With statistics, the quality of products can be
Introduction to statistics
Historical notes; the earliest statistical recordings include:
 Ancient babylonians recorded their crop yields on
clay tablets.
 Ancient Egyptian pharaohs recorded their wealth
on stone walls.
History of statistics
1. 1663–scholars pinpoint the origin of statistics with
the publication of natural and political
observations upon the bills of mortality by John
Graunt.
2. 17th century –its mathematical foundation were
laid with the development of probability theory by
Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat.
3. 18th century –the term “statistics” designated the
systematic collection of demographic and
economic data by state.
4. 19th century –the meaning of “statistics”
broadened, including the discipline concerning
with the collection, summary and analysis of data.
5. Today–statistics is widely employed in
government, business, natural and social sciences
The origin of modern statistics can be traced to two areas
of interest, which on the surface, have very little in
common:
 Government (political science)
 Games of chance
Definition of statistics
Statistics = a collection of quantitative data /actual
numbers derived from data*
Science which deals with the collection, organization,
presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data
(a collection of methods for planning experiments,
gathering data, and then organizing, summarizing,
presenting, analyzing and interpreting, and drawing
conclusions based on data)
Examples: statistics on population, crimes, births, deaths,
school enrollment, unemployment, etc.
2. Inferential statistics (also called inductive statistics/
Data (sing. Datum) – facts, numbers, and records which are
the results of measurements or observations.
Importance of statistics
Statistics has applications in a wide variety of disciplines
such as psychology, sociology, education, business,
economics, engineering, journalism, communication, the
allied health fields, the humanities, the physical sciences,
and the liberal arts.
 In business – help business men to plan and
forecast productions according to their customers.
checked efficiently.
 In economics –use of statistical methods to
determine the relationship between supply and
demand, imports and exports, inflation rate and the
per capita income.
 In banking –banks uses statistical approaches
based on probability to estimate the number of
depositors and their claims for a certain day.
 In engineering–the engineer samples a product
quality characteristics along with various
controlled process variable to assist in locating
important variable related to product quality.
 In manufacturing–newly manufactured fuses are
sampled before shipping to decide whether to ship
or hold individual lots.
 In medicine– the research physician experiments
to determine the effect of various drugs and
controlled environmental conditions on human in
order to infer the appropriate method of treatment
of a particular disease
Nature of data
1. Quantitative (or numerical) data – consist of
numbers representing counts or measurements
Examples: height, weight, test scores, income, hours of
study
1. Qualitative (or categorical) data – are distinguished
by some non-numeric characteristic
Examples: gender, race, religion, socio-economic status
Areas of statistics
1. Descriptive statistics –comprises those methods
concerned with collecting and describing data so as to
yield meaningful information
Examples:
 A bowler wants to find his bowling average for the
past 10 games
 A teacher wishes to determine the percentage of
students who passed the examination
 At least 30% of all new houses being built are of
contemporary design
statistical inference) –comprises those methods concerned
with the analysis of a subset of data leading to predictions
or inferences about the entire set of data
- Deals with making generalizations about a body of data
where only a part of it is examined
Examples:
 A politician would like to estimate, based on an
opinion poll, his chance for winning in the
upcoming senatorial election
  A manager would like to predict based on previous consider all of the votes to be the population, then the 38%
year’s sales, the sales performance of the company is a parameter.)
for the next 5 years
Statistic – a numerical measurement describing some
 If the present trend continues, architects will
characteristic of a sample
construct more contemporary houses than colonial
sin the next 5 years Example: based on a sample of 900 surveyed executives, it
was found that 45% of them would not hire anyone whose
Types of variable
job application contained a typographical error. (the figure
1. Qualitative variable –consists of categories or 45% is a statistic because it is based on a sample, not the
attributes which have non-numerical entire population of all executives.)
