CHAPTER … 8

HUMAN RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT

"Knowledge is limited but imagination encircles the

whole universe."

… Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

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 8.1 Transport--a necessity of Life

The more we travel the more we are faced to think that transport is taken for granted.
Very few people ever really stop to consider how fundamental transport, in its many
forms, is to life. Sir Winston Churchill once said: We shape our cities, they shape our
lives. It is not just our personal travel, but to obtain the goods we consume and the
economic and industrial development of a village, town, city or country.

It is true everywhere, but nowhere is it more important than in developing countries,

many of which suffer problems of scarce resources, enormously scattered populations
and lengthy to non existent chains of communication from the ports or large towns.

This is a huge handicap to development under reasonably average circumstances, but

frequently an almost complete to disaster relief. The case of the vast devastating
earthquake in northern parts of Pakistan (2005) and equally devastating floods (2010).
These are just the two most prime examples where monetary aid had to become a
transport business in order to ensure the delivery of emergency goods and evacuation
of the affected population to safer places. Fleets of trucks working flat out to beat the
conditions which rendered most roads impassable.

Having highlighted the difficulties, there remains the problem of the efficient
application of available funds in the infrastructure and vehicles to cure some of the
obstacles. Be cautious--transport is a necessity, not necessarily a pleasure experience!
A service which meets a need at an acceptable price is a good investment. An
investment which does not meet customer needs uses resources which can be used for
other things. This is a fact that governments of developed and developing nations
have to take account of. The policy makers have to consider what the customer can
afford. Governments have to decide for themselves whether they wish to meet some
of the users' costs. But if the transport system is to be paid for, and to be properly
repaired and maintained, the charges must be of a size that the customer can pay.

As a famous saying goes: 'The traffic jams of New York, San Francisco, Paris, and
Seattle are well known. Some estimates point out that a driver annually spends not
less than 59 hours stuck in traffic ques in these cities. In the same breath we may
mention at least two big cities of Pakistan, i.e. Karachi and Lahore.

However, going back in history, traffic jams are nothing new phenomenon. In 45
B.C., Rome (one of Julius Caesar's first acts on seizing power) banned all vehicles
from within the city--and in other cities vehicles, including horses, were allowed only
at night, because of traffic jams. Lamps for the night time use of vehicles were in
practice much earlier before the advent of motorcar.

8.2 The Research

In order to deal with traffic problems in a satisfactory way, it has been necessary to
build up a scientific discipline. This involves collecting quantitative information about
roads and traffic, developing methods and apparatus for studying the problem,
focusing attention on the important aspects of traffic operations and finding workable
methods of introducing economic considerations. Both practical and theoretical

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methods are needed. Scientific and technological planning is the aim of the research
engineer in the field of traffic activities. She has to discover methods and principles
which the engineer and administrator can use to facilitate traffic flow and control so
as to reduce accidents and delays. To perform this task it is necessary to obtain a basic
understanding of traffic phenomena and to discover the principles which govern the
design of traffic control systems, the layout of roads and junctions and the planning of
transport system. In Pakistan, a large part of research in traffic engineering and
control is carried out at the National Transport Research Centre, Islamabad (Ministry
of Communications, Government of Pakistan). Nevertheless, ever increasing research
is also being undertaken by the universities, practicing engineers, traffic police and
others.

One has to keep in mind that in traffic engineering there is no accepted Code of
Practice as is the case of building design, where it is straight forward application of
the recognize Code. The traffic engineer has to identify and evaluate the problem and
has to come with a unique solution. As it is, the dividing line between research and
practice becomes indistinct and blurred. Nevertheless, many of the techniques
employed in traffic engineering are still in formative level. Both the traffic engineer
and researcher are, therefore, to be found working in close association, devising and
testing out new ideas and new methods. The research frequently involves observation
of the flow on the roads and experimental work in out-door and in-door laboratories.
All these tasks have definite practical end in view. It is therefore; very important that
the results thus obtained are passed on to those who are in position to apply the results
and further, the crucial findings are embodied in standards of design and practice
generally. The results of the research should also be published in various research
periodicals.

As a matter of fact, through the centuries, and into the early period of the automobile
invention, the engineering approach to the road building was exclusively structural.
With the advent of the automobile the functional requirements of the new type of
traffic gradually became recognized. Emphasis began to shift from the static aspects
of the road design to the dynamic factors so important to the safe and efficient
movement. However, since in Pakistan, the majority of our highways and street
systems were built under the ancient philosophy, it is not surprising that we face
perpetual traffic crises. As such, various methods were devised to control operation of
the road system essential to maintain the efficient movement of vehicles and
pedestrians. Thus the concept of traffic engineering was introduced in our road and
street design and construction activities.

