PHONETICS AND

PHONOLOGY created
by Cristian C Cuesta
G=48
martes, 11 de agosto de 2015
PHONETICS VS PHONOLOGY

WEEK 1

In the previous image of the page popplett.com explain in the concept map the components of the
linguistics and the explication of the phonetics and phonology.

TOPIC - WEEK 2 - ARTICULATORY PHONETICS , VOCAL TRACK AND PLACE-MANNER

ARTICUATION

TOPIC 1 - ARTICULATORY PHONETICS

Having preliminarily discussed vowel length and aspiration, let us now consider the sound system of
English more systematically. We would like to understand what information about English pronunciation is
incorporated in a speaker's knowledge of language--a central question of phonetics.

EXAMPLES:
VOCAL TRACK:

The airway used in the production of speech, especially the passage above the larynx, including the phar
ynx, mouth,and nasal cavities.:

EXAMPLE:

ENGLISH VOWELS:

English Vowel Sounds:

A vowel letter can represent different vowel sounds: hat [hæt], hate [heit], all [o:l], art [a:rt], any ['eni].
The same vowel sound is often represented by different vowel letters in writing: [ei] they, weigh, may,
cake, steak, rain.
Open and closed syllables:

Open syllable: Kate [keit], Pete [pi:t], note [nout], site [sait], cute [kyu:t].
Closed syllable: cat [kæt], pet [pet], not [not], sit [sit], cut (the neutral sound [ə]).

Vowels and vowel combinations:

The vowels A, E, I, O, U, Y alone, in combination with one another or with R, W represent different vowel
sounds. The chart below lists the vowel sounds according to the American variant of pronunciation.

Sounds Letters Examples Notes

been [i];
e, ee be, eve, see, meet, sleep,
bread, deaf [e];
[i:] ea meal, read, leave, sea, team,
great, break [ei];
ie, ei field, believe, receive
friend [e]
i it, kiss, tip, pick, dinner, machine, ski,
[i]
y system, busy, pity, sunny liter, pizza [i:]
e let, tell, press, send, end, meter [i:]
[e]
ea bread, dead, weather, leather sea, mean [i:]
a late, make, race, able, stable,
ai, ay aim, wait, play, say, day,
[ei] said, says [e];
ei, ey eight, weight, they, hey,
height, eye [ai]
ea break, great, steak
cat, apple, land, travel, mad;
[æ] a AmE: last, class, dance, castle,
half
army, car, party, garden, park,
ar war, warm [o:]
[a:] father, calm, palm, drama;
a
BrE: last, class, dance, castle, half
i, ie ice, find, smile, tie, lie, die,
[ai]
y, uy my, style, apply, buy, guy
ou out, about, house, mouse, group, soup [u:]
[au]
ow now, brown, cow, owl, powder know, own [ou]
[o] o not, rock, model, bottle, copy
or more, order, cord, port, work, word [ər]
[o:] o long, gone, cost, coffee,
aw, au law, saw, pause, because,
 ought bought, thought, caught,
al, wa- hall, always, water, war, want
[oi] oi, oy oil, voice, noise, boy, toy
o go, note, open, old, most, do, move [u:]
[ou]
oa, ow road, boat, low, own, bowl how, owl [au]
u use, duty, music, cute, huge, tune,
ew few, dew, mew, new,
[yu:]
eu euphemism, feud, neutral,
ue, ui hue, cue, due, sue, suit
rude, Lucy, June,
u
do, move, room, tool,
o, oo
crew, chew, flew, jewel,
[u:] ew
blue, true, fruit, juice, guide, quite [ai];
ue, ui
group, through, route; build [i]
ou
AmE: duty, new, sue, student
oo look, book, foot, good,
[u] u put, push, pull, full, sugar,
ou would, could, should
u, o gun, cut, son, money, love,
Also:
neutral sound ou tough, enough, rough,
stressed, [ʌ];
[ə] a, e about, brutal, taken, violent,
unstressed, [ə].
o, i memory, reason, family
er, ur,
serve, herb, burn, hurt, girl, sir,
ir
[ər] work, word, doctor, dollar, heart, hearth
or, ar
heard, earn, earnest, earth [a:]
ear

CONSONANT SOUND:

A speech sound that's not a vowel.

A consonant is a letter of the alphabet that represents a speech sound produced by a partial or complete
obstruction of the air stream by a constriction of the speech organs.

EXAMPLE:
MINIMAL PAIRS:

A minimal pair is a pair of words that vary by only a single sound, usually meaning sounds that may
confuse English learners, like the /f/ and /v/ infan and van, or the /e/ and /ɪ/ in desk and disk

EXAMPLE:

DIPTHONGS:
A gliding monosyllabic speech sound (as the vowel combination at the end of toy) that starts at or near
the articulatory position for one vowel and moves to or toward the position of another

EXAMPLE:

TRIPHTHONGS:

A compound vowel sound resulting from the succession of three simple ones and functionig as a unit.

EXAMPLE:

SYLLABES:

an uninterrupted segment of speech consisting of a vowel sound, adiphthong, or a syllabic consonant, wit
h or without preceding orfollowing consonant sounds:

EXAMPLES:
WORD STRESS:

the stress accent on the syllables of individual words either in a sentence or in isolation

EXAMPLE:
ASSIMILATION:

the act or process by which a sound becomes identical withor similar to a neighboring sound in one or mo
re defining characteristics, as place of articulation, voice or voicelessness, or manner of articulation.

EXAMPLE:
PROSODY:

the stress and intonation patterns of an utterance.

EXAMPLE:

INTONATION:

the sound changes produced by the rise and fall othe voice when speaking, especially when this has
an effect on the meaning of what is said:

CONNECTED SPEECH:

When we speak naturally we do not pronounce a word, stop, then say the next word in the sentence.
Fluent speech flows with a rhythm and the words bump into each other. To make speech flow smoothly
the way we pronounce the end and beginning of some words can change depending on the sounds at the
beginning and end of those words.

EXAMPLE:
ENGLISH VOWEL SYSTEM: - WEEK 2
 LONG AND SHORT VOWELS:

When a vowel sounds like its name, this is called a long sound. A vowel letter can also
have short sounds. Whether a vowel has a long sound, a short sound, or remains silent, depends on its
position in a word and the letters around it. Click on the following vowel letters to hear their long and short
sounds.

EXAMPLES:
 Now this is my video explication in and summary about in the topic:

CONSONANTS CLUSTERS - WEEK 3 AND 5

A group of two or more consonant sounds that come before (onset), after (coda), or between
(medial) vowels. Also known as cluster.

EXAMPLES:
Observations:

 "The combination /st/ is a consonant cluster (CC) used as onset in the

word stop, and as coda in the word post. There are many CC onset combinations
permitted in English phonotactics, as in black,bread, trick, twin, flat and throw. . .
.