characteristics
Survey – conducted to gather opinions or feedbacks about
- Cannot be subjected to arithmetic operations
a variety of topics
Examples: year level, birthdate, gender, zip code, subjects
Types:
enrolled, telephone number, color, student number, student
classification, religion 1. Census survey – conducted by gathering
information from the entire population
2. Quantitative variable – consists of numbers
2. Sampling survey - conducted by gathering
representing counts or measurements
information from only part of the population
- Can be subjected to arithmetic operations
Levels of measurement
Examples: age, height, monthly income, weight, size of
family, time, length of service, temperature 1. Nominal – characterized by data that consist of names,
labels or categories only data cannot be arranged in an
Classification of quantitative variable
ordering scheme
1. Discrete variable – results from a finite or countable - Nominal is associated with “name only”
number of possible values
Examples: gender/sex, degree program, movie genre,
- Represents “counts”
religion, student number, civil status
- Values are obtained by “counting”
2. Ordinal – involves data that maybe arranged in some
Examples: number of students in a class, number of books,
order but differences between data either cannot be
number of patients, size of a family
determined or are meaningless provides information
2. Continuous variable – results from infinitely many about the relative comparisons but the degrees of
possible values that can be associated with points on differences are not available
continuous scale in such a way that there are no gaps,
Examples: military rank, year level, job position
interruptions, or jumps
- Values are obtained through “measuring” 3. Interval – like the ordinal level, with the additional
property that meaningful amounts of differences
Examples: height, weight, time, temperature
between data can be determined. However, there is no
Some basic statistical terms natural zero starting point (where none of the quantity
is present)
Population - complete collection of all individuals or
elements (e.g. People, scores, measurements, etc.) under Examples: body temperature (in oC), IQ score
consideration or study
4. Ratio – is the interval level modified to include the
Variable – a characteristic of interest measurable on each natural zero starting point (where zero indicates that
and every individual in the population none of the quantity is present) for this level,
differences and ratios are meaningful
Sample - a part of the population or a sub-collection of
elements drawn from a population. A subset of population Examples: weight, height, area, running time of movie,
distance traveled by a car, weekly allowance
Closely related to the concepts of population and sample
are the concepts of parameter and statistic.
Parameter - a numerical measurement describing some
characteristic of a population. Any measure calculated from
population data
Example: when rodrigo duterte was elected to the
presidency, he received 38% of the votes cast. (if we
Data collection
Characteristics of a good question
1. A good question is unbiased. Must not be worded in a
manner that will influence the respondent to answer in
a certain way, that is, to favor a certain response or to
be against it an unbiased question is stated in neutral
language and has no element of pressure
2. A good question is clear and simply stated. A
question that is simple and clear is easier to understand
and more likely to be answered truthfully
3. A good question is precise. Questions must not be
vague it should indicate clearly the manner how the
answers must be given
4. Good questionnaires lend themselves to easy analyses.
Questionnaires should be constructed in such a way
that data can be easily analyzed and interpreted
Two categories of survey questions
1. Open question – allows a free response
Examples: what sanction should be given to a student who
is caught for vandalism?
2. Closed question – allows only a fixed response
Examples: which sanction or penalty should be given to a
student caught for vandalism?
a. Reprimand or warning
b. Suspension for week
c. Expulsion
Types of data
1. Primary data – information gathered directly from an
original source or data based on first-hand information
Examples: data collected from interviews & surveys, gov’t
agencies, business establishments, organizations
2. Secondary data – information taken from published or
unpublished sources
Examples: data gathered from books, magazines,
newspapers, journals, thesis, etc.
Four important points to consider in collecting data
1. If measurements of some characteristic from people
(e.g. Height) are being obtained, better results will be
achieved if the researcher himself does the measuring
instead of asking the respondent for the value.
2. The method of data collection used may expedite or
delay the process. Avoid a medium that would produce
low response rates.
3. Ensure that the sample size is large enough for the
required purposes.
4. Ensure that the method used to collect data actually
results in a sample that is representative of the
population.
Methods of data collection
1. Direct or interview method - Involves at least two (2)
persons –an interviewer& an interviewee/s–exchanging
information.
- Gives precise & consistent information because
clarifications can be made.
- Questions not fully understood by the respondent
may be repeated until it suits the interviewee’s
level.
- Time-consuming
- Expensive
- Limited coverage
2. Indirect or questionnaire method - This is a method
where written answers are given to prepared questions.
- Compared to the direct method, this requires less time,
it is inexpensive since the questionnaires can simply be
mailed or hand-carried.
- Gives the respondent a sense of freedom in honestly in
answering the questions because of secrecy or
anonymity
3. Registration method - This is a method enforced by
certain laws.
Examples: registration of birth, registration of marriage, or
registration of death
4. Observation method - This is a method which
observes the behavior, characteristic, reaction, and
interaction of individuals or organizations in the study.
a) Observe: to notice using a full range of appropriate
senses (to see, hear, feel, taste, and smell). Usually
used for researches in psychology
5. Experiment method - This method is used when the
objective of the study is to determine the cause-and-
effect relationship of certain phenomena under
controlled conditions. Usually used in scientific
researches
Example: medical technologists would like to know the
effect of a new brand of vitamins on the growth of toddlers.