No wonder, traffic engineering is the art and science of estimating traffic demand and
highway capacity and measuring and determining the relationships between traffic
variables-and the application of this knowledge to planning, designing, operating, and
administrating highway facilities in order to achieve the safe and efficient movement
of persons and goods. Art is knowledge made efficient by skill; science is systemized
knowledge. Thus it could be said that the traffic engineer is a planner, not a deviser; a
builder not a repairman; a surgeon, not a first-aid traffic corpsman. To summarize
traffic engineering is a dynamic human activity with the purpose of benefiting and
serving mankind. It is ever growing and changing discipline that becomes more and
more complex as new knowledge is gained.

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Invariably, the traffic engineer makes decisions that often affect the everyday life of
the whole community. The far-reaching effects of his decisions means that
consideration must be given to many aspects of the environment within which he is
working. These aspects include economic, social, and physical features as well as
political and governmental forces.

However, to identify some of the areas of studies and implementation for the
programs will have to include the following safety measures:

 Safety at Rail-highway Grade Crossing

 Pavement Markings and Research
 Road Signs Research
 Bridge Reconstruction and Replacement
 Drug Use and Driver Behavior Research
 Research and Projects for High Hazard Locations
 Program to Eliminate Roadside Obstacles
 Highway Safety Educational Studies and Programming
 Citizen Participation Study
 Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety Study
 Administrative Adjudication of Traffic Offences
 Driver Education Evaluation Study
 Highway Safety Needs Study

Form the above list it is easy to see the concern for areas of special interest. In the
minds of some, who matter, many of these were either ignored or were not given the
attention they felt they deserved.

To conserve energy, American Congress saw fit to pass the Emergency Highway
Energy Conservation Act which established a 55-mile per hour speed limit effective
since January 2, 1974. This provision (55 mph) was made permanent effective
January 4, 1975, by subsequent act of Congress. This act alone has probably been
more effective reducing deaths and injuries than any other single factor. There are
penalties for states that do not enforce the limit.

8.3 Some Theoretical Fundamentals Influencing Road

Safety

For enhancing road safety, features of perception by drivers of road conditions

considered herein show that absolute traffic safety can be achieved only upon
complete automation of vehicle operation. As long as the speeds and paths of vehicles
are subjected only to the will of the drivers operating them, we can speak of traffic
safety only if we understand it to mean the possibility of rendering transportation
services using motor vehicles that run at economically effective speeds with the
minimum number of accidents due to reasons that cannot be foreseen and thus
prevented before-hand. The latter may include the failure of vehicle parts due to
fatigue or defects in manufacture that are not controlled in regular servicing of
vehicles, as sudden illness of a driver causing him to lose conscience, or a natural
calamity causing destruction of a road.

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The dependence of accident on the highways as described in this book (which are just
few indeed) makes it possible to advance a number of requirements to safe roads in
the meaning given above.

1. Psychological clarity of the further direction of a road, including sections beyond

the limits of direct visibility. Optical guidance along the direction of a road at
distances exceeding the design sight distance.

2. The possibility of traffic streams and single vehicles traveling on sections of all
roads (except for highways, motorways and the like) in unconstricted conditions
of the surrounding terrain and situation, regardless of the road class, at speeds
which in accordance to the experienced gained in road operation correspond to the
minimum number of accidents at the present composition and skill of drivers (80-
90km/h). In complicated conditions of the surrounding relief, it is not good
practice to orient the designing of roads to the design speed of the most powerful
passenger cars manufactured in small numbers. It is not possible to demand that
roads guarantee safety when races of high-speed cars are conducted on them.

3. The mutual combination of horizontal and vertical elements in constricted

conditions of the relief and situation that will permit motorists to drive over
adjacent sections of a road with a change in their speed by not over 20% without
having the shift gears or apply their brakes, the speed being controlled only by
changing the pressure on the gas pedal. When this condition is observed, the most
adverse elements of a road should ensure a speed not lower than the average speed
of modern commercial vehicles on roads with similar traffic conditions.

4. Combinations of elements of a road and the surrounding landscape that will

ensure the optimal emotional load on drivers. An active way of meeting this
requirement is the planting of decorative trees and shrubs and the use of
architectural means that will make it possible to control the magnitude of the
nervous and psychological stress of drivers manifesting itself in a change in the
speed of vehicles.

