Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 785–796

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review of the effect of hydrogen addition on the performance and

emissions of the compression – Ignition engine
Hayder A. Alrazen a,n, A.R. Abu Talib b, R. Adnan c, K.A. Ahmad b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
b
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University Tenaga Nasional, 43009 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Diesel engines produce high emissions of smoke, particulate matter and nitrogen oxide. The challenge now
Received 2 July 2014 is to decrease exhaust emissions without making any major changes on their mechanical configuration.
Received in revised form Therefore, adding hydrogen becomes a natural choice to enhance the performance and emissions of diesel
30 May 2015
engines. This paper offers an overview of the effect of hydrogen additional to the diesel engine. The overall
Accepted 23 October 2015
finding from the review suggests that the air–fuel ratio, engine speed, and engine load play a key role in the
performance and emission of diesel engines with hydrogen enrichment. The brake thermal efficiency (BTE),
Keywords: brake power output, brake means effective pressure (BMEP), and specific energy consumption (SEC) are
Engine dependent on the operating conditions of the engine when adding the hydrogen. It is also found that
Hydrogen
increasing the percentage of hydrogen will affect emissions, so that the reduction in unburned hydrocarbon
Diesel
(HC), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), particulate matter (PM), and smoke are observed when
adding the hydrogen. However, nitrogen oxide (NOx) is increased when enriching H2, but this increase in
NOx can be controlled by numerous injections, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) or water injection as well as
exhaust after-treatment as has been discussed in this paper.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
2. Effect of hydrogen addition on performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
2.1. Power output and thermal efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
2.2. Duration of combustion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
2.3. In cylinder pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
2.4. Heat release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
2.5. Brake mean effective pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
2.6. Specific energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
3. Effect of hydrogen addition on emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
3.1. Unburned hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
3.2. Particulate matter (PM) and smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
3.3. NOx emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
4. Effect of EGR rate with hydrogen addition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795

1. Introduction

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 60 1115420040. One of the issues associated with the petroleum-based engine
E-mail address: hayderalrazen@yahoo.com (H.A. Alrazen). is high emissions production, including carbon dioxide, carbon

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.088
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
786 H.A. Alrazen et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 785–796
monoxide, hydrocarbons, particulate matter and nitric oxides
[1,2], which can contaminate the environment. There have been
many methods applied to reduce emissions. Diesel Particulate
Filter (DPF) and Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) were used to
reduce PM and NOx emissions, respectively. These methods are
based on the use of precious and expensive metals as catalysts and
also devices are tough in retrofitting to the engines of vehicles.
Accordingly, alternative fuels are promoted and developed as an
alternative to traditional fuels to achieve those goals. To this end,
hydrogen is considered to be the best additive candidate to be
blended into diesel in order to satisfy the characteristics which are
required by the engine [3].
The addition of hydrogen to conventional hydrocarbon fuels
was recommended as a method to enhance the performance, as
well as improve emissions, of internal combustion engines. Like-
wise, several studies have examined the performances of spark
ignition engines using hydrogen–gasoline fuel [4–6] and hydro-
gen–natural gas fuel [4,7]. Furthermore, several researchers have
proposed hydrogen addition to conventional diesel fuel in the
internal combustion (IC) compression ignition (CI) engine as a
method to enhance the performance of diesel engines. This is
because it increases the H/C ratio of the whole fuel and decrease
the combustion duration (due to hydrogen’s high speed in terms
of flame propagation with respect to other fuels [8,9]. Additionally,
the injection of small amounts of hydrogen fuel to a diesel engine
can reduce the heterogeneity of a diesel fuel spray, resulting from
hydrogen's high diffusivity. It allows the enhanced combustible
mixture to be premixed with air with more uniformity [8].
Normally, the combustible mixture offers improved homogeneity
and better circumstances for the whole combustion process. More-
over, faster combustion approximates constant volume leading to an
increase in the efficiency of the engine [4,8,10]. The main short-
comings of consuming hydrogen as a fuel include: high in-cylinder
peak pressures and temperatures, combustion knock, higher emis-
sions (NOx), and high self-ignition temperature [4,9–12].
One of the most promising of renewable fuels is Hydrogen, since
it is naturally accessible on the earth and can be generated from
different resources like fossil energy and biomass [13,14]. In com-
parison with diesel, hydrogen can be consumed as the only fuel in a
spark ignition (SI) engine; however, it cannot be employed in a CI
engine because of its higher ignition point [15,16]. Due to safety
reasons, the use of hydrogen in internal combustion engines neces-
sitates extra care. In addition, the hydrogen injection technique also
plays a significant role in preventing undesired explosions. Hence,
direct injection is regarded as a preferred technique, compared to
port injection, in order to avoid the backfire effect [17,18]. Backfire is
defined as a combustion which occurs during the intake stroke as a
result of hot spots, and can also happen in the intake manifolds [19].
For safety reasons, it is crucial to prevent any unwanted combustion
behavior [18].
Natural gas and bio derived gas research was done in the dual-
fuel diesel engine by Sahoo et al. [2]. Furthermore, natural gas use
in the spare ignition engine was conducted by Cho and He [20].
Hairuddin et al. accomplished a study on hydrogen and natural gas
in diesel homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI)
engines [18]. On the other hand, no review paper was-written-that
focused on the effect of hydrogen on compression ignition engine
(using H2 as main fuel with direct diesel injection). The purpose of
this review paper is to investigate the effect of hydrogen addition
in diesel fuel engines on performance and emissions. It consists of
five sections, where Section 2 discusses the effect of hydrogen
addition on performance in compression ignition engine. Section 3
presents the effects of hydrogen addition on emissions. Section 4
will discuss the effects of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) with
hydrogen addition. Lastly, chapter 5 presents the paper's
conclusion.
2. Effect of hydrogen addition on performance
2.1. Power output and thermal efficiency
The addition of different ratios of hydrogen (e.g. 5%-10%, 20%, 30%,
40%, and 50% by volume) to the diesel engine and its effect on per-
formance and emission characteristics was investigated by research-
ers. Shin et al. [21], who indicated that adding hydrogen into diesel
fuel improves the diesel combustion and leads to increased engine
power [21]. Ghazal [5] reported that air–fuel ratio and engine speed
affect power output with hydrogen addition. He found that when
adding a percentage of hydrogen (between 5% and 10%) for different
speeds and less than 15 of air–fuel (A/F) ratio, the maximum power
output improves. However, for air–fuel ratio higher than 15 and for all
engine speeds, the hydrogen addition affects maximum power output
only after adding (30–40%) H2. This results in combustion efficiency
improvement and increases in the volumetric heating value of the
intake mixture. As shown in Figs. 1 and 2, for high engine speeds,
there is a 14% increase in power compared to neat diesel fuel. It
produces a 70% increase in power which is a higher output compared
to diesel fuel when adding 40% H2 with higher air–fuel ratio [5].
The effect of hydrogen addition on brake thermal efficiency
(BTE) was also examined. An engine's BTE is the ratio of brake
output power to input power, and concerns the brake power
created by an engine due to the energy provided by the fuel [18].
In this vein, the experimental analysis was conducted to investi-
gate the effect of induction of hydrogen via inlet manifold versus
that of direct hydrogen injection on BTE, given in Fig. 3. The BTE
increases with the increase in proportional replacement of
hydrogen by both techniques; nevertheless, the efficiency was
found to be higher by about 19% in induction via inlet manifold as
compared to direct injection. This is mainly due to uniform mixing
of hydrogen with air (using the induction technique) that forms a
homogeneous mixture. This mixture is burnt entirely by the flame,
initiated via the diesel injection. It also led to complete heat
release [22].
The effect of (A/F) ratio as well as H2 concentration in fuel on
the BTE for various engine speeds is demonstrated in Figs. 4 and 5.
The hydrogen concentration (around 5–10%) with (A/F) ratio up to
20 brings about the highest BTE in comparison with neat diesel,
with no knocking at full load. Combining higher A/F ratio with
high engine speed will, normally result in the maximum BTE for
hydrogen concentration of approximately 40%. This is an increase
of nearly 30% in comparison with the diesel fuel. The BTE increases
with higher addition of hydrogen; however, is limited as a con-
sequence of the problems of knocking. The upsurge in BTE is
attributed to hydrogen's improved mixture with air and its faster
burning features. This shows that consequential faster flame
Fig. 1. The brake power versus A/F ratio for different H2 concentrations and
1000 rpm [5].
 H.A. Alrazen et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 785–796
Fig. 2. The brake power versus A/F ratio for different H2 concentrations and
4000 rpm [5].
Fig. 3. Efficiency comparisons [22].
Fig. 4. The mean effective pressure versus A/F ratio for different H2 concentrations
and 1000 rpm [5].
propagation results in a more efficient and effective power pro-
duction [5]. Saravanan and Nagarajan [16] and Lee et al. [23]
examined the features of a solenoid-driven intake port injection
kind of hydrogen injection valve. In these papers, an intake port
injection's system was employed, with a solenoid valve for the
purpose of injection, to investigate the combustion features of the
fuel. The result showed that the hydrogen operated engine
improved its performance by 9%, in comparison with normal
operation [16]. Furthermore, the BTE is always higher in relation to
the dual fuel engine. Due to the assumed equal duration of the
injection process, with approximately the same duration related to
the combustion process, in the dual fuel engines there will be
more fuel energy introduced. It will also be burnt in the unit time
787
Fig. 5. The brake thermal efficiency versus A/F ratio for different H2 concentrations
and 4000 rpm [5].
Fig. 6. Effect of H2 addition on combustion duration, 70% load [25].
intended for the unit masses of trapped air. This brings about a
larger pressure that translates in an improved thermodynamic.
The larger amount of energy presented per unit mass accounts for
the much higher brake mean effective pressure [5,24].
2.2. Duration of combustion
Hydrogen has higher flame speed compared to other fuels.
According to several studies, hydrogen plays an important role in
improving combustion and engine performance. Liew et al. [25]
reported that the addition of H2 over 2% drastically reduced the
combustion duration, revealing the increasing effect of H2 on the
process of diffusion combustion. As shown in Fig. 6, by adding 6%
H2, the combustion duration was 23.8-CA, a 23% decrease in
comparison with the diesel operation. Furthermore, this also
highlighted the requirement for optimizing the combustion
phasing in an assigned H2-diesel dual fuel engine design, parti-
cularly when a comparatively large amount of H2 is added [25].
Grab-Logarinski and Szwaja [8] investigated hydrogen addition
(in HCCI mode) to diesel in a CI engine and reported that the
addition of small amount of hydrogen (e.g. around 5% in energy
ratio) could decrease the ignition delay and produce improve-
ments in engine performance. Also, they reported that hydrogen
addition to diesel must not exceed 15% in energy ratio, in order to
avoid severe knock [8].
The impacts of H2 addition and engine load on the combustion
duration were also monitored. As exhibited in Fig. 7, the enrich-
ment of a small amount of H2 has some unremarkable effects on
the process of combustion duration. Nevertheless, as shown by the
slowly decreased combustion process duration, the enrichment of
a comparatively great value of H2, at roughly 70 present and 30
present loads, had improved the combustion behavior.
788 H.A. Alrazen et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 785–796