"English can actually have larger onset clusters, as in the words stress and splat,
consisting of three initial consonants (CCC). The phonotactics of thee larger
onset clusters is not too difficult to describe. The first consonant must always be
/s/, followed by one of the voiceless stops (/p/, /t/, /k/) and a liquid or glide (/l/, /r/,
/w/). You can check if this description is adequate for the combinations
in splash,spring, strong, scream and square."
(George Yule, The Study of Language, 4th ed. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2010)

"In some instances the consonant cluster may coincide with a cluster which can occur at
the end of a word without a suffix; for example the words lapseand laps end with the
same consonant cluster and in fact are homophonous, and the same is true
ofchaste and chased." (Charles W. Kreidler, The Pronunciation of English: A Course
Book. Blackwell, 2004)

 Consonant Cluster Reduction:
- "Consider the example of word-final consonant cluster reduction as it affects
sound sequences such as st, nd, ld, kt, and so forth in various English dialects.
The rule of word-final consonant cluster reduction may reduce items such
as west, wind, cold, and act to wes', win', col', and ac' respectively. The incidence
of reduction is quite variable, but certain linguistic factors systematically favor or
inhibit the operation of the reduction process. . . . With respect to the
phonological environment that follows the cluster, the likelihood of reduction is
increased when the cluster is followed by a word beginning with a consonant.
This means that cluster reduction is more frequent in contexts such aswest
coast or cold cuts than in contexts like west end or cold apple."
(Walt Wolfram, "Dialect in Society." The Handbook of Sociolinguistics, ed. by
Florian Coulmas. Blackwell, 1997)

- "Consonant cluster reduction is a process in which the final consonant group

or cluster, composed of two consonant sounds, is reduced to a single consonant
sound. . . . As a result of the consonant cluster process, the words tes ('test')
and des ('desk') rhyme, and are minimally different in that they contrast only in
the initial t and d sounds."
(Lisa J. Green, African American English: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge
University Press, 2002)

EXAMPLES:
CONSONANT SOUNDS PRODUCE AND CLASSIFICATED - WEEK 4

A consonant is a letter of the alphabet that represents a speech sound produced by a partial
or complete obstruction of the air stream by a constriction of the speech organs.

CLASSIFICATION:

 "The 24 usual consonants occur in the following words, at the beginning

unless otherwise specified: pale, tale, kale, bale, dale, gale, chain, Jane, fail,
thin, sale, shale, hale, vale, this, zoo; (in the middle of) measure, mail, nail;
(at the end of) sing, lay, rail, wail, Yale. Not one of these consonants is spelled
in a completely consistent way in English, and some of them are spelled very
oddly and inconsistently indeed. Note that our alphabet has no single letters for
spelling the consonants in chain, thin, shale, this, measure, and sing. Those
 letters that are commonly used for spelling consonants may be called consonant
letters, but calling them consonants is loose and misleading."
 (12 , Harper, 2006)

In the following video I explain some examples about the previous topic keep in mind the chart 13 that is
into of webgraphy information:

MINIMAL PAIRS VS DIPHTONGS AND TRIPHTONGS - WEEK 6

This is my map about the topic realized by picktochart:

SYLLABLES AND WORD STREESS - WEEK 8:

1 WHAT IS THE SYLLABLES?

One or more letters representing a unit of spoken language consisting of a single

uninterrupted sound. Adjective: syllabic.
A syllable is made up of either a single vowel sound (as in the pronunciation of oh) or a
combination of vowel and consonant(s) (as in no and not).
A syllable that stands alone is called a monosyllable. A word containing two or more
syllables is called a polysyllable.

 The Parts of a Syllable

- "Syllable isn't a tough notion to grasp intuitively, and there is considerable
agreement in counting syllables within words. Probably most readers would agree
that cod has one syllable, ahi two, and halibut three. But technical definitions are
challenging. Still, there is agreement that a syllable is a phonological unit
consisting of one or more sounds and that syllables are divided into two parts--an
onset and a rhyme. The rhyme consists of a peak, or nucleus, and any
consonants following it. The nucleusis typically a vowel . . .. Consonants that
precede the rhyme in a syllable constitute the onset . . .

"The only essential element of a syllable is a nucleus. Because a single sound

can constitute a syllable and a single syllable can constitute a word, a word can
consist of a single vowel--but you already knew that from knowing the
words a and I."27
- "The word strengths may have the most complex syllable structure of any
English word: . . . with three consonants in the onset and four in the coda [the
consonants at the end of the rhyme]!"28
 Vowels and Consonants
"Some consonants can be pronounced alone (mmm, zzz), and may or may not
be regarded assyllables, but they normally accompany vowels, which tend to
occupy the central position in a syllable (the syllabic position), as in pap, pep, pip,
pop, pup. Consonants occupy the margins of the syllable, as with p in the
examples just given. A vowel in the syllable margin is often referred to as aglide,
as in ebb and bay. Syllabic consonants occur in the second syllables of words
like middle ormidden, replacing a sequence of schwa plus consonant . . .."29
 Reduplication
"[A] common syllable process, especially among the child's first 50 words,
is reduplication (syllable repetition). This process can be seen in forms
like mama, papa, peepee, and so on. Partial reduplication (the repetition of part
of a syllable) may also occur; very often an /i/ is substituted for the final vowel
segment, as in mommy and daddy." 30
For example:


  2 WHAT IS THE WORD STRESS?


 In English, we do not say each syllable with the same force or strength. In one word, we

accentuate ONE syllable. We say onesyllable very loudly (big, strong, important) and all the

other syllables very quietly.

Let's take 3 words: photograph, photographer andphotographic. Do they sound the same when

spoken? No. Because we accentuate (stress) ONE syllable in each word. And it is not always

the same syllable. So the "shape" of each word is different.

 This happens in ALL words with 2 or more syllables: TEACHer, JaPAN, CHINa, aBOVE,

converSAtion, INteresting, imPORtant, deMAND, etCETera, etCETera, etCETera

The syllables that are not stressed are weak or small or quiet. Fluent speakers of English listen

for the STRESSED syllables, not the weak syllables. If you use word stress in your speech, you

will instantly and automatically improve your pronunciation and your comprehension.

Try to hear the stress in individual words each time you listen to English - on the radio, or in

films for example. Your first step is to HEAR and recognise it. After that, you can USE it!

There are two very important rules about word stress:

1. One word, one stress. (One word cannot have two stresses. So if you hear two stresses,

you have heard two words, not one word.) 31

2. The stress is always on a vowel. For examples:

The following spider map explain the topic:
WEAK FORMS, ELISION AND ASSIMILATION- WEEK 8:

ASSIMILATION:

A general term in phonetics for the process by which a speech sound becomes similar or
identical to a neighboring sound. In the opposite process, dissimilation, sounds become less
similar to one another.

"Assimilation is the influence of a sound on a neighboring sound so that the two become
similar or the same. For example, the Latin prefix in- 'not, non-, un-' appears in English as il-
, im-. and ir- in the wordsillegal, immoral, impossible (both m and p are bilabial consonants),
and irresponsible as well as the unassimilated original form in- in indecent and incompetent.
Although the assimilation of the n of in- to the following consonant in the preceding
examples was inherited from Latin, English examples that would be considered native are
also plentiful. In rapid speech native speakers of English tend to pronounce ten bucks as
though it were written tembucks, and in anticipation of the voiceless s in son the final
consonant of his in his son is not as fully voiced as the s in his daughter, where it clearly is
[z]." 33

Direction of Influence
"Features of an articulation may lead into (i.e. anticipate) those of a following segment, e.g.
English white pepper /waɪt 'pepə/ → /waɪp 'pepə/. We term this leading assimilation.

"Articulation features may be held over from a preceding segment, so that the
articulators lag in their movements, e.g. English on the house /ɑn ðə 'haʊs/ → /ɑn nə 'haʊs/.
This we term lagging assimilation.

"In many cases there is a two-way exchange of articulation features, e.g. English raise your
glass /'reɪz jɔ: 'glɑ:s/ → /'reɪʒ ʒɔ: 'glɑ:s/. This is termed reciprocal assimilation."34

Alveolar Nasal Assimilation: "I ain't no ham samwich"

"Many adults, especially in casual speech, and most children assimilate the place of
articulation of the nasal to the following labial consonant in the word sandwich:

sandwich /sænwɪč/ → /sæmwɪč/

The alveolar nasal /n/ assimilates to the bilabial /w/ by changing the alveolar to a bilabial
/m/. (The /d/ of the spelling is not present for most speakers, though it can occur in careful
pronunciation.)"35

ELISION:

In phonetics and phonology, the omission of a sound (a phoneme) in speech. Elision is common
in casual conversation.
More specifically, elision may refer to the omission of an unstressed vowel, consonant,
or syllable. This omission is often indicated in print by an apostrophe.

