Nettl, B. (1995).

The Seminal Eighties, a North American Perspective of the Beginnings of

Musicology and Ethnomusicology. TRANS-Revista Transcultural de Música, 1, (artículo 3).

The   Seminal   Eighties:   A   North   American   Perspective   of   the   Beginnings   of  

Musicology  and  Ethnomusicology  

Bruno  Nettl  

Resumen  

Hacia   1885,   mientras   los   poderes   europeos   se   repartían   el   continente   africano,  

Londres   inauguraba   el   primer   metro,   se   gestaban   fonógrafos   y   cámaras,   y   la  
medicina   descubría   nuevas   vacunas,   un   estudiante   llamado   Guido   Adler  
publicaba  un  artículo  en  el  que  se  hablaba  de  algo  llamado  "Musikologie".  Adler  
definía   esta   disciplina   como   un   "estudio   comparativo   de   la   música   con  
propósitos   etnográficos",   y   en   esta   concepción   tenían   cabida   todos   los   tipos  
imaginables   de   estudios   relacionados   con   la   música.  

En   los   1880s   Europa   dominaba   una   gran   parte   del   mundo,   política   y  
culturalmente,   y   la   musicología   comenzaba   como   una   ciencia   holística,   que  
seguía   los   modelos   grandilocuentes   entonces   en   uso.   Las   estructuras   que  
pretendían   abarcar   todos   los   fenómenos   y   todos   los   elementos   de   las   culturas,  
influyeron  de  manera  definitiva  en  la  etnomusicología  posterior.  En  estos  años,  
Boas,   Baker   y   Riemann,   entre   otros,   sacaban   a   la   luz   obras   enciclopédicas,  
diccionarios   exhaustivos   y   monografías   detalladas,   se   desafiaba   la   grandeza   y  
complejidad  de  todo  lo  que  entonces  se  estaba  descubriendo.  Por  otra  parte,  la  
primera  literatura  musicológica  manifestaba  entre  sus  principales  valores  amor  
y   admiración   hacia   la   propia   nación.   Se   alentaba   la   recolección   de   músicas  
populares,   centrándose   los   principales   intereses   en   las   definiciones,  
categorizaciones   y   estratificaciones:   todo   aquello   que   pudiese   servir   para  
establecer  tipologías  nacionales.  Tanto  el  desafío  de  Europa  ante  el  mundo  que  
descubría,   como   la   revalorización   del   concepto   de   nación,   concluyeron   en   un  
interés  nuevo  por  comprender  este  mundo  "conquistado"  e  interpretar  todas  sus  
culturas.    

En   este   clima   nace   la   etnomusicología,   esbozando   entonces   algunas   directrices  

que  más  adelante  serían  paradigmáticas  en  la  disciplina:  estudios  interculturales,  
trabajo   de   campo,   estudio   de   la   música   en   la   cultura,   organología   comparada,  
problemas   analíticos   y   todo   ello   en   la   atmósfera   de   una   visión   holística   de   la  
musicología.  Incluso  esta  nueva  disciplina,  la  "Musikologie",  parece  que  requería  
la   aparición   de   algo   llamado   etnomusicología   que   se   desarrollara   en   su   seno   y   le  
diera  sentido  como  tal,  y  no  sólo  como  mera  historia  de  la  música.  Los  trabajos  
de   J.   Ellis   y   G.   Adler,   de   manera   paradigmática,   representan   la   comprensión   de   la  
música   como   fenómeno   universal,   cuyo   estudio   se   basaba   en   perspectivas  
relativistas  y  en  concepciones  plurales  de  la  cultura.    

In  1935,  Guido  Adler,  then  professor  of  musicology  at  the  University  of  Vienna,  
published  his  autobiography.[2]  He  had  had  a  long,  illustrious  career  in  which  he  
had  done  much  to  further  the  study  of  musicology.  His  autobiography  says  little,  
however,  about  an  article  that  he  had  published  when  he  was  quite  a  young  man,  
in   1885   [3],   but   possibly   this   article,   on   the   scope,   method,   and   goals   of  
musicology   is,   among   Adler's   achievements,   the   one   we   are   most   inclined   to  
celebrate  today   -­‐-­‐   more   perhaps   even   than   his   founding   of   the   Denkmaeler   der  
Tonkunst  in  Oesterreich,  or  his  famous  methodology  of  music  history  [4]  in  which  
he   laid   down   much   of   the   generally   accepted   methodology   of   music   historical  
research,   or   his   edition   of   the   first   major   compendium   of   music   history.[5]   The  
reason  for  our  celebration  of  Adler's  article  of  1885  rests  in  large  measure  on  the  
fact  that  in  it  he  stated,  in  unprecedentedly  broad  perspective,  what  musicology  
should  be.  If  Adler  seemed  later  in  his  career  to  depart  from  his  ideal,  some  of  us  
now  feel  that  we  should  return  to  it.  

In  his  autobiography,  Adler  himself  already  made  it  clear  why  his  article  was  so  
important,   saying   that   music   is   an   organism   [6],   implying   a   complex   of  
interactions   and   relationships,   and   going   on   to   point   out   that   in   his  
"Habilitationsschrift,"   the   study   that   gave   him   the   license   to   lecture   at   a  
university,   he   had   used   the   approaches   of   psychology,   history,   folkloristics   and  
other   fields   to   focus   on   the   history   of   harmony   [7].   Later,   Adler   became   known   as  
a   kind   of   paradigmatic   historian   of   European   music   famed   particularly   for  
showing   the   world   the   grand   history   of   art   music   in   Austria.   But   in   1885,   he   was  
a  kind  of  firebrand,  bringing  to  the  world  of  scholarship  a  vision  of  a  new  field,  
musicology,   approaching   his   task   with   wide   scope   that   was   not   soon   if   ever  
shared  by  scholarship  in  the  other  arts.  

The   importance   of   the   1885   article   lies   in   the   way   it   lays   out   the   field   of  
musicology.  Let  me  remind  you  of  the  structure.[8]  There  are  two  major  divisions,  
historical   and   systematic,   each   with   subdivisions.   Historical   musicology   includes  
paleography,   taxonomy,   the   study   of   chronology   (in   music,   theory,   and   practice),  
and,   as   a   kind   of   annex,   the   history   of   musical   instruments.   Systematic  
musicology   includes   theory-­‐-­‐the   bases   of   harmony,   rhythm,   and   melody;  
aesthetics;   music   pedagogy;   and,   again   as   a   kind   of   curious   annex,   something  
called  "Musikologie,"  defined  as  "comparative  study  for  ethnographic  purposes."  
There   are   several   auxiliary   sciences   whose   inclusion   persuades   us   that   Adler  
regarded   musicology   to   be   closely   related   to   other   fields.   It's   important,   by   the  
way,   to   point   out   that   the   kinds   of   considerations   of   concern   to   ethnomusicology  
are   not   found   exclusively   in   the   annex   of   "Musikologie."   Adler's   discussion   of   his  
chart  places  non-­‐Western  and  comparative  study,  and  the  relationship  of  music  
to   the   rest   of   culture,   also   within   other   aspects   of   the   systematic   branch   of  
musicology,  particularly  aesthetics;  and  in  the  historical  branch  as  well.[9]  