Fig. 8. Effect of H2 addition on cylinder pressure, 70% load [25].

Fig. 7. Effect of the addition of H2 and engine load on combustion duration [25].

Comparatively, the enrichment of a great value of H2 at 15% load

seemed to have lengthened in duration of combustion, giving way
to the abnormal combustion behavior. Also observably, the strong
alterations in duration of combustion have been noted with add-
ing 2% H2 at 70% load in approximation. Through the reduction of
the engine load, a considerable change was noted at progressively
higher concentrations of H2 in the mixture of intake. Operating at
30% load with the addition of more than 3% H2, we had seen a
positive impact on the duration of the combustion process. There
are also notably some strong changes in the combustion duration
with the additional 2% H2 at roughly 70% load. As the engine load
is reduced, a considerable change was observed at increasingly
higher H2 concentrations in the intake mixture. A positive effect
was further noted on the combustion process duration, through its
operation at 30% load with adding more than 3% H2. This could
explicate the need to add a comparatively large amount of H2 to
Fig. 9. Effect of H2 addition on peak cylinder pressure and its phasing, 70%
obtain the improved BTE while operating at a lower load. In a
load [25].
similar circumstance, when working at about 15% load, the con-
siderable change to the combustion process duration was observed
significantly increased the PCP value, which was noted at
with more than 5% H2 being added, largely due to the inhibited
increasingly advanced phasing. In a similar way, the addition of 6%
and repressed premixed combustion and lengthened diffusion
H2 caused an increase in the PCP from 106.4 to 120.5 bar, and it
combustion. Demonstrated by the variations of the peak heat
also advanced its phasing by 1.5-CA [25]. Saravanan and Nagarajan
release rate (PHRR) as also the duration of combustion, the addi-
[16] observed that at higher loads, even without knocking 30%
tion of small value of H2 (not more than 2%) impacted the behavior addition of hydrogen produced the best results. Enrichment
of combustion only minimally. The integration of a little water- hydrogen at this ratio, peak pressure happened late, by about
electrolyzer did not do much to enhance diesel engines' perfor- 5 crank angle degrees, in comparison to diesel. One possible
mance [25]. explanation is the late combustion process of hydrogen that fol-
lows the diesel fuel injection. With the use of the diesel, the peak
2.3. In cylinder pressure pressure will be 73 bar at full load, which is 76 bar for hydrogen
fuel operation optimized, as evident in Fig. 10 [16]. Korakianitis
At high load operation, the variation of pressure and pressure et al. [26] reported, nonetheless, that peak combustion pressures
traces is increased in cylinder through the hydrogen addition. Liew tend to take place earlier during hydrogen dual-fuel operations (by
et al. [25] reported that at 70% load, with the enrichment of a low not more than 4 crank angle degrees) compared to normal
value ( o3%) of hydrogen, the in-cylinder pressure before initiat- operation going on at 750 rpm and 1000 rpm. Seemingly, there is
ing the combustion process was far better than the diesel process, some light knocking happening during the hydrogen dual-fuel
which is associable with the different thermodynamic character- operations [26]. As exhibited by the noticeably increased PCP, H2
istics of H2 and air, as well as the varying augmented intake addition to a diesel engine at high load has to be bound by
pressures. Similar to this, the in-cylinder pressure before com- directing the PCP for safety as well as going for mechanical dur-
bustion initiation was lesser than the operation of diesel with the ability [25].
addition of more than 3.5% H2. As shown in Fig. 8, the addition of By the same token, it was reported by Masood et al. [22] that
H2 augmented the cylinder pressure after it initiated the com- combustion tends to be faster as the percentage of hydrogen
bustion. There is a further revelation of this through the investi- increases, unlike that of lower hydrogen replacements. The pres-
gation of the effect of the addition of H2 on the peak cylinder sure rate increase per crank angle will escalate, when higher
pressure (PCP). Fig. 9 shows that the addition of a small amount of proportions of hydrogen substitutions are done, because of the
hydrogen resulted in the PCP increase without having the phasing higher flame velocities. With hydrogen proportions being lower,
altered. Further increases in the addition of H2 of more than 3.5% the movement of the peak pressures will be closer to the top dead
 H.A. Alrazen et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 785–796
Fig. 10. Variation of cylinder pressure with crank angle at 30% hydrogen enrich-
ment mixture at full load condition [16].
center (TDC). The increased pressure per dégree of crank angle is
seen more in the dual modes, which is related to the hydrogen's
characteristics of high flammability and rapid combustion [22].
By contrast, the variations of cylinder pressure traces and
pressure rise at low load are decreased by the hydrogen addition.
It was found by Santoso et al. [27] that at 2000 rpm and 10 N m
load; hydrogen addition will decrease the cylinder pressure and
the pressure rise, while additional hydrogen enrichment was seen
to have led to lower peak cylinder pressure. It is common for the
peak pressure to be 73.50 bar with the hydrogen flow rate of
21.4 l/min. An increased hydrogen flow rate of 36.2 and 49.6 l/min
leads to the decreased peak cylinder pressure, to 64.28 and
62.29 bar respectively. Such reduction has to do with the dete-
riorated premixed combustion process. Even more so, hydrogen
enrichment tends to mitigate the pressure upsurge rate. The peak
value of the increase had altered a few degree crank angles after
the augmentation of the hydrogen flow rate simultaneously
marking a slower process of combustion reaction rate. This might
lead to the accessibility of diesel fuel required to burn the pre-
mixing of H2 with air [27]. Furthermore, Liew et al. [25] reported
that although having only a mild impact on the cylinder pressure
prior to the initial combustion, H2 addition considerably reduced
the cylinder pressure when the combustion process was initiated,
when a great amount of hydrogen was added [25].
2.4. Heat release
The heat release rate variation during combustion is impacted
by adding hydrogen. When the operation employs pure diesel,
diesel engines typically having a two-stage combustion process
were used. Diffusion combustion was dominated by the diesel fuel
injection, vaporization, together with the mixing process, after the
premixed combustion. The addition of H2 was seen to delay
marginally the premixed combustion and decrease the rate of the
peak heat release. To compare this with the diesel operation
initiation, the addition of 6% H2 lagged the start of combustion
(SOC) by 0.8-CA. There was no significant delaying effect of
hydrogen on the SOC of the heavy-duty diesel engines. The effect
of H2 addition was more important on the diffusion process of
combustion than on the premixed combustion. Fig. 11 shows that
the H2 addition eventually improved the heat release rate, detec-
ted mid-diffusion in the combustion process. After the diffusion
combustion was initiated, a rapid rise in the heat release rate
superior to that of the highlighted diffusion combustion of diesel
engines was discerned, when a comparatively large amount of H2
was used. It is presumed that the augmented heat release rate
characterized the combined diesel diffusion process of combustion
and the H2-air combustion, burning fast the H2 through the pro-
pagation of various turbulent flames, triggered by diesel com-
bustion [25]. Saravanan and Nagarajan [16] discovered that 30%
789
Fig. 11. Effect of H2 addition on heat release process, 70% Load [25].
Fig. 12. Variation of heat release with crank angle at 30% hydrogen enrichment
mixture at full load condition [16].
hydrogen enrichment at full load impacted the heat release as
opposed to the pure diesel engines. Demonstrably, in Fig. 12, the
heat release rate of hydrogen is faster than that of diesel. Similarly,
the ignition of hydrogen with 30% addition of hydrogen operation
occurs only after diesel injection at 23-BITDC (before injection top
dead center). With that, there is a gap of 4-CA between neat diesel
fuels and 30% hydrogen addition. Also evidently, the highest rate
of heat release is around 95 J/deg CA for 30% hydrogen addition
compared with neat diesel of 82 J/deg CA, caused by the instant
combustion (constant volume) that occurs with hydrogen fuel
[16]. Nevertheless, H2 addition at 15% load significantly lowered
the rate of heat release in the premixed combustion. The diffusion
combustion process, however, was marginally improved and
elongated. The deteriorated premix, coupled with the lengthened
diffusion combustion, caused the combustion process to endure
more and consequently reduced the engine performance [25].
The PHRR is also determined by the addition of hydrogen. The
addition of a light amount of hydrogen gradually increases the
PHRR without altering the phasing. As shown in Fig. 13, increasing
H2 addition further than 3.5% augmented the PHRR in a significant
way, observed in the diffusion during the process of combustion,
and advanced the phasing in the detection of PHRR. By adding 6%
H2, the PHRR of 0.53 kJ/deg CA was obtained. In comparison with a
PHRR of 0.25 kJ/deg CA achieved with diesel operation, adding 6%
H2 increased the PHRR by 109%. The PHRR phasing was altered by
2.5 deg CA. In sum, (Fig. 14) the substantial effect of hydrogen on
the PHRR was only discerned when a comparatively large amount
of H2 was added. The addition of more than 3% H2 considerably led
790 H.A. Alrazen et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 785–796

Fig. 15. The mean effective pressure versus A/F ratio for different H2 concentrations
Fig. 13. Effect of H2 addition on peak heat release rate and its phasing, 70% and 1000 rpm [5].
load [25].

Fig. 16. The mean effective pressure versus A/F ratio for different H2 concentrations
and 4000 rpm [5].

Fig. 14. Effect of H2 addition and engine load on peak heat release rate [25].

to the improvement of the PHRR at 70% load. Contrastingly, the

addition of more than 4% H2 deteriorated the combustion sub-
stantially while operating at 15% load. The addition of hydrogen at
30% load also slightly increased the PHRR [25]. Overall, the heat
release, cylinder pressure, and cumulative heat release rise as
hydrogen supplement rates increase, and yet, the ignition timing
decreases with its increase [28].

2.5. Brake mean effective pressure

The brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) is regarded as an

effective comparison tool used to measure performance and show Fig. 17. Variation of brake mean effective pressure with relative air–fuel ratio [28].

