CHAPTER … 7

HIGHWAY SAFETY
IMPROVEMENTS

"Change is the law of life and those who look only to

the past or present are certain to miss the future."

… John F. Kennedy (1917-1963)

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 7.1 Safety Concerns

Safe travel on our streets and highways richly merits a prominent position on our
national list of priorities and concerns. The enormous cost of unsafe roads, drivers and
vehicles touches us all-every driver, every rider, every pedestrian and every taxpayer.
The tragic results of Highway Traffic Crashes reach all walks of life and all levels of
our society. In the year 2006 alone 5239 people were killed and 12400 injured on the
highways of the country. However, the needed improvement in the systematic
collection of high quality, representative data is not likely to come about unless there
is a much greater institutional commitment to highway safety in general than exists
today. The value of any improvement in data is directly tied to a parallel commitment
by highway safety management officials to use those data in the planning, design, and
evaluation of safety Improvements. There has, however, been a little concern by the
authorities. The difficulty lies primarily in the fact that "safety" has not gained, in the
minds of most top government policy makers, as such safety continues to be some
what a tolerated stepchild and not a valued and loved member of the family. Quite
often it is regarded as a pain in the foot.

As a matter of fact, as a civil and traffic engineer, we have all been taught that
engineering analysis methods include adequate problem identification in order to
solve problems. Highway safety is a problem that is extremely difficult to describe
because numerous variables, their relatively unknown interactions, and their
unpredictable trends. In such a critical irresponsibility of the State functionaries; for a
safety professional who wishes to design and evaluate improvements for the highway
safety there is clearly little supporting accident data available with any of the relevant
authority.

Unfortunately, even our engineering universities are ignoring their responsibilities on

the subject matter. The result is that the mechanism of accident cause and effect is still
poorly understood. Consequently, scare resources are not always used efficiently.

It is time to realize; the transportation industry currently is undergoing more drastic

and more rapid changes than have been experienced in the preceding thirty years or
so. The rate of change over the next decade can be expected to be even more
dramatic. We can expect an increased number of vehicles, more vehicles-miles of
travel and, most importantly, a changed vehicle mix. There are number of implications
to these changes of which we must be aware and prepared to deal with. The warning
bells are already ringing.

7.2 Role of Traffic Police in Road Law Enforcement

Enforcement of traffic legislation is the area of activity aimed at controlling road user
behavior by preventive, persuasive and punitive methods in order to achieve the safe
and efficient movement of traffic. The objectives of traffic law enforcement are:

 To prevent violations of traffic laws;

 To persuade road users to avoid traffic offences;
 To apprehend and punish traffic law offenders.

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Traffic law enforcement is therefore meant to achieve the safe movement of all road
users, including pedestrians, and the free flow of traffic. It is interesting to note that
there can be a degree of conflict between these two goals.

The whole strategy of law enforcement is directed at making the roads safer and
easier for all road users. It may therefore restrict certain drivers, e.g. those with
powerful cars capable of exceeding the limit, and prevent operators of commercial or
public service vehicles form overloading them. The majority, however, should benefit
from a uniform enforcement strategy without favor of a particular class or section of
the public.

7.3 The Legislative Process

The social changes which have come about as a result of the rapid increase in car
ownership have led to patterns of behavior on the roads which show a widespread
failure to conform to acceptable standards. Studies by the Transport and Road
Research Laboratory, for example, showed that in a number of third world cities
driver behavior at traffic signals, pedestrian crossings and priority junctions was
particularly poor. Traffic laws in developing countries are widely disregarded and the
law makers have not been able to obtain the same respect for traffic laws as other
laws. Most people do no consider traffic laws as serious and when caught they
consider themselves as merely "unlucky". This adds to the difficulties of enforcement.

The other aspect of legislation which affects law enforcers is the need to have laws
which are clear and specific. Any law which is vague is difficult for drivers to
understand and appreciate, and consequently much harder to enforce. In many
developing countries traffic legislation has remained unchanged since colonial times,
with no updating to cover key issues such as drinking and driving, use of seat belts
and wearing of crash helmets.

