1.HSC Pompeii & Herculaneum Notes UWS 2014

Ancient History
HSC Syllabus Notes

Louis Jenkins
2012
Louis Jenkins Ancient History 2012
HSC Pompeii/Herculaneum Syllabus Notes

Students learn about:
Non-examinable background
 stages of occupation
 brief historical overview up to and including the eruption of AD 79
 early discoveries and brief history of the excavations
 representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time
Examinable content:
1 Geographical context
 the physical environment: the geographical setting, natural features and resources of
Pompeii and Herculaneum
 plans and streetscapes of Pompeii and Herculaneum
2 The nature of sources and evidence

 the range of available sources, both written and archaeological, including ancient writers,
official inscriptions, graffiti, wall paintings, statues, mosaics, human and animal remains
 the limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources
 the evidence provided by the sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum for:
– the eruption
– the economy: trade, commerce, industries, occupations
– social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
– local political life
– everyday life: leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water supply and
sanitation
– public buildings – basilicas, temples, fora, theatres, palaestra, amphitheatres
– private buildings – villas, houses, shops
– influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture, religion
– religion: temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs.
3 Investigating, reconstructing and preserving the past

 changing methods and contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists to
our understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneum
 changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies
 issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and
responsibilities; impact of tourism
 ethical issues: study and display of human remains
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1 Geographical context
The physical environment: the geographical setting, natural features and resources of Pompeii and
Herculaneum
Geographical Setting
₰ Pompeii and Herculaneum were located in the fertile region of Campania, near the coast of
the Bay of Naples
₰ Pompeii was located next to the river Sarno, and was South East of Mt. Vesuvius.
Herculaneum was South West of Vesuvius, near modern day Naples.
₰ Both towns were close to the sea which acted as a source of trade/communication.
₰ The climate was hot, due to their location near the Mediterranean Sea.
Natural Features
₰ River Sarno (East of Pompeii)

₰ Mt. Vesuvius
₰ Lattari Mountains (South East of Pompeii)
Resources
₰ Wine, olives, olive oil, grain, fish, wheat & barley.

₰ Area around Vesuvius was very fertile due to the volcanic soil, making it ideal for agriculture
₰ The bay was abundant with sea life; breeding ground for fish.
₰ Fishing was a major industry for Pompeii & Herculaneum
₰ Pompeii had a network of roads to other towns, making trade a big part of commercial
activity
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Plans and streetscapes of Pompeii and Herculaneum

₰ Pompeii only covered 66 hectares and consisted of four main areas in the city: the Forum,
the insulae fronting the Via Stabiana, Region VI and the eastern area.
₰ Heavy Greek influences on the layout of streets- narrow, straight streets which divided the
city into blocks (insulae)
₰ Archaeological evidence of Roman paving techniques; raised footpaths & stepping stones for
pedestrians. Roman laws said streets had to be 5m wide, however Pompeii was generally
2.5-7m wide.
₰ Pompeii had heavy traffic, as shown by the deep grooves found in its streets
₰ Herculaneum had less traffic, with some streets being for pedestrians only. An example of
this is the main street, which served as the Forum.
₰ Pompeii was surrounded by defensive walls, with two main gates: Herculaneum & Marine
gates. Via was the name for the highway which led from the Pompeian gate.
₰ The Via dell’ Abondanza was the main street, known as the ‘street of abundance’.
₰ Decumarii: were streets which ran from east to west, cardines were streets which ran north
to south. These streets bisected each other at right angles.
₰ The Forum was the heart of the city in both Pompeii and Herculaneum.
2 The nature of sources and evidence
The range of available sources, both written and archaeological, including ancient writers, official
inscriptions, graffiti, wall paintings, statues, mosaics, human and animal remains
Written Sources- Ancient Historians.
₰ Very few written sources, such as Pilny the Elder, Pliny the Younger, Dio Cassius, Strabo.
₰ Most evidence is archaeological.
₰ Pliny the Younger:

o Main source on the eruption of 79AD and was an ancient Roman writer. Pliny was
adopted by his uncle, Pliny the Elder. His main purpose for recording the eruption
was to glorify uncle was, however he did record aspects of the eruption.
“falling hotter and thicker” *ashes+
“wide sheets of flame from Mt. Vesuvius and high reaching fires were shining out”
“pine tree” *shape of the eruption cloud+
o Pliny’s account is not 100% reliable as it was written 25 years after the event, and
appeared to serve the purpose of glorifying his uncle as opposed to recording
history. Despite this, he does give some information about the eruption.
o Vulcanologist Hiraldur Sigurdsson made Pliny’s account more reliable by comparing
modern day eruptions (such as Mt. St Helens) to Mt. Vesuvius
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₰ Seneca
o Ancient philosopher/statesman who recorded valuable information on Pompeii by
describing various aspects of the city, such as its location and the effects of the 62AD
earthquake.
₰ Strabo
o Greek geographer, who is useful for determine the geographical setting & historical
background of Pompeii
₰ Cicero (106-43BC)
o Owned houses in and around Pompeii
₰ Suetonius (69-140AD)
o Wrote about Pliny the Elder and the relief work Titus undertook after the eruption.
Written Sources- Modern
₰ Alison Cooley stated that people could have been rebuilding or redecorating after the
earthquake.
₰ Estelle Lazer (1986, Archaeologist) challenged the old interpretation that those who died
were ones who were unable to leave. Lazer believes that the remains reflected a full cross-
section of society in both Pompeii & Herculaneum, such as the Lady of Oplontis (aged
between 30/40, was in good health and appeared to be wealthy as she was clutching a
money purse and wearing a gold bracelet at the time of death)
₰ Sara Bisel& Luigi Capasso (1982) support Lazer, saying that the 139 skeletons found in the
‘Boat Shed’ at Herculaneum represent a range of people.
₰ Penelope Allison changed interpretations of how rooms were used, suggesting that each
room has multiple uses
₰ Tina Najbjerg (Archaeologist) believes the basilicas (churches) had multiple uses in both
cities
₰ Andrew Wallace-Hardill argues that there were far fewer brothels in Pompeii that historians
suggest due to the nature of Rome.
Official Inscriptions
₰ Official notices written by professional sign writers

₰ Monumental inscriptions on public buildings, tombs and statues
₰ New laws/outcomes of trials which were written up
₰ Gladiators
₰ Campaigns voting for a specific person to become Aedile.
“Do elect him, I beg of you”- Wall inscription at Pompeii by Vesonius Primus
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Graffiti
₰ In Pompeii there were thousands of writings on the walls of both public & private buildings
o Advertisements (food, games)
o Political propaganda
o Quotations
o Rude remarks/insults
o Compliments
“Vesuvius’ hot ash and debris paradoxically froze the painted notices, scribbled jokes and trivia”-
Dexter Hoyos
“Elect, I pray you, Gaius Julius Polybius aedile. He makes good bread.”- Graffito
“All the petty thieves ask for Vatia as aedile”- Graffito
Wall paintings
₰ Interior walls of temples and houses were covered with murals which were predominantly
mythological. This highlights the strong influence of religion.
₰ These paintings provide details of clothing, food, leisure activites, furniture, writing
instruments, games, religious rituals, musical instruments and industrial tools
₰ These help paint a vivid picture of life during their lifetime.
Statues
₰ Bronze & marble statues were extremely common in both towns. All public buildings were
decorated with a variety of statues
₰ Numerous amounts of statues in private establishments depicting gods, copied Greek
masterpieces, athletes, ladies and busts. Some statues were used for garden ornamentation
of tomb decoration.
Bronze Statue of Apollo, Temple of Apollo, Pompeii. Statue of Proconsul Marcus NoniusBalbus, Herculaneum
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Mosaics
₰ Covered floors, walls and ceilings.

