www.ijemr.

net ISSN (ONLINE): 2250-0758, ISSN (PRINT): 2394-6962

Volume-5, Issue-6, December-2015

International Journal of Engineering and Management Research
Page Number: 61-69

Performance and Emission Characteristics of CI Engine with Methyl

Esters of Palm Stearin under Varying Compression Ratios and Fuel
Injection Pressures
A. R. Babu1, G. Amba Prasad Rao2, T. Hari Prasad3
1
Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, Telangana State,
INDIA
2
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, Telangana State, INDIA
3
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College, Rangampet, Tirupati, Andhra
Pradesh, INDIA

ABSTRACT Diesel fueled compression ignition engines are

Of late, use of biodiesel derived from edible oils, non- invariably used in light, medium and heavy duty
edibles oils and animal fats oils is gaining interest among applications. On large scale, they are being used in
research community for meeting stringent emission norms and transportation sector. The versatility of diesel engines is due
meet fuel demands. Palm Stearin is obtained upon to its high fuel conversion efficiency, lower fuel cost, safe
fractionation of palm Olien oil. The present work deals with
operation and high reliability. The increased automotive
experimental investigations conducted on a direct injection
diesel engine under two compression ratios of (16.5 and 19) population over the past two decades has raised the
with different fuel injection pressures (190, 210 and 230 bars) pollution at alarming levels. Moreover, the heavy
at a constant speed of 1500 rpm employing methyl esters of dependence on petroleum derived fuel (diesel fuel) is not
Palm Stearin. The results were compared with the baseline only draining country’s exchequer but also raising the
data on the performance of the engine, when it was run with doubts of its accessibility in future years. Thus the twin
petrol-diesel at a rated FIP of 190 bar and CR 16.5. From the problems of large scale exploitation of petroleum derived
results, the trends of BTE with PSME were found to be similar fuels and associated pollution has made the researchers to
to the baseline results. It was observed that the BTE was high find viable alternate fuels. The intensive research has led to
at injection pressure of 210 bar and CR 16.5 with respect to
the development of various alternate fuels like, alcohol
other PSME trends of 190 and 230 bar.However, the engine
performance was superior with CR19 at the rated injection fuels, natural gas, hydrogen, vegetable oils etc.
pressure of 190 bar. The peak pressures with higher CR were
observed to higher. The engine emissions in terms of HC, CO
and Smoke opacity were lower but the NOₓ were found to be NOMENCLATURE
increased due to the better combustion. The study revealed
that palm stearin could be explored as a source for producing Baseline Petro-diesel
biodiesel in order to utilize palm derived oils effectively with BTE Brake Thermal Efficiency
environmental concern. BSFC Brake specific fuel consumption
CO Carbon Monoxide
Keywords--- CI engine, Palm Stearin Methy Esters, Fuel CR Compression Ratio
injection pressures, Compression ratios, Engine EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature
performance, Exhaust emissions FIP Fuel Injection Pressure
HC Hydro Carbons
NaOH Sodium Hydroxide
NOₓ Nitrogen Oxides
I. INTRODUCTION PSME Palm Stearin Methyl Ester