The new brand will be taken by a set of toddlers while
another set will be given the already existing brand. The
growth of toddlers will then be compared to determine
which brand of vitamin is better.
Sampling - the process of selecting units, like people,
organizations, or objects from a population of interest in
order to study and fairly generalize results back to
population from which the sample was chosen.
Advantages of sampling
 Reduced cost - (the cost of studying all the items in a
population)
 Greater speed - (the time-consuming aspect of
contacting the whole population)
 Greater scope - (more extensive treatment of data)
 Greater accuracy - (more careful processing of data
becomes feasible. When volume of work is reduced;
thus more accurate results)
Some definitions
Target population – entire group a researcher is interested
in the group of elements (e.g. Persons, companies,
households, housing units, etc.) To which the researcher
wants to make inference at least theoretically, the
population is finite and can be counted
Sampled population – collection of elements from which
the sample is actually taken. This coincides with target
population
Frame - a list of all those within a population who can be
sampled
Types of sampling techniques
1. Probability sampling method is any method of
sampling that utilizes some form of random selection.
Samples are chosen in such a way that each member of
the population has a known, but possibly non-equal
chance of being included in the sample. By using
random selection, the likelihood of bias is reduced.
2. Non-probability sampling method does not involve
random selection of samples. Each member of the
population does not have a known chance of being
included in the sample. Instead, personal judgement
plays a very important role in the selection.
Types of probability sampling
1. Simple random sampling
Members of the population are selected in such a way that
each has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
Using strips of paper, use of table of random numbers, use
of computer programs or scientific calculators to generate
random numbers
Examples:
A reporter obtains numbered listing of the 1000 companies
with the highest stock market values, uses a computer to
generate 20 random numbers between 1 and 1000, and then
interviews the chief executive officers of the companies
corresponding to these numbers
2. Systematic random sampling
Samples are randomly chosen following certain rules set by
the researcher. The items or individuals of the population
are arranged in some order. A random starting point is
selected and then every kth member of the population is
selected for the sample. 𝑘 is called the sampling interval
and 1/𝑘 is the sampling fraction.
Examples:
 An engineer selects every 30th cellphone from the
assembly line for careful testing and analysis.
 A researcher interviews every 20th patient in the list of
dls-umc in-patients
3. Stratified random sampling
Used when the population (n) is too big to handle involves
dividing the population in to at least two different
subgroups (called strata) that share the same
characteristics, and then taking simple random sample from
each stratum
Divide n in to non-overlapping subgroups (strata),
say𝑁1,2,𝑁3,….,𝑁𝑖, where𝑖 is the number of strata such that
𝑁1+𝑁2+𝑁3+⋯+𝑁𝑖=𝑁
Then do a simple random sample of 𝑓=𝑛/𝑁 (sampling
fraction) in each stratum
Types:
Equal allocation (ea) -the sample sizes from the different
strata are equal, that is, 𝑛1=𝑛2=𝑛3=⋯=𝑛𝑖.
Formula: 𝐸𝐴=𝑛/𝑖
Where: n = sample size and i= number of strata
Proportional allocation (pa) –the sample sizes from the
different strata are proportional to the sizes of the strata,
that is,
𝑛1/𝑁1 = 𝑛2/𝑁2 = 𝑛3/𝑁3 =⋯= 𝑛𝑖/𝑁𝑖.
In general, a population of size n is divided into 𝑖 strata of
size 𝑁1,2,𝑁3……,𝑁𝑖, and a sample of size 𝑛1 from the
first stratum is taken, a sample of size 𝑛𝑖,from the 𝑖𝑡ℎ
stratum is taken.
 Formula: 𝑃𝐴= 𝑁𝑖/𝑁∗𝑛
 Where: 𝑁𝑖= size of stratum
 N = population size
 N = sample size
Examples:
 A mathematics professor randomly selects 15 men and
15 women from each of five classes
 An economist is studying the effect of education on
salary and conducts a survey of 150 randomly selected
workers from each of these categories: less than a high
school diploma, high school diploma, more than a high
school diploma
4. Cluster random sampling
Also used when the population is too large involves
dividing the population into sections (called clusters),
randomly select a few of those clusters, then choose all
members from the selected clusters. Also called area
sampling
Examples:
 A dean at dlsu-d surveys all students from each of 12
randomly selected classes
 A medical student at dlsu-hsi interviews all diabetic
patients in each of 15 randomly selected hospitals in
the country
Types of non-probability sampling
1. Accidental, haphazard or convenience sampling
One of the most common methods of sampling which is
primarily based on the convenience of the researcher. Most
common examples are interviews conducted by tv news
programs to get a quick reading of public opinion
 Examples: a reporter obtains sample data from readers
who decide to mail in a questionnaire printed in the
latest issue.