an engine's capacity to generate power output regarding its full

speed range. BMEP is also employed to compare performances of
engines with one another. A high BMEP indicates the engine's
ability to carry out high load operations [18]. Figs. 15 and 16
illustrate the impact of (A/F) ratio and hydrogen addition on mean
effective pressure in relation to diverse engine speeds. Concerning
a mixture with (A/F) ration over 15, the maximum effective pres-
sure (30–40%) for hydrogen enrichment in regard to diesel, for all
engine's speeds, can be related to the bigger amount of energy
which is presented per unit fuel mass. The rise in mean effective
pressure is almost 15% in comparison with the neat diesel fuels [5].
Korakianitis et al. [26] have conducted high BMEP tests using
hydrogen which demonstrated abnormal combustion noise. Thus,
the maximum engine loads usually attained during normal CI
engine operations are decreased slightly [26]. This is to avoid the
risk of damaging the engine [26].
However, Choi et al. [28] noted that, as shown in Fig. 17, BMEP
is reduced with the rise of the rate of hydrogen supplement. The
cause of decreases in BMEP can be attributed to the lack of oxygen
upsurge, along with the rise of hydrogen supplement rate in the
zone with rich mixture, leading to imperfect combustion. How-
ever, there is no difference regarding power along with thermal
efficiency in the zone with lean mixture. The reason for this out-
come is that the necessary oxygen was supplied and also hydrogen
allows for rapid combustion, since hydrogen is four times higher in
terms of burning velocity [28].
 H.A. Alrazen et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 785–796
2.6. Specific energy consumption
Specific energy consumption (SEC) shows the amount of total
fuel energy (diesel and hydrogen) required to make 1 kW power
for one hour operation of an engine. The total fuel energy is
computed from the individual fuels (such as diesel and hydrogen)
which are multiplied by their corresponding calorific value [27].
According to several studies, hydrogen enrichment into intake
manifolds decreases the consumption of diesel fuel. The dis-
crepancy of specific energy consumption in relation to brake
power is illustrated in Fig. 18 for various levels of hydrogen
induction. SEC reduces with a rise in hydrogen; the decrease is
more noticeable at higher loads. Likewise, the lowest SEC of
12.7 MJ/kW h is achieved for 90% hydrogen enrichment at 65%
load in comparison with diesel of 16.7 MJ/kW h. This is as a result
of the premixing of hydrogen fuel with air, owing to its high dif-
fusivity, in addition to uniform mixing with air, leading to
enhanced combustion. Regarding, 30% hydrogen addition at full
load, SEC is 12.9 MJ/kW h in comparison with diesel of 14.5
MJ/kW h [16]. Moreover, Choi et al. [28] investigated that fuel
consumption addition of 0%, 10% and 20% H2 at 1400 rpm and
8 compression ratio, as shown in Fig. 19 is defined as the rate of
mass flow per hour, and it may be dependent on the rise of brake
power instead of the upsurge of fuel quantity. The justification for
lower fuel consumption with augmented hydrogen additions, in
comparison with LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) combustion, could
be the hydrogen fast flame propagation velocity [28].
There is a discrepancy in SEC at 10 N m load for various levels
of hydrogen enrichment. A growing flow rate of hydrogen at low
load operations leads to a higher SEC, where the specific energy
will be 20.73 MJ/kW h in which hydrogen flow rate is 21.4 l/min.
An additional rise of SEC to 21.70 MJ/kW h is achieved while
hydrogen flow rate rises to 36.2 l/min. A slight upsurge in SEC to
Fig. 18. Variation of SEC with load [16].
Fig. 19. Variation of brake specific fuel consumption with relative air–fuel
ratio [28].
791
21.8 MJ/kW h is observed at hydrogen flow at 49.6 l/min [27].
Augmented SEC shows decreased efficiency in the dual-fuel mode.
It is associated with decreased heating values of the producer gas–
air mixtures, also a drop in the pressure of the gas entering the air
inlet. It also demonstrates a lower flame velocity. It can be con-
cluded that the SEC rises with reduced load in both diesel-only
and dual-fuel mode [2].
3. Effect of hydrogen addition on emissions
3.1. Unburned hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) is the result of incomplete
combustion created by low combustion process temperatures
[29–31] leading to fuel deposition in boundary layers and crevices
[18]. Normally, the level of UHC can be specified in total con-
centration of hydrocarbon, expressed in parts for each million
carbon atoms [32]. UHC originates from the cylinder wall, which
retains a thin layer of oil left when the piston is moving down,
accumulating in the crevice region as well as any cold areas of the
combustion wall [32,33]. Higher concentrations of hydrogen in
diesel engines can reduce UHC and carbon monoxide (CO) emis-
sion levels, because the gaseous state of hydrogen will reduce the
wall wetting effect on the cylinder liner [20]. The variation of
hydrocarbon with load is observed by Saravanan and Nagarajan
[16], and illustrated in Fig. 20. They observed that unburned
hydrocarbon volume is considerably reduced, since hydrogen fuel
has no carbon. The lowest value (56 ppm) was noted against
127 ppm with 30% hydrogen addition under full load. When
hydrogen enrichment is at 90% hydrocarbon (HC) reduces even
more, to 31 ppm at 70% load. In comparison with the results
gained from earlier work conducted by Bell et al. there is a net
reduction in emission of hydrocarbon around 15% [16]. Gatts et al.
[34] investigated the effect of H2 addition on the emissions of
H2, CO and UHC of H2-diesel dual fuel engine operations at 15%
load, reducing CO emissions and with a slight impact on UHC
emissions, both originating mainly from diesel fuel [34].
Total hydrocarbon (THC) emission decreases with increase in a-
fuel ratio at 20%-10%-0% of H2, 1500 rpm and 8 compression ratio
is noted by Choi et al. [28]. As shown in Fig. 21, when there is an
increase in A/F ratio from 0.75 to 1.3, the THC emission decreases,
and also THC emissions reduce when hydrogen is added. Likewise,
as the ratio increases from 0.76 to 1.3, THC emissions are inclined
to be like CO emissions [28]. Generally, THC emissions originating
from within quench areas in engines are ejected during the