₰ Richest mosaics were enhanced by precious stones to show wealth.
The mosaic dog on a leash in the house of the Tragic Poet is famous. “BEWARE OF THE DOG”
“On all sides we see the need for exhibition and self-promotion growing, reflected in public statues
and private tombs”- Paul Zanker
Human Remains
₰ Bones of several hundred victims have been found, buried in pumice within houses, on the
street, in crypts or in underground cellars, such as the boat houses in Herculaneum that
were excavated in 1982, with an estimated 300 victims within.
₰ Skulls testify to the various ethinc populations of Pompeii and Herculaneum
₰ Plaster casts of the victims made by Fiorelli show clothes in fine detail and the objects that
people were carrying.
Animal Remains
₰ Plaster casts in ash of a mule, goats and dogs have been found in Pompeii, buried in the
process of trying to escape.
₰ Remains of horses found in Herculaneum.
The Limitations, Reliability and Evaluation of Sources
Written Sources
₰ Although Pliny the Younger was an eyewitness to the eruption, his letters were recorded
more than 20 years after the event, making his accounts fragmented and slightly less
reliable.
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₰ Pliny also records that his accounts of the eruption were compiled with eyewitness accounts
of other people, making them less reliable.
₰ Pliny stated that his intention was to show the heroism of his uncle and not to describe the
eruption.
₰ Other primary sources also rely on the accuracy of other people, and thus need to be
carefully evaluated, such as the writings of Seneca and Suetonius.
₰ Secondary sources also rely on the accuracy of the primary sources they use.
Archaeological Sources
₰ Interpretation of the evidence by archaeologists/ historians is sometimes contradictory and

thus, it needs to be carefully evaluated, making it somewhat limited.
₰ Archaeologists STILL differ over Pompeii’s prosperity at the time of the eruption and often
debate as to whether Pompeii was a thriving town or was experiencing severe
economic/social decline.
₰ Originally, bones of victims were regarded as unimportant. More recently, through the work
of Sara Bisel, the study of bones has revealed a great deal about victims from both towns.
They originally concluded that those who died were very young, old or sick. Recently, it has
been proven that known were more representative of the whole society, showing the
destructive nature of the eruption.
₰ When buildings were first being excavated, archaeologists invented a name based on what
was found at the site (such as the Villa of Papyri). These names often conceal the
interpretation of such sites today.
₰ Pompeii & Herculaneum have not been fully excavated, thus leaving gaps in the
archaeological evidence for the two towns.
The evidence provided by the sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum for:
The eruption
Stages
₰ Plinian Phase: At 8pm 24th August, magma in Mt. Vesuvius changes to grey pumice and is
discharged at 150,000 tonnes per second and to heights of 33km.
₰ 1-2am: The winds blew south-westerly and covered Pompeii with pumice firstly 1cm in
diameter, which grew to 20cm in diameter. Herculaneum was not affected yet.
₰ Hours later Herculaneum which had only a thin layer of pumice was overwhelmed within
minutes of S1, composed of superheated gases and volcanic ash. This travelled around
200km/h at had temperatures between 1-400 degrees Celsius.
₰ People died instantly.
₰ S2 happened minutes later, where magma as high as 400 degrees Celsius flowed between
65-80km/h, destroying most of the town.
₰ S2 was hotter than S1 and was responsible for widespread destruction
₰ Pompeii was NOT exposed to S1 and S2.
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₰ Vesuvius’ pumice rises again about 30km high.
₰ S3 swept Pompeii from the north. More pumice accumulated before the next surge and at
this point the city lay buried under 3 meters
₰ S4-S6 came in short succession.
₰ S6 was the most severe, covering the city with 90-100cm of material in total at Pompeii
₰ Herculaneum: The town was completely sealed by the impact of the 6 surges and flows, and
lay under 23 meters of hardened volcanic material.
₰ Death IN POMPEII was by thermal shock or asphyxiation (suffocation)
₰ Death in Herculaneum: lava flows/pyroclastic flows. Incinerated people as it hit them.
₰ Vulcanologist Sigurdsson reconstructed the phases of the eruption.
“…best described as being like an umbrella pine” Pliny the Younger
“…for several days we experienced earth shocks”- Pliny the Younger
“The nature of the eruption governed what was left behind for archaeologists to dig up”- Alison
Cooley
”…porous hollows of rocks blackened on the surface, as if devoured by fire. As a result, one would
deduce that this area had previously been on fire” Strabo
“Mount Vesuvius burst open at its summit, and so much fire spurted forth that it consumed the
surrounding countryside together with the towns” Eusebius
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Evidence
Animal, plant
& food
remains
Objects of Structures
everyday life
Archaeological
Sources
for Eruption
Papyri
Wall paintings/
Rolls/Wax
mosaics
tablets
₰ The occurrence of terrestrial anomalies is indicative of seismic activity, which was prevalent
in the years before the eruption:
o Swelling or inflation of volcano and surrounding land.
o Earthquakes (AD 62 – as seen through damaged structures).
o Increased geothermal activity.
o Rise or fall in groundwater table.
o Increased emissions of volcanic gas.
“Large volcanic eruptions are preceded by a variety of symptoms that can be felt at the surface
months or years before an eruption begins”- Sigurdsson
Seneca documented the death of hundreds of sheep on the slopes of Vesuvius in 62 AD.
“Earlier, for the duration of many days, the earth had shaken, but this fact did not cause fear,
because earthquakes are commonly observed phenomena in Campania” -Pliny the Younger
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The economy: trade, commerce, industries, occupations
₰ It was a bustling centre of commerce, with a focus on work and profit
Trade
₰ Evidence of imports; pottery from Spain, Gaul and Crete, furniture from Alexandria and
wine.
₰ Little evidence of export, evident in the rare finds of fish sauce containers outside Italy.
However Pompeii did export small amounts of pottery, tiles, and garum (fish sauce)
₰ The port near Pompeii found to contain amphorae (pottery) and scales discovered in
warehouses
₰ Herculaneum was not a major trading centre.
Commerce
₰ Most streets contained personally operated shops.