61 Copyright © 2011-15. Vandana Publications. All Rights Reserved.

www.ijemr.net ISSN (ONLINE): 2250-0758, ISSN (PRINT): 2394-6962
Among these alternate fuels, vegetable oils are best
suited for diesel fuel since its properties are close to petro-
diesel. Though, vegetable oils offer advantages such as
renewable, self sustainability, however, their straight use in
engines is restricted mainly due to its high viscosity. The
vegetable oils are mainly classified as edible and non-edible
oils. Edible oils are sunflower oil, groundnut oil, coconut
oil, olive oil, palm oil etc. Neem oil, Jatropha oil, Cotton
seed oil, Pongamia oil and castor oil are few examples of
non-edible oils. Since there is a demand for edible oils from
domestic uses, fuels should be explored from non-edible
oils.
Attempts made by the researches to reduce the
viscosity of vegetable oils and animal fats and subsequent
its use led to processes such as micro emulsion, pyrolysis,
preheating, blending and transesterification. Among these,
transesterification has gained wide acceptance by the
research community for conversion of untreated oil to
esterified oil and its subsequent use in engines. They
observed that transesterification improved fuel properties
over those of unprocessed vegetable oils. The converted
vegetable oils from raw oil to corresponding methyl/ethyl
esters popularly called as BIODIESEL[1].
The prospects of bio-diesel production from
vegetable oils in India. They have also given the yield and
production cost of various methyl esters, in general
produced from non-edible oils[2].The fuel properties of
karanja methyl ester and tests were carried out to study the
performance and emissions of a diesel engine. They
conducted experiments to examine the characteristics like
torque, power, specific fuel consumption and emissions
with varying proportions of karanja methyl ester-diesel
blends. They observed reduction in exhaust gas emissions,
increase in torque, brake thermal efficiency, and reduced
brake specific fuel consumption when engine was run with
karanja esterified oil and finally concluded that such oil
suitable fuel for diesel engines[3].Karanja oil and its blends
have considerable effect on CI engine emissions and
performance [4]. The variation of injection pressure reduced
the emissions and maximized the performance at both full
and part loads of a CI engine [5]. It was reported that blends
of PPME with diesel up to 40% by volume (B40) yielded
better engine performance and reduced the emissions [6].
The power output of the engine with blends of cotton oil
soap stock biodiesel and diesel fuel decreased by 6.2% and
5.8% respectively. Also, a BSFC value with blended fuels
was observed to be increased by 10.5% [7]. It was reported
that advanced injection timings with Canola oil methyl
esters (COME) for its complete combustion. Also, the brake
specific fuel consumption, brake specific energy
consumption for COME are higher than diesel [8]. It was
reported that at an optimum compression ratio, the engine
performance was observed to be better when compared with
other compression ratios. Also, at higher compression ratios
longer ignition delay, maximum rate of pressure rise, lower
heat release rate and higher mass burnt fraction were
62 Copyright © 2011-15. Vandana Publications. All Rights Reserved.
obtained for waste cooking oil methyl esters when
compared with diesel. B40 blend yielded maximum brake
thermal efficiency and reduction in emissions of CO, HC
and NOₓ emissions at 50% load [9]. Waste plastic oil
yielded 80% higher thermal efficiency, 25% higher NOₓ,
5% higher CO, and 15% higher HC emissions when
compared with diesel fuel. Also, 100% waste plastic oil can
be used to run the engine [10]. It was observed that 20%
Fish Oil Methyl Esters (FOME) delivered almost same
brake thermal efficiency with lower HC, CO and soot
emissions, but higher NOₓ emissions when compared to
diesel fuel [11]. It was observed that there was a reduction
in NOₓ, HC and CO emissions along with a marginal
increase in CO2 and smoke emissions with increase in
biodiesel proportion in diesel for the entire load. The
ignition delay, maximum heat release rate and combustion
duration were lower for biodiesel –diesel blends when
compared to diesel [12]. It is said that karanja oil blends
show similar performance and reduced UBHC, CO and
smoke opacity and increased NOₓ emissions when
compared to diesel fuel. The biodiesel derived from karanja
and its blends could be used in a conventional diesel engine
without any modifications [13].
It is observed from the literature that various
researchers have contributed to the implementation of
processed or methyl/ethyl ester vegetable oils in engines by
adopting higher injection pressures for making blends [14-
23]. Efforts were made by researchers to lower the NOₓ
emissions from the biodiesel fuelled engines with the
addition of EGR and other oxygenated additives [24-26].
Palm stearin is obtained upon fractionation of palm
olien oil. Though it finds applications in shortenings and
margarine. Very few have explored its use as source for
production of biodiesel and its subsequent use in engines.
Few researchers also made use of heterogeneous method of
producing biodiesel using metal doped methoxides [27-32].
In the present study an attempt is made to utilize neat
methyl esters obtained from non-edible oil derived from
Refined Bleached & Deodorised (RBD) Palm Stearin. For
this purpose experimental studies were carried out by
varying compression ratio and fuel injection pressure with
an objective of improving the performance and reducing the
harmful emissions of the engine.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Preparation of Methyl Esters from Palm Stearin.
From the literature review, it is found that most of
the research works have been carried out on a number of
alternative fuels especially biodiesel produced from
different kinds of vegetable oils and animal fats .To begin
with laboratory samples of Palm Stearin methyl esters of
Refined, Bleached & Deodorized (RBD) Palm Stearin were
prepared by adopting standard transesterification process
described by Fangrui Ma and Milford A. Hanna (1999). In
the present case methanol and NaOH as ingredients were
www.ijemr.net ISSN (ONLINE): 2250-0758, ISSN (PRINT): 2394-6962
used. The procedure of making oil from Palm stearin to
final biodiesel is presented in the form of flow chart, Fig.1
and Fig.2 as given below. Table-1 gives the comparison of
important properties of fuels under consideration
Fig. 1. Flow Chart of Biodiesel Production from Palm
Stearin
Fig. 2. Photograph of Biodiesel production
TABLE -1. PROPERTIES OF PALM STEARIN METHYL ESTERS
AND PETRO-DIESEL
III. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
The detailed specifications and schematic diagram
of the engine are given in Table-2 and Fig.3
Initially the experiments were performed with
Petro-diesel maintaining rated fuel injection pressure, rated
63 Copyright © 2011-15. Vandana Publications. All Rights Reserved.
compression ratio and rated speed of 190 bar, 16.5 and 1500
rpm respectively. During the experiments, the engine speed
(1500rpm) and engine coolant outlet temperature (650C)
were maintained constant so as to obtain a steady state
condition of the engine. The results with these details were
treated as baseline data. The equipment/instrumentation
employed is schematically shown as Fig.3. The smoke
opacity of the exhaust gas was measured by smoke Opacity
meter (Make: INDUS Smoke Meter; Model: OMS-103).
Exhaust gas composition was measured using
MORTH/CMVR/TAP-115/116 Part-VIII based exhaust gas
analyzer (Make: INDUS Scientific Pvt Ltd, 5-Gas
Analyzer; Model: PEA-205). This analyzer measures CO,
HC, CO₂, O₂, and NO ₓ in the ex hu ats gas. The
measurement range and accuracy of the exhaust gas
analyzer are given in Table-3. Further experiments were
continued with neat PSME by varying fuel injection
pressures from 190 bar to 230 bar in steps of 20 bars and a
higher compression ratio of 19
TABLE- 2. TEST ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS
Fig. 3. Computer Based Four Stroke Single Cylinder
Variable Compression Ratio Multi Fuel Engine with Eddy
Current Dynamometer
www.ijemr.net ISSN (ONLINE): 2250-0758, ISSN (PRINT): 2394-6962