"Elision of sounds can . . . be seen clearly in contracted forms like isn't (is not), I'll (I
shall/will), who's (who is/has), they'd (they had, they should, or they would), haven't (have
not) and so on. We see from these examples that vowels or/and consonants can be elided.
In the case of contractions or words like library(pronounced in rapid speech as /laibri/), the
whole syllable is elided." 37
The Nature of Reduced Articulation
"It is easy to find examples of elision, but very difficult to state rules that govern which
sounds may be elided and which may not. Elision of vowels in English usually happens
when a short, unstressed vowel occurs between voiceless consonants, e.g. in the first
syllable of perhaps, potato, the second syllable ofbicycle, or the third syllable
of philosophy.38

WEAK FORMS:

Weak forms are syllable sounds that become unstressed in connected speech and are often then
pronounced as a schwa.
Example
In the sentence below the first 'do' is a weak form and the second is stressed.

What do you want to do this evening?

In the classroom
Structural words, such as prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles are often pronounced in
their weak form, since they do not carry the main content, and are therefore not normally stressed.
Learners can find them difficult to hear and this interferes with understanding. Counting the number
of words in a sentence, or sentence dictations can help raise awareness of weak forms. 41

EXAMPLES:
In the following spidermap explain the topic corresponding of the WEEK 8:
for view better the spider map this is the website:
https://bubbl.us/?h=2d1b9d/5a9cb1/29GWVDx8QaK0I&r=460553451

PROSODY - WEEK 9

What is Prosody?
One way to appreciate prosody is to listen to sentences where the prosody is
not quite right. For this, we'd like you to meet two robots, each with differently
deficient prosody: R1D1 has defective speech rhythm. R1P1 has defective
pitch control.
R1D1 has two moods: when he is playful, he picks a random
R1D1 is
number between 10 and 400 milliseconds and use that for the
playful
Duration phone duration.
R1D1 is When he is serious, he assigns the same duration value to
serious each phone.
R1P1 is R1P1 doesn't know how to control pitch: when he is playful,
playful he creates random melody for his sentence.
Pitch
R1P1 is When he is serious, he uses the same pitch values, or
serious monotone.
We use the term "prosody" broadly, meaning a time series of speech-related
information that's not predictable from a reasonable window (i.e. word-sized or
sentence-sized) applied to the phoneme sequence. This could include pitch,
duration, amplitude, and gestures.

Viewed in the large, prosody is a parallel channel for communication, carrying

some information that cannot be simply deduced from the lexical channel. All
aspects of prosody are transmitted by muscle motions, and in most of them,
the recipient can perceive, fairly directly, the motions of the speaker. Even in
intonation, pitch has a fairly smooth relationship to the underlying muscle
tensions.

While pitch is an important component of prosody, it has been known since

the 1950s (Fry, 1955; Fry, 1958; Bolinger, 1958; Lieberman, 1960; Hadding-
Koch, 1961) that duration and amplitude are also important components.
Recent literature (Maekawa, 1998; Kehoe et al., 1995; Sluijter and van
Heuven, 1996; Pollock et al., 1990; Sluijter et al., 1997; Turk and Sawusch,
1996, Erickson, 1998 and references therein) also provides support for
amplitude, spectral tilt and jaw movement as important components of
prosody.

Clearly, with our broad definition of prosody, hand gestures, eyebrow and face
motions, can be considered prosody, because they carry information that
modifies and can even reverse the meaning of the lexical channel. In this
tutorial, however, we concentrate on pitch (f0) modeling.

Prosody, as expressed in pitch, gives clues to many channels of linguistic and

para-linguistic information. Linguistic functions such as stress and tone tend to
be expressed as local excursions of pitch movement. Intonation types and
para-linguistic functions may affect the global pitch setting, in addition to
characteristic local pitch excursion near the edge of the sentence (i.e.
boundary tones).
 Prosody used to convey lexical meaning: Stress, accentual and tone
languages.
o Stress: English is an example of a stress language. Stress
location is part of the lexical entry of each English word. For example,
"apple" and "orange" both have stress on the first syllable, while "banana"
has stress on the second syllable. When an English word is spoken in
isolation in declarative intonation, f0 typically peaks on the stressed syllable.
o Accentual language: Japanese is an example of an accentual
language. A word is lexically marked as accented (on a particular syllable)
or un-accented. A simplified description is that pitch rises near the
beginning of an accentual phrase and falls on the accented syllable. For
detailed analysis, see Beckman and Pierrehumbert (1988).
o Tone language: Mandarin Chinese is an example of a lexical tone
language. Each syllable is lexically marked with one of the four lexical tones
(and occasionally, with a fifth, neutral tone). Tones have distinctive pitch
contours. Altering the pitch contour may have the consequence of changing
the lexical meaning of a word, and perhaps the meaning of a sentence.
 Prosody used to convey non-lexical information: Intonation type
(Question vs. declarative sentences).
Languages may employ prosody in different ways to differentiate declarative
sentences from questions. A general trend is that questions are associated
with higher pitch somewhere in the sentence, most commonly near the end.
This may be manifested as a final rising contour, or higher/expanded pitch
range near the end of the sentence. In English, declarative intonation is
marked by a falling ending while yes-no question intonation is marked by a
rising one, as shown on the last digit "one" in the English examples. Russian
question, on the other hand, uses strong emphasis on a key word instead of a
rising tail. Chinese questions are manifested by an expanded pitch range near
the end of the sentences, however, the speaker preserves the lexical tone
shapes (Yuan, Shih, Kochanski 2002).
Examples of declarative and question intonation in English, Russian, and
Chinese.
 Prosody used to convey discourse functions: Focus, prominence,
discourse segments, etc.
Topic initialization is typically associated with high pitch (Hirschberg and
Pierrehumbert, 1986; Sluijter and Terken, 1993). Pitch is typically raised in the
discourse initial section and lowered in the discourse final section.
Also, new information in the discourse structure is typically accented while old
information de-accented.
 Prosody used to convey emotion.
Most experiments studying emotional speech study stylized emotion, as
delivered by actors and actresses. In these acted-out emotions, a few
categories of emotions can be reliably identified by listeners, and one can find
consistent acoustic correlates of these categories. For example, excitement is
expressed by high pitch and fast speed, while sadness is expressed by low
pitch and slow speed. Hot anger is characterized by over-articulation, fast,
downward pitch movement, and overall elevated pitch. Cold anger shares
many attributes with hot anger, but the pitch range is set lower.
The study of emotion in natural speech is a lot more complicated. It is
generally recognized that speakers show mixed feelings and ambiguous
states of mind, and the emotions do not fall into clear cut categories.
Emotion experiment stimuli
o Couldn't you walk home alone, Uncle Oliver?
o Shall I take my gun, or fishing rod?
o Marilyn won nine million dollars
o Dirty rats are the best, aren 't they?
 Prosody tied to the physical system: declination.
There is a tendency for pitch to decline during the course of an utterance ('t
Hart and Cohen, 1973; Maeda, 1976). This effect is at least partially caused
by the drop of sub-glottal pressure (Lieberman, 1967; Fujisaki, 1983; Strik and
Boves, 1995). Listeners compensate for this effect: When presented with two
accented words of equal pitch height, listeners judge the second one to be
more prominent (Pierrehumbert 1979).
Below is an example of Mandarin Chinese (Shih, 2000) showing the pitch
declination profile in a sequence of high level tones, which are marked as "H"
in the figure. The pitch drops about 50 Hz from the highest "H" to the final "H".

INTONATION - WEEK 10
Intonation

Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. The three main patterns of intonation in
English are: falling intonation, rising intonation and fall-rise intonation.

