PRODUCT 1 - OMO (Detergent)

Although people commonly refer to laundry detergent as "soap," it is actually a synthetic

combination that functions much like soap, with certain major improvements. Soap cleans because
each soap molecule consists of a hydrocarbon chain and a carboxylic group (fatty acids) that
perform two important functions. The carboxylate end of the soap molecule is hydrophilic, meaning
that it is attracted to water, while the hydrocarbon end of the molecule is both hydrophobic
(repelled by water) and attracted to the oil and grease in dirt. While the hydrophobic end of a soap
molecule attaches itself to dirt, the hydrophilic end attaches itself to water. The dirt attached to the
carboxylate end of the molecule is chemically dragged away from the clothes being cleaned and
into the wash water. Properly agitating and rinsing the clothes furthers the cleansing process.

The major difficulty with using soap to clean laundry shows up when it is used in hard water—water
that is rich in natural minerals such as calcium, magnesium, iron, and manganese. When these
chemicals react with soap, they form an insoluble curd called a precipitate. Difficult to rinse out, the
precipitate leaves visible deposits on clothing and makes fabric feel stiff. Even water that is not
especially hard will eventually produce precipitates over a period of time.

While the hydrocarbons used in soap generally come from plants or animals, those used in
detergent can be derived from crude oil. Adding sulfuric acid to the processed hydrocarbon
produces a molecule similar to the fatty acids in soap. The addition of an alkali to the mixture
creates a surfactant molecule
In the blender method of making powder laundry detergent, the ingredients—surfactant, builders,
antiredeposition agents, and perfumes—are simply blended together in a mixer, released onto a
conveyor belt, and packaged accordingly. This method is favored by smaller companies.
In the blender method of making powder laundry detergent, the ingredients—surfactant, builders,
antiredeposition agents, and perfumes—are simply blended together in a mixer, released onto a
conveyor belt, and packaged accordingly. This method is favored by smaller companies.
that will not bond with the minerals in hard water, thus avoiding the accumulation of precipitates.

In addition to a surfactant, modern detergent contains several other ingredients. Among the most
significant are builders, chemicals which serve several purposes. Most importantly, they increase
the efficiency of the surfactant. They also sequester minerals in hard water, meaning that they hold
them in solution, preventing them from precipitating out. Furthermore, builders can emulsify oil and
grease into tiny globules that can be washed away. Some, like sodium silicate, inhibit corrosion
and help assure that the detergent will not damage a washing machine. Still other builders
contribute to the chemical balance of the wash water, making sure that it conduces to effective
washing.
Modern detergents have several other ingredients including antiredeposition agents, chemicals
that help prevent soil from settling back on washed clothes. Fluorescent whitening agents are also
common. By converting invisible ultraviolet light into visible blue light, these help to maintain
brightness or whiteness. Oxygen bleaches such as sodium perborate improve the detergency of
the mixture, especially in low-phosphate or no-phosphate products, as well as helping to remove
some types of stains. Processing aids such as sodium sulfate are also used to prevent caking and
to standardize product density.

Enzymes and perfumes are also found in commercial detergents. Enzymes (a type of protein)
break down some stains to make them easier to remove and are an essential ingredient in various
pre-soak products used to treat heavily soiled clothes prior to laundering. Perfumes or fragrances
cover the odor of the dirt and any chemical smell from the detergent itself. Suds control agents also
have a role in detergents—too many suds can cause mechanical problems with a washing
machine.

The Manufacturing Process

Although there are three ways of manufacturing dry laundry detergent, only two are commonly
used today. In the blender process favored by smaller companies, the ingredients are mixed in
large vats before being packaged. The machines used are very large: a common blender holds
4,000 pounds (1,816 kilograms) of mixed material, but the blenders can accommodate loads
ranging from 500 to 10,000 pounds (227 to 4,540 kilograms). By industry standards, these are
small batches for which the blender process is ideal. While some settling may occur, the resulting
detergent is of high quality and can compete with detergents made by other processes. The
second commonly used method of production is called the agglomeration process. Unlike the
blender process, it is continuous, which makes it the choice of very large detergent manufacturers.
The agglomeration process can produce between 15,000 and 50,000 pounds (6,800 and 22,700
kilograms) of detergent per hour. In the third method, dry ingredients are blended in water before
being dried with hot air. Although the resulting product is of high quality, the fuel costs and
engineering problems associated with venting, reheating, and reusing the air have led to this
method being largely replaced by agglomeration.