The   classes   of   Adler's   article   stayed   around   for   a   long   time;   for   example,   in   his  
methodological   handbook   and   in   the   textbook,   Introduction   to   Musicology,   by  
one   of   his   North   American   students,   Glen   Haydon.[10]   By   the   fifties,   it   had   split  
into  three  classes,  historical,  ethnomusicological,  and  systematic,  as  indicated  in  
the   work   of   Jacques   Handschin.[11]   But   it   is   significant   that   in   all   this   time,  
musicology,   despite   some   internecine   strife   and   a   lot   of   variety   of   opinion,   has  
remained   a   single   field   in   which   most   individuals   recognise   that   the   rest,  
however  far-­‐flung  their  musical  interests,  are  colleagues.  It  continues  to  be  thus  
defined  in  the  dictionaries  of  music.  

Well,  if  the  division  of  a  holistic  musicology  into  such  categories  has  become  old  
hat,  a  hundred  years  ago   it   was   surely  a  new  thing.  Historiography  of  music  goes  
back   a   long   way   and   includes   such   illustrious   events   as   the   histories,   begun   in  
1776,   by   Charles   Burney   [12]   and   William   Hawkins,[13]   and   the   first   music  
dictionary  in  1732  by  Johann  Gottfried  Walther.   [14]  I  single  out  Adler's  article  as  
a   starting   point   precisely   because   it   provides   an   outline   for   a   discipline   that  
includes   all   types   of   scholarly   concern   with   music.   To   be   sure,   Adler   had  
predecessors,   most   obvious   among   them,   Friedrich   Chrysander,   who   for   a   few  
years,   beginning   in   1863,   published   a   periodical,   Jahrbücher   für   musikalische  
Wissenschaft.   [15]   In   its   preface,   he   asserts   that   this   "Wissenschaft"   has   several  
branches,   history,   aesthetics,   theory,   folk   music   scholarship   (including  
intercultural   comparison),   and   the   presentation,   for   practical   musicianship,   of  
newly   discovered   works.   This   periodical   soon   disappeared   for   lack   of   support,  
but   Chrysander   tells   the   reader   that   however   many   concerns   are   represented  
among   scholars   involved   with   music,   they   have   much   in   common   and   ought   at  
least  to  share  a  periodical.  

In  1884,  Chrysander,  then  about  59,  the  distinguished  biographer  and  editor  of  
Handel's   works,   and   Philip   Spitta,   then   about   45,   the   great   biographer   of   Bach,  
joined   with   the   youthful   Adler,   then   living   in   Vienna   but   about   to   go   to   Prague   to  
teach,   in   founding   the   new   Vierteljahrschrift   für   Musikwissenschaft.[16]   I   have  
little   data,   but   it   is   easy   to   imagine   the   older,   established   scholars   permitting  
Adler,  with  his  youthful  energy  and  enthusiasm,  to  be  the  principal  architect  of  
this   venture,   while   also   leaving   him   most   of   the   work.   Anyway,   Adler's   view   of  
the   field   as   encompassing   all   imaginable   kinds   of   musical   study,   seems   to   have  
dominated   this   journal   throughout   the   ten   years   of   its   life.   Adler's   article   leads  
the   others   and   is   presented   as   a   kind   of   position   paper   for   what   follows.   In   some  
ways,   it   reads   like   the   work   of   a   seasoned   scholar,   stating   its   points   with  
authority  and  even  majesty.  But  on  the  other  hand,  to  lay  out  a  field  with  courage  
and   conviction,   from   scratch,   may   have   been   the   characteristic   approach   of   a  
young  man.  

But  then,  1885  was  a  time  when  much  was  being  done  with  a  lot  of  courage  and  
conviction,  if  not  always  with  ethical  conscience  and  good  judgement.  What  was  
the  context  in  which  Adler  was  working?  Let  me  at  random  list  just  a  few  of  the  
things   that   were   happening   in   1885,   and   just   before   and   after   that   year:  
Beginning  in  1884,  there  was  series  of  conferences  of  European  powers  in  which  
the   continent   of   Africa   was,   as   it   were,   divided   among   them,   in   thoroughly  
cavalier  fashion.  In  the  United  States,  it  was  a  period  of  unrest  on  the  labor  front,  
and  of  large-­‐scale  immigration  from  Eastern  and  Southern  Europe;  and  the  time  
of  the  infamous  Haymarket  riots  in  Chicago.  But  also,  it  was  the  period  in  which  
the   last   group   of   American   Indians,   of   the   Plains,   attempted   to   oppose   physically  
the   domination   by   the   whites,   and   it   included   the   Ghost   Dance   movement   that  
culminated  in  the  infamous  massacre  of  Wounded  Knee  in  1890.  The  1880s  were  
a   period   of   great   technological   innovation.   Phonograph,   electrical   devices   in  
general,  agricultural  machinery,  the  single-­‐cylinder  engine,  cameras.  In  1885,  the  
fountain   pen   was   invented,   gold   discovered   in   Transvaal,   golf   introduced   to  
America,   and   the   first   subway   opened   in   London.   1885   saw   the   composition   of  
Brahms'   Fourth   and   The   Mikado;   and   the   Oxford   English   Dictionary   began  
publication,  while  the  decade  also  included  publication  -­‐-­‐  never  completed  -­‐-­‐  of  
Leopold   von   Ranke's   grand   history   of   the   world.   These   are   a   few   events,   but  
enough   perhaps   to   give   something   of   the   flavour   of   the   time.   Let   me   suggest   that  
the  history  of  musicology  in  the  1880s  can  be  interpreted  as  part  of  three  related  
themes  in  the  cultural  and  political  history  of  the  period.  