Falling intonation

Falling intonation describes how the voice falls on the final stressed syllable of a phrase or a group of
words. A falling intonation is very common in wh-questions.

EXAMPLES:

Where’s the nearest p↘ost-office?

What time does the film f↘inish?

We also use falling intonation when we say something definite, or when we want to be very clear about
something:

EXAMPLE:

I think we are completely l↘ost.

OK, here’s the magaz↘ine you wanted.

Rising intonation:

Rising intonation describes how the voice rises at the end of a sentence. Rising intonation is common in
yes-no questions:

EXAMPLES:

I hear the Health Centre is expanding. So, is that the new d↗octor?

Are you th↗irsty?

Fall-rise intonation:

Fall-rise intonation describes how the voice falls and then rises. We use fall-rise intonation at the end of
statements when we want to say that we are not sure, or when we may have more to add:

EXAMPLE:

I do↘n’t support any football team at the m↘om↗ent. (but I may change my mind in future).

It rained every day in the firs↘t w↗eek. (but things improved after that).

We use fall-rise intonation with questions, especially when we request information or invite somebody to
do or to have something. The intonation pattern makes the questions sound more polite:

EXAMPLE:
Is this your cam↘er↗a?

Would you like another co↘ff↗ee?

TONE AND TONE LANGUAGE

Tone, in linguistics, a variation in the pitch of the voice while speaking. The word tone is usually applied
to those languages (called tone languages) in which pitch serves to help distinguish words and
grammatical categories—i.e., in which pitch characteristics are used to differentiate one word from
another word that is otherwise identical in its sequence of consonants and vowels.

For example:
PITCH HEIGHT:
PRINCIPLES OF THE CONNECTED SPEECH AND SONG THE HALLOWEEN - WEEK
14:

Week 4 – Connected speech processes and the principles

of English spelling

1 Connected Speech Processes

What are connected speech processes?
Connected speech processes are changes in the pronunciation of words when they are in a
sentence. So far, we have only really considered the sounds of words in isolation but today we will
consider what happens when words are joined together to make sentences. Each type of change has a
different name. We will consider assimilation, elision and r-sandhi.

1.1 Assimilation
Sounds that belong to one word can cause changes in sounds belonging to other words. When a word’s
pronunciation is affected by sounds in a neighbouring word, we call this process assimilation. We find
that sounds in the affected word become more like sounds in the neighbouring word. The two sounds
can become more alike in terms of voice, place or manner. Assimilation occurs when speech is rapid and
casual. Changes in sound that occur in rapid speech are said to be due to gradation.

Direction of change

If a phoneme is affected by one than comes later in the sentence, the assimilation is termed
regressive. If a phoneme is affected by one that came earlier in the utterance, the assimilation is termed
progressive.

1.1.1 Assimilation of voice

Across word boundaries
In English, only regressive assimilation is found across word boundaries and then only when a voiced
word final consonant is followed by a voiceless word initial consonant.
 Example:
 big cat bIg kQt > bIk kQt

It is never the case that a word final voiceless consonant becomes voiced because of a word initial voiced
consonant (although this does happen in many languages).

Across morpheme boundaries

When a noun is pluralised by adding a n<s> suffix the pronunciation of the <s> depends on the voicing of
the final consonant of that noun. If the final consonant is voiced, the suffix will be pronounced as [z], if the
final consonant is voiceless, the suffix will be pronounced as [s]. As an earlier consonant affects a later
one, this is an example of progressive assimilation. This process in fixed in English as there are hardly
any exceptions.

Examples:
 Cats kQts voiceless final consonant and suffix
 Dogs d•gz voiced final consonant and suffix

The same is true when an <s> is added to a noun to make a possessive suffix or to a verb to make the
third person singular suffix.

Examples:
Possessive
 Jack’s dZQks voiceless final consonant and suffix
 John’s dZ•nz voiced final consonant and suffix

Third person singular

 She jumps dZÃmps voiceless final consonant and suffix
 She runs rÃnz voiced final consonant and suffix

1.1.2 Assimilation of Place

Across word boundaries
In English, assimilation of place only occurs regressively across word boundaries and only with the
alveolar consonants (including clusters of alveloars).

Examples:
 That person DQt pÎ:s•n DQp pÎ:s«n final alveolar changes to bilabial
 That thing DQt TIN DQt 9TIN final alveolar changes to dental
 Good night gUd gÎl gUg gÎ:l final alveolar changes to velar

The alveolar fricatives s and z change to S and Z respectively when followed by j or S

Examples:
 This shoe DIs Su > DIS Su (regressive)
 Those years D«Uz jI«z > D«UZ jI«z (regressive)

Within words
Within codas, if a nasal comes before a plosive or a fricative, its place of articulation is determined by that
of the other consonant. This process is fixed in English as there are very few exceptions.
Examples:
Bump bÃmp bilabial nasal and plosive
Bank bQNk velar nasal and plosive
Hunt hÃnt alveolar nasal and plosive
 1.1.3 Assimilation of manner
Assimilation of manner is only found in very fast casual speech. In general speakers change sounds to
sounds that are ‘easier’, those that obstruct the airflow less and therefore require less energy.

Examples:

 Good night gUd naIt > gUn naIt a final plosive becomes a nasal (regressive)
 That side DQt saId > DQs saId a final plosive becomes a fricative (regressive)
 Read these ri:d Di:z > ri:d9 d9i:z an initial fricative becomes a plosive (progressive), this only
happens when a word final nasal or plosive is followed by a word initial D

1.1.4 Coalescence
Coalescence is a special type of assimilation process. In coalescence, the process of assimilation is bi-
directional and two segments combine to produce one. In English this often happens when an alveolar
plosive is followed by a palatal approximant (j) and they combine to form a palato-alveolar affricate.
 Example:
 Did you dId ju: > dIdZu:

1.2 Elision
Elision is the loss of a phoneme. In technical language we say that the phoneme is deleted or is realised
as zero. Elision occurs more in fast casual speech, thus elision is a process of gradation. There are
many examples of elision in English, a few are given below.

Example:

Loss of a weak vowel after voiceless plosives (p, t, k)

 Potato p«teIt«U > pHteIt«U (schwa is lost, p is aspirated)

Avoidance of complex clusters

 George the sixths throne sIksTs Tr«Un > sIksTr«Un

Loss of final v in ‘of’ before consonants

 Lots of them l•ts «v D«m > l•ts « D«m

1.3 r sandhi
Sandhi is a process where a sound is modified when words are joined together Some linguists
distinguish two types of r sandhi,, linking and intrusive r.
 1.3.1 Linking r
You will remember that for speakers of non-rhotic accents r is not pronounced after vowels. So the
pronunciations of ‘car’ is kA: and of ‘more’ is m•: However, in these accents, when words that are
spelled ending with an <r> or an <re> come before a word beginning with a vowel, the r is usually
pronounced. This is linking r. In rhotic accents the r is also pronounced when the words are in isolation
so cannot be termed linking.

Examples:
 Far away fA: «wQy > fAr «wQy
 More ice m•: aIs > m•:r aIs

1.3.2 Intrusive r
Intrusive r also involves the pronunciation of an r sound, but this time there is no justification from the
spelling as the word’s spelling does not end in <r> or <re>. Again this relates to non-rhotic accents; rhotic
accents do not have intrusive r.

 The idea of it aIdI« «v It > aIdI«r «v It

2 The Principles of English Spelling
Differences of accent can complicated the process of learning to spell (particularly use of rhoticity and
vowels). What is clear is that English is not entirely regular. Although there are lots of rules, there are
many words which do not follow them. The following sections discuss some of the sources of irregularity.
2.1 Old English
The problems began when Christian missionaries began to use their 23 letter alphabet to represent the
35 phonemes of Old English. This meant that some letters had to be used for more than one sound, for
example <c> represented /k/ and /s/ introducing complications and irregularities.