Before any law is introduced it is necessary for it to be seen to be viable by the

majority of people. One way to achieve this is to enlist the support of as many
organizations as possible when the drafting process is taking place, e.g. motoring
organizations, transport associations, relevant government departments and vehicle
manufacturers. The police, as the enforcement body, should also be consulted. In this
way, a good cross-section of opinion is obtained and the worst pitfalls are avoided in
the drafting process. Even so, laws need to be constantly reviewed in the light of
experience.

7.4 Enforcement Techniques

Probably more important than the regulations themselves is how they are enforced in
any country. Enforcement should be uniform and consistent across the whole country
and applied equally to all road users. If enforcement officer turn a blind eye to any
area (for example, overloaded vehicles), people quickly recognize that fact and soon
ignore that particular regulation.

Only when traffic laws are seen to be universally enforced, will these be any
improvement on road safety and reasonable compliance by members of the public.

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Police officers should never feel intimidated by road users who may be senior
government personnel or wealthy members of society; they should be certain in the
knowledge that their actions will be fully supported by their own behavior and
abilities set a good example. For the latter reason, it is important that police driving
abilities are of the high standard, although regrettably this is not always the case.

Corruption and bribery should, if detected, be stamped out as quickly as possible, if it

is known to exit then the whole system of law enforcement falls into dispute with far-
reaching consequences. Two problems which clearly exit the third world countries are
that police are under-paid and traffic police in particular are presented with no clear-
cut career structure. Efforts should be made to encouraged trained officers to remain
as traffic police and to ensure that salary scales are comparable with other grades in
the public sector.

It must also be made clear to the general public that the police have the ability to
enforce traffic laws. Traffic police must be both well trained and well equipped, with
ready access to up-to-date facilities such as radar equipment, vehicles equipped with
radio control, etc. if adequate training facilities are lacking locally then key personnel
should be sent overseas for specialist training. Efforts should be made to identify the
appropriate size of the traffic police force.

7.5 Elements of Driver Testing and Training

Climate and environment change from permafrost to the topics vary from six-lane
carriage ways to the “murrum” track. Regulations can make the use of a dirty car a
crime or create an attitude of "anything goes". However, within the variable traffic
equation, one constant element remains-the human being at the wheel. Roads can be
built or improved, and vehicles may be better designed to tolerate error and adverse
conditions but, despite the creation of the more forgiving environment and transport,
the factors responsible for the majority of vehicle related injuries continues to driver
error.

7.6 Driver Testing

Training is needed to transform the learner driver into the technically adept, and the
careless into the careful, but a strict and relevant test is also necessary to ensure that
the teaching has been comprehensive and well learned. The purposes of a driving test
in any country are:

 To ensure that new drivers have reached a certain minimum standard,

 To set the standard to which instructors should teach.

Certainly everything follows from the test, which will determine the level of training.
Unfortunately, in many developing countries this examination of ability is indicate,
poorly conducted and fails to ensure competence in collision avoidance. In many
places, the driving test places too much emphasis on the ability of the driver to carry
out specific maneuvers: a reverse through cones followed by a hill start on a loose
surface may be useful maneuvers but require no traffic sense, observation or
anticipation. These latter qualities are essential at even moderate speeds in light

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traffic, and can only be tested by observed consistent performance on trafficked roads.
Reasonable or even good control does not mean that a driver knows how to proceed
correctly and safely in traffic.

Testing problems do exist in many areas: for example distances between suitable
centers may be great, trained examiners scarce and standardization of routes
impossible. Infrequent test sessions result in long queues and public humiliation. It is
imperative, however, to discard systems where testing is done part-time by non-
specialist officials from other arms of government with an over-emphasis on
maneuvers at the expense of actual forward motion in traffic. Corrupt practices, which
enable a license to be bought without test, contribute to low driving standards and
must be eliminated.

It is strongly recommended that any country seriously wishing to reduce road casualty
figures institutes (almost other measures) as fair but strict driving test, select full time
examiners carefully, trains them in examining techniques and pays salaries sufficient
to discourage corruption.

Test system must be fair and standardized, and it follows that supervisory grades are
also necessary, with a progressive career structure built in.

Legislation is necessary to control test procedures. The initiation of a second, higher-

level test rewarded by substantial insurance discount is also suggested. Such schemes
are operated in the U.K. by the Royal Society for Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA)
and the institute of Advanced Motorists (IAM).