The blender process

1 First, ingredients are loaded into one of two machines: a tumbling blender or a ribbon blender.
The tumbling blender, shaped like a rectangular box, is turned and shaken from outside by a
machine, while the ribbon blender is a cylinder fitted with blades to scrape and mix the ingredients.
After the ingredients inside the blender have been mixed, a doorway at the bottom of the bowl is
opened. With the blender still agitating the ingredients, the mix is allowed to run out onto a
conveyor belt or other channeling device. The belt then moves the detergent to another area of the
factory where it can be dropped into boxes or cartons for delivery to wholesalers or distributors.
The agglomeration process

2 In this method, dry ingredients for a detergent are first fed into a large machine known as a
Shuggi agglomerator (Shuggi is the manufacturer). Inside the agglomerator, sharp, whirling blades
mix the material to a fine consistency; the process resembles food being textured inside a food
processor.
3 After the dry ingredients have been blended, liquid ingredients are sprayed on the dry mix
through nozzles fitted into the agglomerator's walls. The blending continues, causing an
exothermic (heat-producing) reaction to occur. The resulting mixture is a hot, viscous liquid similar
to gelatin that hasn't hardened.
4 Next, the liquid is allowed to flow out of the agglomerator. As it leaves the machine, it collects on
a drying belt where its own heat, exposure to air, and hot air blowers render it friable—easy to
crush or crumble. The newly made detergent is then pulverized and pushed through sizing screens
that ensure that no large lumps of unmixed product go out to the market. The result of this process
is a dry detergent made up of granules of the mixed detergent.
The slurry method

5 In this process, ingredients are dissolved in water to create a slurry. With a pump, the slurry is
blown through nozzles inside the top of a cone shaped container as hot, dry air is simultaneously
forced into the bottom of the cone. As the slurry dries, "beads" of dry detergent fall to the bottom of
the cone, where they can be collected for packaging.
Liquid detergent

6 If the detergent is to be liquid rather than powder, it is simply mixed back in—after all ingredients
are blended—with a solution consisting of water and various chemicals known as solubilizers. The
solubilizers help the water and detergent blend together more fully and evenly.

Quality Control

Manufacturers constantly monitor the quality of their detergents, and they utilize the same testing
methods to assess the effectiveness of new products. In one method, light is shined onto a piece
of fabric that has been soiled and then washed in the test detergent. The

To make liquid detergent, the dry powder is simply mixed back in with a solution consisting of
water and chemicals known as "solubilizers." These chemicals help the water and detergent blend
together more evenly.
To make liquid detergent, the dry powder is simply mixed back in with a solution consisting of
water and chemicals known as "solubilizers." These chemicals help the water and detergent blend
together more evenly.
amount of light reflected, compared to the amount reflected by a sample of the original fabric, is a
measure of cleanliness. A reflection rate of 98 percent is considered quite good and indicates that

the detergent has cleaned properly.

Another method involves laboratory burning of a small amount of material that has been soiled and
then laundered. The weight of the ashes, plus the weight of the gaseous results of the burning,
reveal how much of the dirt remained in the fabric after laundering. A result that is much higher
than a clean test sample indicates that a significant amount of dirt was retained in the laundered
sample. Naturally, the goal is to come as close to the weight of a clean control sample as possible.

PRODUCT 2 - AXE (Antiperspirant/Deodorant)

Background
Antiperspirant/deodorant (APD) sticks are used to reduce underarm wetness and control body
odor. These products are made by blending active ingredients with waxes, oils, and silicones and
molding the mixture into stick form.

Body odor is primarily generated in the area under the arms where there is a high concentration of
sweat glands. While sweat from these glands is initially odorless, it contains natural oils, called
lipids, that provide a growth medium for bacteria living on the skin. These bacteria interact with the
lipids, converting them into compounds that have a characteristic sweaty odor. Isovaleric acid, for
example, is one chemical compound that gives sweat its smell.
There are two primary types of products used to control body odor. The first, deodorants, reduce
body odor by killing the odor-causing bacteria. These products do not affect the amount of
perspiration the body produces. Antiperspirants, on the other hand, inhibit the activity of sweat
glands so less moisture is produced. In addition to avoiding unpleasant wetness, these products
also decrease odor because there is less sweat for the bacteria to act upon. While deodorants are
considered to be cosmetic products because they only control odor, antiperspirants are actually
drugs because they affect the physiology of the body. Although the exact mechanism of this
physiological interaction is not fully understood, theory has it that antiperspirant salts form
temporary plugs in some of the sweat gland openings so that moisture is not secreted. While this
moisture reduction is not severe enough to interfere with normal body metabolism, it does
noticeably lessen underarm wetness.