₰ Markets contained fresh produce from local farms, which were sold in temporary stalls or
permanent shops.
₰ Standardised weights (representing money) were used when buying & selling.
₰ The Macellum was the market place of Pompeii with many features, including a small
temple, money changer’s booth, auction room and many statues where a variety of
commercial activities took place.
Industries
₰ Wine & Oil:

o Large amounts of wine were produced in the region
o It was a major agricultural industry
o A vineyard was discovered near the Pompein amphitheatre, which contained a wine
pressing shed.
o Wine shops discovered at Pompeii called “House of Amarantus”
o The same estates also produced oil, which Pliny the Elder discusses.
o Oil was used to make perfume, a basic cooking ingredient and as a luxury item for
rubbing into the body.
“Come to the sign of the bowls… half a dozen types of wine”- Herculaneum Tavern Sign
“…for around Vesuvius is the Murgentine vine”- Pliny the Younger
₰ Garum (fish sauce)

o Primary Roman condiment & major Pompeian industry
o Many types of garum were produced, varying from fish to fish
o Fisherman from Pompeii & Herculaneum sold their catch to local Garum
manufacturers
o UmbriciusScaurus owned a garum workshop & many vessels of this sauce have been
found in his house & in Southern France, showing that it was a major export.
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“no other liquid except unguents has come to be more high valued”- Pliny the Elder
“Scaurus’ finest mackerel sauce”- Garum Vessel Inscription
₰ Cloth Manufacture and Treatment
o The washing, drying and manufacture of cloth was a major

industry in Pompeii
o A “Fullery” was where the clothes were made
o 18 fulleries have been discovered in Pompeii
o The largest fullery discovered is that of Stephanus in Pompeii
o In Herculaneum, a clothes press has been discovered in a shop
attached to the House of the Wooden Partition.
o The building is Eumachia was the headquarters of the ‘guild of
the fullers’ as a statue of Eumachia is used to show their
dedication.
₰ Bakeries (Pistrina)
o About 30 pistrina have been discovered in Pompeii

o Bakerires refined their own flour in animal driven lava strone
mills
o They also contained a large inbuilt table & brick oven
o Produce was sold to local stalls
o PopidiusPriscus was a major Pompeiian bakery, where 81 loaves of bread were
discovered in the oven
o Bakery of Sextus Felix at Herculaneum contained 25 bronze baking pans
Pompeian Bakery:
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Occupations
₰ A large variety of occupations have been discovered from paintings, inscriptions, electoral
notices and other forms of archaeological evidence. These include:
₰ Growers and producers of wine, Garum producers, Carders & Spinners, Bakers, Perfume
Makers
₰ Electoral notices were painted notices which people or groups (such as tradesmen guilds)
payed to have posted
₰ The following trades have been mentioned in these archaeological sources:
₰ Architect, banker, carpenter, engraver, fisherman, metal workers, glassmakers, stonemasons
Social structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves
₰ At the time of the eruption, about 10,000- 20,000 were living in Pompeii. Of these,
approximately 40% was enslaved.
₰ Social Structure:
₰ Upper Strata (Citizens)
o Emperor
o Imperial Family
o Senatorial order
o Equestrian order
o Rich freedman
₰ Lower Strata
o Poor free-born citizens
o Freedmen (Liberti)
o Slaves (Servi)
₰ Senators (Upper Strata)

o Property qualifications: 1,000,000 sesterces
o Served emperor in offices throughout the empire
o Gained wealth from large estates
o Position was hereditary.
₰ Equestrians (Equites)/Provincial Elite (Upper Strata)

o Property qualifications: 400,000 sesterces
o Served emperor in important posts, e.g. military leadership
o Gained wealth from public office/trade/banking
o Position was not hereditary.
₰ Freedmen (Lower Strata)

o Were previously slaves given freedom by various means
o Gained wealth from trade/wealth/banking/manufacturing/land ownership
o Excluded from becoming senators, but could become equestrians.
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₰ Other Lower Strata

o Poor freedmen/poor freeborns who had no power and/or money. They could be
lawyers, doctors, teachers or engineers, showing that the Romans did not think highly of
these positions
o Slaves: performed mostly agricultural and manufacturing work. They also served the
upper class in their homes. Were often from a foreign country defeated in war, or free
citizens who sold themselves to pay debts.
₰ Women
o Typical role was to perform tasks such as running the household, bringing up
children & controlling finances.
o Women on Pompeii appeared to have much more freedom than those in Rome
o Although they couldn’t vote, they were able to make public declerations supporting
a particular candidate in an election, showing that they had roles in the public life.
o Occupations included tavern owners, bakers, household servants, cooks, cleaners,
nurses and prostitues.
“Women could own property, do business, pay for construction, hold honorific and cultic office, and
go about in public”- Elaine Fantham
Local Political Life
₰ Pomepeii& Herculaneum were self-administering towns

₰ Every town had a town council (ordodecurionum) and councillors (decuriones). Councillors
were elected citizens in the towns.
Duumviri
₰ Were the TWO chief magistrates. They had power to govern the community, but had no
military power. Elected in March, their term lasted for one year starting July 1st.
₰ They presided over courts, public money and public council
₰ Were responsible for carrying out orders of the council (ordodecurionum)
₰ Sometimes would use their personal funds to benefit the community, such as games.
Aediles
₰ Two lower ranking magistrates, responsible for much of the daily administration.
₰ Elected by the comitia (voting assembly) on an annual basis
₰ Responsible for roads, public buildings, temples, markets and games.
₰ Like Duumviri, they also used their money for the benefit of the community.
“Elect, I pray you, Gaius Julius Polybius aedile. He makes good bread.”- Graffito
OrdoDecurionum
₰ Councillors, numbered between 80-100. They were chosen through a census of wealthy &
influential men and not elected. They served on the town council (Curia)
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₰ Some professions were banned from the Curia, such as actors, gladiators and grave diggers.
Praefectus- Emergency Office
₰ Praefectus could take control in place of the Dummviri for a short time during emergencies.
₰ One example of emergency office occurred after the 62AD earthquake when C.
CuspiusPansa the Elder was appointed praefectus.
Everyday life: leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water supply and
sanitation
Leisure activities
₰ Boxing/athletic contests
₰ Social gatherings, banquets, receptions, drinking in bars or taverns
₰ Gambling/gaming. A fresco in the Tavern of Salvius depicts two men arguing over a game of
dice.
₰ Theatre/festival games
₰ Circus & chariot racing
₰ Gladiatorial games and beast hunts
₰ Baths
₰ Prostitution was a common element of society. A large brothel in Pompeii has been
excavated which contained 10 rooms, with all the walls covered in erotic paintings. It was
owned by Africanus
Food & Dining
₰ Easily the most favourite pastimes in Rome as even the poorer classes were able to enjoy it.
It usually took place in taverns, evident in Pompeii where there were over 100 taverns.
₰ Poorer Romans usually ate a type of boiled porridge
₰ Wealthier people enjoyed a diet of meat, cheese, eggs, vegetables, honey, dates, nuts,
olives, fruit and shellfish.
₰ Usually 3 meals- breakfast, lunch and dinner. Dinner was the main meal and started around
4pm.
₰ Dinner parties were common among the wealthy and went for many hours. Food was
prepared for slaves in unhygienic kitchens and cooked on charcoal stoves inside bronze/lead
pots, posing a serious health problem.
₰ Romans liked using garum to flavour their food as archaeologists have uncovered evidence
of garum vessels.
Clothing
₰ Clothes were made from wool or linen. Woolen cloth was made locally at the Eumachia in
the Pompeian Forum, whilst linen was imported from Egypt.
₰ There was a range of different types of clothing in Pompeii and Herculaneum each for
different occasions and purposes
₰ The magistrates of the towns were thought to have worn purple bordered togas to indicated
their rank- we know this from paintings inside the house of Julia Felix.
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₰ White woollen togas were the typical dress for adult males in this period when in public and
performing occupational duties
₰ Lacerna’s (or cloaks) were used to further establish rank.
₰ While at home it is believed that a lighter woollen tunic would have been worn
₰ Women typically wore an ankle length woollen tunic and a vest. Her public attire would have
simply involved adding onto this outside a coloured stola (dress) and belt.
₰ Sandals of varying styles and durability’s would have been the common footwear for men
and women both inside and outside the house.
₰ When bathing, women wore a single or two piece costume while men wore leather trunks or
nothing at all.
Female: Blue stola over a light

