E-Proceeding of The 8th International Mechanical Engineering Research Conference 2018

Proceedings of the 8th International Mechanical Engineering Research Conference
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January 18-19, 2018
Michael Richartz Theatre
University of San Carlos, Cebu, Philippines
List of Conference Papers
Pulsatile Flow in a 180-deg Curved Tube ......................................................................................................... 1
Community Security by Widely Available Information Technology................................................................. 15
Multivariate Linear Model for Estimating the Higher Heating Value of Coal .................................................... 19
Air Mapping of Classrooms in a Government Learning Institution in Cebu City: An Extension Service ............. 30
Renewable Energy Source Study of USC Dmme: Application of Gorlov Helical Marine Turbine ...................... 37
Hyperheuristic Framework for a Combinatorial Optimization Problem............................................................. 52
Experimental Analysis of an Airfoil with a Gurney Flap for Low-Reynolds-Number Applications..................... 68
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January 18-19, 2018
Pulsatile Flow in a 180-deg Curved Tube

Minh Duc Le 1,a, Ching Min Hsu2,b, and Rong Fung Huang 1,c
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology,
Taipei, Taiwan 10672, R.O.C
2
Department of Mechanical Design Engineering, National Formosa University, Yunlin County 63246,
Taiwan, R.O.C
a
minhducle85@gmail.com, bcmhsu@nfu.edu.tw, c rfhuang@mail.ntust.edu.tw
Keywords: PIV, flow in curved tube, pulsatile pipe flow, wall-shear stress
Abstract. Experimental measurements of flow patterns and velocity characteristics in a circular 180o
curved tube due to pulsatility condition are investigated using particle image velocimetry technique. A
pulsatile pump was used to simulate pulsatile pressure wave of human heart beats with the stroke rate of
1.2 Hz, volume rate of 70 ml/stroke, and systole/diastole of 45%/55%. The working fluid is a mixture of
water and glycerol, which has a kinematic viscosity of 3.93  10-6 m2 /s and a density of 1.13 g/cm3 at
37o C. The Dean and Womersley numbers are 728 and 17.31, respectively. The flow evolution processes,
velocity distribution, and wall-shear stress during systolic and diastolic phases are observed and presented
by phase resolve ensemble-averaged method. It is found that, in the systolic phase, the flow is fully
developed around the curvature region during the acceleration period, while the flow separation occurs on
the inner wall of the mid-arch region during the deceleration period. Large reversed flow zone is induced
at the leading cross-sections of the downstream tube during the deceleration period of the systolic phase.
The wall-shear stresses present large values around the outer and inner walls of the entrance of upstream
tube and the mid-arch region during the systolic phase. The low values of wall-shear stresses are found
around the outer wall of the arch region. In the diastolic phase, the wall-shear stress exhibits relatively low
values due to the appearance of the large reversed flow zone. The oscillating wall-shear stress is relative ly
related to the flow characteristics.
Nomenclature
A cross section area of tube
De Dean number (= 𝑅𝑒 × √(𝑟𝑖 ⁄𝑅𝑐 ))
Di inner diameter of tube, 25 mm
Do outer diameter of tube, 28 mm
f frequency of flow pulsating
h length of straight sections of tube, 300 mm.
Pgagegage pressure of pulsatile flow at upstream region
Q time-averaged volumetric flow rate of pulsatile flow
Re Reynolds number (= (𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖 )/𝜈)
Ri radius of curvature of inner arch wall, 13.5 mm
ri inner radius of curvature of inner arch wall, 12.5 mm
Rc radius of curvature of centerline of arch, 27.5 mm.
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Ro radius of curvature of outer arch wall, 41.5 mm

s axial coordinate along walls of curvature starting from upstream edge of tube
T pulsating period of flow
t time evolution
t* non-dimensional time (= t/T)
U ave time-averaged flow velocity of pulsatile flow (= Q/A)
 Womersley parameter (= 𝑟𝑖 × √(𝑓⁄𝜈))
w wall-shear stress
 kinematic viscosity of working fluid
Wo Womersley number
1. Introduction
The pulsatile flow in a curved tube is of interest in many engineering applications, such as power
production, chemical and food industries, heat exchangers, nuclear reactors, and exhaust gas ducts [1-3].
Particularly, the secondary flow on the cross-section of the curved tube was investigated by many
analytical and numerical studies due to the pulsatility condition. For instance, Tada et al. [4] performed
the pulsatile flow in a curved pipe by numerical simulation. The secondary flow evolution processes were
reported at the Womersley number (Wo ), Dean number (De), and amplitude ratio (β) in the range of (2.19
 50.00), (15.07  265.49), and (0.50  2.00), respectively. The results showed that the secondary flow
patterns were classified into three types, such as viscosity-dominated type, inertia-dominated type, and
convection-dominated. The viscosity-dominated steady flow through the straight pipe, the inertia-
dominated oscillatory flow through the straight pipe, and the convection-dominated steady flow through
the curved pipe. Timite et al. [5] presented an experimental and numerical study on three-dimensio na l
pulsatile flow in a 90 curved circular pipe using Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) and FLUENT code,
respectively. The Reynolds number was varied in the range of 300 ≤ Re ≤ 1200, while the Womersley
parameter was operated in the range of 1 ≤ Wo ≤ 20. The results indicated that the secondary flow structure
is composed of two counter-rotating vortices at Re < 600 and Wo < 16 during a pulsating cycle. The
reversed flow occurred near the inner wall during the diastolic phase and enlarged with the increase of the
Womersley parameter. The swirl structure was found at the central of the cross-section when the Reynolds
number and Womersley parameter are 430 and 10.16, respectively. The intensity of the secondary flow
decreases when the Womersley parameter increases during the acceleration period of the systolic phase.
The pulsatile flow in a curved tube using flow visualization technique and one-component hot-film
anemometer was carried out by Chandran et al. [6]. The time-averaged Reynolds number, Dean number,
and Womersley number are 1019, 322, and 21.98, respectively. They found that the recirculation was
induced near outer wall of the curved tube and continuing their motion downstream during the deceleration
period of the diastolic phase. Chandran and Yearwood [7] presented four flow characteristics of the
physiological pulsatile flow in a curved tube using a three-component hot-film anemometer. They reported
that the reversed flow occurred along the inner wall of the tube during the diastolic phase, while the flow
is not fully developed through the cross-section in the curved tube. The unsteady flows in a highly curved
tube with square cross-section by flow visualization and computational fluid dynamics was proposed by
Krishna et al. [8]. The Dean and Womersley numbers were considered in a wide range, while the ratio of
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the half edge length to the radius of curvature of the tube was fixed at β = 0.3. The flow separation near
the inner wall occurred during the deceleration phase because the low axial momentum fluid reverses
direction. The wall-jet-like secondary flow was found due to an imbalance in the radial pressure gradient
and centrifugal forces.
In biological blood flow applications, the curvature of tubes cause some problems, e.g., pressure loss,
plaque, and dissection. The curvature might enhance the secondary flow and reversed flow so that the
oscillation of wall-shear stress could be elevated in the artery. Many investigators studied pulsatile blood
flow in arteries using both numerical and experimental methods studied pulsatile blood flow. For instance,
Jarrahi et al. [9] and Glenn et al. [10] used particle image velocimetry (PIV) to reveal the complex flow
patterns in the large artery. Wyk et al. [11] investigated the characteristics of pulsating flow in a 180
curved using both numerical and experiment methods. They found that large secondary flow structures
were generated throughout the aortic arch and larger branches of arteries. Multiple vortical structures were
observed to form during the systolic phase. Generally, when an aorta is stenosed by plaque, the aortic arch
cross sections are deformed due to systolic/diastolic cycle. Therefore, the flow behavior becomes very
complicated and the developed wall-shear stress changes and influences the progress of the atherosclerotic
lesions.
In this study, the pulsatile flows and the wall-shear stresses in a transparent 180 curved model were
examined experimentally to provide the further information of physiological flows in the arteries. The
evolution processes of flows, velocity distributions, and wall-shear stress are presented and discussed.
2. Experimental Methods
2.1 Experimental Setup

The Figure 1 shows the experimental configuration. The 180 curved tube model is interconnected to
a pulsatile flow supply system that consists of a pulsatile pump, a flow conditioner, a pressure transducer,
a water tank, several valves, rotameters, a data acquisition and control system, and certain piping
components. The working fluid used in this study is a mixture of water and glycerin, which has a kinematic
viscosity of 3.93106 m2 /s and a density of 1.13 g/cm3 at 37o C serves as the blood analog fluid. A pulsatile
pump model Harvard Apparatus is used to simulate the pulsatile flow (i.e., output signal of a human heart
beat). The stroke rate, stroke volume, and systole/diastole ratio are 72 strokes/minute (1.2 Hz), 70
ml/stroke (5.04 L/minute), and 45%/55%, respectively. The Reynolds number is defined as
𝑹𝒆 = (𝑼𝒂𝒗𝒆 × 𝑫𝒊 )/ (1)
where U ave is the time-averaged mean velocity of pulsatile flow, Di is the inner diameter of the tube, and
 is the kinematic viscosity.
For the curved tube flows, the Dean number (De) is taken into account of both the Reynolds number
and the effects of curvature [12]. In this study, the Dean number is defined based on the curvature ratio
(ri/Rc )
𝑫𝒆 = √(𝒓𝒊⁄𝑹𝒄 ) × 𝑹𝒆 (2)
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where ri is the inner radius of curvature of inner arch wall, Rc is the radius of curvature of centerline of
arch, and Re is the time-averaged Reynolds number.
For the pulsatile flow, the Womersley parameter (Wo ) is consider to show the counteraction between
the transient inertial force and the viscous forces [13]
𝑊𝑜 = √(2𝑓⁄ ) × 𝑟𝑖 (3)
Where f is the frequency of flow pulsating flow.
In this study, the Dean, Womersley, and time-averaged Reynolds numbers are 728, 17.32, 1,081,
respectively. The flow rates pass through the branch A, B and C are adjusted to 11, 7.8, and 4.4% of the
total flow rate, respectively, by using three rotameters downstream of the three branches.
Fig. 1. Experimental Setup
Figure 2 shows a circular 180o curved tubes made of highly transparent glass is used as model to
examine the pulsating flows. The model consists of four parts: upstream tube, an arch, downstream tube,
and three branches. In order to simulate average geometric dimensions of normal human aortic systems,
the inner diameters of the cross sections of the arch, branch BR3, branch BR2, and branch BR3 are 25,
12.5, 7.0, and 7.0 mm, respectively. The time-averaged flow rate Qave is 5.04 L/min. The flow rate of the
passages through the three branches BR1, BR2, and BR3 are adjusted to 11, 7.8, and 4.4% of the total
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flow rate, respectively. The inner and outer radiuses of curvature at the curved region are Ri = 13.5 mm
and Ro = 41.5 mm, respectively. The radius of curvature of the centerline thus is Rc = 27.5 mm. The inner
radius of the tube cross section to the radius of curvature of the centerline, therefore, is 𝑟𝑖 /𝑅𝑐 = 0.45,
which approximates the 0.42 radius of a human aorta. The length of the upstream tube and downstream
tube is h = 300 mm. The model is completely immersed in a rectangular cross-section glass tank filled
with water to reduce image deformity induced by the light-deflection effects of the tube.
Figure 3 shows a typical time-evolving inlet pressure of the model for one cycle of the pulsatile pump.
A pressure transducer model GE-PMP 4070 was installed at a position 30 mm upstream of the upstream
tube. The symbol Pgage, t, and t* are used to denote the gage pressure, time evolution, and normalized
time, respectively. The period of pulsatility is T = 0.83 s. The peak output pressure appears within the
systolic phase, while Pgage drops to negative values during the diastolic phase and subsequently increases
to positive values. The black dots on the pressure curve of the wave denoted by the letters a  h for some
critical instants.
Fig. 2. Geometry of model
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Fig. 3. Pressure wave cycle
2.2 Particle Image Velocimetry Measurement

Flow structures and velocity characteristics are illustrated by using a high-speed PIV system. The PIV
system consists of an infrared pulsing laser, a high-speed camera, an electronic synchronizer, and a
computer with installed PIV software. The infrared laser can be externally trigged to emit pulsing infrared
laser-light at a 795 nm wave length. The laser-light sheet has a thickness of about 0.5 mm. A CMOS
camera with a maximum framing rate of 2,000 fps is used to record the flow evolution. The pixel array of
1,280  1,280 is mapped to a physical region of approximately 80 mm of side length, so that the spatial
resolution is about 63 m/pixel. The time separation between two consecutive images is 150 s. Plastic
particles made of polyamide with a diameter of 5  1.2 m are seeded in the water tank to scatter the laser
light. Without the effect of turbulent diffusion, the Stokes number within the range of this experiment is
lower than the order of 10-5 . Thus, the slip between the flow and the particles can be ignored.
Two consecutive image frames are embedded in the PIV analysis software using the cross-correlatio n
technique proposed by Kean and Adrian [14]. The software calculates the average displacement of local
groups of particles in consecutive images. The interrogation window is set to 32  32 pixels (50% overlap
in both directions). The displacement of the consecutive images relative to the length of the interrogatio n
area is kept to be less than 25%. The minimum particle displacement that can be analyzed by the software
is 0.05 pixels. The number of vectors (the grids) predetermined for the PIV analysis results is set to 80 
80. Error check and interpolation are both used to identify outliers, and regenerated interpolated values
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are used replace the identified outliers. In this study, less than 2% of spurious vectors per instantaneo us
field are obtained. The uncertainties of velocity measurements by PIV are estimated within 2% [14, 15].
3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Evolution of Flow Patterns
Figure 4 shows the selected time-evolving flow patterns obtained from the PIV measurements on the
central plane of the 180 curved tube model at different instants time. Each flow pattern in Fig. 4 present
an ensemble average of 18 instantaneous measurements at the same phase angle of each systole-diasto le
cycle. For instance, Fig. 3a  f display the flow in the acceleration period of the systole phase (as denoted
by the dots of “a”  “f”, respectively, in Fig. 3), while Fig. 4g  h present the flow in the deceleration
period of the diastole phase (as denoted by the dots of “g”  “h”, respectively, in Fig. 3).
In the acceleration periods of the systolic phase, as shown in Figs. 4(a-c), the flow passes through the
upstream tube, curved tube, and downstream tube without any separation on flow. A part of the flow goes
through the three branches, while the main flow rate goes through the arch. At the peak pressure period of
the diastolic phase (t* = 0.137), a small reverse flow induces near the inlet of the branch BR1. This
recirculation bubble becomes relatively larger and blocks the entrance of the branch BR1 at t* = 0.187,
0.283, and 0.421, as shown in Figs. 4(d-f), during the leading deceleration period of the systolic phase. At
the end of the acceleration and leading of the deceleration periods of the systolic phase, i.e., t* = 0.187,
the separation of flow appears immediately on the inner walls after going through the upstream tube, while
the reverse flow appears in both the branches BR2 and BR3. The reverse flow in the branches BR2 and
BR3 only appears in the leading deceleration period of the systolic phase from t* = 0.187 (Fig. 4(d)) to t*
= 0.421 (Fig. 4(f)). The separation point on the inner wall moves upward to upstream of the upstream tube
cause large reverse flow zone induced in the arch. A recirculation bubble induces at the entrance of the
branches BR2 and BR3 and blocks the reverse flow until the end of the deceleration period of the systolic
phase (i.e., t* = 0.421). At the lowest pressure period of the systolic phase (t* = 0.421), as shown in Fig.
4(f), a large clockwise vortex induces at the end of the curved tube and moves to downstream of the
downstream tube until t* = 0.887 (i.e., end of the diastolic phase). The reverse flows are found near the
inner walls of the arch and the leading section of the downstream tube. The low pressure and deceleration
of the main flow (Fig. 3) induce the occurrence of the reverse flow near the inner wall of the arch (in Fig.
4(e) and 4(f)) because of the large curvature radius. In the acceleration period of the diastole phase, as
shown in Fig. 4(g), the recirculation bubbles size induced at the entrances of the three branches are
decreased relatively and no reverse flows are found in the branches BR2 and BR3. This phenomeno n
remains until the end of diastole phase. In the middle period of the diastole phase, the flows become more
chaotic than that in the systolic phase (as shown in Figs. 4(g)) and the patterns not as coherent as those
shown at the end of the systole phase (as shown in Fig. 4(f)). During the final period of the diastolic phase,
as shown in Fig. 4(h), the featured flow structures evolve and disappear.
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Fig. 4. Time-evolving process of velocity vectors and streamlines
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Figure 5 shows the temporal/spatial evolution of normalized axial velocities (𝑢/𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 ) measured in the
central plane of the model during the leading acceleration period (t* = 0.076 and 0.187) and fina l
deceleration period (t* = 0.421) of the systolic phase, and the diastole phase (t* = 0.660) at various stages
of A-M. At t* = 0.076, the axial velocities at the stages A to B display a uniform distributions, while at
the stages C to J the axial velocities near the inner wall have lager values than those near the outer wall
because the flow is turn 180. After the turn, the axial velocity distributions in the downstream tube are
back to the uniform, as shown in the stages K to M. The maximum value of 𝑢/𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 is displayed in the
upstream tube (about 2.5). This value is decreased relatively after the turn during the loss of fluid s
momentum along the tube model. At the peak value of pressure (Fig. 3), t* = 0.187, the velocity
(𝑢/𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 ) is significantly greater than that exhibited at t* = 0.076. For instance, the value of 𝑢/𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 attains
maximum value at the stages A-E in upstream tube (about 4.3), minimum value located at the stage G of
the turn (about 3.5), and then increases relatively along the end of the curved tube (H-J) and downstream
tube (K-M). The velocity (𝑢/𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 ) near the inner wall of the stages D, E, and F exhibits higher value than
that near the outer wall. This is because of the effect of the large rotating vortex at the entrance of the
branch BR1 (Fig. 4(d)).
Fig. 5. Velocity distributions at various cross-section A-M
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At t* = 0.421, the large reverse flow zone induced near the inner wall (Fig. 4(f)) causes negative values
of velocity appear near in the stages D  J. The velocity at this instant time displays lower values than that
at t* = 0.187. For instance, the maximum value of 𝑢/𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 is located at stages A-B (about 1.2) in the
upstream tube and C-D (about 1.4) in the curved tube, respectively. 𝑢/𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 exhibits positive values near
the outer wall and decrease slightly from the stages K  M of the downstream tube, while it displays
relatively small value of zero near the inner wall. At t* = 0.660, corresponded to the streamlines in Fig.
4(g), the negative velocities appear and exhibit relatively low values at most of the stages because the
reverse flow is presented in the entire tube model.
3.2 Wall-shear Stress