exhaust process. When there are slightly lean mixtures, while the
quench area is large, the extra oxygen destroys many of the THC
Fig. 20. Variation of tailpipe HC versus load [16].
792 H.A. Alrazen et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 785–796
Fig. 21. Variation of total hydrocarbon emissions with relative air–fuel ratio [28].
emissions as they are later mixed in the exhaust system. When
there are very lean mixtures, normally combustion becomes
erratic and accordingly there will be increase in the amount of
emissions of THC [28].
The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and CO is reliant on the
combustion efficiency, described as the ratio of CO2 to the total
fuel carbon which is present in the exhaust, such as CO, CO2 and
UHC [18]. CO emissions are typically controlled mainly by the fuel–
air equivalence ratio [32,35]. The main reaction mechanism of
formation of CO is RH–R–RO2–RCHO–RCO–CO, in which R is the
hydrocarbon radical [32]. The reactions of CO plus OH radicals as
COþOH ¼CO2 þH dominates the CO oxidation. It also results in
hydrogen radicals. Similarly, the conversion of CO to CO2 takes
place as the concentration of OH radicals rises during the com-
bustion process [36]. The low temperature of combustion ulti-
mately leads to the reduction of the combustion efficiency, owing
to the hydrocarbons' lower oxidation activity as well as the lower
conversion rate of CO to CO2 [37,38]. Simulation results have
confirmed that the piston or ring crevice issue must be resolved to
accurately predict emissions of UHC and CO [39]. The emissions of
UHC and CO originate from the crevices and boundary layers that
are too cold to allow for complete consumption [18,40]. Ghazal [5]
noted that at different engine speeds and (A/F) ratios, the effect of
H2 concentration on (CO) emissions results in a general decrease in
(CO) emissions, due to carbon reduction in the fuel [5,41]. This
decrease is obvious for (A/F) ratio which is less than 20 [5].
Korakianitis et al. [26] conducted a comparison between nat-
ural gas and hydrogen in dual fuel diesel engines in order to
examine the effect of CO2 emissions. They reported that natural
gas combustion contributes to CO2, whereas hydrogen combustion
does not. Hence, it is expected that the H2 and CO2 levels will be
below the natural gas CO2 levels. In such test cases, the two gas-
eous fuel enthalpy fractions vary at the equal equivalence ratio. For
instance, at ¢ ¼0.65, the enthalpy fraction of hydrogen is around
40% and the enthalpy fraction of natural gas is approximately 60%.
Thus, CO2 levels will be further lowered when hydrogen dual
fueling uses induction systems which permit higher enthalpy
fractions of hydrogen. This reduction trend continues for the
overall life cycle emissions of CO2, as hydrogen which is produced
from steam-methane reforming produces lower life cycle CO2
when compared to diesel fuel [26,42,43]. On the other hand,
natural gas generates similar levels of life cycle CO2 to those pro-
duced by diesel fuel [26,43–45].
3.2. Particulate matter (PM) and smoke
Kayes and Hochgreb [46] presented a mechanism model
intended for PM, and reported that PM is created because of liquid
fuel nucleation derived from port fuel injection. Also, the PM can
be generated from gas-phase nucleation in conditions which are
fuel-rich. The A/F ratio intensely affects PM and, similarly, burning
liquid fuel increases the amount of PM existing in the emissions of
exhaust gas [46]. Thus, it is advisable to use high pressure injection
so that the fuel will be in an atomized condition. Likewise, PM can
be decreased considerably when some hydrogen is added to an
engine which is diesel fueled [16] besides through heating the
inlet [46]. While the engine was running in a dual fuel mode, no
substantial decrease in PM was observed [47]. On the other hand,
hydrogen addition displays a good advantage in decreasing the
emission levels of PM [18]. Masood et al. [22] reported that in the
induction method, the level of PM reduced continuously, contrary
to the direct injection in which it increased at first, then subse-
quently decreased, as shown in Fig. 22 [22].
Smoke (or soot) is regarded as a visible combustion product,
formed as a consequence of poor combustion [16]. Smoke in the
exhaust is considered as the difference between formation and
oxidation of soot [48]. Soot formation happens as fuel paralyzes
during combustion at high temperature. Fuel pyrolysis is described
as chain fragmentation of hydrocarbon when there is no oxygen.
Such fragmentations subsequently turn into nucleation sites
which hydrocarbons and sulfates adhere onto, forming soot par-
ticles. Likewise, soot oxidation takes place when gases with high
temperature promote soot burning [22]. Saravanan and Nagarajan
[16] observed that hydrogen enrichment affects smoke level, as
illustrated in Fig. 23. They noted that combustion of hydrogen
creates only water, leading to less smoke. With the addition of 90%
hydrogen, the lowest smoke level occurs. Diesel particulates
comprise of combustion-generated carbonaceous materials where
the absorption of some organic compounds has occurred. Most
particulates originate from the incomplete combustion of hydro-
carbon fuel along with some from the lubricating oil. When
hydrogen enrichment is done, particulate emissions decrease due
to the absence of carbon in hydrogen. Therefore, particulates will
be decreased by about 70% with the addition of 90% hydrogen as in
Fig. 24. Breashes et al. [49] asserted that via injecting hydrogen
into internal combustion engines, fuel economy increases as well
as emissions in particulate smoke is reduced. By using hydrogen,
there will be a significant reduction in smoke, and emissions of
particulate [16].
3.3. NOx emission
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) which are formed during coal combus-
tion are mostly nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
which are together commonly known as NOx. NOx that is formed
during combustion is comprised mostly of NO (90–95%) plus a
lesser amount (5–10%) of NO2. Also, a very small proportion of
nitrous oxides (N2O) are formed [50]. Normally, the fuel-bound
NOx mechanism is employed for coal as well as coal- derived fuels,
Fig. 22. Effect of injection angle on PM [22].
 H.A. Alrazen et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 785–796 793