5. An adequate stopping sight distance over the entire length of road, and on
adequate passing sight distance over 60-70% of its length. The sight distances
should correspond to the speed on each of the approach sections.

6. The separation of opposing traffic streams by a broad median whose surface

should create a resistance to motion that will cause a vehicle crossing it to stop.

7. The provision of additional traffic lanes at places where part of the vehicles in a
traffic stream travel at a low speed, reduce their speed or merge with the traffic on
a main road. The construction of special paths for pedestrians and cyclists.

8. Correspondence of the width of the traffic lanes on a roadway to the speeds

ensured by the horizontal and vertical elements of a road.

9. The absence of elements of structures and road equipment on the roadbed and the
roadside strip near it that are dangerous when a vehicle collides with them or that
affect the speed and paths of vehicles.

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10. A strong smooth and harsh (non-skid) surface of pavements and shoulders. The
difference between the resistances to motion and the coefficients of friction of the
pavement and the shoulders should be small with a contrast in their appearance or
with their separation by means of markings.

11. Conformance of the horizontal layout of sections on which vehicles turn with
acceleration to the laws of the change in the accelerations of vehicles and the
optimal conditions of turning the steering wheel.

12. A layout of the entries to bus stops and parking areas, and also a configuration of
islands on channelized at-grade intersections that will ensure smooth changing of
the path of a vehicle at speeds optimal for the work of drivers and comfortable for
the passengers.

13. Un-obstructive, but detailed information on the direction of a road and the optimal
conditions of travel on it for vehicles. Road signs and other means of information
should guide drivers, but not have the aim of establishing conditions of travel that
will compensate for defects in the geometry of a road.

14. The possibility of safe veering off a road of a vehicle out of control or with faulty
brakes over the gentle slops of low embankments. All places where this is not
possible, the provision of guards or barriers that will retain vehicles with the
minimum damage to them and without forcing them back into the roadway.

15. Constancy of the characteristics of a road during the entire year regardless of
changing weather conditions. Stability of the value of the coefficient of friction
between a tyre and the pavement as the result of the appropriate harshness of its
surface facilitating the forcing of water out of the place of contact of a tyre with
the pavement, active and timely combating of ice-covered roads and snowdrifts.
Lighting of roads with a high volume of traffic during the dark period of the day.

…
The rapid growth of motor transport, without which the further progress of society is
impossible, has its dark-side i.e. road accidents. The development of industry and
agriculture will bound to increase commercial traffic on roads. The deeper and deeper
penetration of the passenger car into the mode of life of the broadest circles of the
population will be attended by an increase in the number and length of trips connected
with the desire of people to get a better idea of the sights of their country and spend
their weekends or vacation in the lap of nature.

Auto-mobilization of developing countries should not be permitted to be attended by

the killing and injuring of people and the loss of material values. It is the duty of all
specialists connected with the solution of problems of traffic safety improvement on
roads to do everything in their power to make roads convenient and safe to travel on.
The material set out in this book are a convincing proof of the great influence on
traffic safety of the road conditions in which motor vehicles operate and of how much
road forces can do to improve them. Workers in the field of designing, constructing

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and maintaining roads during all their activities should never forget about ensuring
traffic safety. This should be a creative process based on a deep study of the laws of
travel of traffic streams.

8.4 Upgrade Technical and Engineering Skills

The process of technology upgrading (TU) is accompanied by a changing profile of

manpower in terms of occupational distribution, shift in skills, skill composition of
different occupations and productivity. Some occupations/skills are wiped out, giving
rise to new occupations--with major or marginal adjustments in skill requirements--
for enhancing efficiency and productivity. Educational and training needs differ,
depending upon existing and emerging job specifications. The implications of TU on
human resources are depicted in Figure1.

In the 50s, the common understanding of TU was in terms of labor replacement,

undertaken mainly to reduce operational costs and partly to get over the problems of
training the workforce. Over the decades, the implications have changed.

Redundant
Occupations Major/minor changes
In existing occupations
New occupations

Redundant
Skills De-skilling
New skills
Multi-skills

Figure 1. Impact of Technology Upgrade

TU is now looked upon from the point of view of enhancing labor productivity. This
is particularly important in a labor-surplus economy such as on the sub-continent,
where labor productivity is low, alternative employment opportunities are meager and
the supply of trained manpower is almost non-existent. TU has to be accompanied by
human resources development programs, properly tailored to the target groups, as
manpower cannot be easily retrenched. This is crucial for the optimum utilization of
the upgraded technology.