Recent studies by RoSPA in Africa confirmed that badly driven overloaded minibuses
contribute to many road deaths, together with the international heavy goods vehicle
drivers who must cope with changes in regulations, roads, climate and behavior.
Motorcycles, if ridden properly, are a joyful means of cheap transport but, if ridden
badly, are killers. Specialists testing, and therefore training, of all those categories of
road user is essential. In setting up comprehensive driving test procedures, the
emphasis must be on the ability of the examiner to deal with real traffic conditions,
consideration should also be given, however, to simple medical tests particularly the
testing of eyesight.

Many developing countries also make use of written knowledge tests. These are
generally ineffective, not least because the questions are so infrequently changed. The
use of oral question for those passing the roadside test may be both easier to conduct
and more effective.

Efforts should be made to identify the appropriate size of the traffic police force in a
country (possibly subdivided by region) and attempts should be made to build up the
force to these level, financial constraints notwithstanding.

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 7.7 Police Duties

In terms of the role of the police, three separate aspects of traffic law enforcement are
readily identifiable, namely preventive, persuasive and punitive duties. It is essential
that the police adopt a consistent attitude to all such duties so that uniform pattern
develops in any country.

 Preventive duties: these mainly involve directing and supervising traffic and
investigating accidents. They include:

 Supplying information to aid road users to comply with traffic laws and
regulations and directing those unfamiliar with the area to their destination.
 Indicating to drivers and pedestrians how to behave in a traffic situation,
especially during periods of congestion or where hazardous road condition exists.
 Taking emergency action to direct traffic flow when the usual traffic control
devices prove inadequate to meet unexpected traffic conditions.
 Preventing further damage and injury by warning other traffic after an accident
has occurred.
 Ascertaining the circumstances and details of how and when accidents happen.
 Recording and reporting accurately and factually all relevant information and
drawing the appropriate conclusions with a view to enhancing safety.

The police service should have as an objective "prevention is better than cure"—it is
much better to prevent an accident than to clear it up afterwards.

 Persuasive duties: These include "public relations" exercises such as providing

advice, lectures, demonstrations and visits to all kinds and sections of society.
Better understanding between the police and the general public is preferable to
disobedience.

The very sight of police officers patrolling on foot, in cars or on motorcycles can have
a deterrent effect on the would-be traffic offender, although the result can never be
measured.

Not all offenders need to be taken to court. For minor transgressions police officers
should have the right to caution offenders for such things as slight excess speed,
minor lighting offences, slightly defective silencers, etc. by administering a caution,
either verbal or written, the goodwill of the offender is retained and he is given the
chance to put things right, without the stigma of conviction.

 Punitive duties: these may include:

 Arresting a road user when there is a high probability that he is endangering the
lives and property of other road users.
 Immobilizing vehicles and drivers when the offence warrants it.
 Applying on-the-spot fines or fixed penalty notices when minor offences, such as
parking, are committed (this relieves the saturation of the courts).
 Initiating action which may lead to a court appearance.

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 Upholding the penalties imposed by the courts, e.g. fines, loss of license or even
loss of liberty.

7.8 Traffic Enforcement System

The enforcement of traffic law is a complex procedure. The major elements are:

 The enforcement system;

 The road user system;
 The traffic system

Each of these elements is a complex system within itself but they all interact with
each other to form the whole system.

The road user system includes drivers, riders, passengers, pedal cyclists and
pedestrians. The system is defined in terms of knowledge, skills, attitudes and
characteristics such as age, sex, health, driver training and road experience. All these
affect the way in which a person behaves in particular circumstances and at particular
times. The enforcement system should act in as beneficial a way as possible to the
majority of people.

The traffic system consists of the complete road vehicle complex. The way road users
behave can lead to insufficiencies in the traffic system which in turn can be measured
in terms of congestion, accidents, injury and loss of life.

The number of offences committed by road users in developing countries is very high
compared with the number of mobile traffic police available to enforce traffic
legislation. Whatever the organizational structure of an enforcement agency, it is
essential therefore those "selective" enforcement techniques are used. These involve
the deployment of a given number of personnel and vehicles at such times and at such
locations as to obtain the maximum effect to reduce accidents, and also to improve
traffic flow. It may well be that effective traffic law enforcement can make the
greatest single contribution to road accidents reduction in developing countries.