Products to control body odor and wetness have been used for centuries. Before bathing became
commonplace, people used heavy colognes to mask body odor. In the late nineteenth century,
chemists developed products that were able to prevent the formation of these odors. Early
antiperspirants were pastes that were applied to the underarm area; the first such product to be
trademarked in the United States was Mum in 1888. It was a waxy cream that was difficult to apply
and extremely messy. A few years later, Everdry, the first antiperspirant to use aluminum chloride
was developed. Within 15 years, a variety of products were marketed in a number of different
forms including creams, solids, pads, dabbers, roll-ons, and powders.

In the late 1950s, manufacturers began using aerosol technology to dispense personal care
products such as perfumes and shaving creams. In the early 1960s, Gillette introduced Right
Guard, the first aerosol antiperspirant. Aerosols became a popular way to dispense antiperspirants
because they allowed the user to apply without having to touch the underarm area. By 1967, half
the antiperspirants sold in the United States were in aerosol form, and by the early 1970s, they
accounted for 82% of all sales.

However, later that decade two technical issues arose which greatly impacted the popularity of
these products. First, in 1977, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned the primary active
ingredient used in aerosols, aluminum zirconium complexes, due to concerns about long term
inhalation safety. (This ingredient remains safe for use in stick form.) Next, the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) strictly limited the use of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) propellants used in
aerosols due to growing concerns that these gases may contribute to the depletion of the ozone
layer. CFCs were preferred as propellants for antiperspirants because they gave a soft dry spray.
Although the industry reformulated their products to be safe and efficacious, it was too late.
Consumers had lost confidence in aerosol antiperspirants. By 1977, sales of the reformulated
versions dropped to only 50% of the market, and by 1982, they dipped below 32%. While some
brands still offer antiperspirants in aerosol form, today these account for a very small percentage of
the total market.

As the popularity of aerosols waned, antiperspirants in stick form became increasingly popular. In
1974, sticks held only about 4% of the market and they were considered to be wet and
aesthetically unpleasing. Such products were generally associated with deodorants for men.
Because of breakthroughs in ingredient technology that allowed for drier, more efficacious
products, sticks gained acceptance between 1974-1978. Consumers embraced sticks as an
alternative to aerosols and their market share swelled to over 35% by the mid 1980s. Today, sticks
are the single most popular antiperspirant form.

Raw Materials
Antiperspirants consist of the active drug ingredients that control perspiration; gelling agents that
form the stick matrix; and other ingredients, such as fragrance or colorants, that make the product
aesthetically pleasing.
Active ingredients

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) controls the active ingredients used in antiperspirants
because they are legally classified as drugs. The FDA publishes an Over the Counter (OTC) Drug
monograph that lists which ingredients are approved for use. The ingredients on this list are limited
to aluminum chlorohydrate, aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, and aluminum zirconium
complexes. Of these compounds, the most commonly used is aluminum zirconium
tetrachlorohydrex glycine. Most of these materials are supplied as powders, and they are typically
used at levels of 8-25% based on the weight of the finished product.

Gelling agents

The bulk of the formulation consists of waxy or fatty materials that are gelled to form a solid stick.
Common examples include stearyl alcohol, cetyl alcohol, hydrogenated castor oil, and glyceryl
stearate. These waxy materials are blended with lubricating oils and emollients such as
cyclomethicone, which is a volatile silicone compound. These silicones are liquids at room
temperature, but they quickly evaporate and are used because they leave the skin feeling smooth
and dry. In addition, talc, starches, or other powders may be added to control stick consistency and
to give the product a dry feel and a smooth payoff.

Other ingredients
Fragrance and colorants may be added to the formula to improve its odor or appearance. Some
brands have fragrances that are time released. Other brands may add featured ingredients that

contribute little functionality but are designed to increase consumer appeal.