As a matter of fact, the pace of TU is varied in different sub-sectors of the transport

industry. Transportation mode like, animal-driven vehicles, operate side by side with
the most modern variety of cars and buses. That is to say, even within a particular sub-
sector, different stages of technology exist simultaneously.

The result is that the human resources requirement is highly heterogeneous in nature,,
even with regard to similar functions or occupations. A multi-faceted human resource
development (HRD) program is, therefore, essential in Pakistan to improve the

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efficiency of manpower engaged in older technology-based jobs as well as to prepare
it to meet the changed skill requirements arising out of TU.

In addition, more than one-half of manpower in the sector is either unskilled or semi-
skilled. The educational achievement is low and there is no pre-recruitment training.
The majority of recruitment is at the base level and vertical mobility is achieved
mainly through on-the-job skill development and promotion on seniority basis.
Manpower planning is at a rudimentary stage.

Planning for TU is guided more by availability of financial resources than undertaken

as a part of a well designed long-term strategy to modernize the physical and human
asset. Hence, a long-term perspective plan for modernization of men and machines is
conspicuous by its absence.

Finally, a large proportion of the transport activities is in the informal or unorganized

sector, where the possibility of TU is extremely limited and no effective HRD
program can be visualized for the immediate future. It is only for the organized sector
that HRD program can be undertaken and, in Pakistan, it is predominantly in public
sector.

8.5 Areas of Technology Upgrading

The greatest impact on skill requirements is likely to occur in the field of highway
planning, design, construction and maintenance. A technological revolution has taken
place in all these spheres. This has affected the labor force strength as well as
generated demand for an entirely different kind of knowledge and skills which may be
difficult to meet under the present HRD set-up.

Rehabilitation and maintenance of the equipment is another area where the nature of
skill requirements will differ from the present workforce. Traditional knowledge of
craft in a single trade or technical discipline will be inadequate to maintain the newly
emerging equipment which require mechanical dexterity and diagnostic skills on the
one hand, and computer software and electronic skills on the other. It is quite possible
that both mechanical and electrical fitters will have to identify and replace faulty
electronic components which are vital parts of the machines.

HRD of Managerial and Supervisory Staff

The Managerial personnel set the pace of activities or formulate the action plans, and
the supervisory personnel execute them at the field level and in the process, provide
on-the-job training to skilled and semi-skilled workers. Proper training of these two
categories of personnel thus becomes critical to the implementation of TU programs.

Some progress in training of managerial personnel has been made during the 80s in
roadways through the setting up of training centers, extension of the range of courses,
more emphasis on specialized and system oriented programs and collaboration with
specialized institutions at home and abroad. These initiatives are inadequate in
relation to the requirements, and the courses are mainly for job enrichment.

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Management education and training, to acquire technical knowledge in management
sciences or to enhance appropriate managerial outlook and attitude, have limited
content. In this context, an important function of managers is to assess the impact of
each new technology in a given situation, particularly because developing countries
are often dumped with obsolescent technology under the guise of development
assistance. To perform this function, special skills have to be acquired. Unfortunately,
the existing, so called HRD programs are not equipped to develop these skills.

8.6 Methods of Training Various Categories of Personnel

Training at all levels has to be appropriately designed, keeping in view both the
specific professional or occupational skill requirements and the educational and
professional backgrounds of the target groups. As such, for the senior managerial
cadre, development management should be the aim. This should be carried out
through workshops and seminars attended by resource persons from developing
countries having similar stages TU, to enable the managers to explore appropriate
technologies as an integrated program of machine and man.

For the middle management level, both in operational and administrative areas,
modular advanced course in relevant disciplines, classroom lectures, dynamic
exercises, atmospherics and workshops should form the core of training to acquaint
them with trends in technology development and management sciences, to expose
them to the problems of work, and help them in coming up with creative problem-
solving methods.

The training of first line supervisors should consist of lectures, intensive workshops,
and Training Within Industry (TWI) to expose them to new technologies, to give them
opportunities to draw upon experiences of others in relevant areas, and to acquaint
themselves with job relations, job instructions and job methods, however, requires
follow-up, which is often absent in developing countries due to lack of awareness
among senior officials about its contents.

