CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
Learning Objectives:
After students completed the learning materials, they will be able to:
 define what is meant by statistics and statistician?
 explain what is meant by variables and types of variables.
 distinguish between a qualitative variable and a quantitative variable.
 differentiate between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
 simplify and evaluate the expressions involving summation notation

Introduction
The word statistics is most popular through radio, television, newspapers, and even
magazines. Statistics stresses analysis of data to generate and facilitate the process of decision –
making.
For the last decade, there has come up among businessmen, policy makers, researchers,
economists in government, sociologist, education, psychology, medicine and business circles, a
growing realization of the importance of statistics in policy and decision – making. As a result,
many colleges and universities have included statistics in their curricular offerings.
The improvement of quality in the industry among most progressive country has occurred
in the early nineteen and twenty first century. The success of the Japanese “industrial miracle”
has been attributed to the use of statistical methods and statistical thinking among management
personnel (Walpole, 2002).
Statistics is now an active intellectual field of study, the fundamental discoveries may alter
statistical practice during the lifetime of the readers of this book (Kenny, 2002).
What is Statistics? Statistician?
How do we define the word statistics? The word statistics has more than one meaning. We
encounter it frequently in our everyday language. The origin of the sources we shall use in the
definition may be traced to the following authors, of which have very little in common meaning
about statistics.
Reston, (2004), the word statistics simply refers to a mass of data or a collection of facts
and figures. The grades of students in the registrar’s office, entrance examination results of
incoming freshmen in a certain universities or colleges, the average temperature and average
rainfall per month, weekly sales of a company A are such statistics in nature.
Freund, et, al. (1986) and Nocon, et, al. (2000), defines statistics as a branch of mathematics
that deals with the theory and methods of collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of
data. As such, the data may be categorical or numerical in nature.
 Walpole, (2000) and Lind, et, al. (2000) defines as a science that is concerned with the
concepts and techniques employed in the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of
data to assist in making more effective decisions.
Statistics is the branch of science that deals with the collection, presentation,
summarization, analyzation, and interpretation of data.
Statisticians
Are professionals who are trained to provide crucial guidance in determining what
information is reliable and which predictions can be trusted through the application of statistical
methods. Furthermore, it helps determine the sampling and data collection methods, monitor the
execution of the study and the processing of data, and advice on the strengths and limitations of
the results (www.amstat.org). The word statistician is used to refer to collect and analyze data, and
then calculate results using a specific design. One who draws conclusions and make decisions in
the face of uncertainty. They are present behind the scenes in every field of scientific endeavor.
The tasks of statisticians include: Agricultural and Animal Sciences, Medical Sciences,
Business areas, Engineering, Education, Economics, Mathematics, Banking, Accounting and
Auditing, Natural and Social Sciences etc..
Why Study Statistics?
As early as in the Old Testament, statistical methods occur particularly censuses of
population and wealth were taken by the Pharaohs and the ancient Hebrews long before Christ was
born. With the turn of 20th century, the term came to be applied to a study of scientific methods of
dealing with quantitative data with applications to practically all fields of study.
There are reasons why the scope of statistics and the need to study statistics have grown
enormously in the last few decades.
First, Knowledge of basic statistics is essential for people going into research in various
fields of human endeavor. Second, numerical information is everywhere. Third, statistical
techniques are used to make decisions that affect our daily lives. Fourth, a person with an
understanding of statistics is between able to decide whether his or her professional colleagues use
their statistics to illuminate or merely to support their personal biases; that is, it helps one to decide
whether the claims are valid or not. Fifth, knowledge of statistics is essential for persons who wish
to keep their education up-to-date. Finally, an understanding of statistics can help anyone
discriminate between facts and fancy in everyday life – in reading newspapers and watching
television, and in making daily comparison and evaluations.
Generally, no matter what your future line of work, you will make decisions that involve data.
That is, an understanding of statistical methods will help you make decisions more effectively.
Types of Variables
Variable
Variable refers to a characteristics or phenomena that changes or varies over time for
different individual or objects under consideration (Mendenhall, et.al., 2012).
Data
Data are the values that the variables can assume (Reston, 2004).
Experimental unit
Experimental unit is the individual or object on which a variable is measured.
Types of variable according to functional relationship
Independent variable. This is sometimes termed as predictor variable if the object is to
predict the value of one variable on the basis of the other.
Dependent variable. This is sometimes called criterion variable and whose value is
predicted. For example, academic achievement is dependent on Intelligent Quotient, study habits,
interests, attitudes and many more. Hence, IQ, study habits, interests, attitudes are independent
variables. On the other hand, academic achievement is the dependent variable.
Types of variable according to the attribute of objects they classify
Qualitative Variables. These are words or codes that represent a class or category. Further,
produce data that can be categorized according to similarities or differences in kind. Also known
as categorical variable. Here are some examples: gender, taste ranking, religious affiliation,
academic achievement, marital status, type of high school attended and many more.
Quantitative Variables. These are variables that classify objects or represent an amount
or a count. This is a variable often represented by arbitrary letter, let say x, produce numerical data.
Here are some examples: Height, student enrolment, class size, family size, test scores, entrance
test results, crime rate, salary, number of passengers, volume of orange juice, etc.
Types of variable according to the continuity of values
Discrete variable. This refers to variables that can be obtained, can assume only a finite or
through countable number of values. Examples are: Number of family members, number of new
car sales, number of defective bulbs, faculty size, hospital staff size, number of students enrolled
in Statistics course, number of bedrooms in a house, etc.
Continuous variable. Variables that can assume many values corresponding to the points
on a line interval. Here are some examples: Crime rates, cell density, rainfall, temperature, air
pressure, weight, height, study hours, time, salary, distance traveled, etc.
Types of variable according to the Scale of Measurements
Nominal scale is often referred to as a categorical scale. This only satisfies the identity
property of measurement. For example, gender, Religion, and political affiliation.
Ordinal scale has an ordered relationship to every other value on the scale. Example:
Academic achievement, taste ranking, honors received, educational qualification etc.
Interval scale has equal units of measurement, thus making it possible to interpret not only
the order of scale scores but also the distance between them. It has the properties of identity,
magnitude, and equal intervals. Example: test scores, height (in cm), Intelligent Quotient (IQ) and
many more.
Ratio scale has the property allows one to make statements of equality of intervals. This is
the highest level of measurement which include the inherent zero starting point. Examples: number
of children in a family, student enrolment income and many more.