The Manufacturing
Process
Batching

1 In the batching process, ingredients are combined in a jacketed stainless steel kettle. Steam heat
is applied to melt the ingredients while the batch is being mixed. During the blending process, the
temperature must be carefully controlled to avoid scorching the waxy ingredients. Once all the
ingredients have been added to the batch, it is blended until uniform.
Filling

2 Stick packages are typically hollow tubes with an elevator platform inside that moves up and
down to dispense the product. In some packages, this platform can be pushed up by hand, in
others it is elevated by turning a screw that causes it to travel up along a central threaded post.
These empty containers move along a conveyor belt where the molten product is dispensed
through a filling nozzle. The exact process varies depending on whether the package is designed
to be filled from the top or bottom. In general, the product is filled slightly above its congealing
temperature so that it flows easily. If it is filled too hot, the dispersed solids may settle to the
bottom; if it is filled too cold, air bubbles will be trapped in the stick.
Finishing operations

3 Sticks may then go through subsequent finishing operations to ensure the surface is smooth and
that they are free from trapped pockets of air. These operations usually involve heating the tops of
the sticks slightly by passing them under an infrared lamp.
4 A probe is then stuck into the center of the stick to allow air to escape and the surface is heated
again to remelt the product, allowing it to flow into the void.
5 At the next station, the sticks pass through a refrigeration tunnel that rapidly lowers the
temperature and forces them to solidify. Depending on the package design, a top or bottom piece
is put into place to seal the container.
6 Finally, the sticks may pass through cleaning stations before they are placed in cartons for
shipping.

Quality Control
Safety testing

Safety testing guidelines are recommended by the Cosmetics, Toiletries, and Fragrance
Association (CTFA), the primary trade organization for the cosmetic industry. While these
guidelines are not absolute rules, they do give manufacturers an indication of the minimal level of
testing that should be done to ensure their products are safe. These tests include evaluation of the
irritation potential (for skin and eyes), contact sensitization (where contact with the product can
result in a chemical delayed reaction), photodermatitis (where light interacts with the product to
cause a reaction), as well as toxicity (both ingested and inhaled.)

Efficacy testing

According to the OTC monograph, antiperspirants must reduce the amount of perspiration by at
least 20% and a variety of test methods are used to ensure formulations meet this requirement.
One method, known as the visualization technique, shows the action of the sweat glands via a
color change. This is done by first painting the skin with a mixture of iodine castor oil and alcohol.
After drying, the skin is then whitened with a layer of powdered starch. When sweat droplets are
exuded, they appear as very dark spots against the white background. Another method involves
painting a silicone polymer painted onto the skin to form a film. The subject is made to sweat by
exposure to elevated temperature or by physical exertion and the film is peeled off and examined
for tiny holes formed by the sweat drops. A relative measure of the amount of sweat produced by
the body can be obtained by counting the number of holes in the film. Sweat production can also
be measured using infrared gas sensors that detect moisture loss. In this process, a constant
stream of gas is passed over the subject's armpits and is subsequently analyzed for moisture
content. Gravimetric techniques are also used to measure the amount of sweat collected on cotton
balls.

PRODUCT 3 - LUX (Hand soap)

Soap is a combination of animal fat or plant oil and caustic soda. When dissolved in water, it
breaks dirt away from surfaces. Through the ages soap has been used to cleanse, to cure skin
sores, to dye hair, and as a salve or skin ointment. But today we generally use soap as a cleanser
or perfume.

The exact origins of soap are unknown, though Roman sources claim it dates back to at least 600
B.C. , when Phoenicians prepared it from goat's tallow and wood ash. Soap was also made by the
Celts, ancient inhabitants of Britain. Soap was used widely throughout the Roman empire, primarily
as a medicine. Mention of soap as a cleanser does not appear until the second century A.D. By the
eighth century, soap was common in France, Italy, and Spain, but it was rarely used in the rest of
Europe until as late as the 17th century.

Manufacture of soap began in England around the end of the 12th century. Soap-makers had to
pay a heavy tax on all the soap they produced. The tax collector locked the lids on soap boiling
pans every night to prevent illegal soap manufacture after hours. Because of the high tax, soap
was a luxury item, and it did not come into common use in England until after the tax was repealed
in 1853. In the 19th century, soap was affordable and popular throughout Europe.