blue woolen tunic, with a
square red palla.
Male: Purple toga (magistrate)

with red lacerna (cloak)
Health
₰ Significant problems of health and disease plagued the Roman world. Minor afflictions today
were considered life threatening for ancient romans.
₰ The cause of disease was not understood by Romans, and remedies were primitive. People
turned to magic charms, healing herbs, prayers and religion for cures.
₰ Most Roman bodies had a high lead content. Lead cooking pots were used and water was
flushed through lead pipes, effectively poisoning themselves.
Baths
₰ Visiting the baths was a major social activity

₰ There have been many complexes that have been found in both Pompeii and Herculaneum:
o Strabian baths (Pompeii)
o Forum baths (Pompeii, 1 female and 4 male skeletons found here)
o Central baths (Pompeii)
o Sarno baths (Pompeii)
o Suburban baths (Herculaneum, in excellent condition & contributed greatly to our
understanding of their bathing systems)
o Forum baths (Herculaneum)
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₰ A typical day at the baths followed this sort of procedure:

o Undress in the changing rooms (apodyterium)
o Exercise in the palaestra
o Massage in the apodyterium. Oil would be applied to the body then scraped off with
a strigil as Romans had no soap.
o They then choose from a variety of rooms: the warm room (trepidarium), hot room
~40oC (caldarium), Sauna (laconicum) or cold pool (frigidarium).
o The heating was provided by a charcoal furnace located between the men’s and
women’s caldarium and beneath the floor. This was known as the hypocaust
system.
Strabian Baths, Pompeii Public Fountain
Water Supply
₰ The early inhabitants of Pompeii relied on the River Sarno for water. However, during the
reign of Emperor Augustus, a branch was built off the imperial aqueduct at the Springs of
Acquaro to supply Pompeii & Herculaneum. Water from the Springs of Acquaro, 26km away,
flowed into a water tower (castellum) and was siphoned off into three lead pipes, which
supplied different areas of the city.
₰ Many private homes were connected to this supply of fresh, running water. One of the three
lead pipes supplied the public fountains throughout Pompeii, usually located at crossroads,
showing that the supply of water was more important was traffic.
₰ Public fountains supplied a continuous flow of fresh water and any excess water helped
move rubbish and excrement along the streets.
Sanitation
₰ For public latrines (toilets), Romans devised a system which involved water running
continuously through a drainage channel that moved waste along. Some private homes had
latrines and waste from these latrines drained to pits beneath the roadway.
₰ Streets contained running water & garbage. Large stepping stones were placed to enable
pedestrians to cross, made from volcanic tufa.
₰ Urine was used by cloth manufacturers to bleach the fabric; large jars were left outside their
shops for ‘donations’
₰ Pompeii was generally very noisy, dirty, smelly and unhygienic with rubbish everywhere on
the streets.
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Public Buildings – fora, basilicas, temples, theatres, palaestra, amphitheatres
Fora
₰ The Forum was the centre of political, economic and religious life in Pompeii &
Herculaneum.
₰ Features of the forum:
o Measured 38m by 157m
o All buildings involved Pompeian public life and the south side of the Forum included
the Basiclica, municipal offices and Comitium (building for Comitia)
o On the right side were religious buildings and those concerned with the economy &
commerce (such as the Macellum, which was a market place, and the Eumachia,
where the guild of fullers made clothes)
o Great public buildings with their own minor squares surrounded it
o Only people on FOOT could enter the forum- no carts allowed.
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Basilica
₰ The most elaborate & oldest structure of the Pompeian Forum, built between 128-70BC.
₰ Originally, it was a meeting place. However, the roof collapsed, changing it into and open
market and finally a judicial system.
₰ Ultimately it became the seat of the judiciary and the law courts, as well as the centre for
business activities.
₰ It is believed that the tribunal podium was used by judges, accessed by portable stairs.
₰ The two duumviri made decisions concerning electoral mishaps, misuse of public funds and
other crimes such as murder.
₰ Walls of the interior were decorated with imitation marble panels, with graffito scratched
into the surface.
Basilica, Pompeii
Basilica fresco, Herculaneum
Temples
₰ The main temples were located about the Forum – indicating the importance of religion.
₰ Romans were heavily influenced by Greek religion, as they believed it controlled every
aspect of their daily lives. For this reason, they consistently sacrificed, made offerings and
prayed to please the Gods.
The Temple of Jupiter (aka Capitoline Triad)
₰ Dedicated to three Greek Gods:

o Jupiter – protector of the state.
o Juno – protector of women.
o Minerva – patroness of craftsmen.
₰ Stood on podium 3 metres high.
₰ Symbolised Rome’s power in Pompeii.
₰ It was repaired after the 62AD earthquake,
emphasising its importance.
Temple of Apollo:
₰ Introduced into Pompeii in 6th cent. B.C.

₰ Italic style construction, with stairs leading to
structure/podium.
₰ Originally surrounded by 28 Corinthian columns, most of
which have been destroyed.
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₰ The far wall consists of painted scenes from the Iliad.

₰ Statues of Apollo (music, prophecy, medicine…) and Diana (moon and nature) faced
opposite each other.
Temple of the Lares:
₰ Dedicated to the protector gods of Pompeian houses.

₰ Built after 62AD eruption as a token of Roman gratitude for
having escaped the earthquake relatively unharmed.
₰ Rectangular plan enlivened at the far end by an apse with fine
ornamental columns and with niches either side.
₰ Each house had a site or a small temple dedicated to them.
Temple of Vespasian:
₰ Small temple dedicated to Vespasian.

₰ Podium once surrounded by 4 fluted columns.
₰ Opposite the podium is a marble alter depicting
sacrificial scenes.
Temple of Isis:
₰ Restored soon after 62AD earthquake, emphasising of

importance.
₰ Located near the Pompeian forum.
₰ The building consists of a large rectangular space marked off
by walls, within which is the cella of the god raised up on a
pedestal and standing in a splendid niche.
₰ Accommodation for priests was adjacent – small temple
located in peristyle.
Temple of Fortuna Augusta:
₰ Dedicated to goddess Fortuna – epithet Augusta was later

added.
₰ Erected by duumvir Marcus Tullius (at his own expense).
₰ Embellished with columns above stair case and held statues
of Augustus and imperial family.
₰ Alternated for being used for religion & politics.
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Temple of Venus:
₰ Located on the via Marina.