2.2 Middle English

After the Norman Conquest French scribes brought many French spelling conventions to written English
<qu> replaced Old English <cw> e.g.‘quick’
 <gh> replaced <h> e.g. ‘night’
<u> looked similar to written <v>, <m> and <n> so they replaced it with <o> in cases where it followed
these letters ‘love’, ‘come’, ‘son’

When Caxton brought his printing press to London, spelling gradually became stabilised and
the London dialect was used as standard. Some other continental conventions were introduced however,
and sometimes printers would miss letters out of words so they would fit on the line.

2.3 Early Modern English

Although printing had stabilised spelling, pronunciation was still changing. During the Great Vowel Shift
the English long vowels underwent huge changes. However, because printing had already established
spelling conventions, the spelling of many words now reflects a much older pronunciation. For example,
in Chaucer’s day, the vowel in ‘name’ was /A:/ but this changed to /eI/ during the shift. The spelling still
reflects the older pronunciation. The shift affected all the English long vowels.

Silent letters are a similar case. Letters such as <k> in ‘knee’ and <e> in ‘time’ were pronounced at the
time spelling was standardised but were lost from pronunciation later on.

2.3.1 Etymology
In the 16th century many scholars decided that spelling should be altered to reflect the roots of words. So,
for example, a <b> was added to ‘debt’ to reflect its origins in the Latin word ‘debitum’.

2.3.2 Borrowings
In the 16th and 17th centuries, many non-English words were introduced into the language from French,
Latin, Greek, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese. Often the spelling was left unchanged from the foreign
spelling. The problem continues today as we still borrow extensively (think about ‘quesadillas’).

2.4 Rules and regularity

Despite all this irregularity, there are many regular aspects to English spelling. To give one example,
consider the English vowel sounds and spellings. In English the letters <a> <e> <i> and <u> all have to
represent two vowels, one short and one long (or diphthongal).

<a> eI as in ‘cape’ Q as in ‘mat’

<e> i: as in ‘meter’ e as in ‘met’
<i> aI as in ‘line’ I as in ‘bit’
<o> «U as in ‘go’ • as in ‘pot’
<u> u: as in ‘lucid’ Ã as in ‘cut’

There is, however, regularity to some extent as the length of the vowel is usually indicated by either:
 Consonant doubling indicates a short preceding vowel cp. ‘coma’ and ‘comma’
or

 A final <e> after a consonant marks the previous vowel as long cp. ‘win’ and ‘wine’(49)(50)

SONG: THE HALLOWEEN:

SONG THE HALLOWEEN (OTHER MANNER) HALLOWEEN (INTERPRETATED

IN ENGLISH)
ˈbɔɪz ənd gɜːlz əv ˈevrɪ eɪʤ Boys and girls of every age

ˈwʊdnt jʊ laɪk tə siː ˈsʌmθɪŋstreɪnʤ


kʌm wɪð ʌs ənd jʊ wɪl siː
ðɪs ˈaʊə taʊn əv Halloween
ðɪs ɪz Halloween
ðɪs ɪz Halloween
ˈpʌmpkɪnz skriːm ɪn ðə ded əvnaɪt
ðɪs ɪz Halloween ˈevrɪbɒdɪ meɪk əsiːn
trɪk ə triːt tɪl ðiː (neighbors) ˈgɒnədaɪ əv fraɪt
ɪts ˈaʊə taʊn ˈevrɪbɒdɪ skriːm
ɪn ðɪs taʊn əv Halloween
aɪ æm ðə wʌn ˈhaɪdɪŋ ˈʌndə jəbed
Tiːθ graʊnd ʃɑːp ənd ˈaɪz ˈgləʊɪŋred
aɪ æm ðə wʌn ˈhaɪdɪŋ ˈʌndə jəsteəz
ˈfɪŋgəz laɪk sneɪks ənd ˈspaɪdəz ɪn maɪ heə
ðɪs ɪz Halloween ðɪs ɪz Halloween
Halloween
Halloween Halloween Halloween
ɪn ðɪs taʊn wi kɔːl həʊm
ˈevrɪwʌn heɪl tə ðə ˈpʌmpkɪn sɒŋ
ɪn ðɪs taʊn dəʊnt wi lʌv ɪt naʊ/
ˈevrɪbɒdɪz ˈweɪtɪŋ fə ðə nekst səˈpraɪz
raʊnd ðæt ˈkɔːnə mæn
ˈhaɪdɪŋ ɪn ðə træʃ kæn
ˈsʌmθɪŋz ˈweɪtɪŋ naʊ tə paʊnsənd
haʊ juːl skriːm
Woudn’t you like to see
something
Strange
Came was us and you will see
This our town of Halloween
This is Halloween
This is Halloween
Pumpkins scream in the bed of
nat
This is Halloween everybody
make a seen
Trick or treat try is : (neighbors)
gone day of frate
It’s our town everybody scream
In this town of Halloween
I am the want hating under the
bed
The around shape and ‘ice’
eleven red
I am the want hating under the
streets
Fingers like snacks and spiders
in my head
This is Halloween , this is
Halloween, Halloween
Halloween, Halloween,
Halloween
In this town We could home
Everyone jail to the pumkin
song
In this town don’t we love it
now
Everybody ‘ s waiting for the
next surprise
Round sad corney man
Hating in the trash can
Something waiting now the
pounds and how your scream

skriːm ðɪs ɪz (Halloween)
red ('n') blæk ˈslaɪmɪ griːn ɑːnt jʊskeəd/
wel ðæts ʤʌst faɪn
seɪ ɪt wʌns seɪ ɪt twaɪs
teɪk ðə ʧɑːns ənd rəʊl ðə daɪs
raɪd wɪð ðə muːn ɪn ðə ded əv naɪt
ˈevrɪbɒdɪ skriːm ˈevrɪbɒdɪ skriːmɪn ˈaʊə taʊn
əv Halloween
aɪ æm ðə klaʊn wɪð ðiː tərəˈweɪfeɪs
hɪə ɪn ə flæʃ ənd gɒn wɪˈðaʊt ətreɪs
aɪ æm ðə huː wen jʊ kɔːl huːz ðeə/
aɪ æm ðə wɪnd ˈbləʊɪŋ θruː jə heə
aɪ æm ðə ˈʃædəʊ ɒn ðə muːn ət naɪt
ˈfɪlɪŋ jə driːmz tə ðə ˈbrɪm wɪðfraɪt
ðɪs ɪz Halloween ðɪs ɪz Halloween Halloween
Halloween Halloween Halloween
ˈtendə lʌmp lɪŋz ˈevrɪweə
laɪfs nəʊ fʌn wɪˈðaʊt ə gʊd skeə
ðæts ˈaʊə ʤɒb bʌt wɪə nɒt miːn
ɪn ˈaʊə taʊn əv (Halloween)
ɪn ðɪs taʊn dəʊnt wi lʌv ɪt naʊ
ˈevrɪwʌnz ˈweɪtɪŋ fə ðə nekst səˈpraɪz
ˈskelɪtn ʤæk maɪt kæʧ jʊ ɪn ðəbæk
Scream this is (Halloween)
Red and black slame green
aren’t you skied
Well seat does fine
Say it ones , say it ones
Take the thanks and real the
days
Read with the moon, in the bed
of night
Everybody scream, everybody
scream in our town
of Halloween
I am the clown with did there
way face
High in a flag and gone without
a trees
I am the hot when you call hurts
deal
I am the wind blowing truth jay
hill
I am the shadow in the moon at
night
Feeling yet dreams to the brain
with frate
This is Halloween , this is
Halloween, Halloween
Halloween, Halloween,
Halloween
Tendy lamp night everyway
Lifes new fun without a good
skin
That’s our grab bat way not
mint
In our town of (Halloween)
In this town doesn’t we love it
now
Everyones waiting for the next
surprise
Skeleton joke met catch you in
the back
And scream like a benefit
Make you jump out of the skin
 ənd skriːm laɪk ə bænˈʃiː This is (Halloween) , everybody
scream
meɪk jʊ ʤʌmp aʊt əv jə skɪn Want please make way for a
very special day
ðɪs ɪz (Halloween) ˈevrɪbɒdɪskriːm Our man joke is king of the
pumpkin king now
wəʊnt (ya) pliːz meɪk weɪ fər ə
ˈverɪ ˈspeʃəl gaɪ
This is Halloween , this is
ˈaʊə mæn ʤæk ɪz kɪŋ əv ðəˈpʌmpkɪn pæʧ Halloween, Halloween
Halloween, Halloween,
ˈevrɪwʌn heɪl tə ðə ˈpʌmpkɪn kɪŋnaʊ/ Halloween
In this place we could home
ðɪs ɪz (Halloween) ðɪs ɪzHalloween everyone jail to the pumpkin
Halloween song