Early soap manufacturers simply boiled a solution of wood ash and animal fat. A foam substance
formed at the top of the pot. When cooled, it hardened into soap. Around 1790, French soapmaker
Nicolas Leblanc developed a method of extracting caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) from common
table salt (sodium chloride), replacing the wood ash element of soap. The French chemist Eugene-
Michel Chevreul put the soap-forming process (called in English saponification) into concrete
chemical terms in 1823. In saponification, the animal fat, which is chemically neutral, splits into
fatty acids, which react with alkali carbonates to form soap, leaving glycerin as a byproduct. Soap
was made with industrial processes by the end of the 19th century, though people in rural areas,
such as the pioneers in the western United States, continued to make soap at home.

Raw Materials
Soap requires two major raw materials: fat and alkali. The alkali most commonly used today is
sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can also be used. Potassium-based soap creates a more
water-soluble product than sodium-based soap, and so it is called "soft soap." Soft soap, alone or
in combination with sodium-based soap, is commonly used in shaving products.

Animal fat in the past was obtained directly from a slaughterhouse. Modern soapmakers use fat
that has been processed into fatty acids. This eliminates many impurities, and it produces as a
byproduct water instead of glycerin. Many vegetable fats, including olive oil, palm kernel oil, and
coconut oil, are also used in soap making.

Additives are used to enhance the color, texture, and scent of soap. Fragrances and perfumes are
added to the soap mixture to cover the odor of dirt and to leave behind a fresh-smelling scent.
Abrasives to enhance the texture of soap include talc, silica, and marble pumice (volcanic ash).
Soap made without dye is a dull grey or brown color, but modern manufacturers color soap to
make it more enticing to the consumer.

The Manufacturing Process

The kettle method of making soap is still used today by small soap manufacturing companies. This
process takes from four to eleven days to complete, and the quality of each batch is inconsistent
due to the variety of oils used. Around 1940, engineers and scientists developed a more efficient
manufacturing process, called the continuous process. This procedure is employed by large soap
manufacturing companies all around the world today. Exactly as the name states, in the continuous
process soap is produced continuously, rather than one batch at a time. Technicians have more
control of the production in the continuous process, and the steps are much quicker than in the
kettle method—it takes only about six hours to complete a batch of soap.

The Kettle Process

Boiling

1 Fats and alkali are melted in a kettle, which is a steel tank that can stand three stories high and
hold several thousand pounds of material. Steam coils within the kettle heat the batch and bring it
to a boil. After boiling, the mass thickens as the fat reacts with the alkali, producing soap and
glycerin.
Salting

2 The soap and glycerin must now be separated. The mixture is treated with salt, causing the soap
to rise to the top and the glycerin to settle to the bottom. The glycerin is extracted from the bottom
of the kettle.
Strong change

3 To remove the small amounts of fat that have not saponified, a strong caustic solution is added
to the kettle. This step in the process is called "strong change." The mass is brought to a boil
again, and the last of the fat turns to soap. The batch may be given another salt treatment at this
time, or the manufacturer may proceed to the next step.
Pitching

4 The next step is called "pitching." The soap in the kettle is boiled again with added water. The
mass eventually separates into two layers. The top layer is called "neat soap," which is about 70%
soap and 30% water. The lower layer, called "nigre," contains most of the impurities in the soap
such as dirt and salt, as well as most of the water. The neat soap is taken off the top. The soap is
then cooled. The finishing process is the
Developed around 1940 and used by today's major soap-making companies, the above
illustrations show the continuous process of making soap.
Developed around 1940 and used by today's major soap-making companies, the above
illustrations show the continuous process of making soap.
same as for soap made by the continuous process.

The Continuous Process

Splitting

1 The first step of the continuous process splits natural fat into fatty acids and glycerin. The
equipment used is a vertical stainless steel column with the diameter of a barrel called a hydrolizer.
It may be as tall as 80 feet (24 m). Pumps and meters attached to the column allow precise
measurements and control of the process. Molten fat is pumped into one end of the column, while
at the other end water at high temperature (266°F [130°C]) and pressure is introduced. This splits
the fat into its two components. The fatty acid and glycerin are pumped out continuously as more
fat and water enter. The fatty acids are then distilled for purification.
Mixing

2 The purified fatty acids are next mixed with a precise amount of alkali to form soap. Other
ingredients such as abrasives and fragrance are also mixed in. The hot liquid soap may be then
whipped to incorporate air.
Cooling and finishing