₰ Would have overlooked the ocean (worshipped by sailors,
who sought her protection).
₰ Temple presumably surrounded by gardens (goddess of
vegetation).
₰ Venus was (arguably) at the centre of Pompeian life.
₰ Most severely damaged buildings in the city.
Theatres Temple of Isis
₰ The theatre was a place where

performances of comedies or tragedies
were held
₰ It construction was Greek in that it Large Theatre
exploited natural terrain, but Roman in  Forum
that is possessed free architectural
qualities.
₰ Archaeological evidence of graffito tells
us that the theatre was popular
Covered
Theatre/
Palaestra
Old Doric Temple Odeion
Theatre Quarter, Pompeii
Large Theatre
₰ Greek style building that overlooked the Stabian Gate. It was later remodelled in a
Roman manner, by expanding its maximum capacity & reshaping the form of the stage
itself.
₰ Renovated during Augustan period, with a maximum capacity of 5000.
₰ Entertainment included tragedies and comedies
₰ Presiding magistrates would have had special seats
₰ The stage was ornamented with various columns and statues
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Odeion(Small theatre)
₰ Typical Greek structure which is deeply

embanked in a natural slope of terrain
₰ Originally had a roof made of timber, to
possibly improve acoustics.
₰ Capacity of 2000.
“The architects of old, following in nature’s footsteps, perfected the stepped seating of theatres
after their research into the rising of the voice”- Vitruvius
Theatre at Herculaneum
₰ The theatre rested on a double tier of arches and pillars which had a capacity of 2,500
₰ The building was richly decorated with yellow, red, purple and black marbles
₰ Bronze statues of the imperial family and civic leaders lined the theatre
₰ Was perfectly preserved, but many artefacts have been stolen.
Palaestra
₰ Colonnaded rectangular areas with an open, grassed space in the middle, originally inspired
from Greek influences
₰ Romans exercised in these areas through running, discus and javelin competitions
₰ Swimming pool was located next to palaestrae in Pompeii & Herculaneum
There were THREE styles of Greek architecture for the Palaestra
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“It would have initially been to watch competitions between the young athletes and later possibly
adapted to watch gladiators paired up against each other, but with wooden equipment and not
fighting to the death”- Zanker
“Improving the physical and moral condition of young men in the upper classes was one of Augustus’
main concerns”- Zanker
Pompeii Palaestra- “all was spacious and imposing”- Deiss
Large Palaestra, Pompeii
Amphitheatre
₰ Located in the south east of Pompeii

₰ Built around 70BC, it is the oldest surviving amphitheatre from the Roman world.
₰ Is elliptical in shape- measures 135m by 104m and held 24,000 spectators.
₰ Used for games such as gladiatorial fights, hunts & battles featuring wild animals.
₰ Gladiatorial games were officially held to honour gods or celebrate a victory. They also had a
political purpose and whoever put on the most extravagant games became more popular.
₰ There is a painting of a riot in the amphitheatre, which apparently incurred a ban of 10
years. Of course games were still held during this ban.
“About this time (59AD0 there was a serious fight between the inhabitants of two Roman
settlements. Nuceria and Pompeii. It arose out of a trifling incident at a gladiatorial show… When
they reported back, the senate debarred Pompeii from holding any similar gathering for 10 years”-
Tacitus
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Private buildings – houses, villas, shops
Houses
“Interlocking jigsaw of large, medium and small houses”-Wallace-Hadrill
“…most sacred, most hallowed place on earth is the home of each and every citizen”- Cicero
₰ Facade
o Definition is a building that looks directly onto a
street or open space.
o Built directly into pavement
o Austere (painted simply with red & white)
o Entrance (fauces) was between shops and workshops
o The grandest houses situated on most commercial
streets, which exploited locations with shop fronts
run by slaves or clients of wealthy owners.
o Windows were placed up high to release heat during
the summer months
o Seats were placed in the fauces/vestibulum (clients
waiting) Blacksmith Façade House, Pompeii.
₰ Atrium
o Also called a cavaedium. It was the main or central room
of ancient roman houses, which was open to the sky at
the center and usually had a pool to collect rainwater.
o This central, shallow pool was known as the impluvium.
o The roof opening (compluvium) was to let in water &
light
o Before Pompeii was connected to the aqueduct, water
tanks were below the impluvium.
o A 2nd atrium may have been added to busy houses, such
as the House of the Faun. Usually 2nd atriums were more
concerned with family matters
o Some furnishings were in the atrium, such as cupboards
etc.
House of the Vetti, central atrium
₰ Tablinum
o Was a main reception room, often business was conducted here
o Closed off with curtain of wooden partition (evident in the House of the Wooden
Partition, Herculaneum)
o Tablinum was lavishly decorated for it was a place of business
o It was originally used for family gatherings, but changed into a room for achieves,
still maintaining its centrality of a house.
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₰ Peristyle
o Definition: a row of columns surrounding a space
within a building such as a court or internal
garden or edging a veranda or porch.
o Brought more light into the house/ place of
relaxation
o Some houses had more than one, such as the
House of the Citharist which had 3
o Regarded as being adapted from a Hellenistric
(Greek) style, as peristyles were introduced in the
2nd century BC.
o Fountains were a main feature of some peristyles
House of the Vetti, Pompeii
“Greek horticultural experts began arriving in Italy to create pleasure gardens”- Michael Grant
₰ Triclinia
o Not a type of house, but was a series of three couches
o It was a Greek custom of reclining whilst dining and is found in many wealthy houses
throughout Pompeii and Herculaneum
Triclinia Reconstruction
Triclinia
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Villas
₰ Were large estates owned by the wealthy of Roman society.

₰ Often had elaborate gardens, as well as expansive & luxurious buildings with many rooms
₰ Purpose and design was to get away from traditional home and urban life
₰ Numerous depictions of villas in Pompeian wall frescoes, which provide a valuable source
displaying how the estates were embedded in the natural landscape.
“…the clever orientation of porticoes, dining rooms and bedrooms to take advantage of particular
vistas shows that Roman aristocrats and their architects consciously included nature and the natural
landscape in their designs…This takes the Hellenistic approach to an extreme”- Zanker
“The leisure associated with villas embraces a whole sphere of life in which architecture and décor
were inseparably connected with certain styles, habits and intellectual pursuits”- Zanker
₰ Villa of Papyri, Herculaneum.

o Named so in 1752 when a small room was found contained 2000 carbonised
cylindrical scrools
o The remains of this villa give an accurate representation of the luxurious lifestyle
enjoyed by wealthy citizens
o It had a large main peristyle and a huge pool measuring 6.5m long by 7m wide
o 87 bronze and marble statues depicting gods, nymphs, wild animals and athletes
cover the Villa
Villa of Papyri, Reconstruction
“…no buildings to obstruct its view, and below was a large garden descending to the little port”-
AmedeoMaiuri
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Shops
₰ Wide range of shops have been found in both towns, including workshops and drink shops
₰ Many shops were rented front rooms of large, private houses
₰ A majority of shops were located on Via dell’ Abondanza (Pompeii’s main street
₰ Inside the shop was a counter for selling goods and shelves on the wall. Some shops had a
back room for storage.
₰ Taverns had tables/chairs for people to drink/eat and often offered accommodation.
₰ Bars did not have seating and were usually very small.
Via dell'ABbondanza, Pompeii
Name of room/area Explanation