emissions is the maximum at (a relative air–fuel ratio) of approx.

1.2. Also, 20% hydrogen addition leads to approximately 20%
increase in the amount of emissions of NOx. This is in comparison
with pure LPG combustion. Emissions of NOx should be dependent
on the rapid hydrogen fuel combustion as well as the cylinder's
higher maximum temperature and pressure when compared to
LPG combustion. Higher emissions of NOx due to hydrogen addi-
tion, compared with that of pure LPG combustion, is dependent on
the hydrogen fuel flame temperature and the cylinder's maximum
temperature (which are higher compared with LPG combustion).
However, the amount of emissions of NOx will be high as a result
of 10% hydrogen addition at about A/F¼0.9–1.15 as compared with
the pure LPG fuel [28].
The NOx emissions of hydrogen engines strongly base on A/F
Fig. 23. Variation of smoke with load [16].
ratio and engine load. Choi et al. [28] reported that as shown in
Fig. 25, the NOx was started to increase from rich to stoichiometric
burn operations and reached to the maximum value at A/F ratio of
1.2. However, NOx reduction was obtained with more increasing of
A/F ratio. Saravanan and Nagarajan [16] demonstrated that for-
mation of NOx will be higher with 10% and 20% hydrogen addition,
but reduces above 30% hydrogen addition, as a result of lean burn
operation (i.e., equivalence ratio reduces). Fig. 26 displays nitrogen
oxides variation with load. When the hydrogen proportion rises,
the combustion lean limit is considerably extended, which in turn
decreases the peak combustion temperature. Similarly, a low level
of NOx of 575 ppm is attained with 90% hydrogen addition at 60%
loading, however, this is limited because of severe knocking
occurring above 60% load. Miyamoto et al. [53] noted that the
injection timing also affected on NO emission with hydrogen
Fig. 24. Variation of particulate emissions with load [16]. addition. They mentioned that if the hydrogen proportion is
increased to around 10 vol% and injection timing of the diesel-fuel
in which nitrogen is regarded as chemically bound to the main is delayed significantly, low temperature combustion can take
fuel. The formation of NOx is dependent upon the temperature of place at high loads. Therefore, there is a probability that NO
the local combustion, stoichiometric conditions, and the level of reduces more [53].Correspondingly, Houseman et al. [54] exam-
nitrogen compounds in the fuel–air mixture. On the other hand, ined the effect of hydrogen addition on air. They found that con-
the NO2 mechanism is essentially based on the calculations of ventional engines cannot operate below an equivalence ratio of
chemical kinetic energy near the flame zone, in which NO2 is
formed as a result of the reactions between NO and HO2. Then, the
NO2 will have reactions with H and O radicals in order to form
NOx. Similarly, the N2O mechanism is founded on the calculations
of chemical kinetic energy, in which the formation of the N2O
occurs owing to the reactions of several nitrogen radicals with NO.
Finally, the N2O reacts with oxygen radicals in order to form NOx.
In brief, the formation of NOx is yet to be investigated and we
cannot claim that all related routes have been discovered [18,36].
Usually, most parts of the formation of NOx are determined via
the peak temperature during the process of combustion, in which
the peak temperature is reliant on other parameters including fuel
composition, equivalence ratio, and the fuel–air mixture initial
temperature [36]. Tanaka et al. [51,52] also found that the levels of Fig. 25. Variation of NOx emissions with relative air–fuel ratio [28].
NOx increase considerably once the equivalence ratio is over 0.33.
Generally a higher equivalence ratio results in maximum incy-
linder temperatures beyond 1800 K, which yield more NOx [18].
Korakianitis et al. [26] stated that under dual fuel diesel engine at
750 and 1000 rpm, hydrogen addition helps to increase NOx
emissions compared to normal CI engine operation. Such increase
is caused by several factors. The first factor is higher combustion
within the chamber's pressures and temperatures, which is
recorded during dual-fuel operation of hydrogen. Furthermore, the
higher pressure-rise rates are evidence for quicker combustion
rates, resulting in higher levels of NOx formation [26]. Choi et al.
[28] conducted a comparison between LPG and hydrogen. This
study used different amounts of hydrogen which are (20%, 10%,
and 0%) at 1400 rpm and 8 compression ratio to investigate the
effect of NOx emission. As shown in Fig. 25, they reported that NOx Fig. 26. Variation of NOx with load [16].
794 H.A. Alrazen et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 785–796
0.85, relative to gasoline. Their conclusion is that very low emis-
sions of NOx and CO were created at an equivalence ratio of 0.53,
and thus engine thermal efficiency was found to be substantially
more than normal. In order to obtain low emissions of NOx with
augmented engine efficiency, normally the engine is operated
under the ultra-lean conditions of equivalence ratio 0.4, resulting
in low NOx (575 ppm) at 90% hydrogen addition [16].
There are different ways to decrease the emission of NOx. They
consist engine internal measures, such as numerous injections,
EGR or water injection as well as exhaust after-treatment. Based
on the strategy of the engine operation, either the lean NOx or
traditional 3-way catalysts have to be employed [55]. In terms of
NOx, despite the promising results that the emission level has been
attained through 3-way catalysts, there were researches done on
further elaborate lean NOx after treatment systems. This due to the
fact that the required stoichiometric condition for 3-way catalysts
to work actually leads to the serious loss in the efficiency of the
engine compared to that of the lean mode. Knop et al. [56] did a
research on a single cylinder direct injection engine under
2000 rpm and an (indicated means effective pressure) IMEP of
8 bar. They reported that the efficiency losses were 4% with
operation of throttled stoichiometric in comparison with that
unthrottled lean operation [56]. Methods that have been adapted
to achieved the NOx emissions reduction ordinarily composed of a
lean NOx trap, Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) and 3-way cat-
alysts. There have achieved outcomes on a six-cylinder diesel
engine changed to operation of hydrogen external mixing and
supplied with 3-way catalyst exhibited a significant reduction in
emissions of NOx so that it has exceeded 90% with 3% of hydrogen
injected into the engine exhaust [57]. An enhanced system which
uses hydrogen DI combined with an oxidation catalyst and a NOx