Halloween Halloween Halloween

/ɪn ðɪs pleɪs wi kɔːl həʊmˈevrɪwʌn heɪl tə

ðə ˈpʌmpkɪn sɒŋ/

IDENTIFICATION INTO THE SONG ABOUT THE TEXT :

1. LINKING
2. LINKING OF VOWEL TO VOWEL
3. LINKING OF CONSONANT TO CONSONANT (GEMINATION)
4. ELISION
5. SYNCOPE
6. APHESIS
7. ASSIMILATION
8. PROGRESIVE ASSIMILATION
9. REGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION

CORECTION OF THE SONG THIS IS HALLOWEEN - TIM BURTON - WEEK 14:

THE HALLOWEEN SONG - PHONETIC PART THE HALLOWEEN THIS HALLOWEEN

SONG – – ORIGINAL SONG
IDENTIFICATION
PART
bɔɪz ənd gɜːlz əv ˈevrɪeɪʤ Boys and girls of Boys and girls of
ˈwʊdnt jʊ laɪk tə siːˈsʌmθɪŋ every age every age
streɪnʤ Wouldn't you like
kʌm wɪð ʌs ənd jʊ wɪl siː
ðɪs ˈaʊə taʊn əv Halloween Woudn’t you like to to see something
ðɪs ɪz Halloween, see something strange?
ðɪs ɪz Halloween Strange
ˈpʌmpkɪnz skriːm ɪn ðəded əv naɪt
Come with us
ðɪs ɪz Halloween ˈevrɪbɒdɪ meɪk Came was us and you
ə siːn will see and you will see
trɪk ə triːt tɪl ðiː(neighbors) ˈgɒnə This our town This, our town of
daɪ əv fraɪt of Halloween Halloween
ɪts ˈaʊə taʊn ˈevrɪbɒdɪskriːm
ɪn ðɪs taʊn əv Halloween This is Halloween This is
This is Halloween Halloween, this is
aɪ æm ðə wʌn ˈhaɪdɪŋ ˈʌndə jə bed Halloween
Tiːθ graʊnd ʃɑːp ənd ˈaɪzˈgləʊɪŋ Pumpkins scream in
Pumpkins
red the bed of nat
aɪ æm ðə wʌn ˈhaɪdɪŋ ˈʌndə jə This is Halloween scream in the
steəz everybody make a dead of night
ˈfɪŋgəz laɪk sneɪks əndˈspaɪdəz seen This is
ɪn maɪ heə Halloween,
ðɪs ɪz Halloween ðɪs ɪz Halloween Trick or treat try is : everybody make
Halloween! Halloween! Halloween! (neighbors) gone day a scene
Halloween! of frate Trick or treat till
It’s our town
the neighbors
ɪn ðɪs taʊn wi kɔːl həʊm everybody scream
ˈevrɪwʌn heɪl tə ðə ˈpʌmpkɪn sɒŋ In this town of gonna die of
ɪn ðɪs taʊn dəʊnt wi lʌv ɪt naʊ/ Halloween fright
ˈevrɪbɒdɪz ˈweɪtɪŋ fə ðə nekst It's our town,
səˈpraɪz I am the want hating everybody
raʊnd ðæt ˈkɔːnə mæn under the bed scream
ˈhaɪdɪŋ ɪn ðə træʃ kæn The around shape In this town of
ˈsʌmθɪŋz ˈweɪtɪŋ naʊ tə paʊns ənd and ‘ice’ eleven red Halloween
haʊ juːl skriːm I am the want hating
under the streets
skriːm ðɪs ɪz (Halloween) I am the one
Fingers like snacks
red ('n') blæk ˈslaɪmɪgriːn ɑːnt jʊ hiding under your
and spiders in my
skeəd/ head bed
wel ðæts ʤʌst faɪn Teeth ground
seɪ ɪt wʌns seɪ ɪt twaɪs This is Halloween , sharp and eyes
teɪk ðə ʧɑːns ənd rəʊl ðə daɪs this is Halloween, glowing red
raɪd wɪð ðə muːn ɪn ðəded əv naɪt Halloween Halloween,
ˈevrɪbɒdɪ skriːmˈevrɪbɒdɪ skriːm ɪn Halloween, Halloween
I am the one
ˈaʊə taʊn əv Halloween In this town We could
home hiding under your
aɪ æm ðə klaʊn wɪð Everyone jail to the stairs
ðiːtərəˈweɪ feɪs pumkin song Fingers like
hɪə ɪn ə flæʃ ənd gɒn wɪˈðaʊt snakes and
ə treɪs spiders in my hair
aɪ æm ðə huː wen jʊ kɔːlhuːz In this town don’t we
ðeə/ love it now This is
aɪ æm ðə wɪnd ˈbləʊɪŋθruː jə heə Everybody ‘ s waiting Halloween, this is
aɪ æm ðə ˈʃædəʊ ɒn ðəmuːn ət for the
Halloween
naɪt next surprise
ˈfɪlɪŋ jə driːmz tə ðə ˈbrɪm wɪð fraɪt Round sad corney Halloween!
ðɪs ɪz Halloween ðɪs ɪz Halloween man Halloween!
Halloween,Halloween Halloween Hating in the trash Halloween!
Halloween can Halloween!
Something waiting
ˈtendə lʌmp lɪŋz ˈevrɪweə now the pounds and In this town we
laɪfs nəʊ fʌn wɪˈðaʊt ə gʊd skeə how your scream call home
ðæts ˈaʊə ʤɒb bʌt wɪə nɒt miːn Scream this is
Everyone hail to
ɪn ˈaʊə taʊn əv (Halloween) (Halloween)
ɪn ðɪs taʊn Red and black slame the pumpkin song
dəʊnt wi lʌv ɪt naʊ green aren’t you
ˈevrɪwʌnz ˈweɪtɪŋ fə ðə nekst skied In this town, don't
səˈpraɪz Well seat does fine we love it now?
ˈskelɪtn ʤæk maɪt kæʧjʊ Say it ones , say it Everybody's
ɪn ðə bæk ones waiting for the
ənd skriːm laɪk ə bænˈʃiː Take the thanks and next surprise
meɪk jʊ ʤʌmp aʊt əv jə skɪn real the days
ðɪs ɪz (Halloween) ˈevrɪbɒdɪ skriːm Read with the moon,
in the bed of night Round that
wəʊnt (ya) pliːz meɪk weɪ Everybody scream, corner, man
fər ə ˈverɪ ˈspeʃəl gaɪ everybody scream in hiding in the trash
ˈaʊə mæn ʤæk ɪz kɪŋ əv ðə our town can
ˈpʌmpkɪn pæʧ of Halloween Something's
ˈevrɪwʌn heɪl tə ðəˈpʌmpkɪn waiting now to
kɪŋ naʊ/ I am the clown with pounce, and how
ðɪs ɪz (Halloween) ðɪs ɪz did there way face
you'll scream
Halloween Halloween High in a flag and
Halloween Halloween Halloween gone without a trees
/ɪn ðɪs pleɪs wi kɔːl həʊm ˈevrɪwʌn I am the hot when you Scream! This is
heɪl tə ðə ˈpʌmpkɪn sɒŋ/ call hurts deal Halloween
I am the wind blowing Red 'n' black,
truth jay hill slimy green
I am the shadow in Aren't you
the moon at night scared?
Feeling yet dreams to
the brain with frate
Well, that's just
fine
This is Halloween , Say it once, say it
this is Halloween, twice
Take the chance
Halloween Halloween, and roll the dice
Halloween, Halloween Ride with the
Tendy lamp moon in the dead
night everyway
of night
Lifes new fun without
a good skin
That’s our grab bat Everybody
way not mint scream,
In our town of everybody
(Halloween) scream
In this town doesn’t In our town of
we love it now
Halloween
Everyones waiting for
the next surprise
Skeleton joke met I am the clown
catch you in the back with the tear-
And scream like a away face
benefit Here in a flash
Make you jump out and gone without
of the skin a trace
This is (Halloween) ,
everybody scream
Want please make I am the "who"
way for a very special when you call,
day "Who's there?"
Our man joke is king I am the wind
of the pumpkin king blowing through
now your hair

