 CASSIA FLASK
2. Hydroxylamine Method
 INDIRECT ALKALIMETRIC METHOD (w/ Blank Test)

53 
 
ASSAY FOR PHENOL CONTENT
 volatile oils that contain phenols when shaken with solutions of NaOH diminish in
volume because of the ready solubility of the phenol constituents in the alkali
 the non-phenolic portion of the oils remains undissolved (residual layer)
 CASSIA FLASK

DETERMINATION OF VOLATILE OIL CONTENT OF CRUDE DRUGS AND

OLEORESINS
 crude drugs and oleoresins, used as medicinal or flavoring agents owe their virtues
primarily to volatile oil constituents
 separation of the oil from other components by means of steam distillation
 accurate measurement of the volume of oil is obtained

ASSAY OF VOLATILE OIL IN SPIRITS

 based upon the separation of the volatile oil by means of an immiscible solvent (e.g.
kerosene)
 salting-out effect – CaCl2 TS
 BABCOCK BOTTLE
 1 division = 0.2-mL
 correction factor ( 0.21 ) due to the contraction of liquid
1 mL = 5 div

% Volatile Oil in Spirit = (vol. of oil & kerosene – vol. of kerosene) x 0.21
layer in div layer in div x 100
vol. of Sx (mL)

ASSAY OF ALKALOIDS AND AMINE DRUGS

 chemical substances which are obtained from plant, animal or synthetic sources, contain
organic nitrogen within their chemical structure and usually possess physiological
activity

54 
 
  alkaloidal drugs and preparations derived from them constitute a relatively important
group of the official substances employed in modern therapy
 as a class of medicinal agents, alkaloids are characterized by their high potency
 are performed for purposes of standardization, proof of purity, commercial evaluation or
pharmacolegal purposes
 methods of quantitative estimation
 Gravimetric Method
 Titrimetric Method – Volumetric
 Spectrometric Method
 Electrometric Method
 Physiological Method
 amount of alkaloids in crude drugs vary due to:
 age of the plant when collected
 season of the year when drug is harvested
 soil and climate in which the drug is grown
 conditions under which the drug is collected, dried and stored
 amount alkaloids present in galenical preparations vary due to:
 quality of drug employed
 menstrum used in the extraction
 amount of decomposition of the alkaloid during the process of extraction and of
storage
 properties of alkaloids
 free alkaloids – sparingly soluble in water; readily soluble in immiscible
solvents
 alkaloidal salts – readily soluble in water ; sparingly soluble in immiscible
solvents
 combine with acids to form salts
 liberated from aqueous solutions of their salts by alkalies
 form highly insoluble precipitates with a number of reagents
 methyl red solution is the indicator of choice for alkaloidal titrations

55 
 
  Alkaloidal Test Solutions
 Valser’s Reagent – HgI2 TS ; white ppt.
 Wagner’s Reagent – I2 TS ; reddish or red-brown ppt.
 Mayer’s Reagent – K2HgI4 TS ; white or slightly yellow ppt.
 Steps in Alkaloidal Assay
 Collection & Separation
 Analysis
 Types of Alkaloidal Assays
 Proximate Assay – total of a class of plant principles [Total alkaloid]
 Ultimate Assay – single chemical species
 Assay of Belladona Leaf / Tincture
 Acidimetric Method using Back-Titration Method
 Each mL of 0.02-N acid is equivalent to 5.788-mg of the alkaloids of
belladonna leaf, calculated as hyoscyamine or atropine.
• Assay of Ipecac for Ether-Soluble Alkaloids
 Acidimetric Method using Back-Titration Method
 Each mL of 0.1-N H2SO4 is equivalent to 24.0-mg of the total ether-soluble
alkaloids of ipecac calculated as emetine.
 Assay of Ephedrine Sulfate Injection
 Acidimetric Method using Direct Titration (w/ Blank Test)
 Each mL of 0.1-N HClO4 is equivalent to 21.43 mg of (C10H15NO)2 . H2SO4.
 Assay of Aminophylline Tablets
 Argentometric Method using Back-Titration Method
 Each mL of 0.1-N AgNO3 is equivalent to 21.02-mg of C16H24N10O4.
Computation for Alkaloidal Assays
 equivalent weight from given titer
 concentration of alkaloid/s present
 percentage
 mg/tablet
 mg/mL

56 
 
  percentage labelled amount/claim
= ( computed conc. / potency ) x 100

% alkaloid = [(V x N)H2SO4 - (V x N)NaOH ] x titer x 100

Sx (mg)

% labeled amt = [(mL x N)H2SO4 - (mL x N)NaOH ] x titre mg/N x ave. wt. of 1 tab. x 1000
mg/g
wt. Sx in g (used in the assay)
x 100
Label claim

On the other hand, some of the medical analyses that medical technologists use are the
following:

Examination of urine

Examination of urine is a fundamental investigation in patients in whom kidney disorders or

infections of the urinary tract are suspected. There are also many pa- tients who exhibit no
clinical symptoms, but in whom previously unrecognized urinary tract infections can be
diagnosed by urine examination.

7.1 Collection of urine specimens

Containers for the collection of urine should be wide-mouthed, clean and dry. If the urine
specimen has to be transported for any length of time it should contain an appropriate
preservative to prevent bacterial overgrowth or hatching of viable ova.

7.1.1 Types of urine specimen


Early morning urine specimen


Early morning urine provides the most concentrated sample.

57 
 
Random urine specimen

A random urine sample, taken at any time of the day, will enable the laboratory to screen for
substances, which are indicators of kidney infection.

24-Hour urine specimen

The 24-hour urine specimen is collected in a clear 2-litre bottle with a stopper. On the first
morning the patient gets up and urinates; this urine is not collected. All the urine passed during
the rest of the day and night is collected in the bottle. The next morning the patient gets up and
collects the first urine of the morning in the bottle. The bottle should then be taken immediately
to the laboratory.

Measure the volume of urine with a measuring cylinder and record it.

Midstream urine specimen

While passing urine, the patient places an open container in the stream of urine and collects
about 20ml of urine. The container should be covered immediately.

Terminal urine specimen

The patient urinates the last portion of urine into an open container.

