CHAPTER FOUR

SOIL
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The performance of pavements depends upon the quality of subgrade. A stable subgrade helps
produce a long-lasting pavement. A high level of spatial uniformity of a subgrade in terms of key
engineering parameters such as shear strength, stiffness, volumetric stability, and permeability is
vital for the effective performance of the pavement system.

A number of environmental variables such as temperature and moisture affect these geotechnical
characteristics, both in short and long term. The subgrade works as the foundation for the upper
layers of the pavement system and is vital in resisting the detrimental effects of static and
dynamic stresses that are generated by traffic.

Soil is one of the most abundant naturally occurring construction materials. However, before it
can be used in any construction practice, an understanding of its properties is a MUST so that it
does not lead to construction errors that are costly in both effort and materials. Generally, the
suitability of a soil for a particular use should be determined based on its engineering
characteristics. In most cases, soils need to be ‘improved’ in order to meet the geotechnical
characteristics/properties required for a specific project.

Soil improvement could be either by modification or stabilization, or even both. Generally, soil
modification is the addition of a modifier (lime, cement, etc) to a soil in order to change its index
properties, while soil stabilization involves the treatment of soils to enable their strength and
durability to be improved such that they become totally suitable for construction beyond their
original classification.

A considerable amount of research concerning stabilization of soil with additives such as cement,
lime, bitumen and polymers has already been extensively carried out and is available in literature

It is imperative that the sub grade be built as strong, durable, uniform and economical as
possible. The most economical embankment is one that will perform well for many years.

Engineering properties of soils play a significant role in civil engineering construction works
particularly in road constructions. This made imperative, the testing of soil, on which a
foundation or superstructure is to be laid. This would determine its geotechnical suitability as
a construction material. In recent times, the alarming rate at which lives are being lost in Kenya
due to road failures calls for a solution. The solution could be brought by critical geotechnical
testing of the engineering soil.
Fig 4.2 Generalised soils of Kenya (source; Kenya soil survey)
4.2 SOIL SAMPLING
4.2.1 SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Soil classification is the arrangement of various types of soils into specific group based on
physical properties e.g. Particle size distribution and plasticity and engineering behavior of soil
such as settlement upon loading and bearing capacity.

Particle size distribution is determined by performing particle size analysis. This analysis
includes sieve analysis and sedimentation analysis. Depending on the type of soil and extent of
particle size distribution required the analysis may involve both sieve analysis and sedimentation
analysis or it may be restricted to either. The distribution gravel and sand particles sieve analysis
will suffice but if silt and clay are present sedimentation analysis has to be performed. In silts
and clay soil sedimentation analysis will suffice

4.2.2 Unified Soil Classification System.

The system is based on both grain size and plasticity characteristics of the soil. In this system
soils are broadly divided into three divisions.

Coarse grained soils: If more than 50% by weight is retained on No 200 ASTM sieves.

Fine grained soils: If more than 50% by weight passes through No 200 ASTM sieve.

Organic soils: No specific grain size.

4.2.3 British soil classification

It is based on the particle size distribution and plasticity as plotted on a plasticity chart. Any
cobbles and boulders retained on 63mm BS sieve size are removed from the soil before
classification. The percentage of this very coarse portion is determined and mentioned in the
report. The soil groups are noted by the group symbols composed of main and qualifying
descriptive letters e.g. SW describes well graded sand. The fine grained soils are represented by
apoint on the plasticity chart.

From both the UCS and British soil classification soil can be classified into three soil types
namely:

1. Organic soils: They are typically in the upper 80cm of the soil profile. They are formedby
accumulation of partially decomposed organic matter. They are dark in color, light weight and
have extremely high water holding capacity. Sometimes may have distinctive odor of decaying
vegetation. They are of less consequence to the engineer and are always removed when works
are constructed.

2. Coarse grained soils: If more than 50% by weight is retained on No 200 ASTM sieves. In
accordance to BS 5930 a soil is classified as coarse if after removal of boulders and cobbles, over
65% of the material is in the sand and gravel range. Mixtures containing 50% boulders and
cobbles are referred to as very coarse soils. Coarse grained soils are composed of rock fragments
varying from boulders to gravel and sand. Quartz is usually the predominant mineral in the
composition of many gravels and sand particularly when particles are well rounded.

3. Fine grained soils: If more than 50% by weight passes through No 200 ASTM sieve. In
accordance to BS 5930 a soil is classified as fine when over 35% of the soil is in the silt clay
range. Therefore they include silt and clay. Silt is a type of soil intermediate between fine sand
and clay. It is created by a variety of physical processes capable of splitting the generally sand
sized quartz crystals of primary rocks by exploiting deficiencies in their lattice. Its mineral
composition is more viable than that of fine sands. Mineralogically it is composed of quartz and
feldspar.