With the increasing demand for more than one skill from the technicians, the
traditional apprenticeship which "locks" the worker in one trade needs to be replaced
by training programs to provide basic foundations of new skills, followed by modular
programs on employable skills. This should be imparted in both on-the-job and off-
the-job training. Instructional and technical films, cut-away models and audio-visual
aids should form an integral part of the program.

On account of the low educational profile of the semi-skilled operators, it is necessary

to impart training mainly through practical demonstration, audio-visual aids and
visual reminders.

8.7 The Strategy of HRD

To be effective, HRD strategy should be based on organizational goals. Very often,

this is not done due to the absence of specific goals. Certain other aspects, which are
often overlooked, but which must be considered before the details of HRD programs
are worked out, are:

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 Inventory of existing manpower, indicating their educational attainments and
professional experiences vis-à-vis the skill requirements in existing and emerging
occupations;
 Identifications of trainable manpower vis-à-vis the costs of redundancy,
recruitment and training;
 Availability of required skills in the labor market;
 Pressures from trade unions;
 Lead time of training and in-house training facilities.

Thus, it is concluded that TU programs have a far-reaching impact on human

resources: firstly, through changes in productivity, and secondly through demand for a
different profile of skill requirements. Training and human resource developments are
thus imperative if the full benefits of TU are to be realized.

8.8 Driver Education: Role of School

The goals of traffic safety education could be briefed as "2-point agenda"; vis-à-vis;

(i) Building of responsible citizens; and

(ii) Conservation of human life.

Invariably, this concept has universal significance today as will be for all times to
come.

Never the less, in order to accomplish these goals, the secondary schools of the nation
must play a prominent role. It is but a natural approach that the schools in the country
should accept this challenging responsibility. A dynamic traffic safety curriculum
should be developed so as to produce competent traffic citizens. They should be
practically well aware of the techniques of the driving, mechanics of the vehicle along
with the psychology, sociology, philosophy and the traditions of the society. In a free
society, the schools should recognize that their roles go considerably beyond that of
preparing the youthful citizens to simply read, write and interpret history. The
secondary school curriculum should harmonize the so-called traditional subjects and
the subjects that are designed to teach individual how to apply their intelligence and
how to live successfully with social responsibility as their keynote of life.

In the final analysis, the school's very purpose is to help young people to develop; to
think about and to assume social obligations. Understanding social organization is
basically a rational process involving factual knowledge, discovery of the
relationships of things, and sensitivity to philosophical assumption. The behavioral
science in general provides understanding of the value structures that give coherence
and distinctiveness to our social system. Thus the secondary school's driver and traffic
safety education curriculum assumed and enhanced position of importance in the
general education of the secondary school student. Fundamentally the philosophical
basis and objectives of each program complement the other.

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 8.8.1 Educational Theory

Though out the ages attempts have been made to give direction to the educative
process by means of systems of values or philosophies. Traditionally speaking, the
major philosophies that have had important bearing upon educational theory and
practice are idealism, realism, and pragmatism or instrumentalism. These philosophies
deal with such concepts as metaphysics (nature of the universe), epistemology,
(theory of knowledge and the relationship of the mind to the universe), and ethics (the
principles for the guidance of individual and social action). These have influenced in
large measure the foundation of the nation's educational system.

However, many efforts have been made to refine, expand or delimit the emphasis or
philosophical principles on which each of these systems is based. This is as it should
be a continuing search for a philosophy of education that better interprets the
educational goals of the nation's schools. As these ideas are interpreted in the light of
educational goals, it is obvious that the secondary school curriculum should do the
following:

(i) Provide for all Pakistan's youth.

(ii) Be based upon the common and specialized needs, interests, and problems of
the student.
(iii) Use modes of behavior that are characteristics of democratic living at it is best
as guide to the development of youth.

The diver education curriculum should uniquely fit to assist in the achievement of the
ideas. Therefore, it should be a basic part of the general education program of the
school and should be available to all the Pakistani youth, both in urban and rural
areas. In this context, both federal as well as provincial education departments should
identify the agenda and contribute towards achieving the cardinal principles of the
secondary education in the country.