Urine specimens collected using a catheter

Collection of urine using a catheter must be carried out by a qualified physician or nurse. The
procedure is used for certain bacteriological tests, mainly in women. Usually, however, a
specimen collected in the normal way following thorough cleansing is acceptable for this
purpose.

Urine specimens from infants

Urine can be collected into a plastic bag with an adhesive mouth. The bag is fixed around the
genitalia and left in place for 1–3 hours, depending on the examination requested. Colostomy
bags can be used.

7.1.2 Preservation of urine specimens

● Urine passed at a clinic and examined immediately does not require


preservation.

● If urine has been collected to check for the presence of Schistosoma

haematobium ova but it may not be examined for several hours, it should be acidified
with a few drops of 10% acetic acid (reagent no. 2).


7.2 Examination of urine specimens 
7.2.1 Appearance

58 
 
 ● Urine is normally clear straw-yellow in color. More concentrated urine may

appear dark yellow.

● The presence of blood cells or excess salts may make the urine appear cloudy.

● Pigments from bile substances may make the urine appear deep yellow or
brown.

● Urine can occasionally appear colorless. Report the appearance as: 
— clear
or cloudy;
— colorless, pale yellow, deep yellow or brown. 


Testing for the presence of blood


Elevated erythrocyte counts and hemoglobin levels may occur in urine: 
— after
heavy physical exercise;
— in vaginal tract infections;
— in parasitic infections (e.g.
schistosomiasis); — in acute glomerulonephritis;
— in acute cystitis or urethritis;
—
in patients suffering from certain tumors. 
Blood cells are easily seen by microscopic
examination after centrifugation (see section 7.2.7). 
Lysed erythrocytes can be detected
using a urine dipstick which has a segment for detection of blood. Urine dipsticks are
available for detection of a single substance (e.g. blood, glucose or protein) or for
detection of several substances (e.g. nitrite and leukocyte esterase). 
Method 
The
dipsticks are placed into the urine and immediately removed. They are then compared
with a comparison chart after an appropriate time that is also specified on the chart.

The color changes observed on the dipstick will give a semi-quantitative estimation of
the amount of substance present. This can be reported as negative, +, ++, +++, ++++ or
as an approximate value of the concentration of the substance tested for. 
Dipsticks
must be stored according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

7.2.3 Measuring the pH


Normal freshly passed urine is slightly acid, with a pH of around 6.0.

In certain diseases the pH of the urine may increase or decrease.

Principle

● Colored indicator paper is dipped in the urine (or placed in a watch glass and a
few drops of urine are added to it).

● The color changes according to the pH.

● The paper is then compared with a standard control chart 
giving the
corresponding pH value. 
Materials (Fig. 7.1)

● Watch glasses

● Dropper

59 
 
 ● Forceps

● Universal indicator paper (for measuring pH from 1 to 10)

● Indicator paper of limited pH range: for the 5.0–7.0 range and for the 6.0–8.0
range. 
The urine specimen must be tested within 1 hour of collection. 


Method

1. Place a strip of universal indicator paper in a watch glass. 
Let a few drops of fresh
urine fall from the dropper on to the paper (Fig. 7.2). 
Alternatively, dip the test
paper directly into the urine in the receptacle.

2. Pick the strip of paper up with forceps. 
Compare the color obtained with those
shown on the standard chart (Fig. 7.3). Read off the pH unit given for the color
that matches the test paper most closely.

3. According to the result obtained, select a strip of indicator paper for the corresponding
limited range. For example, if the pH is 6, use indicator paper for the range 5.0–
7.0. If the pH is 7 or more, use indicator paper for the range 6.0–8.0.

4. Repeat the test in another watch glass, using the paper for the corresponding limited
range. Read off the pH of the urine on the standard chart (Fig. 7.4), e.g. pH = 6.2
orpH=7.5.

The pH of urine is normally about 6.0 (range 5.0–7.0). Acid pH values (4.5–5.5)
are observed in some forms of diabetes, muscular fatigue and acidosis. Alkaline pH
values (7.8– 8.0) are common in patients with infections of the urinary tract and in people
on a vegetarian diet.

Fig. 7.1

Materials for measuring the pH of urine

60 
 
Fig. 7.2

Applying the urine specimen to universal indicator paper

Fig. 7.3

Checking the pH using universal indicator paper

Fig. 7.4

Checking the pH using indicator paper of limited pH range

61 
 
Fig. 7.5 Benedict method for detection of reducing

substances in urine

pH and crystalline deposits

Determination of the pH of urine is useful for the identification of crystalline deposits (see
section 7.2.7, pages 245–248).

Some crystals are deposited only in acid urine, others only in alkaline urine. For example:

— acid urine: oxalates, uric acid;

— alkaline urine: phosphates, carbonates, urates.

Except in very rare diseases, crystalline deposits in urine have no diagnostic significance.

7.2.4 Detection of glucose

Principle

Glucose is the most commonly found sugar substance in urine, particularly in diabetic patients
and patients suffering from chronic renal failure. Glucose is a reducing substance. It reduces the
blue copper sulfate in Benedict solution to red copper oxide, which is insoluble.

Lactose is also a reducing sugar and is occasionally seen in the urine of pregnant women.

Materials and reagents

● Test-tubes

● Wooden test-tube holder

● Test-tube rack

● Beaker or can

● Bunsen burner or spirit lamp

● Dropper pipette

● Graduated pipette, 5 ml

● Benedict solution (reagent no. 10). 


Method

1. Pipette 5 ml of Benedict solution into a test-tube.

62 
 
2. Add eight drops of urine and mix well.

3. Boil over a Bunsen burner or spirit lamp for 2 minutes (Fig. 7.5), or place the test-tube
in a beaker or can of boiling water for 5 minutes.

4. Place the test-tube in the test-tube rack and allow to cool to room temperature.

Examine the color change of the solution and any precipitate. Report the result as
shown in Table 7.1. 
Glucose in urine can also be detected using a urine dipstick (see
section 7.2.2). 


7.2.5 Detection and estimation of protein
Elevated protein levels are observed in the urine
of patients with: 
— urinary schistosomiasis — chronic renal disease

Table 7.1 Reporting the results of the Benedict method for detection of reducing substances
in urine

Blue
Green
Green with yellow precipitate + Yellow/dark green ++ Brown +++ Orange to

brick red ++++

— pyelonephritis
— diabetes mellitus
— systemic disorders (lupus erythematosus) —

multiple myeloma.