First,   the   1880s   were   a   time   in   which   European   society   was   ready   to   take   on   the  
world,   to   devour   it,   in   various   ways,   politically   and   culturally,   but   also   in   its  
learning   and   art.   It   was   a   time   when   people   tended   very   much   to   think   big.   Huge  
scholarly   projects,   incredibly   ambitious   schemes   of   invention,   vast   projects   in  
the   arts   were   typical,   paralleling   the   insupportably   grand   political,   social,   and  
military  schemes.  Second,  there  was  an  increasing  interest  in  nationalism  and  in  
understanding  the  culture  of  one's  own  nation.  Taking  on  the  world  was  to  some  
extent   a   function   of   the   growing   nationalism   of   the   time,   particularly,   at   that   late  
date,  of  Germany  and  the  U.S.  And  third,  a  result  perhaps  of  the  first  two,  there  
appeared   an   interest   in   the   relationship   among   cultures,   as   Europe,   devouring  
the   world,   had   to   digest   its   variety.   Taking   on   the   world,   doing   the   impossible;  
collecting   and   utilising   one's   own   national   heritage;   and   seeing   what   the   world  
was  made  of,  and  how  it  came  to  be;  these  are  three  major  themes  of  the  1880s.  
Let   me   move   through   them   illustrating   from   the   musicological   literature   of   the  
seminal  1880s.  
1)   It   is   easy   to   see   how   an   Edison,   a   Ranke,   a   Wagner,   a   Cecil   Rhodes   could   be  
considered  typical  of  an  era  in  which  people  seemed  to  say;  "let's  grab  the  whole  
world;"  or,  less  politically  and  militarily;  "let's  learn  everything  about  the  world,"  
and   also,   "let's   not   be   afraid   to   think   big;"   or   perhaps,   more   to   the   point   of  
scholarship.   "we   can   find   out   everything."   For   musicology,   the   conception   of   a  
holistic   science   seems   to   me   to   fit   this   same   pattern.   Also,   some   of   the   large,  
comprehensive  works  of  the  field  date  from  this  period,  and  it  was  then  that  the  
tradition   of   publishing   complete   collections   and   comprehensive   editions   really  
took   off,   a   movement   also   affected   by   other   motivations.   Or,   take   Victor  
Mahillon's  celebrated  catalogue  of  instruments.  

It's   the   catalogue   of   the   instrument   collection   of   the   Royal   Conservatory   of  

Brussels,   begun   in   1880,   in   five   volumes.[17]   The   collection   had   some   3500  
specimens,  and  Mahillon  developed  a  taxonomy  (related  to  an  old  Indian  system)  
that   eventually   led   to   the   now   standard   classification   of   Hornbostel   and   Sachs.  
Mahillon   divides   the   instrument   groups   into   European   and   non-­‐European,   and  
gives   a   great   deal   of   detail   about   many   items,   including   scales,   details   of  
structure  and  cultural  interest.  It's  a  marvel  of  care  and  love.  But  the  point  is  that  
Mahillon  conceived  of  a  work  in  which  all  imaginable  instruments  might  have  a  
place,   in   which   the   whole   world   of   instruments,   as   it   were,   was   encompassed.   In  
the  area  of  instruments,  Mahillon  was  taking  on  the  whole  world.  

The   idea   of   establishing   a   kind   of   framework   into   which   one   might   place   all  
phenomena,  from  all  cultures,  in  a  particular  class  was  to  become  a  hallmark  of  
later   ethnomusicology.   For   example,   the   kinds   of   frameworks   for   the   description  
of   all   possible   kinds   of   scales   and   melodic   contours,   produced   by   Mieczyslaw  
Kolinski   [18]  in  the  1950s,  harks  back  to  Mahillon's  approach.  So  of  course  does  
the   cantometrics   type   of   analysis   of   Alan   Lomax,[19]   and   in   a   different   way,   the  
analytical  procedures  of  Hornbostel  and  Abraham.[20].  

Another   way   of   "taking   on   the   world"   is   exhibited   in   the   comprehensive  

collections   of   a   variety   of   materials   that   were   beginning   to   take   shape   in   the  
1880s.   The   idea   of   producing   the   complete   works   of   a   composer   was   well  
established  by  1880,  as  editions  of  Mozart,  Haydn,  Bach,  Handel,  Beethoven  had  
been   published.   Producing   large   sets   of   significant   early   works   such   as   the  
various   Denkmaeler   editions   was   beginning.   But   more   to   my   theme,   putting  
together  comprehensive  editions  of  music  existing  essentially  in  open  corpus,  a  
more   difficult   undertaking,   may   be   illustrated   by   two   collections   of   German  
hymns,   one   for   Catholic   songs,   by   Wilhelm   Bäumker,   in   four   volumes,   1883-­‐
1911,[21]  a  huge  undertaking  in  which  comprehensiveness  is  attempted,  and  the  
Protestant   counterpart   by   Johannes   Zahn,   six   volumes,   1889-­‐1893.[22]   Zahn's  
work,   incidentally,   became   the   basis   of   one   of   the   earliest   attempts   to   establish   a  
way   of   classifying   folk   songs,   the   system   of   Oswald   Koller,   basically   a   kind   of  
alphabetical  index  that  was  quickly  supplanted  by  Ilmari  Krohn's  more  musical  
one,  which  in  turn  led  eventually  to  the  work  of  Bartók  and  others.  

If  the  idea  of  taking  on  the  world  is  reflected  in  musical  scholarship,  one  would  
expect   to   find   something   like   a   world   ethnography   of   music.   After   all,   if   Ranke  
could  try  to  write  a  true  history  of  the  world  (even  if  it  turned  out  to  be  Europe  
to   1500),   one   might   expect   someone   to   attempt   a   history   of   world   music.   Of  
course  there  isn't  really  enough  data  for  that  today,  and  there  certainly  wasn't  in  
1885.  The  first  large  history  of  Western  music,  by  Ambros,[23]  a  kind  of  musical  
Ranke,   must   have   been   considerably   affected   by   social   Darwinism   and   ideas   of  
musical   evolution,   with   non-­‐Western   people   occupying   a   role   of   prehistorical  
artefact.  And  yet  there  began  to  appear  works  that  showed  that  attempts  at  some  
kind   of   world   ethnography   of   music   might   not   be   too   far   in   the   offering.   There  
were   no   works   about   world   music;   but   there   were   works   which   looked   at   a  
music  from  many  sides,  and  saw  it  as  a  complex  system.  

Take   for   example   Theodore   Baker's   dissertation,   the   first   general   work   on  
American  Indian  music,  published  in  1882.[24]  Born  in  New  York  in  1851,  Baker  
went   to   study   music   in   Leipzig,   receiving   his   Ph.D.   with   the   mentioned  
dissertation,   eventually   returned   to   the   U.S.   and   became   an   editor   and  
lexicographer  best  known  for  his  excellent  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Musicians,  
whose  latest  edition  appeared  in  1985.  His  dissertation  was  written  in  German  
(was   there   an   original   English   ms.   from   which   he   translated?   I've   never   found  
out.),   and   only   a   few   years   ago   published   in   English   translation.   It   is   usually  
mentioned  as  being  only  of  historical  interest.  But  it  predated  the  earliest  tribal  
monographs   on   Indian   music   and   the   first   general   works   on   ethnomusicology,  
and  when  I  look  at  it,  I  continue  to  be  impressed.  There  are  chapters  about  the  
various  elements  or  parameters  of  music:  poetry,  tonality,  melodic  form,  rhythm,  
recitative,   instruments,   an   organisation   you   might   find   in   work   of   the   1950s.  
Most  interesting  to  me  is  Baker's  introduction  to  music  in  Indian  culture,  giving  a  
viewpoint  thatˇs  not  really  very  different  from  one  we  might  express  today  -­‐-­‐  if  
with   different   terminology.   In   contrast   to   some   later   students,   Baker   does   not  
denigrate  Native  Americans  and  their  music,  taking  it  seriously  and  pointing  out  
that   it   has   a   long   history,   is   closely   related   to   social   life,   and   shares   in   certain  
cultural  universals.  Let  me  quote  a  paragraph  from  the  translation:.  