License, with a hierarchical system established so that prospective heavy goods and
pub-service vehicles drivers first pass the general (car and light goods) test and have
held this license for a minimum period of time. The test for a public service should be
made clear to those that fail the test as “why this is so?”

7.9 Driver Training

Worthwhile driver training will achieve not only a test pass but instill life-long
understanding of vehicle control principles, institute correct behavior patterns and
develop timely awareness of potential danger. Nothing, however, can be achieved
without properly trained and supervised instructors. Japan and Germany, for example
have succeeded in reducing casualties by an integrated strategic plan including among
another measures, an increased emphasis on driver training and professionalism of
instructor.

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Comprehensive training must include systematic car control, breaking, steering and
cornering techniques, planning, positioning, observation and substantial experience in
traffic. The only area where skid control training is not essential is where it never
rains. Vehicle sympathy, restraint, appreciation of danger of tons of moving metal and
knowledge of unusual local customs are also necessary qualities which need a skilful
professional instructor to impart. Life is seen by some people in fatalistic terms.
Orientation to the immediate present rather than the ability to anticipate may occur in
those from underdeveloped regions, while the poorest and most disadvantaged people
may suffer from poor eyesight, slow reactions or lack of stamina.

The instructor must be trained to identify, and where possible eliminate, these and
similar problems. He must inculcate the attitude that danger from other road users or
from the neglect of one's own vehicle can be foreseen and prevented. Similarly, he
must teach that the path through a complicated junction can be planned in advance
rather than left to a spontaneous reaction.

Effective teaching methods require careful training of the instructing body, and their
subsequent control and monitoring. Above all, systems must be clear, simple to
operate and free from ambiguity. Over-sophisticated schemes may fail. If
restructuring advice is necessary, it should be sought from those with appropriate
experience.

It is highly desirable that learner drivers should receive tuition only from approved
driving schools and should not be allowed to sit their tests until a minimum number of
lessons have been taken. Driving schools should be registered with the appropriate
government authorities and all driving instructors should have an approved
government certificate obtained by themselves by passing a test set by the Ministry.
Vehicles should be in good condition and be clearly identifiable as belonging to
driving school.

In almost all developing countries, the requirement is for a program of strict testing
operated by well-taught specialists who take into account local conditions. From this
will inevitably follow improved training and thus, it is projected, improved driving
standards and a reduction in casualty rates.

It is unfortunate that in Pakistan the lack of adequate licensing procedure and standard
license examination has enabled countless thousand of inferior motorists to obtain
driver licenses and to retain them throughout the years. It is known that many
individuals operating motor vehicles on our streets and highways today were never
formally examined to determine whether they could safely and efficiently operate a
motor vehicle. Also, because of the significant change in the driving task, those
individual licensed several years ago would surely benefit through re-examination.
The requirements of a driver in today's traffic are considerably different from those of
yesteryears. The driver contributes substantially to the traffic crash problem; the
driver or the human element is estimated to be responsible for approximately 85
percent of the traffic accidents. However, in Pakistan license renewal is a must, but no
driver-testing concept exists worth to mention. As a matter of fact, the entire
procedure of issue and renewal of driving license requires in depth study and sincere
execution of the recommendation.

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 7.10 Importance of Road Safety Education and Publicity

Road safety and publicity take their place alongside the engineering of roads and
traffic, vehicle development and the imposition and enforcement of legislation, as
effective accident preventive measures. They are the functions necessary to create
public awareness on all fronts and to promote desirable reactions from road users by
offering information, advice and practical training in behavioral skills.

A PROGRAM of road safety education and publicity, to be credible, has to be based

on proven need. Through collection of road accident information is therefore the first
essential, followed by a study to identify vulnerable road user groups, casual factors
and hazardous locations. Remedial action may then involve several activities, e.g. an
engineering measure supported by enforcement and explained to the public by a
program of road safety education.

Education and publicity are distinct functions. Education is long-term and concerned
with the imparting of information and the development of acceptable attitudes. (This
contrasts with training, which is short-term and concerned with acquiring skills and
with the development of practical road sense.) Publicity is the promotion of relevant
messages to inform and/or persuade. It depends for its effectiveness on the strategies
(or type of "appeal") chosen, the intensity and duration of coverage, and the behavior
or attitude one is trying to change.