However, orthostatic proteinuria, a form of functional proteinuria usually seen in young men,
which occurs on standing up and disappears on lying down, has no pathological significance.

Principle1

When trichloroacetic acid is added to urine containing protein, a precipitate is formed, which is
measured by turbidimetry. This reaction occurs with almost all proteins, including albumin and
globulins.

Materials and reagents

● Spectrophotometer

● Test-tubes

● Test-tube rack

● Centrifuge

● Mechanical rotator

● Bovine or human serum albumin

● Trichloroacetic acid, 5% solution (see reagent no. 62), diluted 1: 4 with

distilled water

63 
 
 ● Sodium chloride, 0.85% solution (reagent no. 53)

● Positive and negative controls

● Albumin working standard, 0.005% solution (prepared from albumin stock

standard, 5.0% solution, diluted 1:100 with sodium chloride, 0.85% solution (reagent no.
53)). 
The albumin working standard can be divided into aliquots and stored at -20°C
for up to 6 months. 
If albumin stock standard is not available, commercial serum-based
standards containing both albumin and globulin can be used to prepare a working
standard solution of the appropriate concentration. As with the albumin standard, the
working standard can also be divided into aliquots and stored at –20°C for up to 6
months. 
1 Further details of the method described here are given in the following
references: Shahangian S, Brown PI, Ash KO. Turbidimetric measurement of total
urinary proteins: a revised method. Americanjournalofclinicalpathology,1984,81:651–
654;TietzNW,ed.Textbookofclinicalchemistry, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1994.

Method

Collection of specimens

Random, timed or 24-hour urine specimens should be used (see section 7.1.1). No preservatives
should be added to the specimens. Specimens that are collected over 24 hours should be stored at
4–8°C during the period of collection, to prevent bacterial growth.

Collected specimens should be kept at 4°C until analysis. If analysis is likely to be delayed for
more than 24 hours, however, the specimens should be stored at -20°C.

Technique

1. Add 1.6 ml of the urine specimen to each of two test-tubes (test and test blank). Repeat the
process with the working standard and the control.

2. Add 0.4ml of trichloroacetic acid solution to all of the test-tubes and mix well. Leave to stand
at room temperature for 10 minutes.

3. Centrifuge the test blanks at 2000g for 10 minutes.

4. Using the spectrophotometer, measure and record the optical density of the tests and blanks at
620 nm. The spectrophotometer should be set to zero with distilled water before any
measurements are taken. It should also be calibrated, as described below. The analytical
range of measurement using this method is 100–1000 mg/l.

Calculation

Calculate the concentration of protein in the urine specimen using the following formula:

where:

64 
 
C = concentration of the calibration solution

ODR = optical density of the working standard

ODRT = optical density of the working standard test blank

ODT = optical density of the test specimen

ODTB = optical density of the test specimen blank.

Note:

● If a serum-based control is used for calibration purposes, an independent

material must be used for the purpose of quality control.

● Because the amount of protein excreted in the urine may vary greatly, any
positive results should always be confirmed by repeating the test on one or more separate
samples.

● If this method is used to screen for microproteinuria (which may be correlated

with microalbuminuria in the absence of tubular damage, urinary infections and treatment
with certain drugs) in high-risk populations such as patients with diabetes, the following
modifications should be applied to steps 2 and 4: 
2. Leave all the tubes to stand at
room temperature for 35 minutes after mixing. 
4. Using the spectrophotometer,
measure and record the optical density of the tests and blanks at 405nm.

The analytical range of this modified method is 25–700mg/l.
Protein in urine can also be
detected using a protein dipstick (see section 7.2.2).

7.2.6 Detection of ketone bodies
Normal urine does not contain ketone bodies. Acetone and
other ketone bodies

may appear in urine:

— in severe or untreated diabetes;

— in certain other conditions (dehydration, vomiting, malnutrition, prolonged starvation and

following strenuous exercise).

Principle

When sodium nitroprusside (sodium nitrosyl pentacyanoferrate (III)) is added to urine containing
ketone bodies, a purple color is produced.

Materials and reagents

● Test-tubes

● Test-tube rack

65 
 
 ● Measuring cylinder, 10 ml

● Dropping pipette

● Sodium nitroprusside crystals

● Acetic acid

● Ammonia. 
Method

1. Just before carrying out the test, place a sufficient number of sodium nitroprus- side
crystals into a test-tube to cover the bottom (Fig. 7.6).

2. Add 5ml of distilled water. Shake well until the crystals are almost dissolved. (Not all
the crystals are expected to dissolve as the solution is saturated.)

3. Measure 10ml of urine into another test-tube.

4. Add four drops of acetic acid to the urine, followed by 10 drops of freshly pre- pared
sodium nitroprusside solution. Mix well.

5. Holding the tip of the pipette against the side of the tube, let 20 drops (1ml) of
ammonia solution flow on to the surface of the liquid (Fig. 7.7).Wait for 5
minutes before reading — a positive result may be obvious before this time.

Fig. 7.6 Preparation of sodium nitroprusside solution Fig. 7.7 Adding

ammonia solution to the surface of the sodium nitroprusside

solution

66 
 
Table 7.2 Reporting the results of the test for detection of ketone bodies in

If the result is positive (Fig. 7.8), a purple ring appears on top of the urine. If the result is
negative, no color change occurs.

Report the result as shown in Table 7.2.

Ketone bodies in urine can also be detected using a urine dipstick (see section 7.2.2).

67 
 
Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________

Results and Discussion

Objective: To present data gathered from the investigation. Present briefly the data following the
problems stated in the Statement of the Problem in Chapter 1. You may need to present tables or
graphs.

1.

2.

68 
 
Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________

Data Management

Objective: To be able to manage research data by graph/chart presentation together with the
appropriate label or heading. Using the given data, construct a graph/chart to summarize the
results.