The inner and outer wall-shear stress distributions are estimated by reference to the velocity measured
near the inner and outer walls, respectively. The wall-shear stress calculation is considerably required in
order to investigate the turbulent boundary layer on the wall of the tube. The flow in the model has
complicated conditions, i.e., strange tube, arch curvature, and reverse flow. The distance nearest the wall
where the high accurate velocity data are obtained is about 0.15 mm away from the wall. In this study, the
wall-shear stresses at the stages without boundary-layer separation are calculated by using Clauser’s
method [16, 17]. This is because of the influence of the arch curvature on the near-wall flow structures of
the turbulent boundary layer could be assumed insignifica nt. At the stages with flow separation, the wall-
shear stresses are estimated by using Newton’s viscosity law because the shear stress throughout the
separated boundary layer is dominantly viscous [18, 19].
2
The normalized axial distributions of the outer and inner wall-shear stresses 𝜏𝑤 /(𝜌𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 ) at various
instants within a cycle of pulsatile flow are shown in Figures 6 and 7, respectively. The wall-shear stress
values (for both outer and inner walls) displayed in the systole phase are significantly greater than those
displayed in the diastole phase. This formation could be link to the aortic aneurysm and dissection in the
human cardiovascular system. In the acceleration and deceleration periods of the systole phase, the wall-
shear stress presents large values, while in the end of the deceleration periods (t* = 0.421), the wall-shear
stress exhibits small values. The large values of wall-shear stress are concentrated at the stages near the
upstream (i.e., A  C) of upstream tube and the last stages of the downstream tube (i.e., L  M). The
diastole phase presents an oscillation of low wall-shear stress on both inner and outer walls.
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Fig. 6. Axial Distributions of Outer Wall-Shear Stress
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As shown in Fig. 6, at the stages in upstream of the upstream tube (e.g., stages A  D), the wall-shear
stresses on the outer wall increase rapidly during the acceleration period of the systole phase, then decrease
dramatically in the deceleration period of the systole phase. Along the upstream tube, the wall-shear stress
decrease when the flow moves downstream. At the mid-arch area, the wall-shear stress on the outer wall
presents a peak value at the stage G during the systole phase. This is because the tangential velocity
gradient at stage G of the outer wall become a local maximum when the flow hits the curved tube (as
2
shown in Figs. 4(b-f)). The peak value of 𝜏𝑤 /(𝜌𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 ) decreases when the instant time t* increases. During
the deceleration period of the systole phase, the wall-shear stresses on the outer wall of the stages around
the entrance of the branch BR1, BR2, and BR3 (e.g., E, F, H, I, and J) exhibit low values due to the
2
appearance of the rotating vortices which shown in Figs. 4(d-f). 𝜏𝑤 /(𝜌𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 ) increases gradually during
the systole phase when the flow goes through the downstream tube (e.g., K  M). The values of
2
𝜏𝑤 /(𝜌𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 ) display low magnitude about zero on the outer wall of the curved tube in the diastole phase.
Fig. 7. Axial Distributions of Inner Wall-Shear Stress

2
As shown in Fig. 7, the wall-shear stresses 𝜏𝑤 /(𝜌𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 ) on the inner wall increase in the acceleratio n
period of the systole phase (as shown in Fig. 4(b-d)), and then decrease relatively during the deceleration
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period of the systole phase (as shown in Figs. 4(e) and 4(f)). The inner wall-shear stress of the upstream
tube exhibit lager value than that of the downstream tube due to the decrease of the momentum along the
2
curved tube. 𝜏𝑤 /(𝜌𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 ) on the inner wall around the arch is significant greater than that on the outer wall
(e.g., E  J, as shown in Fig. 6) in the systole phase. At the end of the deceleration period of the systole
phase, t* = 0.421, the wall-shear stress on the inner wall exhibits negative values due to the separation of
2
flow, as shown in Fig. 4(f). The values of 𝜏𝑤 /(𝜌𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑒 ) on the inner wall of the curved tube oscillate with
low magnitude about null during the diastole phase. In the human curved arteries, the stages with low
wall-shear stresses as K and L may cause the plaque formation.
4. Conclusion
The flow evolution processes and velocity characteristics of pulsatile flows in the central plane of the
curved tube are studied experimentally. A large separation flow around the inner arch wall is induced by
the large adverse pressure gradient. The boundary-layer separation induced large vortices at the entrances
of the three branches during the systole phase. The wall-shear stress distributions are closely related to
those flow characteristics. Large values of the outer and inner wall-shear stresses are concentrated at the
upstream cross-sections of the tube, mid-arch region, and downstream tube during the systole phase. This
might provide the further information of an aortic aneurysm and dissection in the physiological fluid flows.
In addition, the outer wall-shear stresses exhibit significantly low value around the recirculation bubble
region, which related to the plaque disease.
The results drawn from this study would help understand the development of atherosclerosis and
influenced-flow structures in the human arteries. Further research will focus on reducing the variation of
the wall-shear stresses on the curved tube by placing stents inside the tube at differe nt locations.
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[17] G. P. Huang and P. Bradshaw, "The law of the wall for turbulenent flows in pressure gradients, "
AIAA J., Vol. 33, pp. 624-632, 1995.
[18] R. L. Simpson, Y.-T. Chew, and B. Shivaprasad, "The structure of a separating turbulent boundary
layer. Part 1. Mean flow and Reynolds stresses," J. Fluid Mech., Vol. 113, pp. 23-51, 1981.
[19] G. Adams, S. Brown, L. McIntire, S. Eskin, and R. Martin, "Kinetics of platelet adhesion and
thrombus growth," Blood, Vol. 62, pp. 69-74, 1983.
14
January 18-19, 2018
Community Security by Widely Available Information Technology

Yusaku Fujii1, a
1
Faculty of Science and Technology, Gunma University, 1-5-1 Tenjin-cho, Kiryu 376-8515, Japan
a
<fujii@e-jikei.com>
Keywords: security camera, surveillance camera, surveillance society, privacy, information society,
network society, smart city
Abstract. We contend that a community will have a strong ability to prevent crime only if some residents
keep watch on what happens around their houses with the aid of their own home computers, commercia lly
available cheap cameras, and free-software. Under this scheme, residents would view their surroundings
using cheap cameras as their own eyes and home computers as their own brains. Community safety would
thus be realized by the voluntary cooperation and altruism of ordinary citizens using widespread modern
technology.
1. Introduction
A community with some residents keeping occasional watch around their houses has the potential to
inhibit crime. In days gone by, there were many communities like this. However, in our times, when
individualism and selfishness become increasingly common, there are very few communities like this
resulting in a lack of eyewitnesses to crimes in our communities.
On the other hand, security camera systems are now widely used and have an important role in reducing
crime and identifying suspects. As for the typical usage of the security cameras systems, many problems
seem to arise from the fact that they are introduced only for the benefit of the owners.
One problem is that it is expensive to obtain a complete surveillance of an owner's property. A second
problem is that a typical system usually keeps watch only inside the owner's property, so it cannot help
with the overall safety of the community. A third problem is that it sometimes gives the unpleasant feeling
to the neighbors in case the system watches outside the owner's property. The authors argue that these
problems can be solved if the camera systems are introduced within an altruistic communit y- minded
framework.
We contend that a community will have a strong ability to prevent crime only if some residents keep
watch on what happens around their houses with the aid of their own home computers, commercia lly
available cheap cameras, and free-software. Many types of software for capturing video image are
available, however we could not find a free one that is suitable for the concept. Therefore, we have
developed one with the minimum necessary functions and distributed it free of charge through our web
site [1]. The software is written in English and in Japanese. The software simply selects relevant pictures
15
January 18-19, 2018
and saves them to hard disk [2]. The concept has been discussed form the viewpoints of the social science
[3] and the homeland security [4].
2. PC based system using free software

We have provided the first version of the free software "Dairi EYE standard". Its functions are very
limited but essential. The major features of the software are as follows,
(a) High stability: Continuous running of more than 100 days has been confirmed.
(b) High operationality of file storage: The file name and its path express time and location information.
(c) Minimum necessary storage: Simple picture selection software has been adapted. The software saves
a picture only when the difference between two consecutive pictures exceeds the threshold.
(d) Automatic delete: Folders that are older than the save period set by the owner are automatically deleted
(e) Compatibility with many types of camera: Software can operate in the VFW mode (PC cameras and
USB video adapters) and FTP mode (network cameras).
(f) Simultaneous operation: Software can operate several cameras connected to a PC.
(g) No Internet connection: Concerning privacy, the function of connecting to the Internet was removed
from the distributed version of the software. Even in this case, the e-JIKEI Network can be formed, in
which the word "Network" refers not to the Internet but to the personal network of the residents.
If the system of security cameras connected to computers and to the Internet spreads nationwide, it
could result in a very powerful and flexible social structure, since no one can commit a crime without
being reported and the software installed in each system could be easily upgraded. This means that this
social structure could lead to very interesting subjects and applications for researchers and companies. In
the near future, more intelligent functions could be achieved, such as function of detecting the doubtful
motion, function of sending of danger messages to the police, and function of facial comparison with the
photos of wanted persons. Real-time chasing of suspected persons and rescuing kidnapped children will
be possible if the crime is very bad and most of the citizens give the police permission to access their own
surveillance system. A country with many local communities having this facility will obtain good
homeland security. For homeland security, our project [4] and all the other projects, such as the usual
security camera systems and the US Home Guard [5], in which registered ordinary citizens watch the
critical infrastructure facilities in the United States from their homes through internet-cameras, should be
complementary to each other.
3. Concept for privacy protection [6]

We propose a new concept regarding the management of security cameras in which those who own and
manage images (the owner) and those who have the right to view the images (the viewer) are separated
by means of the encryption of the images. Using this concept, encrypted images are transferred from the
owner to the viewer only when both the owner and the viewer consider it necessary, such as in the case of
crimes; then the encrypted images are restored for viewing by the viewer. By this method, the images can
be viewed only when absolutely necessary. This concept was proposed to prevent the risk of privacy
violation, as well as to reduce the unnecessary psychological burden that third parties may be subjected
to, with the aim of promoting the placement of security cameras throughout local communities.
By managing the security camera system using our concept, it is possible to markedly reduce the
negative effects associated with the introduction of security cameras, such as concerns over the violatio n
16
January 18-19, 2018
of privacy, without reducing the positive effects, such as crime prevention at places other than those
requiring high-level security and constantly manned surveillance, i.e., most communities; while providing
recorded images to investigating authorities in the case of crime.
In a practical example carried out in Kiryu City, Gunma Prefecture, a personal computer (PC)-based
security camera system is owned and managed by the owners of retail stores affiliated with the merchant
association, and images are encrypted and stored in the system. To view the stored images, special
software installed in the PCs at the Police Department of Kiryu City must be used. Only when the owners
of the retail stores and the police determine that it is necessary to view them, are the stored images
transferred from the owners of the retail stores to the police. Then the stored images are viewed by the
police and used as information for investigations. The encrypted images that are stored at retail stores are
automatically deleted after 30 days if no incidents or accidents have occurred.
We have developed a prototype of security camera systems "e-JIKEI Camera". The e-JIKEI Camera is
used to realize our concept of a security camera system in which those who own images (the owner) and
those who have the right to view the images (the viewer) are separated by means of image encryptio n.
This concept was suggested with the aim of preventing the risk of privacy violation, reducing the
unnecessary psychological burden that third parties may experience, and promoting the placement of
security cameras in local communities.
In the current all-in-one security camera in the e-JIKEI Network, the camera has to be opened to remove
the memory card. However, this inconvenience is preferred from the viewpoint of privacy protection,
especially in the initial stage of society's gradual acceptance of our concept. However, in the near future,
the cameras will be connected to the Internet after the information security system between the owner and
viewers is established. Thereafter, online operations of solving crime, such as the rescue of kidnapped
children, can be implemented.
We have also considered the proposition "Will every streetlight have network cameras in the near
future?" and tried to make the solution to prevent “surveillance society”. In the lecture, the details will be
discussed.
4. Conclusion
We are asking the citizens how they compare the responsibility on watching what happens around their
houses with the risk of the violation of privacy. We are now commencing tests on the true value of our
concept.
References
[1] Society for e-JIKEI network: http://www.e-jikei.org/index_e.htm
[2] Y. Fujii, N. Yoshiura and N. Ohta, " Community security by widely available information technology",
Journal of Community Informatics, Vol. 2, No. 1 (2005)
[3] Y. Fujii, N. Yoshiura and N. Ohta (2005). Creating a worldwide community security structure using
individually maintained home computers: The e-JIKEI Network Project, Social Science Computer
Review, 23(2), 250-258.
17
January 18-19, 2018
[4] N. Yoshiura, Y. Fujii and N. Ohta (2005 May). Using the security camera system based on individua lly
maintained computers for homeland security: The e-JIKEI Network Project, Proc. IEEE IMTC 2005,
101-105, (Ottawa, Canada).
[5] US Home Guard: http://www.ushomeguard.org
[6] Y. Fujii, K. Maru, N. Yoshiura, N. Ohta, H. Ueda, Y. Sugita, "New concept regarding management of
security cameras", Journal of Community Informatics, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2008.
[7] Yusaku Fujii and Noriaki Yoshiura, "Will every streetlight have network cameras in the near future? ",
SCIENCE, eLetters (21 October 2016)
http://science.sciencemag.org/content/347/6221/504/tab-e- letters
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January 18-19, 2018
Multivariate Linear Model for Estimating the Higher Heating Value

of Coal
1a
Alchris W. Go, 1Angelique T. Conag, 1Arjay S. Toledo, 1John Wilbert A. Orilla
1
Chemical Engineering Department, University of San Carlos, Nasipit Talamban, Cebu City, Philippines
a
<alchrisgo@yahoo.com>
Keywords: coal, higher heating value, proximate analysis, predictive model
Abstract. Mathematical models for estimating the higher heating value of coals have constantly been
developed and verified. Recently, models based on proximate analysis have gained much attention
because of the relative ease in acquiring of such data. However, most models reported are focused solely
in improving the accuracy of the estimates and often times the realistic physical explanation and
assumptions of the model are not looked into. Furthermore, most models found in literature are generated
from coals of specific origin and thus limiting its applicability. In this work, a simple linear additive
models with moisture, fixed carbon, volatile matter and ash as parameters was generated. In the generatio n
of the model, proximate data sets (n > 8000) of coals form various origins was taken into consideratio n
having higher heating values ranging from 0.09 to 36.26 MJ/kg. The proposed improved model based on
the proximate components of coal outperforms similar models reported in literature with a coefficient of
determination (R2) as high as 0.97240 and mean absolute and mean bias errors of only 4.12 % and -
0.58 %, respectively.
1. Introduction
Coal remains to be one of the most widely used energy source in the world. In 2014, coal energy contributed 30.03 %
of the world energy consumption, coming in second to that of crude oil (32.57 %) [1]. The use of coal in thermal
and electrical energy generation requires knowledge of its heating value [2]. Heating value is the amount of energy
released by a given amount of fuel. Heating values may be expressed either as higher heating value (HHV) or lower
heating value (LHV). Higher heating value also known as the gross calorific value is the total amount of energy
released in the complete combustion of a unit fuel, while LHV or net calorific value (NCV) accounts for the heat
loss due to the vaporization of water during combustion. The determination of heating value requires the use of
bomb calorimeters (adiabatic or isothermal) based on the recommended procedure outlined in ASTM D5865-10.
Although the use of a bomb calorimeter is relatively simple with a good accuracy, its accessibility to researchers
and engineers are often times limited [3, 4]. This has led to the development of various empirical correlations
relating the HHV to its elemental (ultimate) analysis and/or proximate analysis [2, 5-7].
Correlations or models established using elemental analysis and the combination with proximate analysis are of
good accuracy [2, 5-7], but the burdensome tasks to carryout ultimate analysis and limited access to modern
19
January 18-19, 2018
elemental analyzer have limited their use. Correlations relating HHV with proximate analysis have gained much
interest in the recent years. Proximate analysis characterizes the coal sample according to its moisture (M), volatile
matter (VM), fixed carbon (FC) and ash content, expressed as weight percent with the aid of a common laboratory
oven and muffle furnace. Heating values and proximate analysis are often times reported as dry basis (db) or dry-
ash-free (daf) basis; these are often preferred for ease of comparison between samples. However, reporting these in
wet basis (as received, ar or air dried, ad) allows a better assessment of the sample’s actual quality, which is preferred
in the purchase and trade of coal. Analyses data reported in wet basis also allows ease of converting from one basis
to another.
Several correlations based on proximate analysis of coal (wet basis) have been established (Table 1). However, the
models reported are not in consensus. The differences between models may be due to the origin and quality of coals
and the range of heating values upon which the models were fitted and established.
Most, if not all models reported in literature are results of different regression techniques and focuses mostly in the
improvement of its accuracy, while its physical implications are often times not taken into consideration. In
developing models for prediction of HHV, it is thus important to have a model which would allow a wide range of
applicability and ease of application. The model’s accuracy and ease of use should at the same time be realistic and
would not violate any physical or chemical laws and principles. In this work a unified model was established,
validated, and tested using samples from various origins and quality.
Table 1. Predictive linear models established based on proximate analysis and experimental higher heating value data
(wet basis - “as received or air dried”)
Pre diction Model Year Coal Origin HHV Range (MJ/kg) Reference
A HHV = -0.11M + 0.33VM + 0.35FC – 0.003Ash 2008 India 12.75-28.37 Majumder et al. [8]
B HHV = 37.77 – 0.647M + 0.089VM – 0.387Ash 2009 United States 4.82-34.85 Mesroghli et al. [6]
C HHV = -3.57 + 0.31VM + 0.34FC 2013 Slovenia 9.79-14.42 Kavsek et al. [9]
D HHV = 35.391 – 0.47M – 0.028VM – 0.364Ash 2013 Afghanistan 3.66-32.65 Chelgani et al. [10]
E HHV = -0.266M + 0.293VM + 0.371FC – 0.004Ash 2015 United States 4.82-34.85 T an et al. [3]
F HHV = -0.053M + 0.296VM + 0.353FC – 0.002Ash 2015 China 12.71-26.53 T an et al. [3]
II. Data Gathering and Modeling