 In conducting research for a psychology course, a
student of dlsu-d interviews students who are leaving
the sbc canteen.
2. Purposive sampling
 Also called judgmental, selective or subjective
sampling
 Samples are taken with a purpose in mind
 Very useful for situations where a target sample needs
to be reached quickly and where sampling for
proportionality is not the primary concern.
 Convenience sampling but choosing the respondents on
the basis of predetermined criteria set by the
researcher.
a) Modal instance sampling
Sampling for specific groups or types of people where in
sampling the most frequent case, or the “typical” case is
sought for. This method of sampling is commonly used in
informal public opinion polls.
Examples: a researcher wants to study the typical video
game user. They do an initial study of wide range of people
and find that the majority of people playing video games
are prosperous males. Between the ages of 18 and 25. They
then recruit only people who fit this criteria to do their
study.
b) Expert sampling
Expert sampling involves the assembling of a sample of
persons with known or demonstrable experience and
expertise in some area. Often, expert sampling is done
when it would be the best way to elicit the views of persons
who have specific expertise.
Example: a student interviews school principals and
classroom teachers about the implementation of the k-12
basic education program.
c) Quota sampling
 Respondents are selected non-randomly according to
some fixed quota.
 Requires that representative individuals are chosen out
of a specific subgroup
 Selecting participants in numbers proportionate to their
numbers in the larger group, no randomization
Types:
o Proportional quota sampling –convenience
sampling, except you want subgroups
represented in same proportions as they are in
the target population
o Non-proportional quota sampling –
convenience sampling, except you have
specified non- proportionally how many
subjects you want in each subgroup.
Example: the number of students from each group that we
would include in the sample would be based on the
proportion of male and female students amongst the 10,000
university students
Proportion: 50 male and 50 female or 60 male and 40
female
d) Heterogeneity sampling
Heterogeneity sampling is performed when a wide range of
views or opinions about a specific topic is the primary
concern and representing these views proportionately is not
of major importance.
 Used when studying diversity/variation and
seeking broad spectrum of ideas
 Also called diversity sampling or maximum
variation sampling
Example:
A study may seek to identify all ethnic groups within a city
and thus may be made across a number of different parts of
the city and includes questioning of each.
e) Snowball sampling
In snowball sampling, the process starts by identifying
someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in the study.
The respondent is then asked to recommend others whom
they may know who also meet the criteria
 Especially useful when the populations that are
inaccessible or hard to find are the target
population
 Also called chain sampling or referral sampling
or chain-referral sampling
Example:
A researcher is studying environmental engineers but can
only find five. She asks these engineers if they know any
more. They give her several further referrals, who in turn
provide additional contacts. In this way, she manages to
contact sufficient number of engineers.
 Methods of Data Presentation
1. Textual Method – a narrative description of the data
gathered.
2. Tabular Method – a systematic arrangement of
information into columns and rows.
3. Graphical Method – an illustrative description of the
data
The Frequency Distribution Table (FDT)
An FDT is a statistical table showing the frequency or
number of observations contained in each of the defined
classes or categories.
Parts of an FDT / Statistical Table
i. Heading – includes the table number and the title of
the table
ii. Body – main part of the table that contains the
information or figures
iii. Stubs or Classes – classifications or categories
describing the data and usually found at the leftmost
side of the table
iv. Caption - designations or identifications of the
information contained in a column, usually found at the
topmost of the column
Types of FDT
1. Qualitative or Categorical FDT- an FDT where the
data are grouped according to some qualitative
characteristics; data are grouped into non- numerical
categories.
2. Quantitative FDT – an FDT where data are grouped
according to some numerical or quantitative characteristics.
Steps in the Construction of a Frequency Distribution
Table
1. Determine the range (R) of the data set.
R= highest value – lowest value
2. Determine the number (k) of classes or intervals.
𝑘 = √𝑁
where N is the total number of observations in the data set.