69 
 
 UNIT 3: WRITING, PRESENTING, AND PUBLISHING
THE ACADEMIC/ TECHNICAL PAPER

Preparation of the Academic / Technical Paper

The academic / technical paper must always be written based on the requirements of the
institution to which the writer is connected. Writing is expected to follow the proper rules of
grammar and technical writing. Sentence structure must be varied, that is, a mix of simple,
compound, and complex sentences. If possible, the use of compound-complex sentence structure
must be avoided.
The academic / technical paper output does not end only in the hands of the writer but
must be presented for dissemination, and more importantly, it must be published not only locally
but also internationally. This is to create its impact on the field to which the paper is classified.
The publisher to which the academic paper is submitted for publication must be
adequately studied and understood in order to aptly meet the requirements.
Documenting the research paper is very important as it provides not only reliability of the
research but also the clear evidence of intellectual honesty and scholarliness. By documenting
properly the research paper, intellectual justice is accorded to the sources of information, data
and ideas which the researcher has cited in the paper.
It is often the failing of a researcher to simply copy verbatim, that is, word for word,
those sentences and paragraphs that are deemed useful and handy in the writing of the research
manuscript. Plagiarism is the easier way to make their write-ups. And if they paraphrase or say
the ideas or information from their sources in their own words, they altogether do not
acknowledge anymore the original owners of the ideas and information.
Acknowledging authors, researchers, publishers and all the other sources of the ideas and
information that a researcher makes use of and is indebted to, perforce, be a must in research
writing.
In the medical and health-related disciplines, the American Psychological Association
(APA) is normally used. There are two applications; namely:
1. In-text citations – for citing references within the body of the technical / research report
2. References – for the separate sheets provided at the end of the paper

70 
 
 Using the APA citation requires page numbers for direct quotations and the “p.” notation
for single page and “pp.” for more than one page.

IN-TEXT CITATIONS

When writing the proposal and the final manuscript of the research paper, it is important
to acknowledge the ideas that are drawn from your readings of journals, books, researches, and
other sources of information. This is done through in-text citations or sometimes known as
parenthetical citation as the author’s last name and year of publication of the reference material
are enclosed in parentheses.
Following are some guidelines for in-text citations:

1. Paraphrased or Summarized Source

Neurofibromatosis (NF) is a neurocutaneous syndrome that can affect many parts of the
body, including the brain, spinal cord, nerves, skin, and other body systems (Morris,
2005).
Morris (2005) notes that neurofibromatosis (NF) is a neurocutaneous syndrome that can
affect many parts of the body, including the brain, spinal cord, nerves, skin, and other
body systems.

2. Source of a Short Quotation

A recent report of reductions in SAD-related “depression in 87% of patients” (Binkley,
2001, p. 203) reverses the findings of earlier studies.
Binkley (2001) reports reductions in SAD-related “depression in 87% of patients”
(p.203).

3. Source of a Long Quotation (40 or more words)

Catheter-based intervention has evolved in both diagnostic and therapeutic field. In
diagnostic field, the focus is not only the anatomical diagnosis but on the functional
aspect of anatomical diagnosis. Better pressure wire and intravascular ultrasound have led
to the determination of coronary reserve and more comprehensive anatomical diagnosis

71 
 
 respectively. Pathobiology of acute coronary syndrome involves an unstable plaque with
superimposed thrombosis with complete occlusion of artery leading to myocardial
infarction. Medical management has a definite role in AMI management though even
with best thrombolytic agent complete revascularisation occurs only in 50% of cases
(Singh, 2010, p.72).

4. One Author Citation

The pancreas is responsible for producing insulin that the body needs to convert sugar to
energy (Thompson, 2004).

5. Two-Authors Citation
Candida glabrata causes significant medical problems in immunocompromised patients
(Kim & Cooper, 2001).
Kim and Cooper (2001) cite that Candida glabrata causes significant medical problems
in immunocompromised patients.

6. Three, Four, or Five Authors Citation

FIRST REFERENCE:
Viral meningitis initially can look very similar to bacterial and is often treated with
antibiotics until the results of the spinal tap are known (Evans, Smith, & Co, 2001).
SUBSEQUENT REFERENCE:
Evans et al. (2001) emphasize that viral meningitis initially can look very similar to
bacterial and is often treated with antibiotics until the results of the spinal tap are known.

7. Six or More Authors Citation

C. difficile became the most feared hospital bug in the developed world after the number
and severity of infections among patients soared to record levels in a series of countries
in the early 2000s (Morgan et al., 2005).

72 
 
 8. Author(s) with two or more works in the same year citation
Parker (2001b) cites that large numbers of people with HIV are co-infected with hepatitis
B and/or hepatitis C. Liver disease is now a leading cause of illness and death in those co-
infected people (Parker, 2001a, 2001c).

9. Two or More Authors with the same name citation

R.A. Smith (1997) and C. Smith (2003) both confirm these results. These results have
been confirmed independently (C. Smith, 2003; R.A. Smith, 1997).

10. Work with a Group or Corporate Author Citation

In the study, nine infants were treated with intravenous ampicillin/gentamicin within 48
hours of birth, and over the two-month study period, their gastrointestinal flora were
compared with that in nine infants who received no antibiotics (American Journal of
Managed Care [AJMC], 2006.
Note: In subsequent citations, use AJMC alone.

11. Work Listed by Title Citation

Bartholin's cysts are most likely to occur in women of child-bearing age although when
they occur in women over 40 (“Child-Bearing Pains,” 2004).
Note: If no author is named, write the first few words of the title of the work.

12. Reference to an Online Source Citation

(Anderson, 2003, para. 14)
(Riggs, 2002, Introduction, para. 3)
Note: If an online source does not have page numbers, use the paragraph number. If page
or paragraph number cannot be deciphered, cite the heading and paragraph number.

73 
 
REFERENCES

The APA documenting system lists the references cited in the in-text citation under the
title REFERENCES in upper case centered on the paper and located after the last page of the last
chapter.

Guidelines for Documenting the Reference List:

 Classify and indicate the kind of reference used (e.g. books, journal articles, etc.)
 Cite the reference list without quotation marks. Information provided should not be
italicized nor underlined.
 Use the hanging indent style so as to make the source names and dates more prominent.

Example: BOOKS
Wood, P. (2007). Diversity: The invention of a concept in cardiology. San Francisco: Encounter
Books.

Example: JOURNAL ARTICLES

Shuter, R. (1999). On the equilibrium partial pressures of nitric acid and ammonia in the
atmosphere. Science Direct, 44, 202-210.