8.8.2 Extension of Values

By 2020 there shall be an estimated 4.2 million young people who will become
eligible for driver licenses yearly. Obtaining such a license should be but one of the
outcomes of offering a quality driver education course. The values to be derived go
far beyond teaching students to be proficient drivers. Thus a quality course in driver
education contributes directly to the goals of education. Specifically he states the
following as goals of education, where driver and traffic safety can make a major
contribution:

 Command of the knowledge, skills, habits and attitudes essential for effective
learning throughout life.
 Understanding of man and society, and the determination to strive for the welfare
of all people.
 Knowledge of self, understanding of one's own characteristics and motivations,
and appropriate development of individual abilities and interests.
 Proficiency in recognizing and defining problems, thinking critically, objectively

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 and creatively about them, and acting constructively towards the solution.
 Confidence in one's own abilities, courage and initiative in the face of difficulties
and creativity and leadership in resolving them.
 Skills, attitudes, and understanding necessary for effective group action and
satisfying human relationships
 A philosophy based upon values conducive to sound character, ethical and moral
behavior, and democratic action.
 Knowledge, attitudes and self-understanding basic to the achievement and
maintenance of physical and mental health.

In addition, the driver education curriculum makes many other major contributions to
the total school program. Basically, learning is a matter of both analysis and synthesis.
The human body continually absorbs, transforms, and expends energy to accomplish
its goals. Therefore, if the learner and learning is to be regarded, then the curriculum
maker must study the adolescent in his environment in order to determine his needs,
interests, and problems.

It may be emphasized that in the planning and organizing of learning experience for
students, the administrator, supervisor, and teacher should consider the objectives of
the driver education program. Without such consideration the foundation and
direction of the curriculum would be haphazard at best.

However, as discussed, in the laboratory phase of the driver and traffic safety
education program the development of perceptual process is a far more significant
objective to achieve. The driving task places many requirements upon the driver. The
driving task model in Figure 2 points out those processes related to perception as the
most important elements of the driving task. However, Figure 3 graphically shows the
human functions required or coordinated for driving task on public roads and
highways.

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Figure 2. Driving Task Model

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 Figure 3. Driving Task Model

8.8.3 Implications For Laboratory Instruction

The teacher of driver education should be able to apply these concepts of perceptual
development in the conduct of the laboratory program. The following suggestions are
made relative to the development of perceptual abilities on the part of the beginning
driver:

1. Have the student master the basic motor skills of car operation before beginning
intensive training in reading the traffic picture. Under attention to motor skills will

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 attend to intend to interfere with training for visual perception, except that which
is needed to learn such skills. When these operational tasks become semiautomatic
so that drivers no longer have to formulate the acts in the mind, then attention is
freed for perception of overall traffic picture.

2. Demonstrate and guide student practice in real traffic situation as soon as the
student is ready operationally. A student perceives something best when he has
direct contact with real situations or events. By explanations, tell how and what to
do, and what to look for, so that perceptual trends can be developed. Use key
words that stand for certain conditions and actions, such as margin of safety, space
cushion, defensive tactic, evasive action. Try to limit guidance so that the student
will perform on his own as much as possible.

3. Choose routes with as many varied experiences as practical. Work for general
patterns, so that transfer to similar situations will take place in the future.
Judgment and organization of perception depend to a great extent on previous
experiences.

4. Encourage and assist students to search for hazards. Try to give attention to
hazardous elements that may be common to many situations. The means that an
analysis of many local hazardous situations will be conducted to find out what
these common elements are. Develop awareness of other drivers' errors. Strive for
selection and reduction of cues.

5. Set up some situations as problems for students to solve. Make sure each problem
has to do with the immediate traffic situations so that it does not become
distractive to the student's immediate task.

6. Encourage the student to read the traffic picture well ahead, because perceptions
take time, and reaction time can be crucial.

7. Have the student keep eyes moving so that the central vision will not become
fixed. Make effective use of central vision (identification) and peripheral
(detection) vision. The student should make this visual skill habitual. Explain how
this skill prevents fatigue, resists distracting influence, and allows for more
comfortable and pleasant drive.

8. Help the student adopt and strife for the goal of learning how to drive so as to
reduce to the absolute minimum the possibility of accident.

9. Develop and have student observer (in back seat) use checklist that will assist in
rating the performance of the student driver. This will also assist student observers
to train their perpetual functions when not driving.

10. Demonstrate the commentary driving technique, and have students use the
technique periodically. In using this technique, the student driver verbalizes what
he sees. The comments must take place before the fact, not after. We are literally
"picking" the driver's mind. This technique is not only useful for students in
developing accurate perceptions, but it also gives the instructor a chance to
evaluate the progress of the learning and teaching experiences and to plan for

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 remedial instruction.