I am the shadow
This is Halloween ,
this is Halloween, on the moon at
Halloween Halloween, night
Halloween, Halloween Filling your
In this place we could dreams to the
home everyone jail to brim with fright
the pumpkin song This is
Halloween, this is
Halloween
Halloween!
Halloween!
Halloween!
Halloween!
Tender lump
lings everywhere
Life's no fun
without a good
scare

That's our job,

but we're not
mean
in our town of
Halloween
In this town
Don't we love it
now?
Everyone's
waiting for the
next surprise
Skeleton Jack
might catch you
in the back
And scream like
a banshee
Make you jump
out of your skin
This is
Halloween,
everybody
scream
Won't ya please
make way for a
very special
guy
Our man jack is
king of the
pumpkin patch
Everyone hail to
the Pumpkin King
now
This is
Halloween, this is
 Halloween
Halloween!
Halloween!
Halloween!
Halloween!
In this town we
call home
Everyone hail to
the pumpkin
song(65).

LINKING VOWEL TO VOWEL: RED

RESYLLABIFICATION: YELLOW
GENIMATION: GREEN
SYNCOPE: BLUE
ELISSION: VIOLET
SIMPLIFICATION OF CONSONATS CLUSTERS: ORANGE
INTONATION AND SUPRASEGMENTALS - WEEK 15:

INTONATION:

Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. The three main patterns of intonation in
English are: falling intonation, rising intonation and fall-rise intonation.
Falling intonation
Falling intonation describes how the voice falls on the final stressed syllable of a phrase or a group of
words. A falling intonation is very common in wh-questions.
EXAMPLES:
Where’s the nearest p↘ost-office?
What time does the film f↘inish?
We also use falling intonation when we say something definite, or when we want to be very clear about
something:
EXAMPLES:
I think we are completely l↘ost.
OK, here’s the magaz↘ine you wanted.

Rising intonation
Rising intonation describes how the voice rises at the end of a sentence. Rising intonation is common
in yes-no questions:
EXAMPLES:
I hear the Health Centre is expanding. So, is that the new d↗octor?
Are you th↗irsty?

Fall-rise intonation
Fall-rise intonation describes how the voice falls and then rises. We use fall-rise intonation at the end of
statements when we want to say that we are not sure, or when we may have more to add:
EXAMPLES:
I do↘n’t support any football team at the m↘om↗ent. (but I may change my mind in future).
It rained every day in the firs↘t w↗eek. (but things improved after that).
We use fall-rise intonation with questions, especially when we request information or invite somebody to
do or to have something. The intonation pattern makes the questions sound more polite:
EXAMPLES:
Is this your cam↘er↗a?
Would you like another co↘ff↗ee?(57)

The Melody of a Language

"Intonation is the melody or music of a language. It refers to the way the voice rises and
falls as we speak. How might we tell someone that it's raining?

It's raining, isn't it? (or 'innit,' perhaps)

We're telling the person, so we give our speech a 'telling' melody. The pitch-level of our
voice falls and we sound as if we know what we're talking about. We're making a statement.
But now imagine we don't know if it's raining or not. We think it might be, so we're asking
someone to check. We can use the same words--but note the question-mark, this time:

It's raining, isn't it?

Now we're asking the person, so we give our speech an 'asking' melody. The pitch-level of
our voice rises and we sound as if we're asking a question."(59)

SUPRASEGMENTALS:

In speech, a phonological property of more than one sound segment. Also

called nonsegmental.
As discussed in Examples and Observations below, suprasegmental information applies to
several different linguistic phenomena (such as pitch, duration, and loudness).
Suprasegmentals are often regarded as the "musical" aspects of speech.

The term suprasegmental (referring to functions that are "over" vowelsand consonants) was
coined by American structuralists in the 1940s.
"It a'int what you say but the way you say it." This familiar comment, immortalized in song, is the time-
honored way of briefly indicating what suprasegmental analysis is all about.
The segments of spoken language are the vowels and the consonants, which combine to produce
syllables, words, and sentences.
But at the same time as we articulate these segments, our pronunciation varies in other respects. We
make use of a wide range of tones of voice, which change the meaning of what we way in a variety of
different ways. Suprasegmental features operate over longer stretches of speech, such as rhythm and
voice quality as opposed to segmental features, which are the individual sounds.
Students of language and those who plan careers in language teaching, coaching, therapy, acting, and
speaking will benefit greatly from understanding how they can influence meaning by things like length,
intonation, stress, and tone and other suprasegmental features.

Length - the amount of time it takes to produce a sound

Some sounds are longer than others.

English: beat vs. bead

If you were to pronounce both words with longer vowels, the pronunciation might seem strange but the
meaning is not lost. In other words, the meaning of beat and beat are the same.
But in other languages, vowel length actually changes the meaning of words. Therefore, pronunciation of
the lengthened sound is very important because the word means something completely different. Study
these examples in Hawaiian. Length in Hawaiian is indicated with the diacritical mark that looks like a
dash over the vowel, called a kahakō.

Hawaiian: kau "to place"

kāu "to belong to you"

lolo "brain"
lōlō "slang - hardheaded
 kala "to forgive"
kāla "money"
ka lā "the sun"

pau "finished"
pa'u "soot"
pa'ū "skirt"
In English, you can express your emotions by lengthening certain sounds in sentences. By varying the
tempo of words (such as lengthening specific sounds) you can communicate your feelings.

English: Should I leave now?

Yes. (snipped, implies irritation)
Ye-e-e-e-s-s-s-s (implies thoughtfulness)

Intonation - the rising and falling of the voice (pitch) over a stretch of sentence
If pitch varies over an entire phrase or sentence, we call the different pitch curves by the
term intonation. Intonation conveys the speaker's attitude or feelings. In other words, intonation can
convey anger, sarcasm, or various emotions.
How do these sentences - with the exact same words -- mean very different things with different
intonation?