Example: ELECTRONIC and ONLINE SOURCES

Marcus, H.F. & Kitayamo, S. (1991). Sodium-independent active transport of potassium in the
isolated midgut of the Cecropia silkworm. National Academic Abstracts, 78. Retrieved
October 2, 2007, from the NatSCIinfo database (Item 1991-23978-001).

Navera, D. Clinical Development of Neurology. The New York Times. Retrieved December 11,
2005, from http://www.nytimes.com
It must be noted that no period is placed after a URL.

74 
 
REFERENCE GUIDELINES FOR PRINT SOURCES

1. Book by One Author

Walsh, I. (2003). Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics: Introduction. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press.

2. Book by Two Authors

Edin, K. & Litton, M. (2005). A handbook for complementary healthcare professionals.
Berkeley: University of California Press.

3. Books by Three or more Authors

Smith, H.J., King, I.O., & Wilter, P.T. (2005). Magnetic resonance in epilepsy. East
Lansing: Michigan State University Press.

Note: for 3-6 authors, include all authors’ names. For more than six (6) authors, use only
first SIX names followed by et al.

4. Two or More Books by the Same Author

Gardner, H. (1993). The medical malpractice survival handbook. New York: Basic
Books.
Gardner, H. (1999). The framework of toxicology information. New York: Basic Books.

Note: Arrange references by the same author chronologically with the earlier date

5. Book by a Group of Corporate Author

American Psychological Association. (2003). Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Boston Women’s Health Collective. (1998). New bodies for the new century. New York:
Simon & Schuster.

75 
 
 Note: Cite full name of the corporate author first. If author is also the publisher, use the
word Author as the name of the publisher.

6. Book with No Author Named

The Chicago manual of style (15th ed.). (2003). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

7. Book with an Author and an Editor

Brown, M.I. (2002). The fall and rise of in vivo pharmacology. (R.J. Dunn, Ed.). New
York: Norton.

8. Work in Several Volumes or Parts

Christley, R. (Ed.). (2002). Recent advances in the psychopharmacology of social phobia.
(Vols. 1-4). London: Routledge.

9. Second or Subsequent Edition

Gibaldi, J. L. (2003). MLA handbook for writers and research papers (6th ed). New York:
Modern Language Association.

10. Anthology or Edited Book

Purdy, A.O., & Ruppert, S. (Eds.). (2003). A renaissance in marine pharmacology. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

11. Unpublished Dissertation or Essay

Byers, F. (1998). The need for an aging and cancer curriculum for hematology/oncology
trainees. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto, Ontario,
Canada.

12. Article in a Journal with Continuous Pagination

Adler, L., & Johnson, W.I. (2005). The psychology of women. Journal of the American
Psychoanalytic Association, 46, 361-364.

76 
 
 13. Article in a Journal that Pages Each Issue Separately
Higgins, E.A. & Fish, Y. (2006). Training in community pediatrics: A national survey of
program directors. CPA: Community Pediatrics Administration, 26(3), 119-131.

It must be remembered to give the volume number and italicize the journal title. The
issue number must be in parentheses and not italicized.

ONLINE SOURCES

With the accessibility to the Internet becoming easier and cheaper, many researchers are
helped to facilitate information gathering with their computers.

Following are pointers to remember when using online sources of information:

1. Books retrieved on databases on the Web

Adams, G. (1981). The basics of oncology. New York: Hougton Mifflin. Retrieved
December 4, 2004, from the Project Bartleby database:
http://www.columbia.edu/acis/bartleby/159

Chopin, K. (1998). An introduction to community public health. Retrieved December 12,

2005, from the PBS database: http://www.pbs.org/katechopin/library/awakening/

2. Article in a Periodical on the Web

Parrott, A.C. (2001). Does cigarette smoking cause stress? American Psychologist, 54,
817-820. Retrieved December 7, 2005, from
http://www.apa.org/journals/amp/amp54/10817

77 
 
Getting to Know the New Format

Doing research has gone a long way. Many fruits of research have benefitted mankind. In
the pharmaceutical and medical technology fields, results of researchers by the professionals and
students have brought about new knowledge and information that have influenced drug
manufacturing, marketing and use as well as the treatment of disease.
As in many cases, research writing has also been enriched not only with innovative
approaches but also formats and models. Recently, the research-by-article has been adopted by
some research institutions as an approach to encouraging the publication of research outputs. In
this approach or style of research writing, a broad subject matter may be done the “salami style”
where several topics are treated separately yet comprehensively. Breaking the broad topic into
two or three subjects brings about relevant and related concepts into holistic manner.
Since most research institutions require the publication of research output in international
journals, it is expected that the research-by-article style is the mode of the time. The writing of
the research-by-article follows the same principle and style of academic/technical and scientific
writing.
Following are the parts and characteristics of this new research style for the research
proposal:

 
 
 
 
 
 
   

78 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
TYPE YOUR TITLE HERE. THE APA RECOMMENDATION 
FOR TITLE LENGTH SHOULD NOT EXCEED 12 WORDS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A Thesis Proposal  
Presented to the  
Graduate School 
University of   Santo Tomas 
 
 
 
 
In Partial Fulfillment 
Of   the Requirements of the Degree 
Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy 
 
 
by 
 
BRIDGETTE MADISON R. ANASTACIO 
November 2013 
 
 
 

79 
 
 

ABSTRACT 

 
This  section  is  limited  to  100‐150  words  (approximately  12‐15  lines),  singly  spaced  and  must 
include at least four (4) keywords. 
 