TABLE-3 : EXHAUST GAS ANALYZER AND SMOKE METER

SPECIFICATIONS

Fig. 4.1 Variation of BSFC with % Full Load Brake Power

at CR =16.5

b) Effect of Injection Pressure at CR = 19:

Further tests were performed on the engine with a
compression ratio of 19. The FIPs are again maintained as
190 bar to 230 bar. Fig. 4.2 shows the variation of BSFC of
the engine when it was from with PSME. In the same
IV. RESULTS & DISCUSSION Figure the baseline data is also compared. It is obvious from
the Figure that the BSFC values for an FIP of 190 bar are
Constant speed, performance and emission related close to baseline data. It is interesting to observe that higher
experiments are performed on a single cylinder DI CI compression ratio has played a vital role in obtaining better
engine with petro-diesel and PSME by varying fuel performance with neat biodiesel.
injection pressures and Compression Ratio of the engine.
The baseline data represent the information on the
performance of the engine when it was run with petrol-
diesel at rated FIP of 190 bar and CR = 16.5. The effect of
fuel injection pressure and CR are investigated on the
important characteristics of an engine and the same are
plotted and discussed appropriately.
4.1. Performance Characteristics of the engine at different
FIPs and CRs with PSME
a) Effect of Injection Pressure at CR = 16.5:
Figure 4.1 represents the variation of BSFC of the
engine with load when the engine was run with PSME by
varying the FIP from 190 bar to 230 bar in steps of 20 bar.
It can be observed that the trends of BSFC of the engine
with PSME are in line with petro-diesel operation.
However, the BSFCs of the engine are on the higher side Fig. 4.2. Variation of BSFC with % Full Load Brake Power
with biodiesel operation when compared to baseline at CR=19
performance. It is interesting to note that as the FIP was
increased, the BSFC values are decreasing. But the values 2. Comparison of BSFCs of engine for different FIPs and
with 210 bar are close to baseline values. It is required to CRs:
adopt higher injection pressures when a fuel with a higher From Fig.4.1 and Fig.4.2 the BSFCs of the engine
viscosity is used compared to petro-diesel. This is also due for load operation are extracted and compared in Fig.4.3(a)
to fact that as the FIP was increased smaller and smaller and Fig.4.3(b) In order to observe the role of compression
size droplets should have produced and which in turn mixed ratio, the best BSFCs obtained with CR= 16.5 and CR=19
thoroughly with available air and let near complete respectively are redrawn as Fig 4.3(c)
combustion. Further, increase in pressure beyond 210 bar From Fig.4.3(c) it can be noticed that compression ratio has
has not helped. Therefore, for this engine configuration it played a dominant role in achieving better performance. It
can be inferred that 210 bar could be an optimum injection can be concluded at this stage, either injection pressure can
pressure. be varied, maintaining the rated CR as it is or compression