It  would  be  difficult  to  say  with  certainty  how  the  songs  originated,  or  how  they  
maintained   their   present   form   and   particular   design.   The   Indian   simplifies   (to  
his  own  way  of  thinking)  the  answer  to  this  question  by  ascribing  a  supernatural  
origin   to   those   songs   which   are   used   at   particular   religious   festivals,   and   he  
believes  the  newer  songs  to  be  based  on  these  models.  Some  writers  are  of  the  
opinion  that  Indian  songs  were  originally  a  simple  imitation  of  certain  birds;  they  
nevertheless  show  no  intellectual  relationship  between  such  trite  attempts  and  
the  true  and  higher  expression  of  feeling  that  every  music  ought  to  be,  and  that  
the   music   of   the   Indians   certainly   is.   A   much   more   obvious   and   legitimate  
hypothesis  seems  to  be  that  these  melodies  are  the  result  of  a  long  evolution  in  
which,   at   its   simplest,   are   rooted   expressions   of   joy   or   grief   common   to   all  
people.   This   hypothesis   is   strengthened   by   the   fact   that   according   to   it   music  
rises   directly   out   of   the   human   heart.   It   is   further   supported   by   the   actual  
situation   of   the   music,   which,   as   voiced   by   the   Indians,   is   observed   at   its   most  
basic  stage  of  development.  In  such  cases,  however,  singing  seldom  appears  to  be  
an  independent  art,  but  is  almost  always  accompanied  by  various  dances.  In  their  
general  features,  the  performances  of  the  different  Indian  peoples  show  striking  
similarities.[25].  

I   also   find   myself   impressed   by   Baker's   sophistication   in   his   description   of  

performance   practice,   done,   I   remind   you,   before   the   advent   of   recording.  
Dividing   this   section   into   components   rather   in   the   manner   of   Lomax's  
cantometrics,   but   of   course   with   fewer   parameters,   Baker   deals   with   consonants  
and  vowels  and  their  treatment,  with  range,  general  quality  of  voice,  aspects  of  
singing  style  -­‐-­‐  slide,  growl,  portamento  -­‐-­‐  and  ornamentation.  He  was  sensitive  
to   issues   of   performance   practice   almost   fifty   years   before   Robert   Haas's  
pioneering  work  on  the  subject.   [26]  Baker  wanted  to  take  on  all  of  the  variety  of  
Indian  music,  and  also  all  aspects  of  the  music  and  its  cultural  context,  and  did  
what  one  could  to  do  the  field  justice.  Only  lack  of  better  and  more  data  and  of  
developed  technique  prevented  a  more  comprehensive  result.  

If   this   sympathetic   approach   to   the   music   of   the   Indians   is   noteworthy,   it's  

interesting  to  see  that  it  occurred  at  a  time  when  Indians  were  very  much  in  the  
forefront   of   white   American   consciousness.   On   the   one   hand,   the   Indians   were  
getting   the   worst   of   treatment   by   white   Americans,   but   they   also   began   to   be  
viewed  as  an  issue  in  the  American  body  politic,  and  their  culture  as  worthy  of  
serious   study.   The   1880s   was   the   time   in   which   the   reservation   system   was  
finally   being   imposed   on   the   Plains   Indians.   It   was   the   period   in   which   vast  
quantities   of   Western   lands   opened   to   settlement,   granted   to   railroads,   and  
fenced   off.   But   also,   in   1881,   while   Baker   was   writing   in   Leipzig,   Helen   Hunt  
Jackson   published   an   influential   book,   A   Century   of   Dishonour,   [27]arousing  

concern  over  Indian  problems  and  stimulating  the  founding  of  the  Indian  Rights  
Association   that   lobbied   successfully   for   liberalised   legislation.   And   in   1888,  
Franz  Boas  published  his  first  large  monograph,  The  Central  Eskimo.[28]  Baker's  
dissertation,   perhaps   a   curiosum,   at   the   University   of   Leipzig,   fits   well   into   the  
beginnings  of  American  Indian  study.  

But  if  we  speak  of  taking  on  the  world,  we  can  hardly  do  so  without  mentioning  
Hugo  Riemann,  a  towering  figure  who  in  literally  dozens  of  volumes  in  his  long  
career  tried  to  write  about  virtually  everything  musical.  Born  in  1849,  he  seemed  
to   be   almost   at   his   peak   in   the   '80s.   The   total   output   of   Riemann   is   downright  
frightening,  but  is  not  totally  uncharacteristic  of  scholars  of  his  time.  Today,  such  
productivity   is   virtually   inconceivable,   and   one   may   marvel   -­‐-­‐   perhaps   gratefully  
-­‐-­‐  that  times  have  changed  so.  In  the  decade  of  the  1880s  Riemann's  publications  
largely   concern   music   theory   (though   his   landmark   history   of   music   theory[29]  
was   not   to   appear   until   1898).   There   were   about   ten   books   of   a   theoretical   or  
theory-­‐text   nature,   a   couple   on   notation,   and   most   important,   two   major  
encyclopaedic  efforts.  One  was  the  Musik-­‐Lexikon[30]  published  in  1882,  which  is  
still   being   edited   and   reedited   although   by   now   the   contents   have   turned   over  
completely.  Except  for  MGG  and  Grove,  each  with  many  authors,  it  is  the  largest  
encyclopaedia   of   music,   and   it   was   first   written   entirely   by   one   man.   The   second  
major   work   of   Riemann's   in   the   1880s   was   the   Opernhandbuch,   a  
comprehensive  dictionary  of  opera.  [31]  You  can  imagine  that  this  didn't  include  a  
lot   of   the   operas   now   in   our   standard   repertoire,   Puccini,   Strauss,   Berg.   But   it  
seems  to  have  an  entry  for  every  opera  known  or  discovered  by  then,  and  one  on  
every   subject   on   which   an   opera   was   written,   to   say   nothing   of   composers.   Even  
now  there  is  nothing  like  it  in  comprehensiveness,  given  its  time  of  publication.  
But  in  Riemann's  oeuvre  these  two  works  are  almost  drops  in  the  bucket.  

Riemann   was   one   of   those   people   who   evidently   thought   that   nothing   worth  
doing   was   too   difficult   to   try.   There   were   many   scholars   like   that   in   his   time,  
German   and   others.   Think   of   all   the   folk   songs   Bela   Bartok   collected   in   several  
cultures,   between   1900   and   1914,   just   in   his   spare   time!   Or   think   of   Thomas  
Edison,   if   you   will.   Or,   for   that   matter,   Boas.   It   was   a   time   people   in   Western  
culture  thought  they  could  do  everything,  conquer  all  worlds.  Was  it  courage,  or  
an   incredible   immodesty   and   greed?   I'm   telling   you   about   the   grand  
accomplishments   of   the   early   musicologists,   but   I   can't   quite   avoid   drawing   a  
tenuous  connection  between  Adler's  dividing  up  the  world  of  musicology  and  the  
European   powers   dividing   up   Africa   in   the   same   year;   and   between   Riemann's  
incredible   concentration   and   indefatigable   work   habits,   his   wish   to   contribute  
something  to  every  branch  of  music,  and  the  20th  century  Germans  as  would-­‐be  
conquerors  of  the  world.  But  this  is  analysis  long  after  the  fact.  Riemann  surely  
wouldn't   have   recognised   himself   in   this   parallel;   and   if   his   theories   were  
sometimes  a  bit  zany,  he  seems  in  the  vast  majority  of  instances  to  have  had  his  
facts  straight.  