Keywords: solar systems, universe, aliens, space 

80 
 
  

TABLE OF CONTENTS 
                            Page  
 
          Prefatory Note (Optional)  1 
 
1.0   The Problem Rationale               4 
  Introduction                 4 
  Research Impediments            6 
 
2.0   The Research Questions 
2.1  Literature Review              7    
  2.2  Research Questions            22 
 
3.0.    The Research Methods                
  3.1  Methods and Materials             25 
3.1.1 Standards, Reagents and Chemicals      26   
    3.1.2 Extraction (or Sampling) Procedure      27 
3.1.3 Ethical Considerations (…If Applicable!)    32 
3.2  Analysis 
3.2.1 Instrumental Analysis          28   
    3.2.2 Data Interpretation and Calculations      29 
 
References                   33 
      Examples only! (remove those not applicable) 
Appendix I:      Permit to Conduct the Interviews        37 
Appendix II:  Request for Pertinent Data        38 
Appendix III:   Informed Consent for Research Participants    39 
Appendix IV:    Informed Consent for Research Participation 
            Recruited Concept Mapping Participants   40 
Appendix V:  Survey Questionnaires           41    
Appendix VI:  The Interview Protocol        44 
Appendix VII:   The Interview Protocol for Tutors/Reviewers  46 
Appendix VIII:  The Interview Protocol        47 
Appendix IX:   Concept Mapping Instrument       48 
Appendix X:   Documentary Analysis        49   
Appendix XI:   Timetable for Research         50 
Appendix XII:   Budget Proposal             51 
 
Curriculum Vitae                 52 

81 
 
  

CHAPTER 1 

THE PROBLEM RATIONALE 

This chapter must be clear and logical in describing succinctly the trends in the field that 

render  the  chosen  topic  problematic.  This  chapter  must  end  with  the  delineation  of  the 

research barriers or limitations of the study, (if possible, substantial, ethical, methodological, 

and  practical)  that  the  candidate  may  come  across  in  the  conduct  of  the  study.  The  last  two 

paragraphs must be devoted to research impediments (barriers) and limitations of the study.  

82 
 
  

CHAPTER 2 

THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS 

  This chapter includes all types of materials reviewed, conceptual literature which 

came  from  books.  Related  studies  both  local  and  foreign  consisting  mainly  of  peer  reviewed 

journals.  Your  aim  is  to  show  how  the  present  study  relates  to  the  existing  knowledge  and 

previous studies in terms of both similarities and differences. The formal sub‐sections for this 

chapter are;      

2.1 Review of the Literature  

Must be comprehensive in the light of the chosen variables with a view to surfacing the 

research blankspots (unexplored area) and blindspots  (conflicting areas in the literature).   

2.2  Research Question/s (or Hypotheses)  

A  research  hypothesis  is  the  statement  you  created  when  you  speculate  upon  the 

outcome of a research or experiment. Every true experimental design must have this statement 

at the core of its structure, as the ultimate aim of any experiment. 

83 
 
  

CHAPTER 3 

THE RESEARCH METHODS 

This  chapter  must  include  details  of  your  experimental  methodology.  Points  to  highlight 

includes;      Description  of  the  following;  (1)  research  design,  (2)  study  site,  (3)  selection  of 

samples, (4) data/outcome measures , data collection procedure, (5)  ethical consideration and 

(6) data/mode of analysis; and  Must be strongly supported by the appendices that contain 

the instruments or corpus of data to be used. There are two formal sub‐sections (3.1 and 3.2) 

which are; 

3.1 Methods and Materials 

3.1.1 Standards, Reagents, and Chemicals 

  This section must have detailed description of materials used. 

3.1.2 Extraction (or Sampling or Synthesis) Procedure 

  This section can have either of the 3 titles depending on your research. 

3.2 Analysis 

3.2.1 Instrumental Analysis 

This section must have detailed description of materials used. 

3.2.2 Data Interpretation and Calculations 

In this section you may include your statistical analysis, description of softwares etc. For 

example  (this  was  taken  from  Fouillen  et  al.,  Analytical  Biochemistry  407  (2010)  34–43)….. 

“MS  and  MS/MS  data  searches  were  performed  using  a  local  Mascot  server  (Mascot  2.2.0, 

84 
 
Matrix  Science,  London,  UK)  against  the  Swiss–Prot  database  (version  56.8,  410,  518 

sequences).  For  MALDI–MS  peptide  mass  fingerprinting,  a  mass  tolerance  of  50  ppm  was 

allowed”. 

85 
 
 REFERENCES 

Include all literature actually cited in chapters 1 to 3, arrange entries ALPHABETICALLY (NOT 

NUMBERED);  strictly  use  APA  style  entries.  Sample  entries  for  books,  journals,  book  edition 

and internet source are shown below in that order; 

Baxter, C. (1997). Race equality in health care and education. Philadelphia: Ballière Tindall. 

Gaudio,  J.L.,  &  Snowdon,  C.T.  (2008).  Spatial  cues  more  salient  than  color  cues  in  cotton‐top 

tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) reversal learning. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 122, 441‐

444. doi:10.1037/0735‐7036.122.4.441 

Hyde, J.S., & Delamater, J. (2008). Human sexuality (10th ed.) New York: McGraw‐Hill. 

Research Initiatives. (n.d.). Retrieved January 11, 2007, from MIT, Comparative Media Studies 

website, http://cms.mit.edu/research/index.php 

86 
 
 

Appendix I    
 
Timetable for Research 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Research Objectives  2010                                                2011 
  Jun  Jul  Aug  Sept  Oct  Nov  Dec  Jan  Feb  Mar  Apr  May 

1. Writing  of  Proposal                         
2. Collection of Algal                          
     Materials 
3. Fractionation of                          
    Polysaccharides 
4. Collection of Blood and                         
    Isolation of PBMCs 
5. Cell Viability Assay                         
6. ELISA Assay for Cytokines                         
7. MRNA extraction                         
8. Chemopreventive assays                         
9. Data Collation/Analysis                          
10. Colloquium/Defense                         
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

87 
 
 Appendix II    
 
Budgetary Requirements 
 
 
SOURCES OF  EXPENSES  Quantity  Amount 
(PhP) 
Collection and Fractionation of 
Polysaccharides       
Collection of Sargassum  1  10,000 
80% Ethanol  10 L   5,765.00 
0.1M HCl  2 L   20 
1.25M NaOH  2 L   210 
cetyl pyridinium chloride  100 g  6000 
99% acetic acid  1 L   390 
99% ETOH  5 L   3600 
Lyophilization   1  2500 
      28,485 
Blood Collection and Isolation of PBMCs       
vacutainer tubes  1 pack   700 
Ficoll‐Hypaque gradient soln  2 packs  15,000 
      15700 
Tissue Culture Reagents       
L‐glutamine  100 ml   2,126.79 
Penicillin‐Streptomycin   100 ml  1,745.54 
Hepes Buffer  20 ml   1,600.89 
Sodium bicarbonate  100 ml  859.82 
Trypsin 0.25% EDTA  100 ml  977.68 
MTT  1 g  7,366.07 
DMEM  1 L   3,682 
FBS qualified H1  100 ml  9,511.61 
Std. TC flask 50 ml canted neck  2 packs  4,625 
15 ml conical tube w cap poly  2 packs  4, 875 
50 ml conical tube w/ cap  pol  2 packs   4,968.64 
Dulbeccos Phosphate Buffered  1L   2, 417 
RPMI 1640  I L   5,372 
Trypan Blue Reagents  100 ml  1,449 
Freezing Medium DMSO Serum free  1 L   6,484 
Sodium Pyruvate Soln  500 ml   902 
DPPH reagent  1 g  7,238 
 Hep G2 Cell Lines     35,000 
  93,909.04 