In road safety term "education" usually implies the education of school children,
while publicity has wider scope and is aimed at all age groups.

The important areas to consider are:

(a) methodology in road safety education;

(b) a framework for management;
(c) training of road safety personnel

7.11 Methodology

Whether target audiences for education or adults, three elements are essential:

(i) Theoretical learning

(ii) Practice in simulated conditions away from traffic
(iii) Activity in the live scene under normal traffic conditions.

While it is more difficult to arrange, the last is the most effective. For example, in a
comparison of on-road and off-road cycling training for children, it was established
that the road-trained groups performed significantly better than the playground-
trained groups on all three maneuvers tested. However, off-road "traffic parks" also
play a useful role in the simulation of real road conditions.

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"Teach the teachers and they will teach the children" is a dictum first propounded in
Britain by a former Secretary of the Association of Education Committees. This is
sound and practical advice, and a great deal of effort has gone into the development of
materials to be used by school teachers in G.B. unfortunately, similar material has not
been widely developed for our children in Pakistan.

Furthermore, even if road safety education were introduced in schools in developing

countries, the number of available lessons per week would be limited. In order to
continue the educational process in road safety, however, the topic can be integrated
into the overall teaching process by introducing it into classes in geography,
arithmetic, science, etc.

The use of school teachers to educate children in road craft has been proven, for
example, in Zimbabwe in recent past. The teachers have briefing sessions with the
Traffic Safety Board, as do teachers in training. Such arrangements do not, of course,
preclude the occasional input from the road safety specialist or the police, where this
may be considered necessary.

Road safety education is enhanced by the use of learning materials and aids. Films,
videos and microcomputer programs are helpful, provided they are supported by
participative activity by the students, e.g. work sheets and observation tasks on
normal roads. On the other hand, the absence of technical equipment is no excuse for
inaction. Simple materials such as flannel graph and paper-based aids may highly
effective and their creation is well within the competence of the informed
educationalist. Educational literature is also desirable and, ideally each student should
have a personal copy.

Training should satisfy the road user's need to know how to walk, ride and drive with
skills and safety. Structured training is therefore necessary in the form of courses
carried out by trained instructors to carefully tested syllabuses.

Pedestrian training, in terms of instruction by parents, should begin as soon as

children are able to walk. Cycling courses, culminating in a proficiency test, comprise
six to eight lessons depending on the ability of the children.

Motorcycling and driving training is best carried out through lessons by properly
accredited instructors who provide this service for a fee. Beyond the driving test
stage, defensive driving courses may contribute to improved standards. Motivation to
participate may be stimulated by the prospect of lower insurance premiums, as in
Zimbabwe.

The selection of themes for road safety publicity depends on information arising from
accident data. The success of a publicity scheme depends on the appropriateness of
the chosen strategy or type of appeal (e.g. horror, reason, persuasion, use of a well
known person, factual advice), the media selected and on the available budget.

Messages first must be tested on the target audiences before being used more widely.
Their effects must also be measured at the conclusion of an enterprise in terms of
accident reduction, improvements in behavior and message comprehension.

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In devising visual publicity schemes, an attempt should be made to provide the target
audience with as many "opportunities to see" as possible. For example, more people
are likely to see posters on bus backs and sides than on poorly located poster sites,
although (provided that they do not distract drivers' attention in a dangerous way)
highly visible posters could be mounted at intervals on selected roadside locations.
Perhaps the most important point to bear in mind when designing posters is that each
should have a single, clear and concise message.

Radio, television and the cinema should also be used widely since they have the
potential to reach large audiences.

7.12 A Framework for Management

Road safety is a public service arising out of public need. It is therefore primarily the
responsibility of public authorities who should set up administrative arrangements and
provide the necessary funding. Private sector interests may also be incorporated,
particularly those related to transport and insurance.

A World Health Organization (WHO) workshop (U.K., 1982) concluded that "…..
Programs for the prevention of accidents require an inter-sectoral approach and the
involvement of many professional disciplines …." This is WHO's consistent principle
for the management of road safety measures.

The implementation of this principle calls for the creation of Road Safety Councils
comprising specialists in the areas of health, psychology, publicity, child and adults
education, law enforcement, traffic management and road safety.