8.8.4 Cost-Benefit Effective Model

A private company considering investing in a development is interesting only in the

consequences of it in cost and revenue terms, a need met most appropriately by either
Investment Appraisal or Financial Analysis. Any broadening of the study's remit to
include non-financial data widens the problem to require the use of cost effectiveness
or cost benefit analysis (CBA). In appraisal that is concerned with evaluating the
consequences of a change to the community and its culture requires the breadths of
analysis of social cost benefit, as illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Evaluation of Development Schemes

The techniques are comparable to a range of various-sized spanners designed to meet

the particular requirements of tasks of different complexity and size. The skill is in
choosing the appropriate technique.

Another problem in evaluating development schemes is that evaluators are generally

more interested in the complexities of methods of technical analysis, e.g. discounting,
than in the overall planning structure appropriate for evaluation appraisal. Yet it is
essential that one establishes a logical model to structure the planning of all the
activities associated with an evaluation in an efficient sequential order. Such a model
will include the following steps:-

 Identity and define the need or problem: It is essential to have a clear

understanding of the nature of the problem that the envisaged development is
intended to solve, at the initial stage of the study. Unstructured projects can
rapidly expand to embrace a multitude of diverse problems, which are
sometimes of an unrelated or even contradictory nature: or for instance, trying to
group the development of a new airport on one composite project, as occurred in

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 one famous study. Without a clear definition of the problem, it is difficult o
define precisely what the intended aim of the development should be.

 Establish the aim(s) of the development study: A clear definition of the aim
of a study makes it easier for evaluators to identify and focus on the means by
which a solution can be achieved. All possible methods of achieving the set aim
can then be categorized as an individual option. Each option is then isolated and
treated as an investment project in its own right throughout the remaining steps
of the evaluation. In legal terms, a precise definition of the aims of the project
evaluation gives "the remit", that one can use as a protective shield against any
tendency to broaden or deflect evaluators from criticism or pressure.

 Consider the range of options and assess their viability: for most schemes
of development, there are several methods by which the aim may be achieved.
Each of these possibilities is now isolated as an independent option for study in
its own right. Human ingenuity is unlimited; a project team is usually capable of
identifying the most obvious, straight forward and suitable way of achieving the
set aim. But if a process of consultation is now undertaken, then every pressure
and interest group will astonish one with the diversity of potential options they
can propose. A coarse "sieve" of the options, in terms of their likely viability, is
often necessary, using judgments on practicality and estimates of their various
effects.

 Identification of the physical, technical and social parameters affected by

each option: This requirement to identify every factor that is likely to be altered
by the development, if implemented, both in the period of construction and later
during its operation, is vitally important. How are the physical and cultural
conditions of an area going to be affected? For instance ho is the construction of
road likely to affect the local drainage pattern or the water table and
plant/animal life?

In a CBA, it is usually more difficult to identify and quantify the

benefits/revenues of a development than the costs. Benefits can include fuel
savings, reduction in time required for traveling, reduced wear and tear for
vehicles with corresponding falls in maintenance and spare part costs. A more
complex assessment arises when one is attempting to identify economic
spillovers of a development, for instance the effect on farming communities of a
transport development, for instance the effect on farming communities of a
transport development that opens up a new market for their product. Or the
converse effect within the new market of new sources of supply.

 Quantification of each physical, technical and human factor associated

with each option: From the identification process it is evident what the factors
requiring qualification. How much soil needs to be excavated? How many trees
need felling? How much concrete, how many vehicles, workers, machines to
perform the task in the set time?

This step is usually dominated by the engineering requirement of an option and

tends to be ignored by non-engineers. But it is vitally important and will account
for the bulk of expenditure of most development schemes. It is also an area

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 where large miscalculations of the quantities involved have major financial
implications for most schemes. Qualification is anything but an exact science,
miscalculations frequently occur, and the financial consequences are often very
disturbing.

 Monetary valuation of each of the quantified parameters: once the

physical amounts of each product that has to be handled in the development
process have been established, it is necessary for the cost per unit to be
calculated. Then the simple task of multiplying the physical quantity by the
specialist cost can be undertaken. Reference to cost tables or price indexes or
catalogues can provide much of this information.

Some of the factors to be included in the pricing will include a foreign exchange
component. Where foreign exchange is scarce and has a particular value,
amendment of the local cost should be undertaken by multiplying the non-
market values by these component values.