88 
 
 
Budgetary Requirements, continued 
 
 
  RNA Isolation and RT‐PCR reagents  Quantity  Amount 
  (PhP) 
  Trizol reagent  100 ml  14,241.07 
 
RNAse Out Recom. Inhibitor  1 kit  12,473.21 
 
 
RT‐PCR Mix Reactions  1 set  53,000.00 
  Agarose electro reagents    5,400 
  M Tris Buffer solution    7,168 
  Gel Pilot DNA loading dye   1 kit   2,880 
  Pipet tips yellow   1 pack   680 
  PCR tube   1 pack   2, 518 
  Gloves  1 pack   600 
 
Tissues and cleaning reagents     500 
 
 
    99,460.28 
  ELISA KIT Reagents       
  IL‐6 Human antibody  1 kit   48,000 
IL‐1 Human antibody  1 kit   48,000 
TNF‐α Human Antibody  1 kit   48,000 
      144,000 
  TOTAL         381,554.32 

89 
 
 BIONOTES 
 
 

  Insert 
 your  
  picture 
 
 here 

Limit to one (1) page ! 

90 
 
ORAL PRESENTATION OF THE RESEARCH/ TECHNICAL PAPER

It is usual practice to require researchers to present their research output such as in a

research colloquium or forum. The presentation must be made in a clear and concise manner as
this is a good opportunity to tell people about the research. It is also important that the researcher
is excited about his/her work otherwise the audience won’t be either. It is essential, therefore, to
know one’s material well.
Knowing how to deliver an effective oral technical presentation is important also because
many job interviews for M.A and Ph.D. holders require technical presentation.
Making an effective presentation requires careful planning. The time allocated for the
presentation will be a primary factor in its planning. In addition, the visuals used and the talk
itself should be carefully planned.
The slides must be prepared well before the talk. Do not leave it until the night before
your talk. Something may go wrong or here might be a power outage. If the talk is worth giving,
it deserves to be prepared properly.

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN DELIVERING ORAL TECHNICAL PRESENTATION

1) The audience has to be kept interested during the whole presentation. Only a very
logically arranged presentation that is clear, concise, and to the point, will accomplish
this.
2) Too much material in the limited time allowed, or presentation of the material too rapidly
will overwhelm the audience.
3) The audience come from a broad discipline, therefore, a brief background in your
presentation is recommended.
4) Your enthusiasm will contribute much to the success of the presentation as does the
scientific content.

91 
 
MAJOR SECTIONS OF AN ORAL TECHNICAL PRESENTATION

Overview / Introduction
Here tell the listener what you will present in a very general overview. You should have a
ready outline that starts out with the background of the study, then the specific problems. This
must be brief and straight to the point touching on the related literature and studies and the gaps.

Numerical or Experimental Method

Emphasize unique characteristics of your work. State what is different in your research.

Discussion of Results
Give brief discussion to demonstrate validity of results such as previous experiences, test
problems, etc. Use questions such as:
What were the most important things you learned?
What assumptions were used?
Clean, crisp graphs and charts must be prepared but do not impress your audience with
fancy footage that may only confuse the audience. Significant results will stand on their own,
even if black and white.

Summary
You must recap your presentation. No new information should be presented in the
summary of the talk.

PREPARING PRESENTATION SLIDES for ORAL TECHNICAL PRESENTATION

The following are tips to help researchers:
1. Be clear and simple. Leave fancy, slick, and complicated statements for those that have
nothing to say.
2. Do not clutter the slides. Too much “technology” can be annoying.
3. Each slide should take 1 to 1 ½ minutes of time to present. This is a recommendation and
not a hard and fast rule.

92 
 
 4. Ask yourself “What important information do I want the listener to learn from this slide?”
This guideline is particularly important for Discussion of Results. Bullets should list
important concepts. Pictures, plots, and drawings are extremely useful to convey a lot of
information in small spaces.
5. Consider your audience. Consider their knowledge level as well as their interest level.
6. The items on slides should be readable by the audience. Ask yourself if there is too much
information. If the audience cannot read it, disregard it totally. You may, however,
consider putting it in the handout.
7. Regarding governing equations, most people know the equations and make a comment
only if there is something unique. Highlight issues of importance such as phase change,
special findings, etc.

In preparing for oral technical presentations, the following are basic guidelines to achieve
success.

Be Prepared
Nothing is more helpful to the success of an oral presentation than practice. Practice
allows the speaker to spot flaws in the presentation and eradicate them. It enables smoother
transitions from section to section instead of awkward stops and starts.
One should rehearse several times before the presentation. Going over the material
provides an opportunity to receive constructive comments from colleagues. Videotaping a
practice presentation can be valuable in identifying words or phrases that are difficult to say or
comprehend, nervous distracting mannerisms, and timing. Since the internal nervousness most
speakers feel during presentations is usually not seen externally, videotaping practice sessions
often gives the speaker added confidence.

Do Not Be Nervous
The key to an effective delivery is to convert nervousness into energy that injects
liveliness, enthusiasm, and animation into the presentation.

93 
 
Be Organized
Like a technical paper, you build a technical speech on the sequential layering of logic.
You are creating a path for the audience to follow. The fundamental organizing idea is to focus
on the topic and its implications rather than descent into the intricate detail that you find
fascinating.

Be Prepared to Answer Questions

If one has the “state of knowledge” about the subject, one can probably answer most
questions. During a practice session, ask colleagues to pose what they feel might be typical
questions. Answering all questions is not necessary. At most presentations, the time allotted for
questions is very limited.