3 The soap may be poured into molds and allowed to harden into a large slab. It may also be
cooled in a special freezer. The slab is cut into smaller pieces of bar size, which are then stamped
and wrapped. The entire continuous process, from splitting to finishing, can be accomplished in
several hours.
Milling

4 Most toiletry soap undergoes additional processing called milling. The milled bar lathers up better
and has a finer consistency than non-milled soap. The cooled soap is fed through several sets of
heavy rollers (mills), which crush and knead it. Perfumes can best be incorporated at this time
because their volatile oils do not evaporate in the cold mixture. After the soap emerges from the
mills, it is pressed into a smooth cylinder and extruded. The extruded soap is cut into bar size,
stamped and wrapped.
PRODUCT 4 - LIPTON TEA

Tea has existed as a beverage since 2000 B.C. The brewing, serving, and drinking of tea are time-
honored rituals throughout the world. While there is general agreement that the tea trade began in
China, both China and India lay claim to discovering the dietary properties of tea leaves. The
Chinese tell the story of a mythical emperor named Shen Nung who was so particular about his
nutrition that he boiled his drinking water before he drank it. One day, the story goes, the wind
caught some of the leaves on the tree branches that he had used to build a fire. The leaves floated
into his boiling water and, lo, tea was created.

In India, the discovery is attributed to Bodhidharma, an actual person who founded the Ch-an
School of Buddhism. In A.D. 527, after four years of a self-imposed nine-year meditation,
Bodhidharma grew sleepy. In an attempt to stay awake, he began to chew on the twigs of a nearby
tree and suddenly found himself wide awake; he had discovered tea.

The tea bush is a white-flowered evergreen in the Camellia family. Chinese documents record it as
indigenous to the Hunan province in southwest China. In modern times, it is generally accepted
that the original tea bush grew in India and was brought to China. It thrives in a rocky terrain. In
approximately A.D. 350, tea cultivation was also reported in the Szechwan province along the
Yangtze River.

During the T'ang Dynasty in the eighth century, tea drinking achieved the status of an art form. Tea
merchants hired a man named Lu Yu to compile the first written record of Chinese tea ceremonies.
Entitled Ch'a Ching (The Class of Tea), the three-volume work revolutionized the tea industry. The
second volume includes an exhaustive list of the equipment necessary to brew tea correctly; all-
told, 24 items are listed.

In the 12th century, monks from the Zen sect of Buddhists brought the tea-brewing process home
to Japan from their travels in China. Yeisei, a Buddhist abbot, is credited with writing Japan's first
tea book: Kitcha-Yojoki (Book of Tea Sanitation). Since then, Zen Buddhism and tea have grown
inseparable.

Several Europeans mentioned bringing tea back home from their visits to the Orient. One of them
was Giambattista Ramusio, an editor of travel books and a diplomatic representative of the
Venetian government. Gaspar da Cruz, a Portuguese Jesuit priest and missionary, also brought
tea when he returned. In 1520, Ferdinand Magellan discovered the straits that now bear his name
around the southern tip of South America and opened the door to a what would become a well-
traveled westward trade route between Europe and the Orient.

Holland was the first to record the purchase of tea in 1607. The tea was first sold at apothecary
shops, then in stores where spices and sugar were sold. By the 18th century, stores devoted
entirely to the sale of tea and coffee had opened. The first tea sold to the English public occurred in
1657 at a coffee house called Exchange Alley. When King Charles HI married the Portuguese
princess Catherine of Braganza in 1661, her dowry included tea. Fifty-five years later, on October
12, 1712, Thomas Twining opened England's first tea shop.

England's East India Company grew prosperous from its opium trade to China and although the
English addiction to tea was not as detrimental as the Chinese addiction to opium, the company
also profited by the sale of tea it brought back in exchange. The English government ignored the
questionable nature of the company's business so that it could levy a high import tax on tea. In
spite of the tariff, or perhaps because of it, a great deal of tea was smuggled into the country. The
tea tax also figured prominently in the American Revolution, as witnessed by the infamous Boston
Tea Party when rebellious colonists pitched a shipment of East India Company tea into the harbor.

Until the early 20th century, tea was sold loose. Tea bags were invented quite by accident in 1904
when Thomas Sullivan, an enterprising merchant, wrapped samples of tea leaves in silk bags and
sent them to prospective customers, some of whom dipped the bags directly into boiling water. The
silk bags gave way to gauze pouches and eventually to specially treated filter paper.