John told me to leave. (normal intonation)

John told me to leave. (emphasis on John: John, not Mike)

John told me to leave. (emphasis on told: told, not asked nicely)

John told me to leave. (emphasis on me: me, not you or Mary)

John told me to leave. (emphasis on leave: leave, not stay)

Other languages don't use intonation in this way. "John told me to leave" is "Jose me mando a salir"
in Spanish. But it's not possible to say Jose me mando a salir or Jose me mando a salir, as we can in
English. Instead of raising your voice to emphasize a word, Spanish uses word order and places the word
to be emphasized at the end of the sentence (note: the written accent marks are left out below):

John told me to leave. Jose me mando a salir. (normal intonation)

John told me to leave. Me mando a salir a José. (emphasis on José)

John told me to leave. Jose me mando a salir a mi. (emphasis on me)

Stress (tense or lax syllables) and Juncture (pauses within sentences to separate
words and meaning)
In English, the stress you place on a syllable can change the meaning of a word.

White House (the US President's house) white house (a house that's white)
nitrate night rate
record (noun) record (verb)
address (noun) address (verb)

When combined with pausing after certain words, the meaning of the whole sentence can completely
change. Click the underlined words to hear the phrases, paying attention to the pauses. Sometimes the
resulting change of meaning is funny, as examples 1 and 2 below demonstrate. (Click the underlined
words to hear them pronounced.)
Example 1: A tight-rope walker is an acrobat. A tight ropewalker is a drunk ropewalker.

Tone - the rising and falling of pitch in a syllable

If the pitch of a single syllable or word has the effect of influencing the meaning of the word, we call the
different pitch distributions by the term tone. Every language uses pitch as intonation, but only some
languages use it as tone. There are two basic types of tones in tone languages.
 Register tones are measured by contrasts in the absolute pitch of different syllables. Register
tones may be high, mid, or low. Many West African languages use contrasts of high mid and low tones
to distinguish word meaning: Zulu, Hausa, Yoruba, Navajo, Apache.
 Contour tones are tones involving a pitch shift upward or downward on a single syllable. Many
languages of East and Southeast Asia use contour tones, the best known being Mandarin Chinese.
Mandarin has four tones for [ma:]. Each word means something different ("mother," "hemp," "horse,"
"scold.") Click here to listen to the pronunciation of four tones in Mandarin, including [ma:],(64)

WEBGRAPHY:

WEEK 1:

1 Color.(n.d.)Retrieved November 17, 2015, from

http://www.skidmore.edu/~hfoley/Perc11.htm
2 Department of Linguistics. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/curriculum/theory_of_language/23/
5 What Are the Consonant Sounds and Letters in English? (n.d.). Retrieved November
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6 ABC FAST Phonics - 11: Long and Short Vowels. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17,
2015, from http://www.abcfastphonics.com/long-short-vowels.html
7 (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/diphthong
8 (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015,
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WEEK 3 & 5

9 What Are Consonant Clusters in English? (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/Consonant-Cluster-Cc.htm
10 What Are the Consonant Sounds and Letters in English? (n.d.). Retrieved November
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WEEK 4:

11 Classificationand meaning of every consonant,manners,sounds. (n.d.). Retrieved

November 17, 2015, from http://www.taringa.net/posts/info/14765679/Classification-
and-meaning-of-every-consonant-manners-sounds.html
12 Trask, R. (2006). Mind the gaffe!: A troubleshooter's guide to English style and
usage. New York: Harper.
13 What is a consonant sound? (2013, May 22). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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WEEK 6:

14 Diphthongs. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from

http://home.hib.no/al/engelsk/seksjon/SOFF-MASTER/Diphthongs.htm
15 Diphthong - Dictionary Definition. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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16 English teaching worksheets: Diphthongs. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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17 Minimal Pairs. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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18 Minimal pairs. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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webster.com/dictionary/diphthong
20 (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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21 PHONOLOGY III. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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UK.
23 Triphthongs. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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24 Up, Up, & Away Phonology! (2012, November 10). Retrieved November 17, 2015.
from
http://crazyspeechworld.com/2012/11/up-up-away-phonology.html
WEEK 8:

25 Crystal,D. (2003). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics (4th ed.). Oxford, UK:
Blackwell.
26 Denham, K., & Lobeck, A. (2010). Linguistics for everyone: An introduction. Boston,
MA: Wadsworth/ Cengage Learning.
27 Finegan, E. (2012). Language: Its Structure and Use, (6th ed). Wadsworth
28 Knowles, G.,& McArthur, T. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the English Language,
edited by Tom McArthur. Oxford University Press,
29 Parker, F., & Riley, K , (1994). Linguistics for Non-Linguists, (2nd ed.). Allyn and Bacon
30 What Is a Syllable? (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/syllableterm.htm
31 What is Word Stress? (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
https://www.englishclub.com/pronunciation/word-stress-2.htm
WEEK 9:

31A Assimilation (phonetics). (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from

http://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/assimilationterm.htm
32 Algeo, J, (1999). "Vocabulary," in The Cambridge History of the English Language, (Volume IV, ed. by
Suzanne Romaine). Cambridge Univ. Press
33 Burridge, K, (2011). Gift of the Gob: Morsels of English Language History: Australia:
HarperCollins 40 ,
34 Collins, B., & Mees, I. (2013). Practical Phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students, (3rd
ed). Routledge.
35 Denham, K., & Lobeck, A. (2010). Linguistics for everyone: An introduction. Boston, MA: Wadsworth/
Cengage Learning
36 Elision in Speech. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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37 ELISION , WEAK WORDS AND ASSIMILATION. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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38 Jones, D., & Roach, P. (2006). Cambridge English pronouncing dictionary: With CD-ROM (17th ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
39 Kansakar Tej. (1998) A Course in English Phonetics. Orient Blackswan
SPIDER MAP:

40 Section 1: What is Prosody? (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from

http://www.cs.columbia.edu/~julia/courses/CS4706/chilin.htm
41 Salzmann, Z. (2004). Language, culture and society : An introduction to linguistic anthropology (3rd
ed.). Boulder (CO): Westview Press.
42 Weak forms. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/weak-forms

WEEK 10:

43 Intonation - gramática inglés en. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/gramatica/gramatica-britanica/intonation
44 Linguistics 001 -- Lecture 15 -- Language and Gender. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2011/ling001/gender.html
45 Making a chart to help us learn the tone rules in Thai. Wow, they are ridiculously complicated. I
appreciate Hmong more. | Travis Gore: Illustration and Design. (2013, June 23). Retrieved November 17,
2015, from http://travisgore.com/making-a-chart-to-help-us-learn-the-tone-rules-in-thai-wow-they-are-
ridiculously-complicated-i-appreciate-hmong-more/
46 Part 6.0: Using PRAAT to analyze tonal languages. (2014, June 6). Retrieved November 17, 2015,
from https://colangpraat.wordpress.com/part-6-0-using-praat-to-analyze-tonal-languages/
47 Tone | speech. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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48 Tones and Accents. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from

http://www.internationalphoneticalphabet.org/ipa-charts/tones-and-accents/

WEEK 14:

49 Clear Language, Clear Mind. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://emilkirkegaard.dk/en/?tag=english-spelling-reform
50 Linguistics hanoi university. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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51 (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from http://www.rachaelanne.net/teaching/uev/uev4.doc
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53 Processes of Connected Speech. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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54 Rachael-Anne Knight, 2003, University of Surrey - Roehampton Understanding English Variation, Week
4
55 Speech phenomena. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://www.slideshare.net/Kengiro/speech-phenomena

56 Sandhi. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from

http://www.elportaldelaindia.com/El_Portal_de_la_India_Antigua/Sandhi.html

WEEK 15:

57 Burton Tim. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from http://www.metrolyrics.com/this-is-halloween-

lyrics-burton-tim.html
58 Crystal, D. (n.d.). A little book of language.
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01.sil.org/computing/ipahelp/ipasupra2.htm
61Linguistics. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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62 Mod 3 Lesson 3.7 Suprasegmentals. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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64 What Is Intonation in English Speech? (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
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65 What Are Suprasegmentals in Speech? (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/Suprasegmental.htm

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