Ala (plural – alae) Wing room/s at the end of the atrium giving access to
the tablinium
Ancestral image An image, usually made of wax, of a distinguished
ancestor, put on display in the hallway or atrium
Atrium Reception hall
Compluvium A quadrangular opening in the roof over the atrium;
rainwater flowed through this opening into a small pool
Cubiculum (plural – cubicula) Rooms that could be used as bedrooms or sitting rooms
Fauces Hallway leading from the door of the house into the
atrium
Exedra Oblong room or hall used for entertaining guests
Hortus (plural – horti) Garden
Oecus Room used for entertaining; a small salon
Peristyle An open courtyard or garden area surrounded by a
colonnade
Portico A veranda covered by a roof supported by columns
TabernaeOfficinae Shops/workshops found on the outside of the house
Tablinium (plural – tablinia) A room or alcove off the atrium where family records
were kept; possibly used as an office by the owner
Triclinium Dining room – some houses had a winter and summer
dining room
Vestibulum (plural – vestibula) Entrance lobby
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Influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture, religion
₰ Pompeii & Herculaneum were both Greek settlements. Greek influences therefore can be
seen in their art, architecture and especially religion. Influences from Egypt entered Pompeii
through trade. One of the greatest Egyptian influences was through religion.
Art
₰ The themes found in wall paintings include Greek mythology and Greek divinities such as
Theseus and the Minotaur
₰ Paintings were often copies of Greek originals, as were statues
₰ Wall paintings included allusions to classical Greek architecture, such as a peristyle
surroundings a garden, or in recreating the outside of a classical Greek temple.
₰ Floor mosaics showed Egyptian influences.
₰ For example, the House of Faun contains a mosaic of flora and fauna along the Nile River.
The house also shows Greek influences evident in the mosaic of Alexander the Great &
Darius at the Battle of Issus.
Top: Nile Mosiac, House of

Faun
Left: Battle of Issus Mosaic,

House of Faun.
Architecture
₰ Many early buildings in both towns were designed using the familiar traditions of Greek
construction
₰ Features such as the Greek peristyle garden were adopted from a Greek design
₰ The stoa was included in many building designs, such as the Forum ( a peristyle form)
₰ Greek columns (Doric, Ionic & Corinthian) were used in temples, public buildings and private
houses.
₰ The Triangular Forum with its Doric temple was of pure Greek origin
₰ The palastrae of Pompeii & Herculaneum are in the Hellenistic architectural tradition, which
is a style of Greek architecture popular after the time of Alexander the Great.
₰ The theatres owe their designs to Greek originals
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₰ Remains of furniture appear to be based on Greek prototypes, whilst Herculaneum was

various cupboards with a Greek design
₰ There was little influence of Egyptian architecture, with one main example being the House
of the Large Fountain in Pompeii
House of the Large Fountain, Pompeii Triangular Forum, Pompeii
Religion
₰ The Greek gods and goddesses Apollo, Hercules, Minerva, Dionysus, Hermes and Demeter
were worshipped at Pompeii & Herculaneum, evident in the variety of temples across both
towns.
₰ Dionysian themes were a popular artistic decoration.
₰ The Egyptian goddess Isis was worshipped at Pompeii & Herculaneum by merchants,
women, children, slaves, freemen and soldiers.
₰ Some houses, including those of LoreiusTiburtinus and Julia Felix had garden shrines to Isis
and statuettes of pharaohs & other Egyptian deities.
Villa of Mysteries, Pompeii,

depicting the Dionysian cult
House of LoreiusTiburtinus, Pompeii.
Temple of Isis Garden Shrine
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Religion: temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs.
“The ruins and inscriptions suggest that religion pervaded private life”- Meiggs
Temples
*Previously explained in the syllabus point “Public Buildings” on page 18+
Household gods
₰ Most houses had small shrines (known as laraia) with small statues or painted images of
household gods (the lares, meaning family protectors), and the genius- the ‘life spirit’ of the
head of the household (usually the father).
₰ Paterfamilias was the head of the household, usually being the oldest male. He was in
charge of private rituals in the house and organized daily ceremonies where offerings were
made.
₰ Genius as aforementioned is the god of the male line of descent. The god was worshipped
on the birthday of the paterfamilias.
₰ Altars to the lares were situated in streets for the devotions of the poor, slaves or travellers
who had none at home. These were called the larescompitales meaning those “of the
crossroads”
“the large number of such shrines indicated widespread religious practices among the inhabitants of
Pompeii as a whole”- Alison Cooley
Foreign Cults
₰ Many of the cults were oriental (of Asian heritage)

₰ Mystery cults offered the hope that the individual continued to exist after death, explaining
their popularity in their historical situation.
₰ Generally, they allowed for the emotional involvement of the worshipper, explaining their
disenchantment from the Roman state religion which was impersonal and unemotional.
₰ Most Romans felt no conflict between the demands of state religion and those of eastern
religions
₰ Two of the most popular cults, as supported by archaeological evidence are
o Cult of Isis
o Cult of Dionysus/Bacchus
“Most of the eastern religions were… mystery religions… religions that could illuminate the mystery
of achieving immortality… secret to all but the initiates”- Jo-Anne Shelton
“It was easy enough to stand silently at an occasional ceremony conducted for the welfare of the
state, and thus fulfil ones public obligations”- Jo-Anne Shelton (explaining why there is little conflict)
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Cult of Isis
₰ Isis was the goddess of fertility and marriage, both loving and compassionate.
₰ Originated from the trade between Alexandria and Naples, explaining its Egyptian
heritage
₰ Nearly 1/3 of all worshippers mentioned in the inscriptions were women (Zarmati)
₰ The Temple of Isis was built over a chamber, containing water from the Nile river
and a room with 84 lamps for the initiation of new members.
₰ It was rebuilt after the 62AD earthquake, highlighting its popularity
₰ It had two major festivals- the “Navigation of Isis” (protection of sailors) and “Isia”
(commemorating the discovery of Osiris’ body)
₰ In the House of Julia Felix’ garden, a shrine was discovered devoted to Isis, along
with statuettes of pharaohs and Egyptian gods.
₰ Electoral notices contained the option “Worshipper of Isis” emphasising its
incorporation into daily life.
Cult of Dionysus/Bacchus
₰ Earliest mystery cult in Pompeii