Data for model development and testing were gathered from U.S. Geological Survey Coal Quality (COALQUAL)
database version 3.0 [11] and an open-report on the chemical analyses in the world coal quality inventory [12]. The
data includes coal samples from at least ~60 countries or geographical location collected from the 1970 to the
present (at least up to 2010). Samples with incomplete proximate analysis data and data not summing up to 100 %
20
January 18-19, 2018
were excluded. A total of 8310 sets of coal sample analysis were used. Aided with a random number generator, the
samples were assigned with a random tag number and organized in a descending order. The first 4155 samples were
used for training of the model and the other half (4155 samples) were used for testing the generated model.
Validation and testing of available models

A cross validation and testing using the above mentioned models (Table 1) was carried out with the 8310 data sets
to assess their universal applicability and limitations. The performance of the models were then evaluated through
the use of the following metrics, mean absolute error (MAE), mean bias error (MBE) and coefficient of correlation
(R) using Equations 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
𝑵
𝟏 |𝒚
̂𝒊 − 𝒚𝒊 |
𝑴𝑨𝑬 = ∑ × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 Equation 1
𝒏 𝒚𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
𝑵\𝒏
𝟏 𝒚
̂𝒊 − 𝒚𝒊
𝑴𝑩𝑬 = ∑ × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 Equation 2
𝒏 𝒚𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
𝒏 ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒚𝒊 𝒚
̂𝒊 − ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒚𝒊 ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒚
̂𝒊
𝑹=
Equation 3
√𝒏 ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒚𝟐𝒊 − ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒚𝒊 𝟐 √𝒏 ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒚
̂𝟐𝒊 − ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒚
̂𝒊
𝟐
where 𝒚𝒊 and 𝒚
̂ 𝒊 are measured and predicted HHV, respectively and 𝒏 is the number of data points analyzed.
Multiple linear regression

Using Microsoft Excel and with the aid of the Solver data analysis tool, the data were regressed to obtain the
coefficients of the model (Equation 4) while reducing the sum of square error (SSE, Equation 5) following the least
squares method.
𝑯𝑯𝑽 = 𝜷𝟎 + 𝜷𝟏 𝑴 + 𝜷𝟐 𝑽𝑴
Equation 4
+ 𝜷𝟑 𝑭𝑪 + 𝜷𝟒 𝑨𝒔𝒉
𝒏
𝑺𝑺𝑬 = ∑ (𝒚𝒊 −𝒚
̂𝒊 ) 𝟐 Equation 5
𝒊 =𝟏
In addition to the mean absolute error (MAE), mean bias error (MBE) and coefficient of correlation (R), the models
generated were also evaluated based on the standard error of estimate (SEE), margin of error (ME), the coefficient
of determination (𝑹𝟐 ), adjusted R-squared (𝑹𝟐𝒂𝒅𝒋) and the F-statistics (F). These were determined using Equations 6
to 10 below.
21
January 18-19, 2018
𝑺𝑺𝑬
𝑺𝑬𝑬 = √ Equation 6
𝒏−𝒌−𝟏
𝑴𝑬 = 𝒁𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 × 𝑺𝑬𝑬 Equation 7
𝟐
∑ 𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 (𝒚𝒊 −𝒚̂ 𝒊 )
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏 − 𝟐
Equation 8
∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 (𝒚𝒊 −𝒚̅𝒊 )
(𝟏 − 𝑹𝟐 ) × (𝒏 − 𝟏)
𝑹𝟐𝒂𝒅𝒋 = 𝟏 − Equation 9
𝒏 −𝒌−𝟏
(𝒏 − 𝒌 − 𝟏)𝑹𝟐
𝑭= Equation 10
𝒌(𝟏 − 𝑹𝟐 )
where 𝑘 is the number of parameters in the regression model and 𝒚

̅ is the average mean value of the experimental
HHV.
III. Results and Discussions

Coal quality and HHV data from at ~60 origins were analyzed and used in this work. Coal samples include those
from countries belonging to North America (n = 6764), South and Central America (n = 153), Europe and Eurasia
(n = 451), Africa (n = 88), Asia Pacific (n = 813) and Antarctica (n = 15). Ranges of the proximate analysis and
heating values are presented in Tables 2. The samples cover a wide range of 0.09 to 36.26 MJ/kg.
Table 2. Range of proximate analysis and HHV data (as received basis) of coal used in this study
VM FC Ash
Variables Moisture (%) HHV (MJ/kg)
(%) (%) (%)
Minimum 0.00 1.65 0.02 0.41 0.09
Maximum 70.88 60.47 90.41 89.19 36.26
Mean 9.07 30.75 46.83 13.35 25.84
Standard Deviation 10.81 7.74 13.21 9.81 6.20
Gathered data for individual component of the proximate analysis were plotted against the coals’ respective HHVs
to evaluate possible correlations. The proximate components are to some extent correlated with HHV, with fixed
carbon having the highest correlation followed by moisture, ash and volatile matter being the least. Ash (R = -0.56)
and moisture (R = -0.78) content are negatively correlated with HHV, while fixed carbon (R = 0.87) and volatile
matter (R = 0.30) content are positively correlated. Among the 4 components only fixed carbon is strongly correlated
to the HHV, with ~76 % of the cases linearly correlated. These results are generally in concordant with those
reported in literature but varies in the magnitude or degree of correlation. For instance, Afghan coals were found to
have strong correlations with ash (R = -0.90) and fixed carbon (R = 0.81) [10]. Coals from the US, were on the
other hand, found to be strongly correlated to its moisture content (R = -0.92) [6].
22
January 18-19, 2018
Interrelation between each component were also checked to determine possible correlation (Table 3). However,
none of the proximate components are correlated with one another. This is in agreement with the analysis of
Mesroghli et al. [6] in the analysis of proximate components of US coal samples. These results indicate no possible
mathematical redundancy when using these variables in establishing correlation for HHV.
Table 3. Pearson’s correlation coefficient between constituents of proximate analysis

Variables M (%) VM (%) FC (%) Ash (%)
M oisture (%) 1 - - -
Volatile M atter (%) -0.1463 1 - -
Fixed Carbon (%) -0.0588 -0.4047 1 -
Ash (%) -0.6885 -0.1660 -0.4571 1
Majumder et al. [8] observed a strong positive corelation between HHV and the sum of fixed carbon and volatile
matter and between the sum of moisture and ash contents. However, the degree of correlation and model relating
them was not provided. In the study by Kavsek et al. [9], it was reported that the combustible matter (FC + VM)
and HHV had a corellation coeficient of 0.97, but again no model was established based solely on this parameter.
Thus, these relationships was looked into in this work and is depicted in Figure 1.
As could be observed from Figure 1A, the sum of moisture and ash content have a strong negative correlation (R =
-0.98) with HHV, while the combustible matter content are positively correlated (R = 0.98) with HHV. Two
seemingly different models could be established, however, upon taking into consideration the definition of
proximate components of coal , the two expressions are mathematically identical and could be useful estimating the
HHV with a margin of error within ±2.55 MJ/kg at 95 % confidence interval.
23
January 18-19, 2018
40
HHV experimental (MJ/kg)
y = -0.4281x + 35.436
30 R² = 0.9566
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Moisture+Ash Content (%w/w)
40
HHV experimental (MJ/kg)
y = 0.4279x - 7.354
30 R² = 0.9563
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
VCM+FC Content (%w/w)
B
Figure 1. Combined effects of A– moisture+ash and B – volatile matter+fixed carbon on the energy content of coal.
Cross validation of available models

The performance of the established models (Tables 1) are tested over a large set of data (n = 8310) consisting of
coal samples from different regions in the world. To provide an objective assessment on the accuracy of the models,
the mean absolute error, mean bias error, and correlation coefficient are summarized in Table 4. All the models
tested were reported to have coefficients of determination, R 2 > 0.95. However, validation with more data resulted
in poor prediction by certain models (B, C and E). As can be observed from the parity plots, the predicted values
are mostly underestimates and is supported by the negative values of the mean bias error, with model F having the
least mean bias of -1.47 % and for mean absolute error, model D resulted in the least error at 4.42 %. In view of
predictive coefficient of determination, model A and D resulted in the highest R 2 pred of 0.96.
Among the models verified, only Model C did not incorporate ash content as one of the parameters for predicting
HHV. The predicted HHVs by Model C resulted in the highest mean absolute and bias error of 15.23 % and -
14.97 %, respectively. This result suggests the need to look into the effects of ash content in prediction of HHV.
The ability of these models (except model C) to predict at least 75 % of the cases having an error of less than 10 %,
regardless of the samples’ origin used for training and testing suggest the possibility of developing a unified model.
24
January 18-19, 2018
Table 4. Comparison of model prediction performance

Percent of Percent of Percent of
Coefficient of
cases with cases with cases with
Prediction Model MAEa (%) MBEb (%) Determination
deviations < deviations < deviations <
(R2)
1% 5% 10 %
A M ajumder et al. [8] 5.10 -3.17 11.9 69.0 94.0 0.9564
B M esroghli et al. [6] 11.23 -10.35 5.1 52.9 78.8 0.7932
C Kavsek et al. [9] 15.23 -14.97 0.7 5.0 19.2 0.5075
D Chelgani et al. [10] 4.42 -1.62 16.2 78.0 93.3 0.9639
E Tan et al. [3] 11.30 -10.41 3.9 46.4 78.8 0.7959
F Tan et al. [3] 5.44 -1.47 7.2 52.9 94.9 0.9403
amean absolute error; b mean bias error;
Developing a unified model

In this work, models developed were limited to those in the form of Equation 4. Only models with a regression
coefficient of over 0.95 were considered and further explored. Seven models resulting from multiple linear
regression is summarized in Table 5. All models may allow us to draw certain inferences and probable assumptions,
but the negative contribution of moisture to the HHV of coal remains largely in question. One possibility is to
exclude moisture from the model (Model G6), which results in a negative intercept, with the corresponding
proximate parameters accounting for their respective average contribution to the HHV. Interestingly, substituting
definition of proximate components of coal to the other models to eliminate the moisture term results in an exact
same expression as model G6. This shows that a linear combination of at least 3 proximate parameters would not
result in independent expressions and would best be presented in a form similar to that of Model G6.
Table 5. Proposed linear models based on proximate analysis and experimental higher heating value data (wet basis -
“as received or air dried”)
Assumptions and probable effects of each
Proposed prediction model (General form)
component
HHV = β 0 + β 1 M + β 2 VM + β 3 FC + β 4 Ash
Coals have a base heating value with moisture,
HHV = 31.57 – 0.417M – 0.004VM + 0.059FC –
G1 VM and ash contributing negatively, while FC
0.345Ash
contributes positively to the overall HHV
HHV = -10.13 + 0.414VM + 0.476FC + 0.072Ash *
HHV = 32.74 + β 1 M + β 2 VM + β 3 FC + β 4 Ash
HHV = 32.74 – 0.428M – 0.017VM + 0.048FC – The base heating value of coal is set to be equal to
G2
0.356Ash the HHV of carbon.
HHV = -10.06 + 0.411VM + 0.476FC + 0.072Ash *
HHV = β 0 + β 1 M + β 2 VM + 0.327FC + β 4 Ash
Fixed carbon is assumed to be of pure carbon, the
HHV = 4.82 – 0.149M + 0.262VM + 0.327FC –
G3 base heating value reduced to 4.82 MJ/kg and VM
0.077Ash
contributes positively.
HHV = -10.08 + 0.411VM + 0.476FC + 0.072Ash *
HHV = β 0 + β 1 M + β 2 VM + β 3 Ash FC is excluded in the model resulting in an
G4
HHV = 37.56 – 0.476M – 0.065VM – 0.404Ash increase in the base value of coal.
25
January 18-19, 2018
HHV = -10.04 + 0.411VM + 0.476FC + 0.072Ash *

Coal does not have a common base heating value.
FC and VM positively contributes to the HHV,
HHV = β 1 M + β 2 VM + β 3 FC + β 4 Ash where the coefficients are taken as the average
G5 HHV = -0.101M + 0.310VM + 0.375FC – 0.029Ash HHV of the proximate components. Moisture (M)
HHV = -10.1 + 0.411VM + 0.476FC + 0.072Ash * and Ash contributes negatively and are taken as
the additional heat to liberate the bound moisture
and break down of carbonates.
Moisture is excluded. All elemental components
of FC, VM and Ash contributes positively to the
HHV = β 0 + β 1 VM + β 2 FC + β 3 Ash HHV with the intercept accounting for the heat
G6
HHV = -10.05 + 0.410VM + 0.476FC + 0.071Ash required in the breakdown of the proximat e
constituents and release of bound moisture and
carbon dioxide from carbonates
HHV = β 0 + β 2 VM + β 3 FC Moisture is excluded and contribution of Ash to
G7
HHV = -6.39 + 0.366VM + 0.448FC the HHV is assumed negligible.
*obtained after algebraic manipulation based on the relationship: M = 100 – FC – VM – Ash
Table 6 is a summary of statistical measures made in terms of error of the models’ prediction and significance of
the model parameters to predict the HHV of coal. As mentioned earlier, Models G1 through G6 are in principle,
mathematically identical, thus resulting in identical or rather very similar responses. The predictions by the current
model has a mean absolute and bias error of 4.11 % and -0.58 %, respectively, and is lower than models reported
in literature (Table 4). It is also found to be lower when compared to a universal model developed with the aid of
support vector regression by Tan et al. [3], reported to have a mean absolute error of 6.24 %. Cases having
deviations less than 5 % is as high as 82.5 % for the new models established. All parameters in the models generated
are found to be statistically significant. Among the three parameters (FC, VM and Ash), ash content seem to
contribute the least. Model G7 was generated excluding the contribution of ash content, although a very similar
correlation coefficient was obtained, the adjusted R-squared was lower and subsequent increase in error was
observed. Thus, the effects of ash should be included in the estimation or prediction of HHV, retaining Model G6.
Table 6. Comparison prediction performance of models developed

Percent
Percent of
of cases Correlation
Proposed MAE MBE cases with Adjusted
with Coefficient Fa p-valueb
Model (% ) (% ) deviations R2
deviations (R)
<5%
<1%
G1 4.11 -0.58 23.4 82.5 0.9860 0.9724 36,277 <0.00001
G2 4.11 -0.57 23.5 82.6 0.9860 0.9724 36,286 <0.00001
G3 4.12 -0.57 23.4 82.6 0.9860 0.9724 48,381 <0.00001
G4 4.11 -0.57 23.5 82.6 0.9860 0.9725 48,381 <0.00001
G5 4.12 -0.58 23.4 82.5 0.9860 0.9724 36,286 <0.00001
G6 4.12 -0.57 23.4 82.5 0.9860 0.9724 48,381 <0.00001
G7 5.54 -1.14 20.0 75.5 0.9824 0.9624 57,424 <0.00001
26
January 18-19, 2018
a
F-statistics with a critical F = 2.2; bH0: HHV = B0, if p < 0.05 then reject H 0, else accept H 0, where p is the probability.
In Model G6, all parameters contributed positively to the HHV of coal. Interestingly, the average contribution by
FC is 47.6 MJ/kg is higher than the heat of formation of carbon dioxide and similarly, in the case of Model G5
where the contribution FC is 37.5 MJ/kg is also higher than the HHV of pure carbon. In a separate study by Parikh
et al. [13], carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen contents of biomass were correlated to both FC and VM, suggesting that
FC are non-volatile compounds of organic origins. Models G5 and G6 provide two different perspectives in view
of empirical models established, with the first (G5) taking the HHV of coal as the weighted sum of the combustibles’
(FC and VM) HHVs and the additional energy required to release the bound moisture, and breakdown of hydrates
and carbonates. The latter (G6), models HHV of coal in view of the heats of formation of the proximate constituents
and the combustion products liberated expressed in terms of its proximate components, with the intercept accounting
for the heat required in the breakdown of the proximate constituents and release of bound moisture and carbon
dioxide from carbonates. Regardless of its form, either equation do perform similarly in terms of its ability to predict
HHV as these expressions are related through material balance of the proximate components in coal. Moreover,
through these models, it is clear that all constituents do influence the HHV of coal and should be taken into account
during the development of HHV models.
Testing and validation of the unified model