storage-reduction (NSR) catalyst illustrated a conversion rate of
NOx by 98% with fuel sanctions between (0.2 and 0.5)% [58]. There
were also patents of concepts in which the additional decreasing
agent injection in the exhaust is prevented by changing the
operating process from lean to fuel-rich operations employing EGR
to purify the lean NOx trap [19,59,60]. Additionally, for reduction
engine internal nitrogen oxides emissions includes measurements
to lower the temperature inside the cylinder through the
employment of the EGR and water injection [61]. There was a
significant reduction of the NOx emissions by water injection, with
little negative impact on the engine efficiency [62]. Nevertheless,
despite water injection is considered an appropriate procedure to
reduce emissions of NOx, its functional applications based on an
effective method to provide the liquid (for example by restoring
and liquefying it from the exhaust of the engine).
4. Effect of EGR rate with hydrogen addition
Hydrogen is one of the most important parameters for
improving the performance of an engine, but also it has a few
adverse effects which are best avoided using EGR. EGR is a system
in which some fractions of the exhaust gas are typically returned
to the chamber of combustion, controlled by a valve [18]. When
operating at high engine load, there is a possibility that the
hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine will produce NOx.
The reason for this is that the ignition energy of hydrogen is very
low. It means that the hydrogen–air mixture can be ignited
whenever there are hot spots, or gases which can support
advanced combustion. This simultaneously increases the heat
released, resulting in higher in-cylinder pressure and temperature.
Premature ignition, together with backfire, is another issue which
can result in engine knocking [63,64]. Typically, exhaust gas
comprises less O2 and more CO2, thus, there will be combustion
with a large heat difference between intake pressure and peak
pressure. It implies that the intake temperature of employing EGR
is high and it will support the mixture’s auto-ignition [18].
Decreased O2 can lower the temperature of combustion, thus
decreasing the NOx emissions.
Saravanan and Nagarajan [65] found that EGR can increase the
engine BTE, while decreasing the formation of NOx. Moreover, EGR
enhanced engine auto-ignition and decreased the incylinder peak
pressure [18]. Similarly, Saravanan et al. [66] examined the change
in emissions of NOx along with brake thermal efficiency owing to
hydrogen addition in the air system. They found lower emissions
of NOx and higher thermal efficiency at the larger hydrogen flow
rates, which were more than a 30% volume portion in the intake
air system [65–68]. Shin et al. [21] reported that, in relation to a 2%
EGR ratio, the emissions of NOx were decreased. However, its
reduction tended to be smaller with the addition of hydrogen (see
Fig. 27). Using a 16% EGR ratio, emission of NOx was decreased
more than the 2% EGR ratio case, although its reduction behavior
resembled the 2% EGR case. Nevertheless, the specific NOx was
decreased constantly by the additional hydrogen at the 31% EGR
ratio. As such, the specific NOx level dropped by 25% as the
hydrogen, which accounted for 10% of the total fuel's lower heat-
ing value, was provided, compared to the pure diesel combustion
using the same EGR ratio [21].
Miyamoto et al. [53] examined the effect of an increase in EGR
on NO and smoke with hydrogen enrichment. They reported that,
in each hydrogen portion, NO reduced with the reduction in EGR
rate. When the EGR rate is more than 50%, then hydrogen will have
no effect on emission of NO. Since the combustion period
appeared to be at expansion stroke in relation to the hydrogen
portion of 3.9% vol, along with the EGR rate over 50%, the max-
imum rate related to in-cylinder pressure rise did not increase
with the addition of hydrogen. When the hydrogen portion was
0 vol%, smoke levels rise with the EGR rate. Regarding the
hydrogen portion of 3.9 vol%, at first smoke levels barely increased,
eventually reaching their maximum at the EGR rate of 40%, fol-
lowed by subsequent reduction. By adding 3.9 vol%. hydrogen to
the intake air, smoke emission decreased by around 50%. Smoke
emission was severely decreased when the ignition delay was
prolonged with hydrogen addition, as well as due to the effect of
hydrogen substitution for a part of the diesel fuel [53]. Conse-
quently a trade-off between NO and smoke was made without
adding hydrogen as occurs in conventional diesel engines. Addi-
tion of hydrogen decreased smoke emission intended for the high
EGR rate. Thus, there is a possibility of resolving this trade-off
between NO and emission of smoke with high EGR rate via the
addition of hydrogen. Conversely, emission of smoke is still not at
Fig. 27. NOx reduction versus hydrogen supply at the exhaust pipe for the different
levels of EGR ratio [21].
 H.A. Alrazen et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 785–796
an acceptable level. As discussed, sharp combustion took place for
the hydrogen portion of 3.9 vol%. [53].
However, according to several studies, using EGR leads to some
problems. The main problem caused by the application of EGR is
the considerably augmented PM formation. The decreased in-
cylinder temperature as well as pronounced diffusion combus-
tion can be the crucial reasons for the combustion product's
reduced oxidation ability. Other argumentative effects of the use of
EGR are a rise in the specific fuel consumption along with dete-
rioration of engine durability, and lubricant oil quality, as the
engine might suffer high cycle-to-cycle variation, as well as power
loss [63,69,70].
5. Conclusion
Through this review paper, there are six significant findings
which are:
 Most studies have reported that the BTE and brake power
output are increased with the addition of hydrogen. Reasons of
this rest in the fact that the addition of hydrogen into diesel
reduces the duration of combustion and increases the cylinder
pressure and heat release caused by increasing the velocity of
the flame of the hydrogen, leading to the improvement in
engine performance. However, the knocking-engine problem
limits the hydrogen addition. It is recommended that the safety
and mechanical durability of engines should be taken into
consideration when adding hydrogen to diesel at high loads.
 The majority of studies have noted that SEC is also affected with
the increasing hydrogen. At high loads the SEC is reduced when
raising the proportion of hydrogen (due to the high flame speed
of hydrogen), but it is increased gradually when the load is
reduced, incrementally becoming evident in SEC at low loads.