2)  The  development  of  national  consciousness  is  an  old  story  to  students  of  19th  
century   history,   of   course.   But   indeed,   if   one   was   taking   on   the   world,   one   was  
doing   it   in   a   sense   on   behalf   of   nationhood.   And   so,   of   course,   there   was   much   in  
the   early   literature   of   musicology   one   of   whose   principal   values   was   love   and  
admiration   of   nation.   The   Denkmaeler   movement,   emphasis   on   folk   music  
collecting,  national  orientation  to  the  writing  of  music  history  books,  all  this  is  an  
obvious   corollary.   Since   I   am   approaching   my   task   here   largely   through   the  
examination   of   some   major   publications   of   the   1880s,   let   me   mention   two   which  
seem   noteworthy   in   illustrating   an   interest   in   moving   through   the   various   social  
strata   that   sometimes   accompanied   nineteenth   century   cultural   nationalism.  
Both  make  their  readership  aware  of  the  music  of  their  whole  society;  all  of  the  
music.   Along   with   the   folk   song   collecting   going   on   at   that   time,   there   also  
developed   a   formidable   literature   about   the   concept   of   folk   song.   Julian   von  
Pulikowski,[32]   in   his   large   compendium   of   folk-­‐song   definitions,   gives   five  
German  publications  of  1885  which  discuss  the  concept  of  folk  song  or  define  it.  
(His  book  certainly  supports  the  contention  that  we  have  not  progressed  very  far  
in  the  delineation  of  categories  or  strata  of  music  such  as  folk  music.)  The  most  
interesting   of   his   five   citations   of   1885   is   by   Gustav   Weber,   a   Swiss   composer  
(1845-­‐87)   who,   near   the   end   of   his   life,   for   some   years   edited   the   influential  
Zurich   weekly   Schweizerische   Musikzeitung.   There   is   an   article   curiously  
entitled   "Die   Musik   der   Sinhalesen   and   einige   Bemerkungen   ueber   das  
Volkslied."  Let  me  quote  a  passage,  in  my  own  translation:[33].  

"There  are  so  many  forms,  and  transitions  between  them,  that  it  is  often  hard  to  
distinguish  where  folk  song  ends  and  art  song  or  folk-­‐like  song  begins.  That  the  
composer  may  be  unknown  is  a  matter  of  coincidence,  and  cannot  be  a  factor  in  
the   decision.   The   fashioning   of   a   simple   melody,   on   the   other   hand,   as   the   folk  
might  wish  it,  is  so  easy  that  any  reasonably  musical  person  could  manage  it.  If  
someone,   with   more   or   less   good   luck,   has   invented   such   a   song,   then   it   depends  
on  the  text,  or  on  coincidence,  or  extraneous  circumstances,  whether  it  becomes  
a   true   folk   song.   A   true   folksong   can   be   understood   by   anyone   without   artistic  
education,   and   it   can   be   composed,   written,   understood   and   sung   by   such   a  
person.  But  it  is  maintained  specifically  by  oral  tradition.  

"Popular   songs   result   from   occasions   or   events,   or   from   the   desire   on  

somebody's   part   to   show   the   folk   how   to   sing;   they   are   tossed   into   the   folk  
culture   and   held   fast   by   it.   Such   songs   are   usually   first   printed,   and   then   diffused  
by  school  teachers,  societies,  or  theaters.  In  the  first  category  [folk  song]  we  have  
before   us   artistic   sounds   coming   from   nature,   the   capability   of   the   artistic   as   it  
slumbers  in  the  totality  of  human  spirit  and  breaks  out  in  many  little  flames.  In  
the  second,  folk-­‐like  or  popular  song,  these  natural  sounds  are  simply  imitated.".  

Weber   mentions   a   third   category,   popular   art   songs   and   choral   songs.   I   don't  
think  that  this  publication  had  much  effect  on  later  scholarship;  but  the  attitudes  
that   dominated   folk   song   conceptualisation   for   fifty   years   are   very   much   in  
evidence:  the  concern  with  definition;  the  categorization  of  music;  the  interest  in  
transmission;  the  relationship  of  folk,  popular,  and  art  song;  the  view  of  musical  
culture  comprising  several  strata.  

My   second   example:   In   1886   there   appeared   a   two-­‐volume   work   by   Franz  

Magnus   Boehme   Geschichte   des   Tanzes   in   Deutschland.   [34]   The   author   was   a  
man   who   was   involved   in   many   aspects   of   music,   as   composer,   editor,   choral  
conducting,   collecting   and   editing   of   folk   songs,   teaching   elementary   school   in  
Weimar,   Dresden,   and   smaller   towns   of   central   Germany.   In   particular,   he  
published   folk   song   collections.   This   book   has   the   subtitle,   translated   as   "A  
contribution   to   German   history   of   customs,   literature   and   music."   It's   a   rather  
comprehensive  history,  the  kind  of  thing  we  might  call  a  historical  ethnography  
of   dance.   It   has   chapters   on   various   early   periods   in   the   history   of   dance,   but  
then   also   chapters   on   other   topics   such   as   these:   Judgments   and   preachings  
about   dance   from   the   Middle   Ages   to   the   modern   era;   official   proscriptions   of  
dance;  foreign  dances  in  Germany  in  the  16th  century;  old  German  ritual  dances  
that   have   been   maintained   into   the   19th   century;   all   sorts   of   folk   dances   still  
danced   today;   social   dance   in   Germany;   dance   music   and   dance   musicians;  
continuation  of  old  folk  dances  in  modern  children's  games.  The  book  presents  
dance   as   a   part   of   culture   in   that   the   attitudes   towards   dance   are   thoroughly  
examined,  in  its  equal  treatment  of  art,  popular,  and  folk  dance;  and  in  its  study  
of  acculturation  in  the  relationship  of  German  and  non-­‐German  dances.  Boehme  
reflects   the   attitude   of   his   time   (or   does   he?)   as   at   one   point,   he   becomes  
involved,   defending   the   art   of   dance   but   also   criticising   the   current   state   of  
affairs:.  