The extent of a model’s usefulness may be assessed through testing with data sets outside the training set.
Considering that both models G5 and G6 are just of the same accuracy are related through material balance of the
proximate components, only model G5 is used in subsequent validation. A parity plot of experimental and predicted
HHV for both training and testing data set is presented in Figure 5. The data are generally distributed along the
zero-error line, indicating a good agreement between the predicted and measured data. Statistical assessment is
provided in Table 7, showing good predictability and accuracy.
40 40
HHV predicted (MJ/kg)
HHV predicted (MJ/kg)
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
-10 -10
HHV experimental (MJ/kg) HHV experimental (MJ/kg)
A B
27
January 18-19, 2018
Figure 5. Parity plots of experimental HHV and predicted HHV by predictive model G6 (A – training set and B –
validation set).
Table 7. Validation and comparison of model prediction performance

Percent of Percent of
HHV Correlation
MAE MBE cases with cases with
Data Set Range Coefficient Fa p-valueb
(%) (%) deviations < deviations <
(MJ/kg) (R)
1% 5%
HHV (MJ/kg) = 0.410VM + 0.476FC + 0.071Ash – 10.05 ± 1.03 (This study)
T raining 0.09 –
4.12 -0.57 23.4 82.5 0.9859 48,388 <0.00001
(N = 4155) 36.26
T esting 1.08 –
3.96 -0.39 23.5 82.1 0.9850 44,738 <0.00001
(N = 4155) 36.05
Conclusions
A predictive model for HHV based on the linear combination of at least three of the proximate components of coal
would result in the same expression and would best be presented with fixed carbon, volatile matter and ash as
parameters, or with all four proximate constituents without incorporating an intercept. A unified semi-empirical
predictive model was successfully established based on a pool of proximate data (>8000 sets) of coal from various
regions. The generated model was found to have a mean absolute error and bias error of 4.12 % and -0.57 %,
respectively, with a standard error of estimate of 1.03 MJ/kg. The linear expressions,
𝑀𝐽
𝐻𝐻𝑉 𝐶𝑂 𝐴𝐿 = −10.05 + 0.476𝐹𝐶 + 0.410𝑉𝑀 + 0.071𝐴𝑠ℎ , or
𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝐽
𝐻𝐻𝑉 𝐶𝑂 𝐴𝐿 = −0.101𝑀 + 0.375𝐹𝐶 + 0.310𝑉𝑀 − 0.029𝐴𝑠ℎ ,
𝑘𝑔
provides an accurate estimate for HHV (as received or wet basis) of coals and is comparable, or in some cases,
outperforms sophisticated models reported in literature.
References
[1] B.P. Statistical Review of World Energy 2015. In: Energy BSRoW, editor.: British Petroleum; 2015.
[2] Vargas-Moreno J, Callejón-Ferre A, Pérez-Alonso J, Velázquez-Martí B. A review of the
mathematical models for predicting the heating value of biomass materials. Renewable and Sustainab le
Energy Reviews. 2012;16(5):3065-83.
[3] Tan P, Zhang C, Xia J, Fang Q-Y, Chen G. Estimation of higher heating value of coal based on
proximate analysis using support vector regression. Fuel Processing Technology. 2015;138:298-304.
28
January 18-19, 2018
[4] Yin C-Y. Prediction of higher heating values of biomass from proximate and ultimate analyses. Fuel.
2011;90(3):1128-32.
[5] Ghugare SB, Tambe SS. Genetic programming based high performing correlations for prediction of
higher heating value of coals of different ranks and from diverse geographies. Journal of the Energy
Institute. 2016.
[6] Mesroghli S, Jorjani E, Chehreh Chelgani S. Estimation of gross calorific value based on coal analysis
using regression and artificial neural networks. International Journal of Coal Geology. 2009;79(1-2):49-
54.
[7] Patel SU, Kumar BJ, Badhe YP, Sharma B, Saha S, Biswas S, et al. Estimation of gross calorific value
of coals using artificial neural networks. Fuel. 2007;86(3):334-44.
[8] Majumder A, Jain R, Banerjee P, Barnwal J. Development of a new proximate analysis based
correlation to predict calorific value of coal. Fuel. 2008;87(13-14):3077-81.
[9] Kavšek D, Bednárová A, Biro M, Kranvogl R, Vončina DB, Beinrohr E. Characterization of Slovenia n
coal and estimation of coal heating value based on proximate analysis using regression and artificial neural
networks. Central European Journal of Chemistry. 2013;11(9):1481-91.
[10] Chelgani SC, Makaremi S. Explaining the relationship between common coal analyses and Afghan
coal parameters using statistical modeling methods. Fuel Processing Technology. 2013;110:79-85.
[11] Palmer CA, Oman CL, Park AJ, Luppens JA. The US Geological Survey coal quality (COALQUAL)
database version 3.0. US Geological Survey; 2015.
[12] Tewalt SJ, Belkin HE, SanFilipo JR, Merrill MD, Palmer CA, Warwick PD, et al. Chemical analyses
in the world coal quality inventory. US Geological Survey; 2010.
[13] Parikh J, Channiwala SA, Ghosal GK. A correlation for calculating elemental composition from
proximate analysis of biomass materials. Fuel. 2007;86(12-13):1710-9.
29
January 18-19, 2018
Air Mapping of Classrooms in a Government Learning Institution

in Cebu City: An Extension Service
Ronald M. Galindo, Ph.D., DPA, PME
College of Engineering, Cebu Technological University, Cebu City, Philippines 6000
< ranny1562@yahoo.com>
Keywords: air mapping, learning institution, extension service
Abstract. The air mapping of classrooms in a government learning institution was carried out as an
extension service through the actual measurements of the temperature and relative humidity of the
different classrooms of a three-storey government school building using a digital RH Anemometer Pen
Model No. 850021. Other physical and measurable items like total occupants, floor area, glass windows,
doors, lights and electric fans were also noted for reference. Interviews with teachers and students were
also conducted to determine their common experiences on how the indoor air quality affect to the
occupants’ attendance, comfort and performance in the class. Brief lectures on psychrometrics and
awareness of indoor air quality were also shared to answer the questions of elementary and high school
students regarding the study. Based from the findings, the indoor air quality in the classrooms particular ly
in the ground floor with respect to the room temperature and relative humidity was influenced by the
reduction in the ventilation rates and thereby affect the comfortableness of the occupants. The ventilatio n
rate was affected due to the presence of the elevated concrete fence which almost completely blocked the
passage of air at the right side of the majority of the classrooms in the ground floor. Studies on air mapping
of classrooms as an extension service is a fulfilling experience to be able to share of one’s expertise for
the benefit of the children, school and the community.
1. Introduction
The indoor air quality problems in the building affect the occupants’ attendance, comfort, and performance
(6). The outdoor environment can also significantly affect indoor air quality. Dry, windy climates increase
dust and the warm and humid climates have more insects, pollen, and mold. Poor indoor air quality can
certainly affect health and comfort levels and the room temperature and humidity can both affect
immediate physical comfort and influence indoor air quality.
In classrooms where poor indoor air quality is experienced can cause illnesses requiring school absences
and can cause acute health symptoms that decrease performance while at school (6 ). Research suggests
that students cannot concentrate well, and report more health symptoms, in classrooms with low
ventilation rates. ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 recommends that space relative humidity should be
maintained between 30 % - 60 % and ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004 also requires ventilation rate of
outdoor air of 15 cubic feet per minute per person (students ages 5-8) and 13 cubic feet per person (students
age 9 + ).
30
January 18-19, 2018
In view of the on-going construction of elevating the height of the concrete fence between the back portion
of a public school building and that of a banking institution, there is a necessity to assess the present
conditions through air mapping with respect to the room temperature and relative humidity of the
classrooms of this public school building.
2. Indoor Air Quality
The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE) defines
acceptable indoor air quality (IAQ) as “ air in which there are no known contaminants at harmful
concentrations as determined by cognizant authorities and which substantial majority (80% or more) of
the people exposed do not express dissatisfaction”(1). The incidence of indoor air quality complaints
increased due to the impact of the energy crisis where buildings were made airtight with insulation and
sealed windows. The presence of more chemical-containing products, office supplies, equipment, and
pesticides in the office or classroom environment is also the second reason of discomfort. These changes
created indoor air quality health problems known as Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) or Building-Rela ted
Illness (BRI).
Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) exists in a workplace when more building occupants experience health
and comfort problems due to working indoors while the Building Related Illnesses (BRI) exist when a
relatively small number of workers experience health problems. In SBS, the worker symptoms ma y
include headaches, eye, nose, and throat irritation, dry or itchy skin, fatigue, dizziness, nausea and loss of
concentration while in BRI, worker symptoms may include eye, nose, throat, and upper respiratory
irritation, skin irritation or rashes, chills, fever, cough, chest tightness, congestion, sneezing, runny nose,
muscle aches, and pneumonia (2).
Studies suggest that nearly one fourth of U.S. workers perceive air quality problems in their work
environments and 20 percent believe their work is impaired by reactions to indoor pollution (3). Pollutant
and indoor sources were identified such as; asbestos and other fibrous aerosols; carbon monoxide ;
formaldehyde; inhalable particulate matter; nitrogen dioxide; ozone; radon and radon progeny; sulfur
dioxide and volatile organics (5).
A simple one-box model of a building is shown in figure 1 where ambient air entering the building may
bring new sources of pollution, which adds to whatever may be generated inside (4 ).
31
January 18-19, 2018
Ca Indoor concentration C
Volume V
infiltration I exfiltration I
S decay rate K
Source Sink
Fig.1. Box model for indoor air pollution
The pollutants may be removed from the building by infiltration or ventilation, or they may be
conservative and decay with time.
3. Air Mapping
The air mapping was conducted in the classrooms of a government school in Cebu City. It covers the
ground, second and third levels of the school building.
The air mapping was carried out through the actual measurements of the temperature and relative humid ity
of the different classrooms using a digital RH Anemometer Pen Model No. 850021. Other physical and
measurable items like total occupants, floor area, glass windows, doors, lights and electric fans were also
noted for reference.
Interviews with some teachers and students were also conducted to hear their side regarding the indoor air
quality on how it affects to the occupants’ attendance, comfort and performance in the class. Short lectures
on psychrometrics and awareness of indoor air quality were also conducted to answer the questions of
elementary and high school students regarding the study. Tabulated results are presented in a separate
sheet as shown in table 1.
4. Results and Discussion of Results
Based from the results as shown in table 1 using a digital RH Anemometer Pen Model No. 850021, the
findings are as follows:
The average relative humidity of the two classrooms in the ground floor namely Rm 159 and Rm 158 were
above the acceptable range based from ASHRAE 62-1989 standards (30%-60%) and these rooms have
average room temperatures of 30.9 o C and 31.4 o C respectively. The relative humidity of Rm 154 which
is also located in the ground floor was found to be above the acceptable level and all the rest were found
to be within the range.
32
January 18-19, 2018
T able 1. Room Temperature and Relative Humidity Profile

Roo Total Ave. Ave. Difference
m Perso Temp RH, % in RH
No. ns ., o C Outside
RH=
57.45 %
159 37 30.9 62.10 4.65
158 45 31.4 61.03 3.58
157 46 31.7 57.76 0.31
156 32 31.9 57.48 0.03
* 36 29.4 * 45.11 (12.34)
155
154 5 30.1 63.78 6.33
* 6 28.7 * 43.73 (13.72)
OIS
237 51 31.0 58.36 0.91
236 46 32.0 56.08 (1.37)
235 45 32.2 53.13 (4.32)
233 43 32.3 53.64 (3.81)
335 45 32.8 54.50 (2.95)
334 63 32.7 55.32 (2.13)
333 61 32.4 57.27 (0.18)
332 68 32.7 56.58 (0.87)
Note: Classroom : ( Non-Air Conditioned with electric fans) ;

* Air Conditioned
Relative Humidity: Acceptable Range( 30 % - 60 %)
Ref.: ASHRAE Standard 62-1989
Majority of the classrooms in the ground floor were provided with electric fans for ventilation and well
lighted. Only Rm 155 and Rm OIS were air conditioned. It was observed that the concrete elevated fence
being constructed almost completely blocked the passage of air at the right side of the room since there
were only few decorative blocks for air passage mounted in the walls facing the side of the classrooms as
shown in figure 1.
The velocity of air passing through the openings of the decorative blocks was found to be 0.1 m/sec.
Considering the three sets of 2 by 7 decorative blocks arrangement per room as shown in figure 1, it
delivered about 1.31 cubic feet per min (cfm) per person in Rm 159, while in Rm 158, it delivered a
ventilation rate of about 1.0842 cfm/ person. These ventilation rates were found to be below the
recommended ventilation rates of ASHRAE standards.
33
January 18-19, 2018
Figure 1. Decorative block arrangement
ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004 requires ventilation rate of outdoor air of 15 cubic feet per minute per
person (students ages 5-8) and 13 cubic feet per person (students age 9 + ).
High relative humidity above the range can lead to mold, mildew, and other biological growth. Mold
growth is linked to allergic reactions, asthma attacks, and hypersensitivity pneumonitis (inflamed airways)
(6 ).
The presence of the concrete fence being elevated up to the ceiling level of the ground floor as shown in
figure 2, affects the ventilation rate of the classroom since it blocked the majority passage of air at the
right side of the room.
Figure 2. Elevated fence at ceiling level
Classrooms with low ventilation rates can affect the students’ concentration level, and report more health
symptoms. Low ventilation rates can be a sign of high indoor pollutant levels because adequate ventilatio n
is required to remove pollutants from indoor environments (2).
The relative humidities of the different classrooms in the second level were found to be within the
acceptable range ( 30 % - 60% ) RH and their respective temperatures were higher compared to the room
temperatures in the ground floor as shown in table 1. The air flows through the left and right sides of the
classrooms. The second level is free from the blockage of concrete walls since the level of the fence is
only up to the ceiling level of the ground floor as shown in figure 2.
34
January 18-19, 2018
The outside environment conditions during the mapping activity were found to have higher dry bulb
temperature of 31.6 o C and with RH of 57.45 %. The classroom temperatures in the second floor were
found to be within the range of 31.0 o C to 32.3 o C, higher than the temperature of outdoor air. The slight
increase was attributed by the heat transfer through heat conduction on walls and windows, heat
convection of outside air, in the ceiling and the heat rejected from the occupants. There was a continuo us
flow of air in the classroom and the ventilation rate was just enough for the space relative humidity to
settle within the acceptable range.
In the third floor, the relative humidities of the different classrooms were found to be within the acceptable
range and their respective temperatures were higher ranging between 32.4 o C to 32.8 o C as compared to
the room temperatures in the ground floor as shown in the table 1. The air flows through the left and right
sides of the classrooms. The third level is free from the blockage of concrete walls since the level of the
fence is only up to the ceiling level of the ground floor.
The classroom conditions in the third level were found to be slightly similar to the second floor in terms
of its humidity level. Hot air goes up and carried by the flow of outside air through the windows, doors
and wall openings and heat though conduction, convection, radiation at the rooftop and ceiling add-up to
the increase in temperature which was the highest at 32.8 o C.
Based from the interviews conducted, some teachers handling classes in the second and third levels
revealed that students’ behavior and performance were affected specially in the afternoon session. Test
scores of some students were low when examinations were conducted in the afternoon as compared to
when examinations were given in the early morning session. Moderate changes in room temperature, even
within the comfort zone, appear to affect students’ abilities to perform mental tasks requiring
concentration, such as addition, multiplication and sentence comprehension (6).
In the school clinic, it was noted that there was an increased incidence on headaches of students not
suffering of fever and this may be attributed due to higher temperature levels and higher relative humid ity
in the classroom.
5. Conclusion
Based from the findings, the indoor air quality in the classrooms of a government learning institution in
Cebu City particularly in the ground floor with respect to the room temperature and relative humidity was
influenced by the reduction in the ventilation rates in the different classrooms and also affect the
comfortableness of the occupants. It is further concluded that the presence of the concrete elevated fence
at back of the building almost completely blocked the passage of air at the right side of the classrooms in
the ground floor, thereby contributed to the reduction in the ventilation rate of outdoor air. Studies on
mapping of air in the classrooms as an extension service is a fulfilling experience to be able to share of
one’s expertise for the benefit of the children, school and the community.
35
January 18-19, 2018
References
[1] American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE),

Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality Standard 62-1989 and 62- 2004.
[2] R.J.Codey, Indoor Air Quality: Public Employees Occupational Safety and Health Program, 2004.
[3] K. Kreiss, The Sick Building Syndrome: Where is the epidemiologic basis?. American Journal of
Public Health, 1990. 80:1172-1173.
[4] G. M. Masters, Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science. International Editio n-
Prentice-Hall Inc.,1998.
[5] N.L. Nagda, H.E. Rector and M.D. Koontz, Guidelines for Monitoring Indoor Air Quality,
Hemisphere, Washington, DC. 1987.
[6] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools Program,
http://www.epa.gov/iaq/schools/index.html.
36
January 18-19, 2018
Renewable Energy Source Study of USC Dmme: Application of