Where a product does not have an accepted market price, for instance, unskilled
labor in a country with an excess of it, one should establish a "shadow price".
Shadow prices should not be set by the evaluators but by the political decision-
makers who commissioned the evaluative study. Some products can be allocated
surrogate prices by cross-referencing to associated markets or schemes where
prices for a similar factor exist.

Finally, there are the values that need to be allocated for the less tangible—value
of time or value of life. All of these are an integral and vital part of most
development schemes and require "heroic" assumptions if a viable standard of
value is to be established. In the context of monetary valuation it is not essential
to be unquestionably accurate, but rather to be consistent in valuing throughout
the evaluation, particularly in the option.

 Structure the monetary values over time and discount them to present-day
values: The problems of time have to be overcome. Because the costs and
benefits of each evaluated option will occur at different times in the future, and
monetary values vary with time, we have the problem of aggregating them. This
is overcome by using different time discount rates to bring all the costs and
benefits to a common time value, normally the immediate present. The problem
arises because people value a product's worth more if it is immediately available
than if it were available in a year, or 10 years, the selected or test discount rate
should be set by the political or administrative decision-makers' or administered
communities' interest rate for investment funds.

Initially one sets out the undiscounted values of costs and benefits through the
life of the schemes. Then each year's monetary values are discounted by the
appropriate discount index for that year. The discounted figures are thus brought
to a common value of the present, so that they can be subtracted one from
another to find out the net present value (NPV) of the scheme. If it is positive,
the scheme at least meets the minimum time charge of interest on capital.

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 Further calculation of the NPV as a percent of the discounted value of costs
(present value of costs) may be used to measure the rate of return (RoR) of the
option. For purposes of comparison between the different options of the scheme,
it is possible to compare the monetary costs and NPVs of each of them.
However, there are some factors that it is usually impossible to include in the
technical and financial calculations, and yet are important and require careful
consideration by evaluators and decision-makers. These are sometimes called
constrains or environmental factors or intangibles.

 Include with the financial analysis, the non-financial implications of each

option: Attached to the financial calculation of the monetary viability of each
option should be a list of consequences that cannot be included in it, but have
merit and require careful consideration by evaluators. Among the most
important of these are the distribution effects of the options in the different
sections of the population. An option might impose costs or disturbance on the
section of the population, for instance a tribe, or the very poor, while the
benefits occur to another tribe or wealthier section of the people. Similarly, mal-
distribution of costs and benefits could arise between population groups by sex,
or age, cultural, religious or ethnic groups or class. If these consequences are
perverse or mal-distributed, one should think carefully before ever proceeding
with an option or scheme merely because it is profitable or economically
beneficial.

In the developed world great emphasis is paid to the environmental or legal

consequences of options, where the environs of a development are harmed by
pollutants—noise, air and water pollution, visual intrusion, severance, etc. These
considerations are also important in developing nations and should at least be
carefully weighed and considered by the implementers of change. In addition,
technology, culture or legal requirements can act as effective limitations on the
implementation of the development schemes.

With the addition of the non-monetary constraints to each option, it is possible

to compare them one with another and identify the option and that effectively
offers the best return to the investment combined with the least disruptive
consequences on the community. Final selection should be the responsibility, not
of the evaluators, but of the financial/political sponsors of the development
scheme, i.e. the decision-makers.

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 Figure 5. Evaluation Scheme for Cost Benefit Analysis

8.8.4.1 Conclusion

The detailed and sequential model (Figure 5) constrains and structures the evaluators
of a development project, compelling them to organize themselves in a logical
sequential and efficient manner, as summarized in the figure.

The important decision in the development appraisal is concerned, first with the
sensible selection of the method of appraisal in accord with the nature of size of the
scheme to be evaluated. Then the sequential steps of the evaluation have to be
structured so as to simplify the procedure of analysis, avoid confusion and minimize
the work of calculation. Cost Benefit Analysis is only common sense supported by a
modicum of economic theory and the limited application of quantification techniques.

Nevertheless, one of the most confusing problems in the systematic evaluation in the
systematic evaluation of a development scheme in either developed or developing
countries is the apparent availability of a large number of different evaluative
techniques, e.g. project appraisal, investment analysis, financial appraisal, cost benefit
analysis, economic evaluation, cost of effectiveness analysis and social cost benefit
analysis- -a confused wilderness of competing techniques. In reality there is only one
technique, and all of the above are but variants of it: the oblivious differences between
them result from the breadth of analysis that they were designed for, and the nature
and complexity of the scheme to be investigated.

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