Figure 1 below shows the type of variables we have identified. Why should you be
concerned about the different kinds of variables? It is because the method used to describe data
sets depends on the type of variables.

Types of
variables

Quantitative Qualitative

Discrete Continuous
Nominal and
Ordinal
Interval and Ratio

Figure 1 Types of Variables

Population and Sample

In statistics, researchers and educators commonly use the terms population and sample
(Alferez & Duro, 2006).
Population is the entire collection of all elements/experimental units under consideration
in a statistical inquiry or to be studied. Sample a part of the population.

Population

Sample

Figure 2 Relationship between population and sample

 Figure 2 is a diagram depicting the relationship between the population and the sample.
The rectangular shape is the population while the circular form within is the sample. This only
emphasizes and denotes that all elements or member of the sample must belong in the population.
For example, if we wish to determine the average income of households in Zamboanga del
Norte, then the population of interest is the collection of all households in Zamboanga del Norte.
However due to some constraints, the budget, the time, the man power for instance, and then we
would have to redefine the interest. This time we can delimit the scope of the study we utilized
sampling size to include only the collection of all households in Dapitan and Dipolog City,
considering this is done thru sampling techniques.
Parameter refers to any numerical value describing a characteristic of a population and is
usually denoted by some Greek letters such as population standard deviation, σ and population
mean, μ. While, the term statistic is a numerical measurement describing some characteristics of
a sample. The symbols x and s are statistic which are unbiased of the parameter μ and σ.

Two Major Areas of Statistics

Descriptive Statistics
Is concerned with the methods for collecting, organizing and describing a set of data so as
to yield meaningful information (Walpole, 2000). Construction of tables, charts, and graphs and
the computation of descriptive statistical measures also fall in this area.
Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics is also called Inductive Statistics or Statistical Inference. Comprises
those procedures for drawing inferences or making generalizations about characteristics of a
population based on partial and incomplete information obtained sample data to infer to
populations.

Chapter Test
Name:__________________________Course:______________Date:_________Score:_____
Exercises 1: Answer the following activities.
1. Discuss possible applications of Statistics in your respective field of study.
(5points)________________________________________________________________
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2. Give examples of applications of Statistics in your field.
(5points)________________________________________________________________
 ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________.
3. Mr. Alindog, a candidate for mayor in Dapitan City, Zamboanga del Norte, wants to find
out if there is a need to intensify his campaign efforts against his opponents. He requested
the services of a group of researchers to interview 1,500 of the 3,600 registered voters of
Dapitan City. The survey results showed that 85% of the 1,500 voters in the sample will
vote for him as mayor.
a. Identify the population and the sample.
Population ___________________________ Sample ______________________
b. Identify the variable of interest.
Variable ____________________________________
c. Identify the parameter and the statistic.
Parameter___________________________ Statistic _______________________
4. The average weekly allowance of students last year at a private high school was
Php500.00 per week, based on an enrollment of 1500 students. The second-year students
who did not have this information interviewed 100 students and found their average
weekly allowance last year to be Php480.00
a. Identify the population and the sample.
Population ___________________________ Sample ______________________
b. Identify the variable of interest.
Variable ____________________________________
c. Identify the parameter and the statistic.
Parameter___________________________ Statistic _______________________