Gorlov Helical Marine Turbine
Edwin A. Carcasonaa, Dunn E. Rama, Hilario P. Degorio Jr., Fabiano Migraso Jr.,
Danielle D. Cabana, Julian Paolo M. Garces, Aldrin Roy Longakit, Tiffany Morgan
L. Bulanon, Neil Arden D. Masbad, Mikkel Wilkinson S. Yang
a
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of San Carlos, Cebu City, Cebu,
Philippines
a<edcarc123055@yahoo.com>
Keywords: tidal turbine, solidity ratio, tip speed ratio, naca 0018, Gorlov turbine
Abstract. The University of San Carlos Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Department
conducted a study from 2013 to 2015 on the possibility of harnessing energy from Silot Bay Channel in
Lilo-an, Cebu through the use of Marine Turbine. Initial studies were conducted to determine the velocity
of the sea current during high and low tides. This is to determine the type of turbine to be used. To
determine the velocity profile, the channel was subdivided into Cross-sections and sub-sections, and the
data showed that the highest velocity (2.74 m/s) was as at Cross-section B and sub-section 4 at a depth of
2.32 m from sea surface.
Using the marine velocity data, a Gorlov Helical Turbine using NACA 0018 airfoil was designed,
fabricated and tested to determine the shaft power that can be harnessed. The turbine has the following
dimensions: turbine height = 600mm, chord length = 120mm and diameter = 350mm. Test results showed
that the shaft power developed during low tide was 3.66W and 53.62W at high tide.
A turbine farm is necessary to increase the total power output from the channel. In this regard a
study was made to determine the optimum distance between the same Gorlov turbines by varying the
distance that would not be affected by wake. Tests were conducted with the three (3) turbines aligned
vertically (parallel to the flow) and aligned horizontally (perpendicular to the flow). It was found that at
any configuration, the optimum distance between the tested turbines was 3.0m.
1. Introduction
There are numerous potential renewable energy sources; wind energy, solar energy, water energy,
steam energy and much more. But one of the most underutilized and under developed types of energy
source is the Tidal Energy. A big benefit of tidal energy is the predictability of tides and currents. Unlike
solar energy and wind energy, tidal currents are very easy to predict therefore very reliable. Given proper
care in design, deployment, operation, and maintenance, tidal power could be among the most
environmentally benign or gentle electricity-generating technologies yet developed. [1]
37
January 18-19, 2018
In our country of 7,107 islands, numerous rivers, streams, bays and channels, the Philippines have
much availability of potential sites for harvesting tidal power. But these sites are not yet utilized and a
very few studies are being conducted about the tidal power all over the world. [15]
This study aimed to determine the viability of Silot Bay Channel in Catarman, Liloan, Province of
Cebu as a source of small scale tidal energy source. Along its coastline, there is spot called Silot, where
a whirlpool is created by the ebbs and flows of the waters from the bay. This phenomenon is called “lilo”
in Cebuano. Because of this, the town was known as Liloan, meaning a place where there is a “lilo".
Silot Bay is a 100-hectare shallow tidal lagoon, with mangrove swamps, fishponds and two islets.
Its waters flow from Camotes Sea, of which it is connected through a channel that is about 20 meters wide.
To open sea
Silot Bay
Figure 1.1 Aerial view of Silot Bay
The mouth of the bay is where the whirling waters are, the “lilo” that gave the town its name. The
bridge over it used to be made of wood but it was changed to concrete a couple of years ago. For many
years now, Liloanons from as far as the mountain barangays go to the bay to fish, as the bay is a rich
fishing ground. It is also a feeding area for herons, egrets and other birds. The strong current at the bay
also makes it a good area for the military training’s water survival exercises including river crossing.
Figure 1.2 Silot Bay at high Tide
38
January 18-19, 2018
Figure 1.3 Silot Bay at low tide
A tidal turbine is required to harness the energy of the flood and ebb tides in the channel preceding
Silot Bay in Liloan, Cebu. Firstly, the turbine design must be able to harness the tidal energy for both
directions of the incoming and outgoing tides in the narrow channel in Silot Bay. For this, a horizonta l
turbine is least considered since a single direction of fluid flow is only harnessed. Using a horizonta l
turbine to utilize the flood and ebb currents may prove to be costly since, a second turbine or both is
needed. Vertical axis turbines are more feasible in performing the desired function of harnessing the tidal
energy from flood and ebb tides.
2. Theory
2.1 Marine Velocity
Prior to designing a marine turbine, the current velocity of the locality has to be determined. One
of the methods of determining the discharge velocity is the velocity-area method. This method of
measuring discharge is commonly employed in channels and rivers. It consists essentially of making
observations along a line transverse to the direction of flow. The result is quite accurate since the cross-
section of the entire flowing body of water is divided into several smaller subsections. The velocity at
each subsection is determined separately and multiplied by its area, and the sum of these products gives
the total discharge of the whole cross-section.
The current meter is used in the velocity measurements. The usual procedure involves making the
sounding along a vertical and observing the velocity by the two-point method. The process is repeated at
the other verticals that divided the stream’s cross-section into a series of measuring subsections. The
selected size of each subsection depends upon the irregularity of the steam bed and the distribution of flow
through the cross-sections. The total discharge ( Q ) is computed from the field observations by a
summation of the partial discharges (Q 1 ,Q 2 Q3 , and etc.) determined for each subsection. In this method
of determining discharge, partial discharges in the two small end zones (near the left and right water edges)
are equal to zero. There is actually a small amount of discharge in the two end zones, but if the verticals
in these zones are taken fairly closer to the water’s edge, no significant error was introduced in the
computation of total discharge.
39
January 18-19, 2018
Figure 2.1. Sample of a Cross-Section of a Stream.
A cross-section of a stream shown in Figure 2.1 is divided in subsections. In determining the area
of each subsection, the formula is used
1
an  ( xn  xn 1 )hn (1)
2
where:
an = area of the subsection n
xn = distance between the center of each subsections
hn = depth measured at the center of each subsections
2.2 Gorlov Marine Turbine

This study considered the Gorlov Helical Marine Turbine because of its advanced and most
recent design over other known marine multi- flow turbines. It also has the advantage to utilize the flow
from different angular positions, thus giving it a uniform torque distribution. There are more explanatio ns
about the turbine selection and how it was designed. This type of turbine (Figure 2.2) as it has the ability
to utilize the flow of an incoming current from all angles due to its twisted design [6]. According to Gorlov
[4] based on his experimental results, the highest efficiency for this type of turbine is 35%, much larger
compared to the Darrieus turbine, with an efficiency of 23.5% [4], and the Savonius turbine, which has an
efficiency of a 10%[24]. With this idea, the helical turbine has a good self-starting characteristic. The study
used the Gorlov Helical Turbine shown in Figure 2.2 based on the said characteristics.
Figure 2.2 Gorlov Helical Marine Turbine
40
January 18-19, 2018
The solidity equation is shown in equation (2) where 𝜎 is the solidity ratio, n is the number of blades, c is
the chord length, and D is the turbine diameter.
nc
σ= (2)
πD
where: 𝜎 = the solidity ratio,

n = the number of blades, mm
c = the chord length, mm
D = the turbine diameter, mm
Winchester (2009) concluded that for Gorlov turbine design, lower solidity and blades with a
moderate thickness of 12%-18% of the chord length is much preferable for turbine designs since it could
lessen the torque fluctuations during operation [12]. It was also stated that a helical turbine is most efficie nt
at solidity ratios from 0.3 to 0.4[11]. The researchers assume a value of 0.35 for the solidity ratio. It was
stated that when the number of blades is increased, then the solidity ratio also increases. Niblick [7 ]
emphasized that the number of blades is responsible in the performance of the power efficiency of the
turbine. The Aspect Ratio is defined as the ratio of the blade length to the chord length. In this design, the
designers suggested an aspect ratio of 5:1 since according to the study of Goude et al [5]that coefficient of
performance increased with aspect ratio for blade length aspect ratio up to a ratio of 12:1 [5]. The average
depth of sections A3, A4, B4, and C3 (Figure 4.15) is 2970mm. The Encyclopedia of Coastal Science
states that the optimal distance from the surface of the water is 1/5 of the sea depth [10]. The turbine height
is solved through Equation 4.1 [10]
1
𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 5 (Average section depth)
(3)
1
𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = (2970𝑚𝑚)
5
𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 594𝑚𝑚 ≈ 600𝑚𝑚
Solution below using equation (3) would get a chord length of 120mm.
h
AR= c (3)
𝑐 = 120𝑚𝑚
where: h = turbine height
AR = Aspect Ratio
Solving for the turbine diameter,
nc
𝜎= πD
(4)
3(127mm)
0.35=
πD
D =346.5mm ≈350mm
41
January 18-19, 2018
The twist angle for both struts is taken by the researchers as 60˚ since Tsai et al[12] states in their study that
a twist angle of 60˚ produces a minimal torque fluctuation during operation. The angular distance between
struts is 120 degrees since 3 struts are used to attach each blade at each end. [12] Figure 2.3 shows the top
view of the turbine and its dimensions. Figure 2.4 presented the side view of the turbine design where
600mm is the turbine height.
Figure 2.3 Top views of the turbine and struts showing a 120˚ angular distance between struts
of the same level. The top and bottom have a twist angle of 60˚. (Dimensions in Millimeters)
Figure 2.4: Side view of turbine attached to struts. (Dimensions in Millimeters)
Some of the blade design parameters include chord length, leading edge profile, trailing edge
profile, blade thickness to chord ratio, location of maximum thickness, and blade camber [8]. The designers
choose the NACA 0018 airfoil blade profile because of its symmetrical shape. Anderson[2] stated that the
NACA 0018 airfoil gives a good structural support and performance [2]. The NACA 0018 standard states
that the blade thickness is 18% of the chord length. Since the chord length was determined to be 120mm,
the corresponding blade profile thickness is 21.6mm. This value is based on the equation on blade profile
thickness stated by Abbot et al [1] shown in Equation (5)
𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠=0.18(c)
(5)
Since c = chord length of 120mm,
Blade profile Thickness=0.18(120mm)
Blade profile Thickness=21.6mm
The ratio of leading length, XL, shown in Figure 2.3 to the chord length, c, is given by Equation
(5) [1] . The leading length is where the maximum thickness occurs. The portion of the chord length where
42
January 18-19, 2018
the struts will be attached is determined by midpoint length, Xm , which can be determined by Equation
(7). Both presented Equations were taken from The Theory of Wing Sections by Abbot [1].
Xl
=0.18*2 (6)
c
where Xl = Leading length, mm
c = chord length
Xl =0.36(120mm)
Xl =43.20mm
Xm =0.5c (7)
where Xm = midpoint length,
Xm =0.5(120mm)
Xm =60mm
The summary of the obtained dimensions for the blade profile is shown in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: NACA 0018 blade profile (Dimensions in millimeters)
The power output of the marine turbine will be extracted from the shaft. The shaft work may be
connected to a generator to convert mechanical energy to electrical energy or may be connected to other
mechanical devices. The shaft power produced by the turbine is given by equation (8) [13]:
Pshaft =Tω
(8)
where Pshaft =Shaft power, Watts
T = Shaft torque, N·m
ω = Shaft angular speed, rpm
Equation (8) shows that the shaft power increases when either the speed or the torque is increased.
The Gorlov Turbine has a helical Design, which gives a uniform torque distribution for each azimutha l
position of the turbine. Due to the uniform torque distribution, fewer fluctuations would occur during
operation [6].
The kinetic power induced by the current on the marine turbine is given by:
1
P∞ = ρAu∞ 3 (9)
2
where: P∞ = Kinetic power induced by the current
u∞ = free stream flow velocity
A = Projected frontal area of the turbine blade, m2
ρ =Density of seawater, 1300 kg/m3
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January 18-19, 2018
Equation (9) shows that varying freestream velocity affects the kinetic power hitting the turbine.
The velocity of the flood and ebb currents changed throughout different times in the day. It also shows
that power increases significantly as the freestream velocity increases. Increasing the frontal area of the
turbine may theoretically increase the kinetic power to the turbine, which would in turn also increase the
solidity of the turbine, which would increase the starting torque and make the turbine less susceptible to
self-starting.[3]
In solving for the efficiency of the design is given by equation (10)
Pshaft
𝜂= x 100%
P∞
(10)
where η = Efficiency of the turbine, %
Pshaft = Shaft power, W
P∞ = Kinetic power from the free stream flow, W
3. Methodology
3.1 Marine Current Velocity Determination

The Figure 3.1 shows the top view of the installation set-up where the nylon strings with the
reflective markings was tied at the opposite side of the channel. The total length of the channel to be
studied was 40 meters. The nylon strings were installed perpendicular to the flow of the channel’s current.
They were installed such that it is higher than the pump boat so that the boat can pass beneath it.The rope
was tied to strong foundations, such as trees and metal posts; to securely hold the rubber boat and also can
withstand the weight of the boat floating against the flowing current.
All necessary equipment was prepared and the test site was also secured for the experimental set-
up. The experiment was conducted for the gathering of data of all eleven (11) data, eight (8) data for high
tide and three (3) data for low tide. The experiment days were on the dates when the tide closely matched
to the data to be gathered. The experiment started at about the time the target data to be gathered coincide
to the real-time presentation of tides and times shown in the website http://www.tide- forecast.com.
Prior to conducting any experiment, the time, date and tide (high or low) were recorded. The exact
location (in longitude and latitude) of the site was also noted.
Figure 3.1 Aerial view of the experiment venue

44
January 18-19, 2018
For every experiment, the following methods were observed. The same concept was applied for
both high tide and low tide. (Note: the velocity current meter’s impeller should always be facing the
direction of the flow of the current, and the entire structure should be parallel to the flow.)
3.1.1 Mean Velocity And Velocity Profile Determination

The velocity of every test points was measured using the HT Type Portable Velocity Current
Meter. The researchers used the Two-Point Method of the Hydrographic Survey in determining the mean
velocity of each subsection of every cross-section of the channel. In obtaining the velocity of every test
point, the HT Type Portable Velocity Current Meter’s impeller was submerged and was positioned in the
appropriate test points.
In the Control-Display of the current meter, it was set to record a velocity reading after span of 3
seconds after the “select” button is pushed when steadily exposed to the flowing current. After 3 seconds
a velocity reading was shown in the display, this counts as one trial. For another trial, the propeller stays
at the same point, the “select” button was pushed and after 3 seconds another velocity reading was shown.
This was done for 5 consecutive trials for each test point. After the fifth trial, the impeller was moved to
the next test point, etc.
The average velocity for all 5 trials of each subsection was computed. The mean velocity was
computed by geting the average of the velocities measured at the test points located at 0.2h and 0.8h. The
mean velocity was used in computing the flow rate of every subsection in order to obtain the total flow
rate of the entire cross-section. In determining the velocity profile, the researchers measured 4 test points
on each subsection. The data gathered was plotted in Microsoft Excel to obtain the images of the velocity
profile of the channel.
3.1.2 Flow Rate of The Cross-Section

The flow rate of the cross-section was computed from the field observations by the summatio n
of the partial discharges ( Q1 , Q2 , Q3 and etc.) determined for each subsection. The area of each sub-
section was computed using equation (12). The depth hn in all subsections was obtained in order to
determine the area an . This was achieved by using the staff gage. The cross-sectional area of the channel
with the varying depths was measured. A distance of 5.582m between test points was calculated as a tenth
of the total length which is 55.82m of the water surface of the cross-section. The staff gage should always
be perpendicular to the water surface. The nylon strings with reflective markings served as guides in
measuring the depth of the cross-section. Once all area an have been computed, the partial flow rate of
every subsection was computed using the mean velocity. The total flow rate of each subsection was
obtained by a summation of all the partial flow rates of each subsection.
3.2 Shaft Power Determination

After determining the locations A3, A4, B4, and C3 with the high velocities as shown in Figure 3.1,
tests were conducted to determine the shaft power, waterpower, and the turbine efficiency at each location
using the set-up shown in Figure 3.2. The shaft torque was measured using the torque meter and the shaft
speed was obtained using the tachometer. Substituting the torque and shaft speed, the shaft power may be
calculated using equation (8).
45
January 18-19, 2018
The waterpower from the current can be calculated from equation (9). The velocity of the current,
u∞ was measured using a velocimeter. The fluid density, ρ is taken as 1300 kg/m3 for seawater, and the
frontal area of the turbine blade is taken as 0.21m2 from turbine height of 0.6m and a turbine diameter of
0.35m.
The efficiency was calculated using equation (10). The shaft power and the water power were
substituted to the equation to obtain the turbine efficiency at a point.
Figure 3.2 Experiment platform set-up
3.3 Turbine Configuration for Turbine Farm

In order to maximize the power that can be harvested in a tidal or ocean source, one turbine is
not enough to harness such power. This is why Gorlov suggested that Helical turbines should be used as
key power modules in the design of power farms for harvesting the tidal energy[4]. A turbine farm is a
collection of turbines that are strategically arranged in a given space which is determined based on the
designed power capacity of the farm. A farm should be designed in order to maximize the power that
could be generated in a given area. A sample schematic of a modular farm is shown where a 40m x 40m
land is used in order to generate the needed power designed for a capacity of 1,360 kW is shown in
Figure 3.3.
The three Gorlov helical turbines follow the same design specifications, dimensions and
materials used. A brace is designed in order to support the turbines and to allow the variation of distance
between them. The complete assembly is shown in Figure 3.4. Two orientations of the platform are used
in the experiment; namely, vertical to the sea water flow, Figure 3.5 and horizontal to the sea water flow,
Figure 3.6. The distances between turbines are randomized, a total of 5 data points were gathered in
every test configuration
Two orientations of the platform are used in the experiment; namely, vertical to the sea water
flow, Figure 3.5 and horizontal to the sea water flow, Figure 3.6. The distances between turbines are
randomized, a total of 5 data points are gathered in every test configuration.
46
January 18-19, 2018
Figure 3.3 A Turbine Farm Designed for a 1,360kW capacity[4]
Figure 3.4 Assembly of the Test Equipment