"Our   social   dancing   is   too   fast,   unattractive,   and   even   dangerous   to   health.   The  
good   old   slow   dances   of   earlier   time,   if   old-­‐fashioned   and   pedantic,   though   at  
least   not   unhealthy,   are   everywhere   scored   and   indeed   hardly   known;   or   the  
rapidity   of   our   lifestyle   has   transformed   them   into   galloping   tempo   in   order   to  
satisfy  humanity,  that  living  steam  engine."[35]  

I  don't  know  how  widespread  this  kind  of  attitude  may  have  been  in  the  1880s.  
To  me  it  sounds  very  familiar.  

3)   If   two   of   the   themes   of   European   history   of   the   1880s   that   informed  

musicology   were   the   discovery   and   conquest   of   the   world,   and   the  
understanding  of  one's  national  culture,  it  follows  almost  logically  and  inevitably  
that   a   third   would   in   some   way   combine   these   two   into   a   concern   with  
understanding   the   world   that   has   been   politically   or   intellectually   conquered,  
and  the  interrelationship  of  its  cultures,  and  by  extension,  of  the  components  of  
these  cultures.  If  we  can  argue  about  a  date  for  the  beginnings  of  musicology  as  a  
whole,   1885,   or   1776,   or   1732   as   I've   already   suggested,   it   is   difficult   to   relegate  
the   beginnings   of   ethnomusicology   to   a   decade   other   than   the   1880s.   It   is   in   this  
decade   that   landmark   publications   and   other   events   heralding   the   principal  
issues   and   paradigms   of   later   ethnomusicology   first   appeared.   Intercultural  
studies,   field   work,   the   study   of   music   in   culture,   comparative   organology,  
analytical  problems,  all  of  these  surfaced  in  a  way  almost  simultaneously.  All  of  
this   could   perhaps   only   have   happened   in   an   atmosphere   holding   a   holistic   view  
of  musicology,  and  so,  I  would  contend,  there  is  an  intimate  relationship  between  
the  three  themes  that  I  have  been  illustrating,  the  beginning  of  musicology  as  a  
single,   comprehensive   discipline,   and   the   beginning   of   ethnomusicology.   In   a  
way,  I'm  even  inclined  to  suggest  that  the  various  kinds  of  historical  study  that  
had   earlier   been   carried   out   required   the   appearance   of   something   later   to   be  
called   ethnomusicology,   in   order   to   develop   into   a   discipline   that   could   indeed  
properly   be   called   musicology,   rather   than   simply   history   of   music.   The   same  
kind   of   development   somehow   did   not   take   place   in   the   fields   of   visual   and  
literary   art,   something   that   has   given   those   fields   a   rather   different   scholarly  
ambience.   The   holistic   view   of   musicology   is   excellently   illustrated   in   the   first  
volume  of  the  Vierteljahrschrift  für  Musikwissenschaft,  [36]  the  publication  whose  
centennial   we   are   noting.   The   table   of   contents   shows   an   amazing   variety   of  
subject   matter.   Immediately   following   Adler's   seminal   article   is   one   by  
Chrysander,   the   famous   Handel   scholar,   on   an   unexpected   subject:   "Ueber   die  
altindische   Opfermusik."   It   is   an   analysis,   on   the   basis   of   Sanskritic   and   other  
Indological   literature,   of   the   Vedic   chants.   Mainly   of   course   about   cultural  
context   of   music,   it   begins   by   taking   issue   with   Sir   William   Jones,   the   great  
Sanskritist  who  in  1799  had  written  the  first  Western  study  of  Indian  music.   [37]  
Almost  a  century  after  Jones,  Chrysander  starts  in  a  style  by  now  familiar:  "It  is  
widely  believed  that  we  are  excellently  informed  about  the  music  of  India,"  then  
proceeds   to   criticise   Jones,   in   particular   because   he   does   not   deal   with   the  
essence  of  Indian  religious  music.  

Then   there   is   a   monographic   study   of   Philip   Spitta   about   Sperontes'   Singende  

Muse   an   der   Pleisse,   an   eighteenth   century   collection   of   popular   or   vernacular  
music;  an  article  by  George  Ellinger  on  Handel's  "Admetus"  and  its  sources;  and  
one  by  Paul  Graf  Waldersee,  about  Vivaldi's  violin  concertos  as  arranged  by  Bach.  
Mathis   Lussy's   article   on   correlation   between   meter   and   rhythm   sets   out  
problems   in   the   analysis   of   the   use   of   time   that   are   still   with   us   and,   it   is  
particularly   significant,   criticises   the   emphasis   on   harmony   and   neglect   of  
rhythm   by   theorists.   There   is   a   large   study   by   Carl   Stumpf   on   psychology   of  
music   in   England,   dealing   in   large   measure   with   origin   theories,   and  
summarising   contributions   by   Herbert   Spencer,   James   Sully,   Charles   Darwin   and  
Edmund  Gurney.  Then  we  have  a  study  of  the  life  and  works  of  du  Fay  by  Franz  
Xavier   Haberl.   This   table   of   contents   shows   the   broad   view   of   musicology   that  
the   editors   Chrysander,   Spitta   and   Adler   intend   to   pursue,   and   represented  
better   than   in   the   typical   contents   of   any   periodical   today.   To   summarise,   the  
volume   has   articles   on   the   methodology   of   the   field,   on   theory,   psychology   of  
music,   sources,   processes   (the   arrangements   by   Bach),   biographic,   popular  
music,  and  non-­‐western  music.  You  can  see  why  this  quarterly  is  often  properly  
regarded   as   the   centrepiece   of   a   period   in   which   musicology   as   a   discipline  
began.  

Let   me   now   turn   briefly   to   the   beginnings   of   ethnomusicology   as   a   way   of  

studying   the   relationships   of   cultures,   mentioning   three   important   events.   One  
was   the   monographic   article   by   Carl   Stumpf   about   the   music   of   the   Bella   Coola  
Indians,[38][   in   1886.   It   is   often   said   to   be   the   first   article   about   a   non-­‐Western  
music,   which   isn't   true;   or   about   a   tribal   music,   which   also   isn't.   It   is   so   often  
referred   to   as   a   seminal   work   in   ethnomusicology   principally,   it   seems   to   me,  
because  it  uses  a  procedure  that  then  began  to  be  followed  by  Stumpf  himself  for  
various   cultures,   and   eventually   by   Hornbostel   and   Abraham,   and   others.   Four  
areas  of  method  in  this  article  are  worth  mentioning:  a)  It  is  centred  on  a  set  of  
transcriptions   presented   in   the   article.   b)   There   is   element-­‐by-­‐element  
discussion   of   the   musical   style.   c)   Stumpf   tells   in   detail   how   he   preceded   in  
interviewing   and   transcribing   something   later   scholars   usually   avoided.   d)   He  
discusses  his  relationship  to  Nutsiliska,  his  singer,  again  something  in  which  he  
preceded  general  custom  by  a  great  deal.  At  the  end  is  a  statement  placing  Sumpf  
squarely   in   the   intellectual   framework   of   ethnomusicolgy,   but   also   in   his   own  
culture  of  19th  century  Germany.  