Herb teas, caffeine-free and cultivated from a variety of plant leaves, flowers, roots, bark, and
seeds, have become enormously popular over the last 20 years. Although they were probably
brewed as early as prehistoric times, herb teas were primarily consumed for medicinal purposes.

Raw Materials
Tea bags are composed of two main ingredients: processed tea leaves and filter-paper bags. The
top tea leaves and leaf buds are hand-picked from the plant. The leaves are then subjected to
several processes including withering, rolling, drying, cutting, and blending. The intensity and
duration of each process differs according to the type of tea.

The filter paper is made primarily of abaca, the leafstalk of Philippine bananas also known as
Manila hemp.
The Manufacturing Process
Withering

1 Traditional withering practices call for manually spreading the leaves in thin layers and exposing
them to the open air for 18-20 hours. Modern factory methods place the leaves in troughs,
perforated drums, or tunnels and expose them to mechanical blasts of hot air. This process
oxidizes the polyphenols, or tannins, the primary active ingredient, and turns the tea leaves a
coppery color.
Crushing

2 The leaves are crushed either by hand or on rotating tables called rolling machines. Either
method twists the leaves so that they are eventually coated with their own juices and torn into
smaller pieces. Some companies employ high-tech machinery similar to tobacco-cutting machines
to crush and tear the tea leaves.
Drying

3 Black tea leaves are mechanically dried using a high-temperature method to seal in juices and
flavor. This process turns the leaves to their characteristic black color.
Oolong tea leaves are rolled, dried, and rolled again. The drying time is shorter than that for black
tea, therefore the fermentation is less natural and half or less of the polyphenols are oxidized.
Green tea leaves are steamed within 24 hours of harvesting, using either moist or dry heat in
perforated drums or hot iron pans. This process destroys enzymes and prevents fermentation and
the oxidation of polyphenols.

Herb tea is simply bundled together and hung upside down to air dry.

Milling

4 After the leaves are dried, they are brought to a mill room, where they are cut with a rotating
blade into varying degrees of fineness, depending on the type of tea. The cut leaves are further
refined by sifting them through mechanical sieves with meshes of varying grades. The tea used in
tea bags are typically broken-grade or smallsized teas because they require a shorter brewing
time.
Blending

5 The leaves are blended according to company recipes to achieve a uniform taste and texture.
Most teas are a blend of between 20-40 types of tea leaves. The blending process may also
include the addition of natural flavorings such as cinnamon, orange peel, nutmeg, cloves,
chocolate, licorice root, peppermint, ginger, crushed hibiscus flowers, fennel seeds, and chicory
root.
Measuring

6 The processed and blended tea leaves are stored in hoppers that hold up to 800 pounds (363
kg) of tea. Flow tubes connect each hopper to a doser wheel. The doser wheel resembles a Ferris
wheel with small chambers in the place of seats. Air pushes the leaves through the flow tube and
into the wheel which separates the tea into the chambers in pre-measured amounts, usually two
grams.
Tea bag assembly

7 Two large rolls of filter paper are fed over the top and underneath the doser wheel. As each
chamber arrives at the bottom of the doser wheel, it releases the tea onto the bottom paper layer of
paper as it moves along a conveyer belt. The top layer of paper is lowered onto the lower layer so
that each measure of tea is sandwiched between the two layers.
8 A conveyer belt moves the three components to a heat-sealing drum fitted with an indentation
pattern. The drum quickly seals the paper along the indentation lines. The timing of this process is
closely monitored because too much heat would adversely affect the tea.
9 The sealed paper continues along a conveyer belt until it reaches a perforation blade that is
calibrated to cut the paper into precise squares. After a string and tag are stapled to the bag, they
are dropped into pre-printed boxes.
Quality Control
Professional tea tasters check each batch of tea before it is inserted into the filter paper. Tea
tasting is an art, not unlike wine tasting. Cups of brewed tea are lined up along with bowls of the
tea leaves from the same batch. Tasters slurp the tea to the back of their throats, atomizing the tea
so that they can taste it and smell it at the same time. The tasters also examine the unbrewed tea
leaves to check for cleanliness, purity, and freshness.

The tea must also meet company standards. Each tea is blended to achieve a particular taste and
appearance, therefore company recipes are strictly followed for consistency. Consistency is also
maintained through computerized control systems that regulate the speed of the manufacturing
machinery and heating processes. The systems alert plant workers to breakdowns and jams.