.
For the purposes of data gathering, one test condition is a combination of a specific tidal
condition and platform orientation (e.g. high tide, vertical position) and one test configuration is a
combination of a specific tidal condition, platform orientation and distance between turbines (e.g. high
tide, vertical position, 2 meter distance). The experiment is composed of a total of two tidal conditions.
Each condition is experimented on two different locations. Each location has two orientations. Each
orientation has five (5) different distances between turbines. A total of four 4 test conditions and 20
configurations. Readings are obtained from all 3 turbines. Specifically, the speed of rotation is measured
through the tachometer.
47
January 18-19, 2018
Figure 3.5: Turbines in Vertical Position with respect to flow
Figure 3.6: Turbines in Horizontal Position with respect to flow
4. Results and Discussion

In the experiment, the test point at which the highest velocity measured was at 0.464 meter from
the water surface of sub-section (4) at cross-section (B) with a current velocity of 2.735 m/s with a depth
of a sub-section of 2.32 meters as shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 Measuring points at different sections and depth of the channel
48
January 18-19, 2018
Figure 4.2 shows the test section’s average shaft power plotted against the current velocity for the
low tide condition (square plot) and high tide condition (triangle plot). The low tide condition, presented
by the square plot, show that Section A3 has a current velocity of 0.705 m/s with an average shaft power
of 1.38 Watts, section A4 has a current velocity of 0.817 m/s and an average shaft power of 1.745 Watts,
section B4 has a current velocity of 1.031m/s with an average shaft power of 3.66 Watts and section C3
has a velocity of 0.995m/s with an average shaft power of 2.368 Watts. The highest obtained average shaft
power for the low tide is 3.66 Watts at 1.031 m/s, which occurred in section B4 while the lowest obtained
shaft power is 1.38 Watts, which was observed at section A3 at a current velocity of 0.705 m/s.
The triangle plot in Figure 4.2 shows the shaft power plotted against current velocity for the high
tide condition. The highest obtained average shaft power for the high tide is 53.62 Watts at 1.818 m/s,
which occurred in section A3 while the lowest obtained shaft power is 29.57 Watts, which was observed
at section B4 at a current velocity of 1.338 m/s.
Figure 4.2 Shaft power against current velocity at high and low tides
The individual power produced by the turbines are added together to have a total power produced
in every tidal conditions and position which is shown in Figure 4.3. Generally, turbines subjected in low
tide conditions produce less power than the turbines produce when subjected in a high tide condition.
A noticeable evidence show that at long distances, the total power generated by the turbines
begin to approach a constant value which means the graph begins to smooth out. This is evident starting
at a turbine distance of 200 cm to 300 cm. The highest total power output of 23 Watts is observed in a
high tide, horizontal position in area B3-B4 in a distance of 280 cm. High power values are depicted in a
distance between 200 cm - 300 cm and at 300 cm, total power output values become more stable.
49
January 18-19, 2018
Figure 4.3: Total power output of the turbines in high tide and low tide, parallel and
perpendicular position, at area B3-B4 and B5-B6
5. Conclusion
The highest recorded power output at low tide condition was observed at B4 with a value of 3.66
Watts at section A3. The highest recorded power output of 53.61 Watts. Similarly, higher power outputs
were measured during high tide condition where much higher water velocities were observed.
The distance between turbines is determined to have a significant effect to the power produced. It
is determined that the farther apart the turbines are, the greater the power generated and the better the
performance of the turbines. Following the analyses of the distance between turbines, the performance of
each turbine is satisfactory in terms of power produced within a range of 200 cm to 300 cm. The highes t
total power produced by the turbines is at a distance of 280 cm between turbines at high tide with turbines
in horizontal position. However, the optimal distance is at 300 cm between turbines. This distance is found
to be the most effective at different tidal conditions and at horizontal and vertical positions of turbines.
This is determined using a 35cm, 3-bladed Gorlov Helical Turbine as the means of generating power.
6. References
[1] Abbot, I.H., Von Doenhoff A.E. “Theory of Wing Sections” Dover Publications, Inc, New York,
NY, 1959.
[2] Anderson, J. “Design and Manufacture of a Cross Flow Helical Tidal Turbine” 2011 (Master’s
Thesis).
[3] Gorlov A.M . “Tidal Energy” Academic Press, 2001.
[4] Gorlov A.M. “Development of the Helical Reaction Turbine” US Department of Energy, 1998.
[5] Goude, A., Agren, O. “Simulation of A Vertical Axis Turbine in a Channel” Journal of Renewable
Energy, Elsevier, 2009.
50
January 18-19, 2018
[6] Hall, T.J. “Numerical Simulation of Cross Flow Hydro Kinetic Marine Turbine ” 2012.
[7] Niblick, A.L. “Experimental and Analytical Study of Helical Cross-Flow Turbines for a Tidal
Micropower Generation System” University of Washington, 2012.
[8] Sæterstad M.L. “Dimensioning Loads for a Tidal Turbine” Norwegian University of Science and
Technology 2011.
[9] Salvador M. Salire Jr., “Energy Demand Situation and Outlook in the Philippines: 2005-2014”.
[10] Schwartz, M. Encyclopedia of Coastal Science, 2004.
[11] Shiono, M., Susuki, K., Kiho, S. “Output Characteristics of Darrieus Water Turbine with Helical
Blades for Tidal Current Generation” International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference,
Kitakyushu, Japan 2002.
[12] Tsai J, Chen F, “Conceptual Design of a Tidal Power Plant in Taiwan”, Journal or Marine
Science and Engineering 2014, 2, 506-533; doi:10.3390/jmse2020506.
[13] Twiddel, J. & Weir, T. “Renewable Energy Sources” Taylor and Francis, New York, NY, 2006.
[14] Yaakob O., Ismail M.A., Ahmed Y. “Parmetric Study for Savonius Vertical Axis Marine
Current Turbine using CFD Simulation” Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Latest Trends in
Renewable Energy and Environmental Informatics 2012.
[15] http://www.encyclopedia.com. “The Philippines”, 2013.
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January 18-19, 2018
Hyperheuristic Framework for a Combinatorial Optimization

Problem
Vincent F. Yu, Yu-Chung Tsao, Renan Maglasang 1
1
Department of Industrial Management, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei,
Taiwan
1
<maglasangrenan@gmail.com>
Keywords: variable neighborhood search, shelf-space management, hyperheuristic
Abstract. The retail space allocation problem aims to determine the optimal mix of product displays to
maximize profitability. On the premise that highly-visible products attract customer’s attention and lead
to higher sales, then, product assortment and service level decisions are crucial issues when shelf space is
limited. This paper presents a numerical study for the single category shelf-space allocation problem with
non-linear profit function using a revised Reduced Variable Neighborhood Search as a hyperheuristic
framework. The approach is applied to a real-life case and to simulated large instances. The proposed
approach demonstrates a strong potential as a high-level heuristic to manage low-level algorithms.
1. Introduction
Most customer decisions are made at the point of purchase [1]. When displays and products’ shelf space
allocations lead to different levels of sales, the need to manage the retailer’s available space becomes
apparent. Retailers are confronted with three of the biggest decisions in shelf-space manageme nt:
assortment, space allocation or service level, and pricing decisions [2]. It is when using optimization tools
that addressing these decision areas becomes easy and offers retailers more competitive edge.
Demand functions as objectives are used in nearly every assortment and shelf-space optimization model.
So, techniques in demand estimation are vastly available in which mostly are space-dependent. The
implication of a space-dependent demand function is that space allocated to a certain product is determined
by a power function of its demand. The nonlinearity of the objective and some constraints are usual to
space-dependent demand models. An experiment demonstrated that changes in shelf space affect custome r
buying decisions [3]. The concept of space elasticity was then introduced. Space elasticity measures the
impact on a product’s sales performance by increasing or decreasing its space allocation. Upon the
formulation made for the space-elastic demand [4], extensions were added such as own-space (main effect)
and cross-space (cross effect) elasticities [5]. Since the early 1970’s, as much as twenty-one optimizat io n
models have been published in shelf space allocation literature. An extensive review [6] is available for
the interested readers.
The optimization model [7] used in this article has the exogenous type of demand function, as such, has a
monomial form with real-valued exponents which can either be positive or negative. Morevoer, it is
signomial since at least one of the monomial coefficients is negative. Their demand function offers
relevant extensions including a different decision variable in which space allocation is expressed as a
52
January 18-19, 2018
number of facings per product, in-store costs including restocking cost, shelving fixed cost, unit
replenishment cost, and own-space and cross-space elasticities. Most importantly, a linearizatio n
framework for the Mixed Integer Non-Linear Problem (MINLP) is proposed to handle large instances.
The various profit margins of products in a certain category and the inclusion of own-space and cross
elasticities make a complex model which renders a non-linear, non-convex Mixed-Integer Non-Linear
Programming (MINLP) model. So, an exact solution is computationally-expensive to obtain. In this case,
heuristic approaches are deemed practical to use. Several useful solution approaches have been applied to
various shelf-space problems spanning from single category to multi-category, multi-shelves. Although
not an exhaustive list, these includes linearization [7], heuristics [8], hyperheuristics [9] and some
metaheuristics [10-14].
In this article, we essentially use the optimization model from [7] presented in Section 2. Because they
solved the problem using their linearization technique without bounds to the number of facings per
product, we intend to implement lower bounds of the number of facings per product to at least, address
retailer-supplier issues on minimum product orders in practice. Moreover, other contributions from this
work are: (1) we use the concept of Reduced Variable Neighborhood Search to devise a revised RVNS-
based hyperheuristic for the problem, (2) we solved a non-linear shelf-space allocation problem exactly
using a real-life case (3) we tested the proposed approach to a simulated large case; (4) presented a
reasonable comparative study to evaluate performance of the proposed approach.
The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 shows the mathematical model and the underlying
assumptions. Section 3 presents the components of the proposed RVNS-based hyperheuristic for the shelf-
space allocation problem (HyRVNS). Section 4 details the numerical study, the results and the
comparative analysis. Finally, section 5 concludes and suggests potential future directions.
II. Mathematical Model

This section presents the mathematical model adapted for this experimental study.
1. Notations
, number of products in category
, number of facings allocated to product
, 1 if product is selected for shelving, 0 otherwise.
, shelf space of one facing for product (in.)

, total available shelf space for the category (in.)
, upper bound of facings allocated to product
, lower bound of facings allocated to product
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January 18-19, 2018
, units of product that can be stored in one facing
, selling price of product
, unit cost of product
, cost each time a product is restocked
, fixed cost to include a product in the assortment
, unit replenishment cost for product
, space-elasticity for product
, scale factor for product
, cross-elasticity between products within category

, current interest rate
, product category profit
2. Assumptions of the model

(i) The retailer’s objective is to maximize product category profit.
(ii) Consistent with prior research, the direct space elasticity for product satisfies , the cross-
elasticity between product and product satisfies , and the scale factor for product
is generally taken to be positive.
(iii) Effects other than space (e.g. price discounts, special marketing efforts, etc.) are not present.
(iv) All shelved products are owned by the retailer.
(v) Products are restocked individually. As soon as the number of units on the shelves is zero, the
product is fully restocked.
(vi) There is no backroom space to store additional inventory.
(vii) The unit cost of each product already contains procurement cost.
3. The retail shelf-space optimization model

The mixed-integer linear programming formulation of the shelf-space allocation problem is:
Find , for that maximize
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January 18-19, 2018
subject to:
Constraints (2) are the shelf capacity constraints. Constraints (3) imposes a rule that if , which means
that product is not in the assortment, then . This is to prevent the total sales term of the objective
function to become zero when the number of facings allocated to any of the category’s other products is
set to zero. Constraints (4) are control constraints to impose lower and upper bounds for the number of
facings allocated to each product. Finally, constraints (5) and (6) are the integrality and binary variable
restrictions, respectivel
III. Method
The proposed HyRVNS has three components: low-level heuristics, heuristic selection strategies, move
acceptance strategies. The next sections discusses each component as well as the algorithms, solutio n
encoding, and initialization scheme.
3.1 Low-level heuristics

Following the strategy of Bai et. Al [9] on a reasonable mix of mutational and hill-climbing heuristic s,
Table 1 lists low-level heuristics to be included. MLLH_1 and MLLH_2 are mutational heuristics while
MLLH_3 and MLLH_4 are hill-climbing heuristics. Furthermore, these heuristics belong to perturbative
heuristics which handle and improve complete solutions. The mechanism for each structure is briefly
described in the table.
Table 1
S et of Low-level Heuristics (H)
LLH Label Mechanism S ymbol used
Add_random Randomly picks a product and increases its current M LLH_1

facings by 1 if shelf capacity is not full. Otherwise,
the incumbent solution is recycled.
Swap_random Randomly chooses two different products. If M LLH_2

minimum requirement allows, one will be
decreased by as much as 2 facings. The other one
will be subsequently increased by the same amount
if capacity allows. Otherwise, the incumbent
solution will be used.
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January 18-19, 2018
Add_bestimprovement This is a two-step heuristic. First, it individually HLLH_3

evaluates the total category profit every after
increasing the current facings of a product in the
array by 1 at a time starting at the first element
down to the last element. Then, the product which
yields the highest category profit will eventually
be increased by 1, if capacity allows. Otherwise,
the incumbent solution will be used.
Delete_minratio Chooses the minimum sales contribution ratio HLLH_4

among N products and decrease its facings by 1.
The product with the next lesser ration will be
decreased by 1 facing in case the first one is
already at minimum. The ratio is computed as
3.2 Heuristic Selection Strategies (Shaking Phase)

Table 2 lists the four strategies tested in this implementation. The way these strategies are selected is
equivalent to the Shaking phase in RVNS. So, these strategies manage the choice of the low-leve l
heuristics to be applied in each step of the search process. While all strategies belong to non-deterministic
selection, SR and RG are single- heuristic strategies and RP and RPG are multiple-heuristic strategies. The
mechanism for each strategy is described below.
Table 2
S et of Heuristic S election S trategies (I)
S election S trategy Mechanism S ymbol used
Simple Random Chooses a heuristic at random at each step. SR
Random Gradient Randomly selected heuristic is repeatedly applied RG

until no improvement is achieved.
Random Permutation Generates a random ordering of the low-level RP

heuristics and at each step successively applied a
low-level heuristic in the provided order.
Random Permutation Gradient Proceeds in the same manner as RP without RPG

changing the order of heuristics until no
improvement is achieved.
3.3 Move Acceptance Strategies (“Move or not” Phase)

Table 3 lists two applicable “move acceptance” strategies to be paired for each LLH selection scheme.
Only-Improving (OI) is a deterministic method of solution acceptance while Monte-Carlo (MC) is non-
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January 18-19, 2018
deterministic. The mechanism for each strategy is briefly described. Corresponding symbol to refer to
each heuristic will be used hereafter.
Table 3
S et of Move Acceptance S trategies (J)
Move Acceptance S trategy Mechanism S ymbol used
Only Improving Improvements are always accepted while non- OI

improvements are never accepted.
M onte-Carlo Improvements are always accepted while non- MC

improvements may be accepted with certain
probability
3.4 RVNS-based hyperheuristic framework

In HyRVNS, we combine the I strategies with J strategies to generate a set of selection- move pairs,
k(i,j)∈K. With only four I strategies and two J strategies allow us to have an exhaustive list of pairs for
the set K which makes the solution encoding simpler. Each k(i,j)’s are embedded in the HyRVNS
framework : SR-OI, SR-MC, RG-OI, RG-MC, RP-OI, RP-MC, RPG-OI, and RPG-MC. The function of
selection- move k(i,j) is to control the execution of low-level heuristics nested in the inner loops.
In RVNS, the problem space is directly explored over a set of pre-defined neighborhood structures. They
are deterministically applied to generate a new solution from previous. In HyRVNS, the search for new
solutions is operating over a space of heuristics. Each k(i,j) consists of a heuristic selection strategy, i and
a move-acceptance, j controlling over a fixed set low-level heuristic, heuristic ∈H. In each iteration, a
selection- move k(i,j) is non-deterministically applied to generate the new solution. We used all four
heuristic(i,j) in H for all k(i,j)∈K. Algorithm 1 presents the pseudocode of the proposed approach. From
an initial solution (Line 7-8), the search process begins by selecting k(i,j) (Line 10) randomly. The chosen
set is applied to the incumbent solution to find a new solution (Line 11). This is the point when the Shake
phase happens where the four low-level heuristics are used accordingly. An inner loop is executed at this
point A current_S is passed to this phase where an inner loop is executed. Each set of low-level heuristic
has a uniform probability to be chosen. The Move or Not phase is when the new-found solution replaces
the current solution if it has improvements, but, is discarded, if otherwise (Line 12-13). The algorithm
stops when the desired max_iteration has been reached (Line 9).
Algorithm 1: HyRVNS(low_level_heuristic, heuristic_selection, move_acceptance, max_iteration)

Inputs:
1. set of selection-move pairs, k(i,j) ∈K(I, J)
2. set of heuristics selection strategies, i ∈I
3. set of move acceptance strategies, i ∈J
4. set of low-level heuristics, heuristic ∈H
5. stopping policy, max_iteration
Output:
6. current solution, current_S
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January 18-19, 2018
7. Obtain an initial solution, initial_S ← Initialize