5. For each situation below, identify the variable, its attribute of object they classify, its level
of measurement and indicate whether it is a discrete or continuous. Also, decide whether
the statement is an application of descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.
a. The administration of JRMSU University System is proposing a change in student
admission policy. A random sample of students was selected and each was asked if
he/she favors or against the change. The result was used as basis for the
administration’s admission policy decision.
Variable ____________________ attribute of object they classify ___________________
Level of measurement____________ continuity of values__________________
b. The guidance counselor of the college of Criminology recorded the IQ scores of
entering freshmen of the college and reported an average IQ of 104.
Variable ____________________ attribute of object they classify ___________________
Level of measurement____________ continuity of values__________________
 c. A newspaper article reports the average salaries of appointed heads of national
government offices from data collected on all national government offices.
Variable ____________________ attribute of object they classify ___________________
Level of measurement____________ continuity of values__________________
d. Sample data obtained from a nationwide poll was used to estimate the chance of
winning of a certain vice-presidential candidate in the May 2016 elections.
Variable ____________________ attribute of object they classify ___________________
Level of measurement____________ continuity of values__________________
6. In each of the following situation, specify: the population, the sample, the variable, the
level of measurement of each variable.
a. Mrs. Raganas wants to determine the distribution of faculty members in the
university of Zamboanga del Norte as to age, gender, religious affiliation, teaching
experience, educational qualification, academic rank, and monthly salary. To do
this, she distributed questionnaires to 350 randomly selected faculty members in all
seven (7) universities of Zamboanga del Norte.
Population ____________________ Sample ____________________
Variable ______________ level of measurement ________________
7. Indicate which of the following statements refer to population or sample.
a. A group of 25 students selected to test a new teaching technique. ____________
b. The total number of machines produced by a factory in one week____________
c. The yearly expenditures on food for 10 families____________
d. The ages of employees of all companies in Dipolog City ____________
e. The number of subscribers of telephone companies in Zamboanga del
Norte____________
8. Identify each of the following variables as qualitative or quantitative variable:
a. The most frequent use of your microwave oven. ____________
b. The number of consumers who refuse to answer a telephone survey. ____________
c. The door chosen by a mouse in a maze experiment. ____________
d. The winning time for a horse running in the Kentucky Derby. ____________
e. The number of children in fourth-grade class who are reading at or above grade
level. ____________
f. The height of giraffe living in India. ____________
g. The religious affiliation of the people in Polanco, Zamboanga del Norte_________
h. Favorite movie in Cenima One____________
i. The daily intake of proteins____________
j. Nationality ____________
k. The days absent from school ____________
l. Marital status ____________
m. The number of houses owned ____________
n. The monthly water bills ____________
 o. The number of students who fail in statistics ____________
9. Identify each of the following variables as (a) qualitative or quantitative and indicate either
it falls into (b) continuous or discrete variable.
a b
a. Time ____________ ____________
b. Salaries ____________ ____________
c. Sizes of high school classes ____________ ____________
d. Age ____________ ____________
e. Census data ____________ ____________
f. Distance traveled by car ____________ ____________
g. Football scores ____________ ____________
h. Weight ____________ ____________
i. Number of pages in 50 books ____________ ____________
j. Mental ages ____________ ____________
k. Vital statistics ____________ ____________
l. Weight in pounds ____________ ____________
m. Intelligent quotient ____________ ____________
n. Height of a child ____________ ____________
o. School grade ____________ ____________
p. Average grade in Statistics ____________ ____________
q. Length of a ruler ____________ ____________
10. For each of the following statements below, decide whether it belongs to the field of
descriptive statistics or inferential statistics. State a reason for each of your answers.
a. A tennis player wants to know his average score for the past 8 games. ___________
b. Jenalyn wants to determine the variability of her five exam scores in Basic
Statistics. ___________
c. Based on last year’s water bills, Mr. Canturatoy would like to forecast the average
monthly water bill he pay for the next year based on his average monthly bill in the
past year. ___________
d. Francisco “Django” Bustamante wants to estimate his chance of winning in the next
World Championship game in Billiards based on his average scores last
championship and the averages of the competing team. ___________
e. Mr. Macalolooy wants to determine the proportion spent on transportation during
the past five months using the daily records of expenditures that he
keeps.___________
f. A car manufacturer wishes to estimate the average lifetime of batteries by testing a
sample of 50 batteries. ___________
g. Last semester, the ages of students at a certain university ranged from 17 to 25 years
old. ____________
 h. Based on the survey conducted by the National Statistics Office, it is estimated that
24% of unemployed people are women.
i. A survey says that 1 out of 10 Filipinos is a member of a fitness center.
____________
11. Determine whether each statement is true or false. Write your answer on the blank.
a. The height of a person is an example of a variable. ____________
b. The highest level of measurement is the ordinal level. ____________
c. The variable age is an example of a qualitative variable. ____________
d. The weight of a person is an example of a continuous variable. ____________
e. Two major areas of statistics are descriptive and quantitative statistics.
____________
f. Last year’s total number of students in JRMSU System was 5,900. This is an
example of an inferential statistics. ____________
g. Data classified into color are measured using nominal scale. ____________
h. Variables are the values that the data can assume. ____________
i. The number of vacation leaves availed by an employee per year is an example of
ratio variable. ____________
j. The number of bread baked each day is an example of continuous variable.
____________