₰ The cult is based on an account of the rescue of Ariadne, who secured eternal life to
Dionysus through marriage
₰ The cult contained various types of debauchery (wickedness)
₰ The Villa of Mysteries contains various mosaics depicting the cult
“Matrons attired as Bacchantes, with their hair dishevelled and carrying blazing torches”- Livy
(referring to their debauchery)
“This cult at its least exacting level, tended to succumb to mere sensuality, with the afterlife pictured
as a sexy debauch”- Michael Grant
Tombs
₰ Tombs were not hidden away, but were constructed along the busiest streets near the gates
and outside the walls.
₰ In Pompeii, there was a necropolis (cemetery) along almost every road entering the city
₰ The Street of the Tombs, with its spectacular monuments, is one of Pompeii’s finest streets
and is accessed via the Herculaneum Gate.
₰ Tombs were decorated with columns, stucco embellishments, pilasters, statues, frescoes,
mosaics and bas-reliefs (sculpture/carving) of various scenes.
₰ Fine marble doorways were placed on some tombs, indicating wealth & prestige.
₰ The intent of tombs was to give a prominent display to the achievement and wealth of the
deceased, but above all else, to display their political and social rank within society.
₰ Most people were cremated, with some tombs containing multiple burials/urns.
₰ Most tombs bear the initials HMHNS- ‘This monument cannot be inherited by heirs.’
₰ Famous tombs include Eumachia’s tomb (which she built herself) and the tomb of
UmbriciusScaurus (the founder of Garum) which are beautifully decorated.
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3 Investigating, reconstructing and preserving the past

Changing methods and contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists to our
understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneum
₰ Before the 19th century, archaeology was a ‘treasure hunt’; sites were looted, paintings
taken from walls, mosaics lifted off floors & various artifacts stolen or displaced.
Archaeologist Methods and discoveries
Antonio Bonucci  Uncovered the Pompeian Forum, Gladiator Barracks,

Temple of Fortuna Augusta and House of the Tragic Poet
1818-1819
Giuseppe Fiorelli  Developed scientific approach by keeping written record of

excavations and preparing a methodical system for
1860-1875 excavation of Pompeii & Herculaneum
 Cleared away all earth, ash and lapilli and set up roofs to
protect sites.
 Divided Pompeii into regions and insulae, giving each a
name/grid number, and each house a number.
 Excavated from roof of building downwards.
 1863; invented plaster casting method which made
moulds of cavities left in hardened ash by bodies and other
objects. Gave a realistic representation of human bodies,
animals, furniture and food.
 Established a training school for archaeologists.
August Mau  German archaeologist who categorised all Pompeian wall
paintings into four main styles.
1873-1909
Vittorio Spinazzola  Wanted to excavate commercial life of city by examining

frontages of buildings; had to change plan to excavate
1910-1923 whole house.
 Cleared the Viadell’Abondanza.
 First to record buildings/artefacts using photography.
AmedeoMaiuri  Used stratigraphy to excavate Pompeii.
 Excavated around Viadell’Abondanza and unearthed
1924-1961 Pompeian amphitheatre/palaestra.
 Uncovered walls of the city.
 Worked on fully excavating Villa of Mysteries.
 Cleared 10 insulae; has been criticised for excavating too
fast and damaging archaeological remains.
FaustoZevi  Archaeologist who became superintendent of excavations
at Pompeii.
1977-present  Decided to devote resources to conservation/recording.
 Photographic record made of wall paintings/mosaics.
 Established international co-operation between teams
from Italy, Holland, Spain, Germany, Britain, Australia and
US.
 Shifted approach from restoration & excavation to
conservation & preservation.
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Changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies

Earthquake of 62AD
₰ Maiuri (Archaeologist, 1942) and Penelope Allison (Archaeologist, 1992) believe Pompeii
was in economic decline after this earthquake. They deduced that buildings lacked repairs
and that houses were abandoned or being used by squatters.
₰ Alison Cooley challenged this view by stating that people could have been rebuilding or
redecorating due to the earthquake.
Evidence of Human Remains & Their Links to the Eruption

₰ Estelle Lazer (1986, Archaeologist) challenged the old interpretation that those who died
were ones who were unable to leave. Lazer believes that the remains reflected a full cross-
section of society in both Pompeii & Herculaneum, such as the Lady of Oplontis (aged
between 30/40, was in good health and appeared to be wealthy as she was clutching a
money purse and wearing a gold bracelet at the time of death)
₰ Sara Bisel& Luigi Capasso (1982) support Lazer, saying that the 139 skeletons found in the
‘Boat Shed’ at Herculaneum represent a range of people.
Changing Interpretations
₰ Penelope Allison changed interpretations of how rooms were used, suggesting that each
room has multiple uses and that Pompeii was NOT in economic/social decline.
“The conventional view is that the state of the Forum in 79 AD was still in disrepair from the
impact of the earthquake of 62 AD… The current perspective due to the work of the Forum
project is that rather than being s symbol of economic depression its vigorous post-
earthquake building program revealed a desire to build on a grand scale”- Penelope Allison
₰ Tina Najbjerg (Archaeologist) believes the basilicas (churches) had multiple uses in both
cities
₰ Andrew Wallace-Hardill argues that there were far fewer brothels in Pompeii that historians
suggest due to the nature of Rome.
Impact of New Research and Technologies

₰ Previously, archaeologists would record findings through sketches/photographs. Now, digital
scanners, recorders, scanners, x-rays and computer enhancements are used.
₰ New projects can be undertaken due to technological advancements:

o Philodemus project- unrolling & reading the scrolls found in the Villa of Papyri
o Neapolis project- attempting to provide a system of interlinked databases of the
Vesuvius region
₰ The study of human remains has shown that a range of people died during the eruption, not
only the weaker people of society as previously thought.
₰ Luigi Capasso conducted studies of remains and found that most people were in good
health, showing that the incidence of disease was no higher in Pompeii & Herculaneum than
it was in Western countries.
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Issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and

responsibilities; impact of tourism
Year Event
1995  Vesuvius National Park officially opened.
1996  Excavation on house of Papyri commenced  controversial.
1997  Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae and Villa of Oplontis declared

World Heritage sites.
 Italian govt. passes law so that P+H receive all money collected
from entry fees.
1998  Excavations stopped at Villa of Papyri.
2004  Conserved and restored sections of the Villa of Papyri opened to

the public.
Conservation:
₰ Has been an ongoing debate as to whether Pompeii & Herculaneum should be excavated
further or whether the sites should be conserved & protected from further destruction.
₰ Conservation supporters insist that if we continue to excavate, we will only be putting
archaeological evidence at risk as well as putting already uncovered evidence in danger
through the process of reconstruction.
₰ Positive: safeguards the physical fabric of the object from loss and deterioration.
₰ Negative: conservation can be destructive by treating the object it can destroy valuable
information contained within the dirt of corrosion products surrounding the object.
“The preservation of cultural material for the foreseeable future in a way that allows the maximum
information to be retrieved by further study and analysis”- Kate Foley
“In the end, the pivotal point is this. Until we have demonstrated that we can find a way to manage
this incomparable heritage and preserve it for the future generations, specifically so at
Herculaneum, we can only add to the existing problem by undertaking new excavation”- Wallace
-Hadrill
Reconstruction:
₰ Measures to preserve historical materials are based on accurate duplication of documented
features through archaeology.
₰ Positive: Provides a greater impact for tourists and further interests tourist’s in the creation
of these outdoor museums.
₰ Negative: It can be done in a very unsympathetic way with materials that are often not
compatible, for example using cheap wood for roofing in Pompeii.
₰ The excavated cities are vast open air museums which together include almost 2000
buildings, many kilometres of paths and roads & thousands of square meters of frescoed
walls and paved mosaic flooring which is EXTREMELY vulnerable to decay.
₰ There are many causes of deterioration and problems facing the sites of both Pompeii &
Herculaneum. Poor restoration work on the sites has been done by local firms with little
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33
specialised knowledge of restoration techniques and in some places incorrect construction