64 Copyright © 2011-15. Vandana Publications. All Rights Reserved.

www.ijemr.net ISSN (ONLINE): 2250-0758, ISSN (PRINT): 2394-6962
ratio can be increased by retaining the rated FIP. Therefore,
it is estimated that either an increase in compression ratio of
about 15% or an increase in FIP of about 10% is required to
achieve the performance of the engine with PSME in line
with petro-diesel fuel operation of the respective rated FIP
and CR.
Fig. 4.3(a). Variation of BSFC for PSME under Full Load
for different FIPs and CR=16.5
Fig. 4.3(b). Variation of BSFC for PME under Full Load
for different FIPs and CR=19
Fig. 4.3(c). Comparison of best BSFCs of engine with
PSME under Full Load conditions.
65 Copyright © 2011-15. Vandana Publications. All Rights Reserved.
3. Comparison of Cylinder Pressure(bar) –Crank
angle(Deg) of engine for different FIPs and CRs:
Fig. 4.3(d). Comparison of best P-θdiagrams of engine with
PSME under Full Load conditions.
The variation of Cylinder pressure with respect to
crank angle for different CRs and FIPs are shown in Fig.
4.3(d). The results were compared with the baseline data on
the performance of the engine, when it was run with petrol-
diesel at a constant FIP of 190 bar and CR 16.5. From the
results, the trend of P-θlines with PSME was found similar
to the baseline of petro-diesel. It was observed that the Pθ
line was seen lower at injection pressure of 210 bar and at a
Compression ratio of 16.5 . where as in P-θline was also
found higher for Compression ratio of 19 at the rated
injection pressure of 190 bar with comparng the baseline
data of CR 16.5 and 190 bar.It was noticed that
compression ratio has played a dominant role in achieving
better performance. It can be concluded at this stage,
injection pressure can be varied, maintaining the rated CR
as it is or compression ratio can be increased by retaining
the rated FIP.
Brake thermal efficiency of the engine is an
important non-dimensional performance parameter that
represents the percentage of power developed by the engine
to the amount of heat supplied. Thus, it is reciprocal of
BSFC of the engine. Fig.4.3(e) and Fig.4.3(f) represents
the variation of BTE with respect to the percentage of full
load power. It is oblivious from the two figures that engine
operation with PSME is better with increase in compression
ratio.
www.ijemr.net ISSN (ONLINE): 2250-0758, ISSN (PRINT): 2394-6962

Fig. 4.3(e). Variation of BTE with % Full Load Brake Fig. 4.4. Comparison of best CO Emissions of engine with
Power at CR =16.5 PSME under Full Load conditions

Fig. 4.3(f). Variation of BTE with % Full Load Brake Fig. 4.5. Comparison of best HC Emissions of engine with
Power at CR =19 PSME under Full Load conditions

4.2. Emission Characteristics of the engine at different

FIPs and CRs with PSME.
It was observed the effects of FIP and CR on the
engine performance. During the entire load range of
operation, the emissions of the engine were also measured.
Since the emissions of the CI engine will be significant at
full load operation, therefore, to observe the effect of FIP
and CR, the emission levels are compared for CO, HC,
Smoke Opacity and NOₓ in Figures 4.4, 4.5, 4.6 and 4.7
respectively.

Fig. 4.6. Comparison of best Smoke Opacity of engine with

PSME under Full Load conditions

This can be due to the fact that factors affecting for

formation of CO, HC and Smoke Opacity are almost
similar. It can also be observed that the levels of these