8. Set the current solution, current_S = initial_S
9. while iteration < max_iteration do
10. randomly select a selection-move pairs, k(i,j)
11. find a new solution, new_S ← S hake (k(i,j), heuristic, current_S)
12. if new_S = current_S then
13. accept new solution, current_S = new_S
14. endif
15. iteration = iteration +1
16. endwhile
3.5 Solution Encoding

Figure 1 illustrates a straightforward representation of our solution. The facings allocation to each product
i are positive real values within the range [Li, S] where ni is the facing quantity allocated to product i; Fi
is the width space of product i; ni Fi is the total facing space allocation of product i; Li is the lower bound
of facings for each product i; and S is the maximum available horizontal shelf-space for the category, (i.e.
total width of the shelf). It should be noted that the facing quantity multiplied by the product’s width
makes up the product’s facing space allocation.
Figure 1(a) illustrates the product-facings array. The length of the solution array is equal to the total
number of N candidate products for shelving. An example of the initial solution array using the
initialization scheme as presented in the next section is shown in figure 1(b). A category with six products
of similar width has all products 1-6 each allocated with minimum facings equal to 1. Then, we get the
initial facings in terms of shelf-width space by multiplying the facings quantity by the respective product
width. Figure 1(c) illustrates the array of a feasible solution. Here, 133 out of 182 inches are allocated so
far. Moreover, the maximum facings space has not been used up but at least products are given the
minimum facings as required. Finally, figure 1(d) shows the array of the local maximum, also the global
optimum solution. Maximum facings space are used up in this category with product 1 and 2 having the
most facings and the rest with minimum facings.
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January 18-19, 2018
Fig. 1 Solution array representation: (a) standard array, (b) initial solution, (c) feasible solution, (d) optimal solution
3.6 Initialization
The initialization uses a simple heuristic of allocating minimum facings to each product in the category.
This procedure is outlined in Algorithm 1. A representation of the initial solution is illustrated in Figure
1.b.
Algorithm 2: Initialize
Inputs:
1. set of product i, N
2. set of product i lower bounds,
3. facing space capacity,
4. Output: initial feasible solution,
5. for each product do
6.
7. endfor
IV. Numerical Study

In this section, we conduct the numerical experimentation for two cases: a real case and a simulated large
case. The next subsection explains how these cases are obtained. The goal is to test the proposed HyRVNS
its potential to search better solutions over eight different selection-move combinations. To evaluate the
results, firstly, we obtained the optimal solution for the real case and made a comparative analysis using
three criteria: (1) percentage deviation from the optimum (%Gap), (2) the percentage of the number of
times the optimal solution appears in 25 independent runs (%FOB-Frequency of Best), and (3) %FOB of
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January 18-19, 2018
HyRVNS vs. %FOB of each k(i,j) independently implemented. Secondly, we used %FOB comparison to
evaluate the performance of HyRVNS for the large instance and a statistical analysis using box and
whisker chart.
4.1 Test instances

The real-life case has a size of six competing products, each assumed to be substitute to all others in the
same category. Nine product categories are available to test different sets of data on own-space elasticitie s
and cross-space elasticities. In [7] , where the complete case data can be found, three shelf capacity levels
are being tested. Our preliminary results revealed that most algorithms are more rigidly tested in instances
with capacity levels at 5 times the base capacity. That is, when the exact solver took more than 2 hours of
solution time. However, we used the instances with 3 times the base capacity to ensure that optimal
solutions for most instances is still obtainable (within 7200 seconds) as they are needed in the comparative
analysis. Moreover, we have chosen four product categories as presented in Table 4: Enamel, Floodlights,
Glass cleaner, and Trash bag categories. These categories are chosen to represent diverse sets of data.
Enamel and Trash have higher unit profits than Floodlights and Glass cleaner. All categories except Trash
bag have more sparse elasticity constants. The same procedure from our main reference paper of producing
a 50-item large instance is adapted. They used the appropriate ranges of the parameters involved and
enlarge the shelf space form its original capacity. The HyRVNS algorithm is coded using C++ and all test
runs were conducted in a 4GB RAM, Intel Core i7-2600 3.4GHz CPU.
Table 4
Real-life case data of four product categories
4.2 Optimal Solution

The optimal solution of the real-life case is computed using an exact solver called COUENNE (Convex
Over and Under Envelopes for Nonlinear Estimations) [15]. Couenne aims at finding the global optima of
nonconvex MINLPs using branch and bound algorithm. More details about Couenne are available at
https://projects.coin-or.org/Couenne. Table 5 shows the optimal solution per product category with shelf
space capacity increased up to 3 times. The optimal solution is used as our basis for performance
evaluation of HyRVNS.
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January 18-19, 2018
Table 5
Results- Optimal S olution
4.3 Real-life case

In general, the category profit increases with the increases in shelf space. For Enamel category, up to 2.3%
increase in profit can be attained by doubling shelf capacity and 3.1% by further tripling it. Figure 2 shows
this facings space-profit relationship. However, as the number of facings space increases, the nonlinea r
function depicts the property of diminishing returns. A certain threshold is shown when profit does not
increase further with an increase in facings. Using the results from Enamel category, the graph starts off
at the minimum space required to be 42 inches to shelf all six items at minimum of 1 facing each. The
total profit at minimum facings is $2387.8 and it drastically increases reaching 3.4% with shelf space
increased up to four times. Beyond such capacity, the profit stabilizes around $2758.43. Clearly, as shelf
capacity increases, the number of promising solutions increases, too. As a result, computation time
increases, as well. But, in the same way that there is a limit in profit increases, increasing shelf capacity
has a limit, too. Beyond this limit, maximizing the objective becomes easy and subsequent computatio n
times are remarkably reduced. For the Enamel category, figure 3 shows the bar graph on the effect of shelf
capacity increases to computational time to obtain the optimal solution. The longest computational time
almost reaches up to 4500 seconds when shelf space is increased to four times its original capacity.
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January 18-19, 2018
2875.
2750.
2625.
Profit ($)
2500.
2375.
2250.
0 400 800 1200 1600
Facings space (in.)
Fig. 2 Space - Profit graph (Enamel)
4500.
Computational Time (seconds)
3375.
2250.
1125. Relatively low

runtimes at the
range of [1.29,
77.92] secs.
0.
42 91 182 273 364 455 546 637 728 819 910 1001 1092 1183 1274 1365
Facings space (in.)
Fig. 3 Space - Runtime graph (Enamel)
Table 6 presents the %Gap comparisons of HyRVNS to the optimal solution for our real case. Three
different values of iteration, I are tested. Optimal solutions of four product categories as obtained by
Couenne have runtimes ranging from 8.63 seconds (Enamel) to as high as 2580.53 seconds (Trash bag).
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Profits in Best, Worst, and Mean values and standard deviations are indicated. In HyRVNS, Enamel, Glass
cleaner, and Trash bag categories obtained a maximum %Gap of 0.06% and a minimum of 0% all across
I values. Floodlight has the highest %Gap at an average of 0.92% across I values among four categories.
Average runtime for all instances is less than 1.0 second.
Figure 4 shows the %FOB obtained by our approach. %FOB values of Glass cleaner tend to increase as
the number of iteration increases. The other three categories displayed the same trend where the
percentages decrease at I=1x104 then pick up at I=1x105 . Looking at I=1x105 (with average runtimes at 3
seconds), HyRVNS can easily handle Enamel since it provide the same Best profit values at 100% of the
time. Flood, Glass cleaner, and Trash bag categories have 76%, 92%, and 44%, respectively. The average
%FOB across four product categories and across iterations (maximum runtime is 3 seconds) for the small
instance is 66%.
Table 6
Results- %Gaps
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January 18-19, 2018
I=1000 I=10000 I=100000
100% 100%
96%
92%
88%
76%
48% 48%
44%
36%
32%
28%
Enamel Flood Glass Trash

Fig. 4 %FOB per category-small instance (HyRVNS)
Enamel Flood Glass Trash
100% 100%
100% 100%
100% 100%
100% 100% 100%
100%
96%
92%
84% 84%
80%
76% 76% 76%
72% 72%
64%
56%
44%
40% 40% 40% 40%
36% 36%
32%
28% 28%
24%
20%
12% 12%
4%
0% 0% 0%
HyRRVNS RVNS SR-OI SR-MC RG-OI RG-MC RP-OI RP-MC RPG-OI RPG-MC
Fig. 5 Comparative graph of %FOB: Individual algorithms vs. HyRRVNS
Figure 5 compares the %FOB of HyRVNS to nine algorithms including a simple implementation of RVNS.
Looking at the individual algorithms run at 1x10 5 iterations (with runtimes not exceeding 10 seconds), it
is clear that OI-algorithms can easily handle Enamel and Floodlight categories better than MC-accepting
algorithms. On the other hand, all MC-accepting heuristics have obvious better performance than OI-
accepting heuristics for Glass cleaner. It is also clear that Trash category have the lowest %FOB in almost
all algorithms. However, HyRVNS have the highest %FOB at 44% for Trash category, although, RG-OI
is reasonably at par. The average %FOB across four product categories at 1x10 5 iterations (maximum
runtime is 3 seconds) for the small instance is 78%. It should also be noted that the performances of all
OI-accepting algorithms in almost all product categories are comparable to that of the RVNS, which is
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also in essence an OI-accepting algorithms. With these findings, it is reasonable to say that the
performance of non-hyperheuristic algorithm vary with the type of target problem (i.e solution space).
This is the shortcoming our proposed approach is addressing on. All these algorithms are pooled together
into one higher-level framework which controls the search for better solutions over the solution space of
these algorithms.
4.4 Large Case

With the corresponding shelf space enlarged for each category to ten times its respective base capacity,
Table 2 details the profit results given by HyRVNS in 10 independent runs for the large instance. The
highest iteration at I=1x104 (with runtimes less than 10 seconds) is purposely used to have a reasonable
comparison with the individual algorithms. Figure 4-5 shows the box and whiskers chart for the Trash and
Glass categories.
Table 7
Results-Large instances
14000.
10500.
HyRRV NS RVNS SR-OI SR-MC RG-OI RG-MC RP-OI RP-MC RPG-OI RPG-MC
Fig. 6 Box and Whisker Chart (Glass –Large instance)
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40000.
30000.
HyRRV NS RVNS SR-OI SR-MC RG-OI RG-MC RP-OI RP-MC RPG-OI RPG-MC
Fig. 7 Box and Whisker Chart (Trash –Large instance)
Figure 6-7 shows the box and whisker chart for each individual algorithms and that of HyRVNS for the
large Glass and Trash instances. Note the values used in the chart are in profit figures. It is evident in
Figure 5 that HyRVNS has the most stability than all other individual algorithms for the Glass category.
On the other hand, we can see in figure 6 that our approach may be comparable to SR-OI, SR-MC and,
RG-OI in the Trash category. These three algorithms showed a more stable solution set when compared to
the rest of heuristics.
V. Conclusions and Future studies

HyRVNS demonstrated a strong potential as a high- level heuristic to manage low-level algorithms as
evidenced by: (1) a %Gap at the range of [0% ,1.15%] at runtimes not more than 2 seconds, (2) the average
%FOB across four product categories at 1x10 5 iterations (maximum runtime is 3 seconds) for the small
instance is 78%, (3) HyRVNS has the most stability among all other individual algorithms for both large
Glass and Trash instances. Based on the comparative implementation of hyperheuristic and individ ua l
algorithms, it is reasonable to remark that hyperheuristics have more advantage in handling different types
of instances, some are unseen instances in which a non-hyperheuristic algorithm may not be able to
foresee.
Future interesting extensions for this research may include testing the framework with larger sets of low
level heuristics and selection strategies. This is highly possible by devising a more generalized solutio n
representation to expand a wider heuristic search space and may handle problems in other domains. Also,
extending the problem to multi-category and multi-shelf configurations makes a richer and realistic shelf
space problem. Challenging areas in adaptive and learning algorithms is emerging as evidenced by the
growing developments in metaheuristics and hyperheuristics and hybridizations.
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January 18-19, 2018
References
[1] POPAI, Consumer Buying Habits Study. Point of Purchase Advertising Institute, 1997. Washingto n,
D.C.
[2] Hubner, A.H. and H. Kuhn, Retail category management: State-of-the-art review of quantitative
research and software applications in assortment and shelf space management. Omega-Internatio na l
Journal of Management Science, 2012. 40(2): p. 199-209.
[3] Dreze, X., S.J. Hoch, and M.E. Purk, Shelf management and space elasticity. Journal of Retailing,
1994. 70(Winter): p. 301-326.
[4] Hansen, P. and H. Heinsbroek, Product selection and space allocation in supermarkets. European
Journal of Operational Research, 1979. 3: p. 474-484.
[5] Corstjens, M. and P. Doyle, A Model for Optimizing Retail Space Allocations. Management Science,
1981. 27(7): p. 822-833.
[6] Kök, A.G. and M.L. Fisher, Demand Estimation and Assortment Optimizatio n Under Substitutio n:
Methodology and Application. Operations Research, 2007. 55(6): p. 1001-1021.
[7] Irion, J., et al., A piecewise linearization framework for retail shelf space management models.
European Journal of Operational Research, 2012. 222(1): p. 122-136.
[8] Yang, M.H., An efficient algorithm to allocate shelf space. European Journal of Operational Research,
2001. 131: p. 107-118.
[9] Bai, R.B., et al., A new model and a hyper-heuristic approach for two-dimensional shelf space
allocation. 4or-a Quarterly Journal of Operations Research, 2013. 11(1): p. 31-55.
[10] Borin, N., P.W. Farris, and J.R. Freeland, A Model for Determining Retail Product Category
Assortment and Shelf Space Allocation. Decision Sciences, 1994. 25(3): p. 359-384.
[11] Hwang, H., B. Choi, and M.-J. Lee, A model for shelf space allocation and inventory control
considering location and inventory level effects on demand. International Journal of Production
Economics, 2005. 97(2): p. 185-195.
[12] Castelli, M. and L. Vanneschi, Genetic algorithm with variable neighborhood search for the optimal
allocation of goods in shop shelves. Operations Research Letters, 2014. 42(5): p. 355-360.
[13] Lim, A., B. Rodrigues, and X.W. Zhang, Metaheuristics with local search techniques for retail shelf-
space optimization. Management Science, 2004. 50(1): p. 117-131.
[14] Hansen, J.M., S. Raut, and S. Swami, Retail Shelf Allocation: A Comparative Analysis of Heuristic
and Meta-Heuristic Approaches. Journal of Retailing, 2010. 86(1): p. 94-105.
[15] Belotti, P., Couenne: a user's manual. Technical report, 2009. Lehigh University.
67
January 18-19, 2018
Experimental Analysis of an Airfoil with a Gurney Flap for Low-

Reynolds-Number Applications
Yownin Albert Leung 1 and Jonathan C. Maglasang 2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology, 9200
Iligan City, Philippines
1
leung.yowninalbert@gmail.com, 2jcmaglasang@gmail.com
Keywords: low reynolds number, gurney flap, pressure-sensitive paint, mars wind tunnel
Abstract. The aerodynamic effects of a Gurney flap attached to a NACA 0012 airfoil at low Reynolds
number flow were investigated for possible lift enhancement applications in micro aerial vehicles (MAVs)
and in Mars airplanes. A small flat-plate Gurney flap was mounted to the trailing edge of the airfoil
perpendicular to the chord line. Experimentations were conducted using the Mars Wind Tunnel (MWT)
of the Institute of Fluid Science of Tohoku University in Japan at chord Reynolds number of 25,000 and
Mach number of 0.2. In addition to using three-component balance system for direct force measurements,
Pressure-Sensitive Paint (PSP) was also utilized for flow visualization and evaluation around the airfoil.
The force measurement results show that lift is strongly enhanced when the Gurney flap is attached to the
NACA 0012 airfoil. The PSP results also indicate greater pressure gradient generation despite observation
of faster development of laminar separation bubbles closer to the leading edge of the airfoil when the flap
is attached.
1. Introduction
Aerodynamics at high Reynolds numbers have been extensively studied as most aircraft fly at high
Reynolds number flow. But there is a new demand to design aircraft that can fly at low Reynolds number.
These include micro aerial vehicles (MAVs) that are designed to be as small as possible for civilian and
military missions, and the Mars Airplane, an aircraft designed to be able to fly in the thin atmosphere of
Mars. This approach, however, has engineering challenges. In low Reynolds number flight, viscous forces
are dominant where normal airfoil characteristics get worse easily and laminar separation easily occurs.
Thus, the design criteria for conventional airplanes can’t be directly applied to the design of aircrafts at
low Reynolds number flows. In order to solve this problem, there is a need to research various lift -
enhancing mechanisms suitable for low Reynolds number conditions.
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January 18-19, 2018
Fig. 1. MAV flight regime
The Gurney flap is a small flat plate mounted to the trailing edge perpendicular to the chord line of an
airfoil or wing which is known to enhance the aerodynamic performance of subsonic and supercritica l
airfoils, high-lift devices and delta wings at relatively high Reynolds number. However, its effects on an
airfoil at low Reynolds number is less studied. The objective of this study is to investigate the aerodynamic
effects around the NACA 0012 airfoil with Gurney flap at low Reynolds number.
Fig. 2. Flow field around Gurney Flap [4]
2. Experimental Setup
2.1 Mars Wind Tunnel