This mechanism should be adopted at both national and local authority levels, and the
Councils should be given a high degree of executive authority and be backed by
adequate finance. The national body should address itself to major policy issues
whereas local Councils should deal with matters of more immediate concerns. All
Councils should deal with matters of more immediate concerns. All Councils should
include elected representatives and should enjoy the support of a high level cabinet
committee.

7.13 Training of Road Safety Personnel

The management of Road Safety Program is a skilled task for which professional
training is essential. The role of the specialist includes administrative tasks, accident
analysis, and intelligent use of the education system, devising and execution of
education programs, contact with the media, communication skills and the operation
of technical equipment.

Training is at two levels: academic and "on-the-job" training. The former, if

necessary, may be undertaken by distance learning (although, in Britain, annual
attendance at college for a week or so in addition is also necessary.)

On-the-job training is best done in the home country, partly because it is less costly to
do this than to send staff abroad, and partly because systems and equipment used

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elsewhere, particularly in developed countries, may not be available locally. To train
personnel to use some resource which will not be available to them in "real life"
would lead to frustration and, more importantly, would counter the basic requirement
that road safety education must be based on local needs and on the adaptation of
available resources, scarce though they may be.

However, despite some opinions to the country, road safety education can be full of
interest to teachers and pupils alike. It has been shown that, in developing countries,
the proportion of all persons killed who are aged less than 15 years was, on average
twice as high (at 20 percent) than in developed countries (10 percent). Road safety
education is therefore essential if a reduction in road accidents is to be achieved and
maintained in developing countries.

However, in spite of the fact that according to the official statistics a great part of the
accidents is caused by the drivers, the apparent frequency of accidents on certain
points of the road, and the apparent larger degree of safety of traffic experienced on
roads of more favorable geometric characteristics stress the decisive role played by
the road features concerning the safety of traffic. If the human factors of the accidents
cannot be generally discarded, the safety of traffic might be highly improved by
developing road conditions which allow less possibility of making driving mistakes.

In addition to rising the requirements which the training of drivers must meet and to
studying of the traffic rules by the population, it should be planned to build
overpasses at railway crossings and provide non-skid pavements on newly built
highways. The programs for improving safety on roads being worked out in different
countries usually include the following measures:

 Broadcasting of the roadway, the provision of additional traffic lanes on upgrades

(climbing lanes) for slow vehicles;
 Stabilization and widening of shoulders;
 The provision of broadened areas on the roadway for bus stops;
 The arrangement of rest areas with parking facilities away from the road;
 The provision of flat slopes of the roadbed side, the removal of obstacles on the
shoulders and roadsides that may be struck by a vehicle veering off the road;
 The reconstruction of horizontal and vertical curves to increase sight distances;
 The widening of narrow bridges or other structures;
 The installation of signals and gates at railway grade crossings, the construction of
overpasses (flyovers) at railway crossings and of road grade separations and
interchanges;
 Delineation (marking) of the roadway for the better organization of traffic;
 The reconstruction of at-grade intersections with traffic channeling and the
provision of divisional islands or rotary intersections (roundabouts);
 The installation of guardrails and guide posts on dangerous sections;
 The illumination of sections where accidents are frequent at night;
 The construction of pedestrian bridges and tunnels, and the installation of fences
and guards preventing pedestrians from getting into a road;
 The construction of parallel for local traffic and speed-change lanes; the proper
design of three-leg intersections (three-way junctions), entry and exit ramps
(slips);

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 The provision of sidewalks in populated areas and of cycle paths;
 The installation of traffic control devices; the introduction on separate sections of
traffic light control.

To sum up, most of the standard techniques employed in traffic management are well
known and can be grouped as under:

(i) techniques having an effect on capacity or demand for movement;

(ii) road safety measures;
(iii) techniques giving priority for one class of road-user over others;
(iv)control by signing and traffic signals and;
(v) procedures and legislation.

If we wish to define precisely the overall goal of traffic management we could do a lot
worse than follow this quotation from the Buchanan Report: to contrive the efficient
distribution of accessibility of large numbers of vehicles (and people) to large number
of buildings and to do it in such a way that a way that a satisfactory standard of
environment is achieved.

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