66 Copyright © 2011-15. Vandana Publications. All Rights Reserved.

www.ijemr.net ISSN (ONLINE): 2250-0758, ISSN (PRINT): 2394-6962
emissions with PSME or far lower when compared to
emissions obtained with petro-diesel operation.
Fig. 4.7. Comparison of best NOₓ Emissions of engine with
PSME under Full Load conditions
Fig.4.7 shows the levels of NOₓ for different
conditions. It is interesting to notice that NOₓ levels are
higher with biodiesel compared to petro-diesel operation.
This is well established in the literature that NOₓ emissions
increase with biodiesel operation due to the reactive nature
of biodiesel molecule at higher temperature and oxygen
present in its structure. Since the biodiesel molecule
contains oxygen in its structure, the amount of oxidizer
required by the engine gets reduced.
Fig. 4.8. Variation of VE with % Full Load Brake Power at
CR =16.5
67 Copyright © 2011-15. Vandana Publications. All Rights Reserved.
Fig. 4.9. Variation of VE with % Full Load Brake Power at
CR =19
This can be understood with the lower values of
volumetric efficiency obtained with neat biodiesel operation
which is represented as Fig. 4.8. and Fig. 4.9
Also, because of its reactive nature the in-cylinder
temperatures with biodiesel operation would be higher. This
is also a reason for higher NOₓ levels, since the in-cylinder
temperatures are higher and yields higher exhaust
temperatures. Fig.4.10(a) and Fig4.10(b) show the variation
of EGTs for CR=16.5 and CR=19 respectively. It can be
observed that with a biodiesel operation the EGTs are
higher.
Fig. 4.10(a). Variation of EGT with % Full Load Brake
Power at CR =16.5
www.ijemr.net ISSN (ONLINE): 2250-0758, ISSN (PRINT): 2394-6962
Fig. 4.10(b). Variation of EGT with % Full Load
Brake Power at CR =19
V. CONCLUSIONS
The effects of compression ratio and fuel
injection pressure were studied experimentally when single
cylinder CI engine was run with PSME. Based on the
present work the following conclusions are drawn.
i. Palm stearin methyl esters of about 98.10% yield
was obtained from Refined Bleached &
Deodorized (RBD) Palm Stearin.
ii. The Brake thermal efficiency was observed to be
higher at an injection pressure of 210 bar and CR
of 16.5 where as efficiency was higher for CR of
19 at the rated injection pressure of 190 bar.
iii. Under full load operation and CR 16.5, the
percentage reduction in CO, HC, Smoke Opacity
were observed to be about 14.23%, 39.15% and
2.76% respectively in comparison with baseline
operation.
iv. Under full load operation and CR 19, the
percentage reduction in CO, HC, Smoke Opacity
were observed to be about 12.78%, 39.62% and
4.79% respectively in comparison with baseline
operation.
v. Under full load operation and CR 16.5, a marginal
reduction of about 1.2% was observed in Peak
pressure with PSME compared to Petro-diesel
operation. The in-cylinder pressures are high with
PSME for CR 19.
vi. Under full load operation and CR 19, a percentage
increase of about 12.32% was observed in Peak
pressure with PSME compared to Petro-diesel
operation
vii. The volumetric efficiency of the engine was
relatively low with Palm Stearine Methyl Esters
compared to petro-diesel operation.
viii. Under full load operation and CR 16.5,A
percentage increase of about 16.16% was
68 Copyright © 2011-15. Vandana Publications. All Rights Reserved.
observed in NOₓ emission with Palm Stearine
Methyl Esters compared to Petro-diesel operation
ix. Under full load operation and CR 19,A percentage
increase of about 17.51% was observed in NOₓ
emission with Palm Stearine Methyl Esters
compared to Petro-diesel operation
It is observed that compression ratio has a dominant
effect on performance where as fuel injection pressure as
played a vital role in the reduction of emissions.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors thank the management of Sri
Venkateswara College of Engineering, RVS Nagar,
Chittoor for providing the necessary experimental facilities
to perform this research.
REFERENCES
[1] Ali, Y. and Hanna, M. A. “Alternative Diesel Fuels from
Vegetable Oils”, Bioresource Technology, Vol.50, (1994)
pp. 153-163.
[2] Barnwal.B.K and Sharma, M.P. “Prospects of bio-diesel
production from vegetable oils in India” Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol.9, (2005) pp. 363–378.
[3] Raheman, H, and Phadatare, A.G. “Diesel engine
emissions and performance from blends of karanja methyl