Experimental tests were conducted using the Mars Wind Tunnel (MWT) at Tohoku University. The
main components of the Mars Wind Tunnel are the vacuum chamber, an induction-type wind tunnel, and
a buffer tank. The induction-type wind tunnel is located inside the vacuum chamber, where the pressure
conditions of the Martian atmosphere can be replicated. As of experimentation, the MWT can only operate
at room temperature.
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January 18-19, 2018
Fig. 3. Tohoku University Mars Wind Tunnel
2.2 Three-Component Balance System

The three-component balance system consists of three load cells capable of measuring lift, drag and
pitching moment and a stepping motor for changing the angle of attack.
2.3 Pressure-Sensitive Paint

Pressure-Sensitive Paint (PSP) is a coating-type sensor consisting of luminescent molecules and a
binder. When illuminated at an appropriate wavelength, the sensor molecules in PSP are elevated to the
excited state. The principle of PSP is based on oxygen quenching in which in the presence of oxygen
molecules, the energy of excited molecules is transferred to oxygen molecules, and no luminescence is
emitted. As a result, the luminescence intensity decreases with increasing oxygen concentration. Thus, we
can determine the local surface pressure by measuring the change of luminescence intensity of the PSP.
The relationship between the luminescence intensity I and the surface pressure p is expressed by the
equation:
𝐼ref 𝑝
= 𝐴(𝑇) + 𝐵(𝑇) (1)
𝐼 𝑝ref
where the subscript “ref” refers to the reference condition, and A(T) and B(T) are calibratio n
coefficients. In wind tunnel tests, the surface pressure can be calculated from the ratio of luminesce nce
intensity images obtained under wind-on and wind-off (reference) conditions [1].
In this experiment, the PSP was made of Pd(II) meso-tetra (pentafluoropheyl) porphine (PdTFPP) as
the luminescent molecule and poly 1-trimethylsilyl propyne [poly(TMSP)] as the binder. PSP composed
of PdTFPP and poly(TMSP) is known to have high-pressure sensitivity under low-pressure conditions so
it is considered applicable to low-pressure experiments in the MWT. The composition of the paint is
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January 18-19, 2018
PdTFPP (4.8 mg), poly(TMSP) (0.16 g), and toluene (20 ml). The absorption peak is approximately 407
nm, and the emission peak is 670 nm.
Fig. 4. Diagram of measuring system for PSP during wind tunnel test.
The setup for PSP measurement is shown in Figure 4. The optical equipment was placed outside the
vacuum chamber, and measurements were performed through an optical window of the vacuum chamber
and transparent acrylic window of the test section. Two UV–light-emitting diode (LED) arrays with 395
nm wavelength were used as the excitation light source. The luminescent images were captured by a
thermoelectrically cooled 12-bit charge coupled device (CMOS) camera (Hamamatsu, C11440-22CU)
with an optical bandpass filter (transmission wavelength 670±20 nm). A 105-mm camera lens (Nikon,
105 mm F/2.8D) was attached to the camera. In this study, calibration is made in the test section and using
the model during the evacuation process of the vacuum chamber. The change in model temperature during
the calibration is small and negligible. In this method, the calibration coefficients are obtained on each
pixel of the image of the model so that the non-uniformity in pressure sensitivity can be corrected.
3. Test Model and Experimental Conditions
3.1 Test Model
The airfoil tested was a NACA 0012 with Gurney flap as shown in Figure 5. The chord length was 50
mm and the wingspan was 100 mm. The height of the Gurney flap was 10% of the chord length and was
attached to the airfoil using double-sided tape. The airfoil was made of aluminum alloy.
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January 18-19, 2018
Fig. 5. PSP-painted NACA 0012 airfoil with Gurney Flap.
3.2 Experimental Condition
The wind velocity during the experiment was Mach 0.2, with an atmospheric pressure of 10.2 to 11.4
kPa and Reynolds number of 25,000. Air was used as the flow medium since PSP measurement was not
yet applicable at CO 2 mode.
4. Results and Discussions
4.1 Force Measurement
Figure 6 shows the effect of Gurney flap on the aerodynamic characteristics of a NACA 0012 airfoil.
The graphs are the (a) lift curve, (b) drag polar curve, (c) lift-to-drag ratio and (d) pitching moment curve,
respectively. For the control (airfoil without Gurney Flap), this study used the data from Tsuchiya [14],
Yoshino [17] and Yamahara [16] which conducted the experiments using the same wind tunnel at the
same experimental conditions. In Figure 6(a), the attachment of the flap resulted to an overall increase of
lift but it also resulted to the stall angle being lesser than the stall angle of the airfoil without flap. The
behavior of the lift after the stall is the same as the airfoil without flap. The drag polar curve in Figure 6(b)
shows that the drag coefficient increased due to the attachment of the flap. Also, the drag coefficie nt
gradually started to increase before the maximum lift coefficient is reached. In Figure 6(c), the lift-to-dra g
ratio at low angles of attack of α = 0° to 4° is greater when the flap is attached. However, after α = 6°, the
lift-to-drag ratio is almost at the same value and gradually decreased as α increases. For the pitching
moment shown in Figure 6(d), the attachment of the Gurney flap resulted to an overall strong nose-down
moment. However, the pitching moment temporarily increased in the positive direction from α = 6° to
11°.
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January 18-19, 2018
2 .0 2 .0
1 .5 1 .5
L ift C o e f fic ie n t ( C L )
L ift C o e f fic ie n t ( C L )
1 .0 1 .0
0 .5 0 .5
0 .0 0 .0
w ith G w
u ritnhe G
y u
F rl a
n e y F lahp - 0 .5 w it h G u r n e y F la p
- 0 .5
p w ith o u t G u r n e y F la p w ith o u t G u r n e y F la p
( Y o s h in o , 2 0 1 3 ) ( Y o s h in o , 2 0 1 3 )
- 1 .0 - 1 .0
-5 0 5 10 15 0 .0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6
A n g le o f A t ta c k ( d e g ) D r a g C o e ffic ie n t ( C D )
(a) (b)
15 0 .2
w it h G u r n e y F la p
w ith o u t G u r n e y F la p
(Y a m a h a ra , 2 0 1 6 )
M o m e n t C o e ffic ie n t ( C m )
10
0 .0
5
/D
- 0 .2
L
- 0 .4
-5
( Y o s h in o , 2 0 1 3 )
- 0 .6
-10
-5 0 5 10 15
-5 0 5 10 15
A n g le o f A t ta c k ( d e g )
A n g le o f A t ta c k ( d e g )
(c) (d)
Fig. 6. Comparison of Force Measurements.
4.2 Pressure-Sensitive Paint Measurement

Figure 7 shows the pressure distribution measurement and the Cp profile is shown in Figure 8. From
Figure 7 and 8, it can be observed that when the Gurney flap is mounted to the airfoil, the pressure on the
upper surface became lower than without the flap. As a result, the pressure difference between the upper
and lower surfaces became larger, which resulted to the increase of lift. Focusing on the Cp profile of the
airfoil’s upper surface, it is evident that the development of the laminar separation bubble is faster and its
position is closer to the leading edge compared to the airfoil without the flap. Looking at the Cp profile of
the lower surface of the airfoil, the pressure is lower than without the flap. Despite this, the pressure
difference created by the airfoil with flap is much greater than the airfoil without flap. Note that this
phenomenon is currently under investigation.
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January 18-19, 2018
Furthermore, the phenomenon that the pressure distributions of the upper and lower surfaces not
coinciding at the trailing edge of the airfoil with Gurney flap was observed. This is contrary to the Kutta
condition which states that the flows must coincide at the trailing edge of the wing in order to obtain lift.
This mismatch at the trailing edge has been observed on other studies on the Gurney flap at relatively high
Reynolds number. When the flap is mounted, two different vortices are formed behind it in which the
lower vortex is larger. This results to the flow deflected downward, and the point where the flow merges,
i.e., the Kutta condition, moves beyond the trailing edge and downward. As a result, the circulation around
the airfoil increases and the lift is greatly increased. Since results similar to Gurney flap at high Re have
appeared in the force and pressure distribution measurement, there is a high possibility that in this study,
a similar phenomenon is also occurring in the flow at the trailing edge of the blade. Thus, the pressure
distribution curves not coinciding at the trailing edge is believed to be the result of the Kutta conditio n
being satisfied farther behind the trailing edge. Note that these results are preliminary and further study
and discussion is still needed.
(a) (b)
Fig. 7. Pressure distribution of the (a) upper surface and

(b) lower surface of airfoil
- 3 .5 w it h G u r n e y F la p - 3 .5 w it h G u r n e y F la p
- 3 .5 w it h G u r n e y F la p
- 3 .0 - 3 .0 w ith o u t G u r n e y F la p - 3 .0 w ith o u t G u r n e y F la p
( T s u c h iy a , 2 0 1 3 ) - 2 .5 ( T s u c h iy a , 2 0 1 3 ) - 2 .5 ( T s u c h iy a , 2 0 1 3 )
- 2 .5
- 2 .0 - 2 .0 - 2 .0
- 1 .5 - 1 .5 - 1 .5
CP
CP
CP
- 1 .0 - 1 .0 - 1 .0
- 0 .5 - 0 .5 - 0 .5
0 .0 0 .0 0 .0
0 .5 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0 0 .5 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0 0 .5 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0
1 .0
x /c x /c x /c
1 .0 1 .0
74
January 18-19, 2018
(a) α = 0° (b) α = 1° (c) α = 2°

- 3 .5 - 3 .5 w it h G u r n e y F la p - 3 .5 w it h G u r n e y F la p
- 3 .0 - 3 .0 w ith o u t G u r n e y F la p - 3 .0 w ith o u t G u r n e y F la p
( T s u c h iy a , 2 0 1 3 ) - 2 .5 ( T s u c h iy a , 2 0 1 3 ) - 2 .5 ( T s u c h iy a , 2 0 1 3 )
- 2 .5
- 2 .0 - 2 .0 - 2 .0
- 1 .5 - 1 .5 - 1 .5
CP
CP
CP
- 1 .0 - 1 .0 - 1 .0
- 0 .5 - 0 .5 - 0 .5
0 .0 0 .0 0 .0
0 .5 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0 0 .5 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0
0 .5
1 .0
x /c 1 .0
x /c x /c
1 .0
(d) α = 3° (e) α = 4° (f) α = 5°
Fig. 8. Comparison of Pressure Coefficient Profile
- 3 .5 w it h G u r n e y F la p - 3 .5 w it h G u r n e y F la p - 3 .5 w it h G u r n e y F la p
- 3 .0 w ith o u t G u r n e y F la p - 3 .0 w ith o u t G u r n e y F la p - 3 .0 w ith o u t G u r n e y F la p
- 2 .5 ( T s u c h iy a , 2 0 1 3 ) - 2 .5 ( T s u c h iy a , 2 0 1 3 ) - 2 .5 ( T s u c h iy a , 2 0 1 3 )
- 2 .0 - 2 .0 - 2 .0
- 1 .5 - 1 .5 - 1 .5
CP
CP
CP
- 1 .0 - 1 .0 - 1 .0
- 0 .5 - 0 .5 - 0 .5
0 .0 0 .0 0 .0
0 .5 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0
0 .5 0 .5
1 .0
x /c x /c x /c
1 .0 1 .0
(a) α = 6° (b) α = 7° (c) α = 8°

- 3 .5 w it h G u r n e y F la p - 3 .5 w it h G u r n e y F la p
- 3 .0 w ith o u t G u r n e y F la p - 3 .0 w ith o u t G u r n e y F la p
- 2 .5 ( T s u c h iy a , 2 0 1 3 ) ( T s u c h iy a , 2 0 1 3 )
- 2 .5
- 2 .0 - 2 .0
- 1 .5 - 1 .5
CP
CP
- 1 .0 - 1 .0
- 0 .5 - 0 .5
0 .0 0 .0
0 .5 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0
0 .5
1 .0
x /c x /c
1 .0
(d) α = 9° (e) α = 10°
Fig. 8. Comparison of Pressure Coefficient Profile (continued)
75
January 18-19, 2018
5. Conclusion
The effect of Gurney flap on the aerodynamic characteristics of an airfoil in low Reynolds number
environment has been experimentally tested. A three-component balance system was used for force
measurement and PSP technique was applied for surface pressure measurement. This study concludes
that:
1. The force measurement results show that attaching Gurney flap to an airfoil significantly improves
its aerodynamic characteristics at low Reynolds number.
2. The PSP measurement results show that adding a Gurney flap to the airfoil enhances the lift force
and aerodynamic efficiency at low Reynolds number.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Prof. Keisuke Asai of Tohoku University for allowing the researcher to conduct this
study in his laboratory and for giving supervision and very profound advices. The authors also thank the
members of the Mars Wind Tunnel Group of Experimental Aerodynamics Laboratory: Daisuke Oshiyama,
Kentaro Ando, Daichi Ishiwaki, Akito Noguchi, Nicholas Wallisky and Angaddeep Singh for the
insightful discussions and support.
References
[1] M. Anyoji, “Development of a Mars Wind Tunnel and Its Applications to Low Reynolds Number and
High-subsonic Airfoil Testing”, Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Tohoku
University, 2011.
[2] P. Giguere, G. Dumas and J. Lemay, “Gurney Flap Scaling for Optimum Lift-to-Drag Ratio”, AIAA
Journal, Vol. 35, No. 12, pp. 1888-1891, 1997.
[3] E. Laitone, “Aerodynamic Lift at Reynolds Number Below 7 × 10 exp 4”, AIAA Journal, Vol.34.
No.9, 1996.
[4] R. H. Liebeck, “Design of Subsonic Airfoils for High Lift”, Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 15, No. 9, pp.
547-561, 1978.
[5] D. Mateescu, A. Panahi and V. Roy, “Analysis of the Flow past Airfoils with Gurney Flaps at Low
Reynolds Numbers”, AIAA SciTech, AIAA-2014-0040, National Harbor, Maryland, 52th Aerospace
Sciences Meetings, 2014.
[6] M.G. Meena, K. Taira and K. Asai, “Airfoil wake modification with Gurney flap at Low-Reynolds
number”, 2017, Cornell University Library: https://arxiv.org/abs/1708.08500
[7] J. Montefort and T. Liu, "Thin-Airfoil Theoretical Interpretation for Gurney Flap Lift Enhancement ",
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76
January 18-19, 2018
[8] T.J. Mueller, “Fixed and Flapping Wing Aerodynamics For Micro Air Vehicle Applications ”,
Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2001.
[9] T.J. Muller and M.M. O’Meara, “Laminar Separation Bubble Characteristics on an Airfoil at Low
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77
January 18-19, 2018

E-Proceeding of The 8th International Mechanical Engineering Research Conference 2018

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List of Conference Papers

Pulsatile Flow in a 180-deg Curved Tube ......................................................................................................... 1

Community Security by Widely Available Information Technology................................................................. 15

Hyperheuristic Framework for a Combinatorial Optimization Problem............................................................. 52

Experimental Analysis of an Airfoil with a Gurney Flap for Low-Reynolds-Number Applications..................... 68

Pulsatile Flow in a 180-deg Curved Tube

Ro radius of curvature of outer arch wall, 41.5 mm

2.1 Experimental Setup

Fig. 1. Experimental Setup

Fig. 2. Geometry of model

Fig. 3. Pressure wave cycle

2.2 Particle Image Velocimetry Measurement

3. Results and Discussion

Fig. 4. Time-evolving process of velocity vectors and streamlines

Fig. 5. Velocity distributions at various cross-section A-M

3.2 Wall-shear Stress

Fig. 6. Axial Distributions of Outer Wall-Shear Stress

Fig. 7. Axial Distributions of Inner Wall-Shear Stress

Community Security by Widely Available Information Technology

2. PC based system using free software

3. Concept for privacy protection [6]

Multivariate Linear Model for Estimating the Higher Heating Value

Keywords: coal, higher heating value, proximate analysis, predictive model

II. Data Gathering and Modeling

Validation and testing of available models

Multiple linear regression

where 𝑘 is the number of parameters in the regression model and 𝒚

III. Results and Discussions

Table 3. Pearson’s correlation coefficient between constituents of proximate analysis

Cross validation of available models

Table 4. Comparison of model prediction performance

Developing a unified model

HHV = -10.04 + 0.411VM + 0.476FC + 0.072Ash *

Table 6. Comparison prediction performance of models developed

Testing and validation of the unified model

Table 7. Validation and comparison of model prediction performance

Air Mapping of Classrooms in a Government Learning Institution

Keywords: air mapping, learning institution, extension service

2. Indoor Air Quality

Fig.1. Box model for indoor air pollution

4. Results and Discussion of Results

T able 1. Room Temperature and Relative Humidity Profile

Note: Classroom : ( Non-Air Conditioned with electric fans) ;

Figure 1. Decorative block arrangement

Figure 2. Elevated fence at ceiling level

[1] American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE),

Renewable Energy Source Study of USC Dmme: Application of

Figure 1.1 Aerial view of Silot Bay

Figure 1.2 Silot Bay at high Tide

Figure 1.3 Silot Bay at low tide

Figure 2.1. Sample of a Cross-Section of a Stream.

2.2 Gorlov Marine Turbine

Figure 2.2 Gorlov Helical Marine Turbine

where: 𝜎 = the solidity ratio,

Figure 2.4: Side view of turbine attached to struts. (Dimensions in Millimeters)

Figure 2.5: NACA 0018 blade profile (Dimensions in millimeters)

3.1 Marine Current Velocity Determination

Figure 3.1 Aerial view of the experiment venue

3.1.1 Mean Velocity And Velocity Profile Determination

3.1.2 Flow Rate of The Cross-Section

3.2 Shaft Power Determination