"On  the  eve  of  one  of  the  days  on  which  my  friend  Nutsiluska  sang  for  me,  I  heard  
in   Leipzig   a   performance   of   Bach's   B-­‐minor   Mass.   It   is   doubtful   that   Nutsiluska  
would  have  found  enjoyment  in  that.  I  however  had  found  my  way  into  some  of  
his   melodies   and   for   days   listened   to   them   without   discomfort.   That   is   an  
advantage  our  culture  gives  us.  But  still,  we  should  not,  even  in  musical  matters,  
speak   of   wild,   uncultivated   peoples.   For   in   order   to   have   a   tone   system   with  
specific   intervals,   in   order   to   have   expressive   musical   gestures,   a   degree   of  
mental   development   must   have   preceded,   and   no   one   has   yet   credibly   described  
its  external  stages  or  its  inner  essentials.  The  range  of  human  development  can  
perhaps  be  measured  by  the  difference  between  Bach  and  Nutsiluska."  [39].  

The   second   event   is   so   obviously   essential   to   the   development   of  

ethnomusicology   that   one   need   hardly   mention   it.   It   is   the   first   field   recording   of  
American   Indian   music,   and   of   any   non-­‐western   music,   by   Walter   Fewkes,   in  
1889.[40]  I  don't  have  to  talk  about  the  importance  of  recording  in  the  history  of  
music   and   musicology,   and   it   is   curious   that   historical   musicologists   haven't  
done  more  with  it.  Fewkes  recorded  songs  of  the  Passamaqoudy  of  Maine,  and  of  
the   Zuni   of   Arizona.   Soon   everybody   was   recording,   and   by   1901,   two   important  
archives  had  been  established,  in  Vienna  and  Berlin.  
It's  no  surprise  that  musicology  participated  in  the  development  of  technology  of  
the  time.  But  the  1880s  were  exceptional  even  in  an  exceptional  period.  After  all,  
the   three-­‐year   span   1884-­‐86   included   the   following:   The   first   practical  
phonograph   was   manufactured   in   1885,   and   the   fountain   pen.   Pasteur  
manufactured   a   vaccine   for   rabies;   George   Eastman   developed   coated  
photographic  paper,  Galton  proved  the  individuality  of  fingerprints.  The  London  
tube  and  golf  I've  already  mentioned.  And  so,  the  final  event  of  the  1880s  draws  
on   both   technological   and   intellectual   developments   of   the   1880s.   If   the   true  
centrepiece  of  one  end  of  our  musicological  table  was  the  1885  article  by  Adler,  
at   the   other   end   we   must   place   "On   the   Musical   Scales   of   various   Nations"   by  
Alexander   John   Ellis,[41]   a   large   monograph   often   described   as   the   first   major  
study   providing   comparative   study.   When   he   wrote   it,   Ellis   was   seventy   and   had  
made   major   contributions   to   psychology,   physiology,   acoustics,   and  
mathematics.   In   this   study,   Ellis   introduced   the   cents   system   as   a   device   for  
universal   measurement   of   tones.   He   examines   a   large   variety   of   tone   systems  
and   tunings,   exhibiting   the   universe   of   scales,   and   he   approaches   this   variety  
with  an  essentially  relativistic,  not  a  normative  or  evolutionist  attitude.  Each  of  
the   three   events   or   publications   seems   to   me   to   illustrate   the   new   approach   to  
interrelationship   of   cultures   in   its   own   way,   through   intensive   field   study,  
technology,  and  comparative  material.  

Let  me,  in  closing,  return  briefly  to  the  two  figures  whose  publications  of  1885  
we  celebrate.  What  they  said  still  rings  true.  Ellis  begins  his  monograph:  

"The   title   of   this   paper   was   meant   to   be   'On   the   Musical   Scales   of   All   Nations.'  
'All'   is   a   big   word,   and   I   have   had   to   withdraw   it,   and   ...   this   term   is   too  
comprehensive."  

But  he  concludes:  

"...the  Musical  Scale  is  not  one,  not  'natural,'  ...but  very  diverse,  very  artificial,  and  
very  capricious."  

Adler  begins,  
"Musicology  began  simultaneously  with  music.  .  .  All  peoples  who  can  be  said  to  
have   music   have   a   system   of   musical   thought,   even   if   this   is   not   always   a   fully  
developed  musicological  system".  

Both   statements   move   us   in   the   direction   of   an   appreciation   of   music   as   a  

universal   phenomenon,   and   in   that   of   a   culturally   pluralistic   view   of   music.   I  
imagine   that   these   two   men,   Adler   the   innovative   junior   scholar   and   Ellis   the  
distinguished   man   of   many   accomplishments,   looked   to   a   future   in   which   their  
principles   were   followed.   Each   outlined   a   method   whereby   his   aims   could   be  
carried   out.   It   is   because   of   their   concern   with   general   principles   of   research,  
with  the  basic  assumptions  that  underlie  it,  and  with  method,  that  they  deserve  
to   be   celebrated   as   representatives   of   the   seminal   1880s,   a   period   in   which  
scholarship   sowed   the   seeds   of   much   that   has   taken   place   in   the   century   that  
followed.  