 Most authors have also reported that when adding hydrogen to
diesel, its effect on BMEP depends on the zone of the mixture. If
the mixture is rich, the BMEP decreases with the increasing
proportions of hydrogen, while it is increased with a lean
mixture zone, as a result of the presence of oxygen.
 HC, CO, and CO2 are reduced with the addition of hydrogen
since hydrogen does not have carbon.
 By adding hydrogen to diesel fuel, the PM and smoke are
reduced until they become very small when adding 90%
hydrogen. High temperature and oxygen deficit which are the
two primary factors resulting in the PM formation, and with
hydrogen were two main causes that PM emissions tend to
reduce. First, the imperfect combustion of diesel in the
hydrogen-diesel engine is a factor to produce PM, and the
amount of diesel fuel should be decreased along with the
addition of hydrogen, which radically decreases the PM emis-
sions. Second, the addition of hydrogen improves the diffusion
combustion behavior of the diesel fuel. When hydrogen is
added into the cylinder and the burning begins, the hydrogen
flame spreads rapidly and facilitates the diffusion combustion
behavior of diesel that subsequently leads to the reduction of
PM emissions.
 There is another important emission from the hydrogen-diesel
engine which is NOx. Despite the fact that some of the
investigators have specified this in its reduction, most of the
results from various scientists and researchers are stating its
increase by burning this blend. The NOx increment is due to the
high temperature and pressure inside the cylinder, both pro-
duced by hydrogen. However, this increase in NOx can be
controlled by numerous injections, exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) or water injection as well as exhaust after-treatment. It is
very hard to reduce PM and NOx emissions at the same time due
795
to the properties of the diffusion combustion. In general, the
hydrogen is recommended to enrich the diesel but it should also
take into account its harm when using it in high percentage.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the support of the University
Putra Malaysia for providing facilities for this work.
References
[1] Adnan R, Masjuki H, Mahlia T. An experimental investigation of unmodified DI
diesel engine with hydrogen addition; 2009. p. 45–49.
[2] Sahoo B, Sahoo N, Saha U. Effect of engine parameters and type of gaseous fuel
on the performance of dual-fuel gas diesel engines—a critical review. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 2009;13:1151–84.
[3] Karavalakis G, Hajbabaei M, Durbin TD, Johnson KC, Zheng Z, Miller WJ. The
effect of natural gas composition on the regulated emissions, gaseous toxic
pollutants, and ultrafine particle number emissions from a refuse hauler
vehicle. Energy 2013;50:280–91.
[4] Ghazal OH. A comparative evaluation of the performance of different fuel
induction techniques for blends hydrogen–methane SI engine. Int J Hydrog
Energy 2013;38:6848–56.
[5] Ghazal OH. Performance and combustion characteristic of CI engine fueled
with hydrogen enriched diesel. Int J Hydrog Energy 2013;38:15469–76.
[6] Bauer C, Forest T. Effect of hydrogen addition on the performance of methane-
fueled vehicles. Part I: effect on SI engine performance. Int J Hydrog Energy
2001;26:55–70.
[7] Das L. Utilization of hydrogen-cng blend in internal combustion engine.
Hydrog Energy Prog 1996;2:1513–36.
[8] Szwaja S, Grab-Rogalinski K. Hydrogen combustion in a compression ignition
diesel engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2009;34:4413–21.
[9] Antunes JG, Mikalsen R, Roskilly A. An experimental study of a direct injection
compression ignition hydrogen engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2009;34:6516–22.
[10] Welch A, Wallace J. Performance characteristics of a hydrogen-fueled diesel
engine with ignition assist; 1990.
[11] Naber JD, Szwaja S. Statistical approach to characterize combustion knock in
the hydrogen fuelled SI engine. J Kones 2007;14:443–50.
[12] Adnan R, Masjuki H, Mahlia T. Performance and emission analysis of hydrogen
fueled compression ignition engine with variable water injection timing.
Energy 2012;43:416–26.
[13] Najjar YS. Hydrogen safety: the road toward green technology. Int J Hydrog
Energy 2013;38:10716–28.
[14] Sun Z, Liu F, Liu X, Sun B, Sun D. Research and development of hydrogen
fuelled engines in China. Int J Hydrog Energy 2012;37:664–81.
[15] de Morais AM, Justino MAM, Valente OS, de Morais Hanriot S, Sodré JR.
Hydrogen impacts on performance and CO2 emissions from a diesel power
generator. Int J Hydrog Energy 2013;38:6857–64.
[16] Saravanan N, Nagarajan G. An experimental investigation of hydrogen-
enriched air induction in a diesel engine system. Int J Hydrog Energy
2008;33:1769–75.
[17] Fayaz H, Saidur R, Razali N, Anuar F, Saleman A, Islam M. An overview of
hydrogen as a vehicle fuel. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:5511–28.
[18] Hairuddin AA, Yusaf T, Wandel AP. A review of hydrogen and natural gas
addition in diesel HCCI engines. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;32:739–61.
[19] Verhelst S, Wallner T. Hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines. Prog
Energy Combust Sci 2009;35:490–527.
[20] Cho HM, He B. Spark ignition natural gas engines—a review. Energy Convers
Manag 2007;48:608–18.
[21] Shin B, Cho Y, Han D, Song S, Chun KM. Hydrogen effects on NOx emissions
and brake thermal efficiency in a diesel engine under low-temperature and
heavy-EGR conditions. Int J Hydrog Energy 2011;36:6281–91.
[22] Masood M, Ishrat M, Reddy A. Computational combustion and emission
analysis of hydrogen–diesel blends with experimental verification. Int J
Hydrog Energy 2007;32:2539–47.
[23] Lee S, Yi H, Kim E. Combustion characteristics of intake port injection type
hydrogen fueled engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 1995;20:317–22.
[24] Boretti A. Advantages of the direct injection of both diesel and hydrogen in
dual fuel H2 ICE. Int J Hydrog Energy 2011;36:9312–7.
[25] Liew C, Li H, Nuszkowski J, Liu S, Gatts T, Atkinson R, et al. An experimental
investigation of the combustion process of a heavy-duty diesel engine enri-
ched with H2. Int J Hydrog Energy 2010;35:11357–65.
[26] Korakianitis T, Namasivayam A, Crookes R. Natural-gas fueled spark-ignition
(SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engine performance and emissions. Prog
Energy Combust Sci 2011;37:89–112.
[27] Santoso W, Bakar R, Nur A. Combustion characteristics of diesel-hydrogen dual
fuel engine at low load. Energy Procedia 2013;32:3–10.
[28] Choi GH, Chung YJ, Han SB. Performance and emissions characteristics of a
hydrogen enriched LPG internal combustion engine at 1400 rpm. Int J Hydrog