methods have been detrimental.
₰ EXAMPLE:
“Just when Pompeii was being rediscovered, it began to die its second death”- Henry De Saitn
Blanquat
Italian and International Contributions and Responsibilities
Italian:
₰ 1997: The government passed a law that allowed Pompeii & Herculaneum to retain entry
fees & donations from tourists, increasing their budget by four times to help with
conservation and preservation
₰ 1997: To further boost Pompeii’s resources, the Italian government passed a law declaring
that private companies who wished to take part in the restoration of Pompeii could obtain
tax cuts under certain circumstances
₰ 1998: Professor Guzzo stopped excavations at the Villa of Papyri in Herculaneum.
₰ 2004: Conserved and restored sections of the Villa of Papyri were opened to the public once
again and the revenue continues to help fund conservation & restoration projects.
International:
₰ 1990: An International team of Archaeologists, Conservators planned to rescue mission for
the decaying house.Rotting Wooden beams were replaced with new ones strained a rich
dark brown, masonic floors were scrubbed to a bright white & glossy black and wall
paintings were cleaned and restored to better show their deep red, yellow and blue hues.
₰ 1996: World Monuments Watch added Pompeii to its list of major endangered monuments
and the World Monument Fund contributed $600,000.
₰ 1997: Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae& the Villa at Oplontis were declared World Heritage
sites by UNESCO, giving the sites international significance and direct funding.
₰ 2003: World Monuments Fund and the Kress Foundation sponsored a meeting that brought
together a range of archaeologists, conservators & architects to prepare long term plans for
managing and conserving the sites.
Impact of Tourism:
₰ More than 2 million tourists visit Pompeii, whereas 500,000 visit Herculaneum each year.
₰ Both cities are very seriously threatened by tourism, pollution (pigeon faeces, acid rain),
vandalism and overgrown vegetation.
₰ Trampling feet destroy ancient pavements & lead pipes and these are there is a view that
repairs would damage the authenticity of the site.
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₰ People damage buildings by writing their names on buildings, stealing fragments of pottery
and mosaics as well as antiquity theft, where copies have been placed in the position of the
originals which have been stolen.
₰ However, revenue from tourism provides around 20 million euros each year, which is
imperative for the preservation and conservation of both sites. As such, more emphasis is
placed on educating the public about the remains as opposed to excavating new areas.
“We have much more money than before, but it’s always to little”- Professor Guzzo
Ethical issues: study and display of human remains
₰ Difficult decisions have been made about how we should interpret and present the past,
especially with how human remains should be managed.
₰ During the late 18th and early 19th century, archaeologists placed human remains on display
and would sometimes manipulate or arrange them from a theatrical effect.
₰ Today, it is realised that very little respect was paid to these victims.
₰ Some believe that it is very disrespectful & unethical to have skeletons of the victims on
display
₰ For example, other civilisations such as the Aboriginals & Native Americans have recently
fought for skeletal remains to be returned so they can receive proper burials.
₰ Others believe that as long as they are treated with respect, scientists should be allowed to
study human remains as they provide evidence of daily life in 79AD.
₰ Casts have been made of bodies to overcome the issue of directly displaying the remains as
these replicas replace the display of the real ones.
₰ Advancements in technology, such as holographic displays of these bodies would reduce the
pressure of ethical issues.
₰ Sara Bisel: first to study human remains at Herculaneum. She had taken various photos
which were deemed unethical and made conclusions about bones (such as the soldier &
slave girl) which were unconfirmed and had no real basis in evidence.
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End
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Ancient History

HSC Syllabus Notes

HSC Pompeii/Herculaneum Syllabus Notes

2 The nature of sources and evidence

3 Investigating, reconstructing and preserving the past

₰ River Sarno (East of Pompeii)

₰ Wine, olives, olive oil, grain, fish, wheat & barley.

Plans and streetscapes of Pompeii and Herculaneum

2 The nature of sources and evidence

Written Sources- Ancient Historians.

₰ Pliny the Younger:

“falling hotter and thicker” *ashes+

“pine tree” *shape of the eruption cloud+

Written Sources- Modern

₰ Official notices written by professional sign writers

“All the petty thieves ask for Vatia as aedile”- Graffito

₰ Covered floors, walls and ceilings.

The Limitations, Reliability and Evaluation of Sources

₰ Interpretation of the evidence by archaeologists/ historians is sometimes contradictory and

₰ People died instantly.

₰ S2 was hotter than S1 and was responsible for widespread destruction

₰ Pompeii was NOT exposed to S1 and S2.

₰ Vesuvius’ pumice rises again about 30km high.

₰ S4-S6 came in short succession.

₰ Death IN POMPEII was by thermal shock or asphyxiation (suffocation)

₰ Death in Herculaneum: lava flows/pyroclastic flows. Incinerated people as it hit them.

₰ Vulcanologist Sigurdsson reconstructed the phases of the eruption.

“…best described as being like an umbrella pine” Pliny the Younger

“…for several days we experienced earth shocks”- Pliny the Younger

The economy: trade, commerce, industries, occupations

₰ It was a bustling centre of commerce, with a focus on work and profit

₰ Most streets contained personally operated shops.

₰ Wine & Oil:

“…for around Vesuvius is the Murgentine vine”- Pliny the Younger

₰ Garum (fish sauce)

“Scaurus’ finest mackerel sauce”- Garum Vessel Inscription

₰ Cloth Manufacture and Treatment

o The washing, drying and manufacture of cloth was a major

o About 30 pistrina have been discovered in Pompeii

Social structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves

₰ Senators (Upper Strata)

₰ Equestrians (Equites)/Provincial Elite (Upper Strata)

₰ Freedmen (Lower Strata)

₰ Other Lower Strata

Local Political Life

₰ Pomepeii& Herculaneum were self-administering towns

Praefectus- Emergency Office

Food & Dining

Female: Blue stola over a light

Male: Purple toga (magistrate)

₰ Visiting the baths was a major social activity

₰ A typical day at the baths followed this sort of procedure:

Strabian Baths, Pompeii Public Fountain

Public Buildings – fora, basilicas, temples, theatres, palaestra, amphitheatres

The Temple of Jupiter (aka Capitoline Triad)

₰ Dedicated to three Greek Gods:

₰ Introduced into Pompeii in 6th cent. B.C.

₰ The far wall consists of painted scenes from the Iliad.

Temple of the Lares:

₰ Dedicated to the protector gods of Pompeian houses.

₰ Small temple dedicated to Vespasian.

₰ Restored soon after 62AD earthquake, emphasising of

Temple of Fortuna Augusta:

1.HSC Pompeii & Herculaneum Notes UWS 2014

1.HSC Pompeii & Herculaneum Notes UWS 2014