Note: Sometimes the number of classes k is not followed.
An extra class will be added to accommodate the highest
observed value in the data set and a class will be deleted if
it turns out to be empty.
3. Determine the class size c by calculating first the
preliminary class size c’.
𝑅
c=
𝑘
Conditions for the actual c:
a) it should have the same number of decimal places
as in the raw data
b) it should be odd in the last digit
4. Enumerate the classes/intervals.
5. Tally the observations and indicate the frequency f of
each class/interval.
6. Compute for values in other columns of the FDT as
deemed necessary.
Other Columns in a Frequency Distribution Table
1. True Class Boundaries (TCB) / Exact Limits –used to
fill in gaps between class limits
a. Lower True Class Boundaries (LTCB)
LTCB = LL – ½ (unit of measure)
b. Upper True Class Boundaries (UTCB)
UTCB = UL + ½ (unit of measure)
2. Class Mark – midpoint of the class interval where the
observations tend to cluster about
CM = ½ (LL + UL) or CM = ½ (LTCB +UTCB)
3. Relative Frequency (RF) – the proportion of
observations falling in a class and is expressed in
percentage.
𝑅𝐹 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 / 𝑁
%𝑅𝐹 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 / 𝑁 𝑥100
4. Cumulative Frequency (CF) – accumulated frequency
of the classes
a. Less than CF (<CF) – total number of observations
whose values do not exceed the UL of the class
b. Greater than CF (>CF) – total number of observations
whose values are not less than the LL of the class
5. Relative Cumulative Frequency (RCF)
a. Less than RCF (<RCF)
b. Greater than RCF (>RCF)
3. Graphical Method – an illustrative description of the
data
Advantages of Graphical Presentation
• Main features and implications of a body of data can be
seen at once.
• Can attract attention and hold the reader’s interest
• Simplifies concepts that would otherwise have been
expressed in so many words.
• Can readily clarify data, frequently bring out hidden Properties of Summation Notation
facts and relationship.
Qualities of a Good Graph
• Accurate - (should not be deceptive, distorted,
misleading or in any way susceptible to wrong
interpretations)
• Clear - (can be easily read and understood, should
focus on the message it is trying to communicate)
• Simple - (should be straightforward and not loaded
with irrelevant, trivial symbols and ornamentation, no ) Measures of Central Tendency
• Good Appearance - (designed and constructed to
attract or catch reader’s attention) Central tendency is the tendency of scores or observations
to converge or cluster at a point usually at the center of a
Common Types of Graph frequency distribution.
a) Scatter Graph - -a graph used to represent A measure of central tendency is any single value that is
measurements or values that are thought to be related. used to identify the “center” of the data or the typical value.
b) Line Chart - graphical representation of data It is often referred to as the “average”
especially useful for showing trends over a period of
time. 1. Mean
c) Pie Graph - a circular graph that is useful in showing • The most common average
how a total quantity is distributed among a group of • Also called arithmetic mean
categories. • The sum of all the values of the observations divided
d) Column or Bar Graph - like pie chart, this is by the number of observations
applicable only to grouped data. Used for discrete, • Sensitive to extreme values(very low or very high
grouped data of ordinal or nominal scale. values) the mean for a finite population of n elements
is denoted by 𝜇 (mu), and the sample mean which is
Graphical Presentation of the FDT
used to estimate the population mean is denoted by 𝑥̅
1. Frequency Histogram - a bar graph that displays the
For ungrouped data:
classes on the horizontal axis and the frequencies of the
classes on the vertical axis; the vertical lines of the bars  Population Mean (a parameter)
are erected at the class boundaries and the heights of  Sample Mean (a statistic)
the bars correspond to the class frequencies.  Where n = sample size
2. Relative Frequency Histogram - a bar graph that  Where N = population size
displays the classes on the horizontal axis and the
relative frequencies on the vertical axis.
3. Frequency Polygon - line chart that is constructed by
plotting the frequencies at the class marks.
(Frequencies vs. class marks).
4. Ogives - graphs of the cumulative frequency
distribution 2. Median
a) < Ogive - the <CF is plotted against the UTCB  The positional middle (midpoint) of an array
b) > Ogive - the >CF is plotted against the LTCB  The point corresponding to the score that lies in the
middle of the distribution
Summation (or Sigma) Notation  Value which divides a ranked distribution into two
equal parts, that is there are as many data points above
the median as there are below the median
 Resistant to outliers , that is, not sensitive to extreme
values
 Denoted by Md or Mdn or 𝑥̃ (read: “x curl”)
For ungrouped data:
1. Arrange the scores in ascending or descending order. Measures of Location
2. If n (no. of observations) is odd, the median is the
middle score. The measures of location are also called fractiles or
quantiles.