Energy 2005;30:77–82.
796 H.A. Alrazen et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 785–796
[29] Ganesh D, Nagarajan G, Ibrahim MM. Study of performance, combustion and
emission characteristics of diesel homogeneous charge compression ignition
(HCCI) combustion with external mixture formation. Fuel 2008;87:3497–503.
[30] Yap D, Peucheret S, Megaritis A, Wyszynski M, Xu H. Natural gas HCCI engine
operation with exhaust gas fuel reforming. Int J Hydrog Energy 2006;31:587–95.
[31] Bression G, Soleri D,Savy S, Dehoux S, Azoulay D, Hamouda HB, et al. A study
of methods to lower HC and CO emissions in diesel HCCI; 2008.
[32] Heywood JB. Internal combustion engine fundamentals. New York: Mcgraw-
hill; 1988.
[33] Komninos N. Investigating the importance of mass transfer on the formation
of HCCI engine emissions using a multi-zone model. Appl Energy
2009;86:1335–43.
[34] Gatts T, Liu S, Liew C, Ralston B, Bell C, Li H. An experimental investigation of
incomplete combustion of gaseous fuels of a heavy-duty diesel engine supple-
mented with hydrogen and natural gas. Int J Hydrog Energy 2012;37:7848–59.
[35] Stone R. Introduction to internal combustion engines. Basingstoke, UK; 1999.
[36] Kuo KK. Principles of combustion; 1986.
[37] Alkidas AC. Combustion advancements in gasoline engines. Energy Convers
Manag 2007;48:2751–61.
[38] Sjöberg M, Dec JE. An investigation into lowest acceptable combustion tem-
peratures for hydrocarbon fuels in HCCI engines. Proc Combust Inst
2005;30:2719–26.
[39] Kong S, Reitz RD. Numerical study of premixed HCCI engine combustion and
its sensitivity to computational mesh and model uncertainties. Combust
Theory Model 2003;7:417–33.
[40] Aceves SM, Flowers DL, Martinez-Frias J, Smith JR, Dibble R, Au M, et al. HCCI
combustion: analysis and experiments; 2001.
[41] Lata D, Misra A, Medhekar S. Effect of hydrogen and LPG addition on the
efficiency and emissions of a dual fuel diesel engine. Int J Hydrog Energy
2012;37:6084–96.
[42] Zamel N, Li X. Life cycle analysis of vehicles powered by a fuel cell and by
internal combustion engine for Canada. J Power Sources 2006;155:297–310.
[43] Dimopoulos P, Bach C, Soltic P, Boulouchos K. Hydrogen–natural gas blends
fuelling passenger car engines: combustion, emissions and well-to-wheels
assessment. Int J Hydrog Energy 2008;33:7224–36.
[44] López JM, Gómez Á, Aparicio F, Sanchez FJ. Comparison of GHG emissions
from diesel, biodiesel and natural gas refuse trucks of the City of Madrid. Appl
Energy 2009;86:610–5.
[45] Márcio de Almeida D, Ribeiro SK. Assessing total and renewable energy in
Brazilian automotive fuels. A life cycle inventory (LCI) approach. Renew Sus-
tain Energy Rev 2009;13:1326–37.
[46] Kayes D, Hochgreb S. Mechanisms of particulate matter formation in spark-
ignition engines. 1. Effect of engine operating conditions. Environ Sci Technol
1999;33:3957–67.
[47] Carlucci A, De Risi A, Laforgia D, Naccarato F. Experimental investigation and
combustion analysis of a direct injection dual-fuel diesel–natural gas engine.
Energy 2008;33:256–63.
[48] Khan I, Greeves G, Wang C. Factors affecting smoke and gaseous emissions
from direct injection engines and a method of calculation; 1973.
[49] Breshears R, Cotrill H, Rupe J. Partial hydrogen injection into internal com-
bustion engines effect on emissions and fuel Economy. 1973.
[50] Oilgae – Glossary; 2014. Retrieved from 〈http://www.oilgae.com/ref/glos/nox_
emissions.html〉.
[51] Hoekstra RL, Van Blarigan P, Mulligan N. NOx emissions and efficiency of
hydrogen, natural gas, and hydrogen/natural gas blended fuels 1996.
[52] Tanaka S, Ayala F, Keck JC. A reduced chemical kinetic model for HCCI com-
bustion of primary reference fuels in a rapid compression machine. Combust
Flame 2003;133:467–81.
[53] Miyamoto T, Hasegawa H, Mikami M, Kojima N, Kabashima H, Urata Y. Effect
of hydrogen addition to intake gas on combustion and exhaust emission
characteristics of a diesel engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2011;36:13138–49.
[54] Houseman J, Hoehn FW. A two-charge engine concept: hydrogen enrichment;
1974.
[55] Rottengruber H, Berckmueller M, Elsaesser G, Brehm N, Schwarz C. Operation
strategies for hydrogen engines with high power density and high efficiency;
2004.
[56] Knop V, Benkenida A, Jay S, Colin O. Modelling of combustion and nitrogen
oxide formation in hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engines within a 3D
CFD code. Int J Hydrog Energy 2008;33:5083–97.
[57] Aung K, Hassan M, Faeth G. Effects of pressure and nitrogen dilution on flame/
stretch interactions of laminar premixed H 2/O 2/N 2 flames. Combust Flame
1998;112:1–15.
[58] Bradley D, Lawes M, Liu K, Verhelst S, Woolley R. Laminar burning velocities of
lean hydrogen–air mixtures at pressures up to 1.0 MPa. Combust Flame
2007;149:162–72.
[59] Verhelst S, Sierens R. A quasi-dimensional model for the power cycle of a
hydrogen-fuelled ICE. Int J Hydrog Energy 2007;32:3545–54.
[60] Saxena P, Williams FA. Testing a small detailed chemical-kinetic mechanism
for the combustion of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Combust Flame
2006;145:316–23.
[61] Konnov AA. Remaining uncertainties in the kinetic mechanism of hydrogen
combustion. Combust Flame 2008;152:507–28.
[62] Verhelst S, Sierens R. A two-zone thermodynamic model for hydrogen-fueled
SI engines; 2008. p. 773–78.
[63] Tira HS. Impact of alternative fuels and hydrogen-enriched gaseous fuel on
combustion and emissions in diesel engines; 2013.
[64] White C, Steeper R, Lutz A. The hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine:
a technical review. Int J Hydrog Energy 2006;31:1292–305.
[65] Saravanan N, Nagarajan G. An experimental investigation on hydrogen fuel
injection in intake port and manifold with different EGR rates. Energy Environ
2010;1:221–48.
[66] Saravanan N, Nagarajan G, Dhanasekaran C, Kalaiselvan K. Experimental
investigation of hydrogen port fuel injection in DI diesel engine. Int J Hydrog
Energy 2007;32:4071–80.
[67] Saravanan N, Nagarajan G, Kalaiselvan K, Dhanasekaran C. An experimental
investigation on hydrogen as a dual fuel for diesel engine system with exhaust
gas recirculation technique. Renew Energy 2008;33:422–7.
[68] Saravanan N, Nagarajan G, Narayanasamy S. An experimental investigation on
DI diesel engine with hydrogen fuel. Renew Energy 2008;33:415–21.
[69] Cadman W, Johnson JH. The study of the effect of exhaust gas recirculation on
engine wear in a heavy-duty diesel engine using analytical ferrography; 1986.
[70] Zhao H, Hu J, Ladommatos N. In-cylinder studies of the effects of CO2 in
exhaust gas recirculation on diesel combustion and emissions. Proc Inst Mech
Eng: J Automob Eng 2000;214:405–19.