Do Not Speak Too Fast

During an oral presentation, the speaker is in charge of speed control. Sentences should
be shorter and main points should be repeated to aid memory and understanding. Take note,
however, that exact repetition of wording is annoying. The presentation should also follow a
straight line with one point leading to the next. The pace of the presentation should also vary
according to the audience’s familiarity or unfamiliarity with the subject.

Do Not Be Boring
Enthusiasm is contagious. If the speaker shows excitement for the topic, the audience will
listen attentively. Conversely, the audience will be bored if they perceive that the speaker is
bored. Listeners can absorb only a few points during a 20-to-30-minute presentation. Concentrate
on what is significant and avoid intricate mathematics or statistical validation.

OTHER PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS ON HOW TO PROPERLY PRESENT

 Arrive early to check out the room and equipment. Check if there is a pointer and/or there
a microphone. Also determine where you will stand during the presentation.
 Make sure the audience can see the slides. Talk to the audience and not to the wall.

94 
 
  Speak clearly and loudly. Nothing is worse than not being able to hear a presenter. Take
your time and do a good job rather than trying to cover too much.
 Make eye contact especially to validate if your audience is “getting” it. Determine if they
look lost and confused or interested.
 Try to use transitions between slides. This makes for “smoother” presentation and saves
some time. This is also to keep the audience interested.
 A pointer is not a toy. It is a tool. Waving the pointer around is annoying. Shut the
pointer off when not using it.
 Do not run over the allotted time for your presentation.
 In answering questions, be friendly and polite and not confrontational.

All in all, the message must be understood by the audience and the researcher’s
objectives are achieved.

95 
 
 TRENDS IN RESEARCH IN THE FIELDS OF PHARMACY
AND MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

Research is a continuing process that finds itself going beyond the frontiers of
knowledge. And with the unpredictability of events be it social, cultural, physical, medical,
environmental, and the like, concerns about these events and phenomena cannot be ignored.
Understanding research is now deemed the answer as it is very important such that educational
institutions must include it in their goals, objectives, and programs as a definitive component.
How would the world be without research? There would be little or no development or
progress in our lives and communities, at all. We would be in great trouble seeking alleviation
from pain, illnesses, ignorance and fear. It is from the results of research activities that certain
solutions to health, environmental, physical, and other social problems are made.
Mother Earth has become enveloped with problems that have puzzled mankind. There
have been attempts to address these problems by researches so that no unnecessary repercussion
may take place. Take the case of the penicillin and the other antibiotics which had prevented the
worsening of diseases and the occurrence of death. Thanks to the benefits of research. In fact
man’s life span has been lengthened by the results of research. It is also worthy to note that our
countryside has rich fauna and faura which have potentials for medicine formulations.
Indigenous communities have also some medical or health practices that have yet to be analyzed
and recorded through research. In the same way, studies may be pursued along bacteriology,
hematology, and other areas of medical technology to establish standards for best practices in
health and medical care.
In Pharmacy, on the other hand, development of natural products is a promising avenue
for pharmaceutical research on the face of the rising cost of synthetic medicines which are
mostly now imported from other countries such as Europe and India.
Since cancer, the dreaded disease and most ranking cause of death in the world, has
spread its tentacles to many a kind of people today, cancer therapy must be well and promptly
studied in order to come up with responsive drugs. In this context, the pharmacokinetics and
pharmacogenomics of drugs are worth undertaking. Moreover, the dosing of cytotoxic
chemotherapeutic drugs will now have to be determined through research as much as the

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pharmacologic and physiologic effects of drugs. Likewise, an economic evaluation of targeted
cancer interventions should be studied.
It is interesting to note the rise of Pharmacy in the communities of the country. It is now
significant to look into the emerging models in Community Pharmacy, Community Pharmacy
Practices, and Communication in Pharmacovigilance.
With the improvement of medical services and the promotion of healthful living, people’s
lives have become longer. Ageing has become also a great factor in pharmaceutical formulation
and compounding. Added to this matter is the research trend in ethnogeriartrics medication.
Other possible areas in pharmacy research are the following:
 Current status of recombinant antibodies in cancer therapy
 Ways toward individualized drug therapy
 Specific receptors as promising targets for future drugs
 Electropharmacological properties of the pulmonary vein myocardium
 Antibiotics and the liver
 Ambulatory Care Pharmacy Practice
 Managed Care Pharmacy Practice
 Tobacco Cessation Effects
 Drug and dietary supplement development
 Toxicology and Poison control
 Isolation and Purification of Natural Medicinal Substances

As Clinical Pharmacy has become indispensable part of the medical and health practice,
pharmacy students must perform to be research-oriented and skilled.
In the field of medical technology, research trends are in the following areas:
 Molecular diagnostics
 Diagnostics of the emerging and re-emerging infections
 Immune evasion mechanisms
 Immuno-parasitology
 Vaccine and immune serum preparation
 Epidemiological studies of communicable and non-communicable diseases
 Studies on the burden of disease assessment

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  Clinical laboratory evaluation and development
 Control and prevention analysis of clinically important intestinal parasites
 Performance analysis of equipment and diagnostic kits
 Clinical laboratory error management

The above list can go into a more lengthy proportion as a medical technologist continues to
delve into the deeper and wider expanse of the field and considering that the medical doctors are
more relying to a large extent on the medical technologists’ diagnoses and examinations of
patients’ health conditions, more than ever, research undertakings in the field must be explored.
As students of Medical technology, it is imperative that interest and skill in research work
be developed early on in the academic year of schooling.

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 REFERENCES

Alamis, M., Villamarzo, P., & Ward, A.M. (2010). Academic Writing Skills. Manila,
Philippines: UST Publishing House.

Gerson, S. & Gerson, S. (2006). Technical Writing: Process and Product. 5th Ed.. New Jersey,
USA. Prentice Hall.

Knevel, A.M., & Diganzi, F. (1977). Jenkins’ Quantitative Pharmaceutical Chemistry. 17th
ed.New York, USA : McGraw Hill Book printed by Merriam Wenster Bookstore.

San Miguel, J., Barraqiuo, & Revilla, R. (2010). Smart Writing: An Essential Guide to College
Composition. Quezon City, Philippines. C & E Publishing, Inc.

Strunk, W. (1999). The Elements of Style. New York: Bartleby.com

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