NOTES  

1. This   article   is   based   on   a   lecture   prepared   in   order   to   celebrate   the  

appearance   of   two   seminal   publications,   in   1885,   by   Guido   Adler   and  
Alexander  John  Ellis.  It  was  delivered  at  several  institutions  in  the  U.S.  and  
Europe   during   1985.   It   does   not   presume   to   present   new   findings   but,  
rather,  to  draw  certain  interpretations  of  the  developments  in  musicology  
and  ethnomusicology  that  took  place  in  the  1880s.  [§]  
2. Guido  Adler,  Wollen  und  Wirken:  Aus  dem  Leben  eines  Musikhistorikers  
(Wien:  Universal-­‐Edition,  1935).  [§]  
3. "Umfang,  Methode  und  Ziel  der  Musikwissenschaft,"  Vierteljahrschrift  für  
Musikwissenschaft   1   (1885):   5-­‐20.   English   translation   by   Erica  
Mugglestone  in  Yearbook  for  Traditional  Music  13  (1981):1-­‐21.  [§]  
4. Methode  der  Musikgeschichte  (Leipzig:  Breitkopf  &  Härtel,  1919).  [§]  
5. Handbuch  der  Musikgeschichte  (Berlin:  H.  Keller,  1930).  [§]  
6. Wollen  und  Wirken...,  p.  19.  [§]  
7. Ibid.,  pp.  19-­‐22.  [§]  
8. "Umfang,  Methode  und  Ziel  der  Musikwissenschaft,"  pp.  16-­‐17.  [§]  
9. Methode  der  Musikgeschichte.  [§]  
10. Glen   Haydon,   Introduction   to   Musicology   (New   York:   Prentice-­‐Hall,  
1941).  [§]  
11. "Das   Arbeitsbereich   der   Musikwissenschaft,"   Basler   Nachrichten  
(Sonntagsblatt)  1952,  July  6,  no.  26.  [§]  
12. A  General  History  of  Music  (london:  Author,  1776-­‐89).  [§]  
13. A   General   History   of   the   Science   and   Practice   of   Music   (London:   Payne,  
1776).  [§]  
14. Musikalisches   Lexikon   oder   Musikalische   Bibliothek   (Leipzig:   W.   Deer,  
1732).  [§]  
15. Published  in  1863  and  1969  in  Leipzig,  by  Breitkopf  &  Härtel.  [§]  
16. Published   from   1885   to   1894   in   Leipzig,   by   Breitkopf   &   Hartel.   See  
"Vorwort"  of  vol.  1,  pp.  3-­‐4,  and  Adler,  Wollen  und  Wirken,  pp.  28-­‐31.  [§]  
17. Catalog  descriptif  et  analytique  du  Musée  instrumental  du  Conservatoire  
Royal  de  Bruxelles  (Ghent:  A.  Hoste,  1880-­‐1922).  [§]  
18. e.g.,  his  "The  General  Direction  of  Melodic  Movement,"  Ethnomusicology  9  
(1965):  240-­‐64.  [§]  
19. as  in  his  Folk  Song  Style  and  Culture  (Washington:  American  Association  
for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  1967).  [§]  
20. e.g.,   Otto   Abraham   and   Erich   M.   von   Hornbostel,   "Phonographierte  
Indianermelodien   aus   Britisch-­‐Columbia,"   in   Boas   Anniversary   Volume  
(New  York:  G.  E.  Stechert,  1906),  pp.  447-­‐74.  [§]  
21. Das   katholische   deutsche   Kirchenlied   in   seinen   Singweisen   (Freiburg:  
Herder,  1883-­‐91).  [§]  
22. Die  Melodien  der  deutschen  evangelischen  Kirchenlieder.  (Güterslohn:  C.  
Bertelsmann,  1889-­‐93).  [§]  
23. August  Wilhelm  Ambros,  Geschichte  der  Musik  (Breslau:  F.E.C.  Leuckart,  
1862-­‐68).  [§]  
24. Ueber   die   Musik   der   nordamerikanischen   Wilden   (Leipzig:   Breitkopf   &  
Hartel,   1882).   English   version,   On   the   Music   of   the   North   American  
Indians,   translated   by   Ann   Buckley   (Buren,   Netherlands:   F.   Knuf,   1976).  
[§]  
25. Ibid.,  p.  66.  [§]  
26. Aufführungspraxis  der  Musik  (Potsdam:  Athenaion,  1931).  [§]  
27. (Boston,  1881).  [§]  
28. (Washington:  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  1888).  [§]  
29. Hugo  Riemann,  Geschichte  der  Musiktheorie  .  (Berlin:  Hesse,  1898).  [§]  
30. (1st  ed.,  Leipzig:  Verlag  des  Bibliographischen  Instituts,  1882).  [§]  
31. .(Leipzig:  C.A.  Koch,  1887).  [§]  
32. Geschichte   des   Begriffes   Volkslied   im   musikalischen   Schrifttum  
(Heidelberg:  C.  Winter,  1933).  [§]  
33. Schweizerische   Musikzeitung,   1885,   no.   30,   pp.   173-­‐74,   181-­‐82.   The  
material   translated   (by   B.   Nettl)   appears   in   Pulikowski,   op.   cit.,   pp.   206-­‐7.  
[§]  
34. Leipzig:  Breitkopf  &  Härtel,  1886).  [§]  
35. Ibid.,   vol.   1,   p.   316.   Paraphrased   translation   by   B.   Nettl.   Original:   "Die  
guten  alten  langsamen  Tänze  der  frühern  Zeit,  wenn  auch  mopfig,  so  doch  
wenigstens   die   Gesundheit   unangetastet   lassend,   sind   überall   verachtet  
und   kaum   noch   gekannt,   oder   unsere   raschlebige   Zeit   hat   sie   in   Galopp-­‐
Tempo   umgesetzt,   um   der   lebenden   Dampfmaschine,   Mensch   genannt,  
genug  zu  thun.".  [§]  
36. See  for  example  the  table  of  contents  of  vol.  1  (1885).  [§]  
37. "On   the   Musical   Modes   of   the   Hindus,"   Asiatic   Studies   (Calcutta)   3  
(1799):1-­‐55.  [§]  
38. "Lieder   der   Bellakula   Indianer,"   Vierteljahrschrift   für   Musikwissenschaft  
2  (1886):405-­‐26.  [§]  
39. Ibid.,   p.   426.   Paraphrased   translation   by   B.   Nettl.   Original:   "Am   Abend  
eines   der   Tage,   an   denen   Freund   Nutsiluska   mir   vogesungen,   hörte   ich  
vom   Riedel'schen   Verein   in   Leipzig   Bach's   wunderbare   Hohe   Messe.  
Nutsiluska  würde  nach  bekannten  Erfahrungnen  schwerlich  viel  gefallen  
daran   gefunden   haben.   Ich   hatte   mich   dagegen   in   manche   seiner  
Melodien,  selbst  den  traurigen  Uai-­‐Gesang,  hineingefunden  und  hörte  sie  
noch   Tage   lang   ohne   Unbehagen   immerlich   fortklingen.   Darin   liegt   mein  
Vorzug   unserer   Kultur.   Im   Übrigen   sollten   wir   aber   auch   in   musikalischer  
Hinsicht  nicht  zu  absprechend  von  `wilden,  unkultivierten'  Völkern  reden.  
 Denn   damit   ein   Tonsystem   mit   festen   Stufen,   damit   ausdrucksvolle  
Tonwendungen   in   demselbem   erscheinen   können,   muss   eine   geistige  
Entiwcklung   vorangegangen   sein,   deren   einzelne   Studien   und   innere  
Beschaffenheit   uns   noch   Keiner   psychologisch   glaubwürdig   geschildert  
hat,   deren   Ausdehnung   und   Bedeutsamkeit   aber   sich   vielleicht   mit   dem  
Abstande  zwischen  Bach  und  Nutsiluska  messen  können."  [§]  
40. Jesse   Walter   Fewkes,   "The   Use   of   the   Phonograph   among   the   Zuni  
Indians,"  American  Naturalist  24  (1890):687-­‐91.  [§]  
41. Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts  33,  no.  1688  (March  27,  1885):485-­‐527.  [§]  
42. Ellis,   op   cit.   Paraphrase   by   B.   Nettl   of   the   German   translation   by  
Hornbostel,  p.  75.  [§]  
43. Adler,   "Umfang,   Methode   und   Ziel   der   Musikwissenschaft,"   p.   5  
Translation   by   B.   Nettl.   Original:   "Die   Musikwissenschaft   entstand  
gleichzeitig   mit   der   Tonkunst...   Alle   Völker,   bei   welchen   man   von   einer  
Tonkunst   sprechen   kann,   haben   auch   eine   Tonwissenschaft,   wenn   auch  
nicht  immer  ein  ausgebildetes  musikwissenschaftliches  System."  [§]