If n is even, the median is the mean of the two middle
scores. 1. Percentiles

For values of 𝑥𝑖, 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … . , 𝑛 Percentiles are values that divide a set of observations in an
array into 100 equal parts.
• P1, read as first percentile, is the value below which
1% of the values fall
• P2, read as second percentile, is the value below which
2% of the values fall
• P99, read as 99th percentile, is the value below which
3. Mode 99% of the values fall
• The observed value which has the highest frequency 2. Deciles
• Locates the point where the observation values occur Deciles are values that divide a set of observations in an
with the greatest density array into 10 equal parts.
• Does not always exist, and if it does, may not be
unique (a data set is said to be unimodal if there is only • D1, read as first decile, is the value below which 10%
one mode, bimodal if there are two modes, trimodal if of the values fall
there are three modes, and multimodal if more than • D2, read as second decile, is the value below which
three. 20% of the values fall
• Not affected by extreme values • D9, read as 9th decile, is the value below which 90%
• Can be used for qualitative as well as quantitative data of the values fall
• Denoted by mo or 𝑥̂ (read: “x hat”) 3. Quartiles
4. Midrange
• Mean of the highest and lowest values in the data set Quartiles are values that divide a set of observations in an
• Value midway between the highest and lowest values array into 4 equal parts.
• Seldom used since it is very sensitive to extreme values • Q1, read as first quartile, is the value below which 25%
• Easy to compute of the values fall
• Helps to reinforce the important point that several • Q2, read as second quartile, is the value below which
different ways to define the center of a data set 50% of the values fall
• Q3, read as third quartile, is the value below which
75% of the values fall

5. Weighted Mean - is mean computed with the different Percentiles, Deciles and Quartiles of Ungrouped Data
scores assigned different weights
• To compute for the ith Percentile:
where x , x , x ,..., xn are the scores and
w, w, w, wn are the corresponding •
• To compute for the ith Decile:
weights

•
• To compute for the ith Quartile:

•
• Note: If the value obtained is not a whole number,
round up to the next whole number.
 Variance and Standard Deviation (for ungrouped data)

Measures of Dispersion
The population variance & std deviation can be estimated
Measures of dispersion indicate the extent to which by the sample variance and std deviation, respectively.
individual observations/ items are concentrated about or
Computational Formulas:
scattered away from an average.
• The more similar the scores are to each other, the lower
the measure of dispersion will be.
• The less similar the scores are to each other, the higher
the measure of dispersion will be.
• In general, the more spread out a distribution is, the
larger the measure of dispersion will be.
Classification of Measures of Dispersion
1. Measures of Absolute Dispersion
o Range
Measures of Relative Dispersion
o Variance
o Standard Deviation Measures of relative dispersion are unitless and are used
2. Measures of Relative Dispersion in comparing the scatter of one distribution with another
o Coefficient of Variation distribution.
o Standard Score or z-Score
1. Coefficient of Variation
The measures of absolute dispersion are used to compare  The coefficient of variation (CV) is the ratio of the
variations of two data sets whose averages do not differ a standard deviation to the mean and is expressed in
lot in value, and whose observations have the same units of percentage.
measurement. These are expressed in the units of the  It is used to describe the standard deviation relative to
original observations. the mean. It allows us to compare variation of data sets
with different units of measurement.
a) Range - The range of a set of measurements is the
difference between the highest/largest and
lowest/smallest values.
 The range is not a reliable measure of dispersion, since
it involves only the highest value and lowest value; it
does not say anything about the other values.
2. Standard Score or z-Score
R = maximum value – mínimum value
 The standard score measures how many standard
b) Variance - The variance is the average square distance deviations an observation (a given value x) is
of each observation from the mean. above or below the mean.
 The larger the variance is, the more the scores deviate,  The standard score is useful for comparing two
on average, away from the mean values from different populations with different
 The smaller the variance is, the less the scores deviate, means and different standard deviations.
on average, away from the mean
c) Standard Deviation - The standard deviation is the
positive square root of variance.
 It measures the variation of scores about the mean.
 It is considered the most reliable measure of
dispersion.