ester and diesel” Biomass and Bioenergy, Vol. 27, (2004)
pp.393 – 397.
[4] Avinash Kumar Agarwal and Rajamanoharan. K “
Experimental investigations of performance and emissions
of Karanja oil and its blends in a Single cylinder
agricultural diesel engine “ Applied Energy, Vol.86 (2009)
pp. 106-112.
[5] Ismet Celikten “An experimental investigation of the
effect of the injection pressure on the engine performance
and exhaust emission in indirect injection diesel engines”
Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol.23 (2003) pp. 2051-2060
[6] Sureshkumar. K, Velraj. R and Ganesan. R
“Performance and exhaust emission characteristics of a CI
engine fueled with Pongamia pinnata methyl ester(PPME)
and its blends with diesel “Renewable Energy, Vol.33
(2008) pp. 2294-2302
[7] Ali Keskin, Metin Guru, Duran Altiparmark, and Kadir
Aydin “ Using of Cotton oil soap stock biodiesel-diesel fuel
blends as an alternative diesel fuel “ Renewable Energy,
Vol.33 (2008) pp. 553-557
[8] Cenk Sayin,Metin Gumus and Mustafa Canakci“Effect
of fuel injection pressure,combustion and performance
characteristics of a DI diesel engine fueled with canola oil
methyl esters-diesel fuel blends “Biomass and Bioenergy,
Vol.46(2012) pp.435-446
[9] Muralidharan. K and Vasudevan. D “Performance,
emission and combustion characteristics of a variable
compression ratio engine using methyl esters of waste
www.ijemr.net ISSN (ONLINE): 2250-0758, ISSN (PRINT): 2394-6962
cooking oil and diesel blends “ Applied Energy, Vol.88
(2011) pp. 3959-3968
[10] Mani. M, Nagarajan. G and Sampath. S “
Characterization and effect of using plastic oil and diesel
fuel blends in compression ignition engine“ Energy, Vol.36
(2011) pp. 212-219
[11] Bhaskar. K, Nagarajan. G and Sampath. S
“Optimization of FOME (fish oil methyl esters) blend and
EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) for simultaneous control of
NOx and particulate matter emissions in diesel
engines“Energy, Vol.62 (2013) pp. 224-234
[12] Sakthivel. G, Nagarjan. G, IIalgkumaran and Aditya
Bajirao Gaikwad “Comparative analysis of performance,
emission and combustion parameters of diesel engine
fuelled with ethyl esters of fish oil and its diesel blends “
Fuel, Vol.132 (2014) pp. 116-124
[13] Bhupendra Singh Chauhan, Naveen Kumar, Haeng
Muk Cho and Hee Chang Lim“A study on the performance
and emission of a diesel fueled with Karanja biodiesel and
blends “Energy, Vol.56 (2013) pp. 1-7
[14] Murugesan. A, Umarani. C, Subramanian. R and
Nedunchezhian “Bio-diesel as an alternative fuel for diesel
engines-A review “ Renewable & Sustainable Energy
Reviews, Vol.13 (2009) pp. 653-662
[15] Staline. N and Prabhu. H. J “Performance test of IC
engine using Karanja biodiesel blending with diesel” ARPN
Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Vol.2, No.5
(2007)
[16] Ajav. E. A, Bachachan Singh, Bhattacharya. T. K”
Experimental study of some performance parameters of a
constant speed stationary diesel engine using ethanol-diesel
blends as fuel” Biomass and Bioenergy, Vol.17 (1999) pp.
357-365
[17] Avinash Kumar Agarwal “ Biofuels (alcohols and
biodiesel) applications as fuels for internal combustion
engines “ Progress in Energy and Combustion Science,
Vol.33 (2007) pp. 233-271
[18] Karmee, Sanjib Kumar, and Anju Chadha. "Preparation
of biodiesel from crude oil of Pongamia
pinnata." Bioresource technology 96.13 (2005): 1425-1429.
[19] Meher, L. C., S. N. Naik, and L. M. Das.
"Methanolysis of Pongamia pinnata (karanja) oil for
production of biodiesel." Journal of scientific and industrial
research 63.11 (2004): 913-918.
[20] MohamedMusthafa, M., S. P. Sivapirakasam, and M.
Udayakumar. "Comparative studies on fly ash coated low
heat rejection diesel engine on performance and emission
characteristics fueled by rice bran and pongamia methyl
ester and their blend with diesel." Energy 36.5 (2011):
2343-2351.
[21] Meher, L. C., Vidya SS Dharmagadda, and S. N. Naik.
"Optimization of alkali-catalyzed transesterification of
Pongamia pinnata oil for production of
biodiesel." Bioresourcetechnology 97.12 (2006): 1392-
1397.
69 Copyright © 2011-15. Vandana Publications. All Rights Reserved.
[22] Ma, Fangrui, and Milford A. Hanna. "Biodiesel
production: a review." Bioresource technology 70.1 (1999):
1-15.
[23] Zhang, Ni, et al. "Combustion and emission
characteristics of a turbo-charged common rail diesel engine
fuelled with diesel-biodiesel-DEE blends." Frontiers in
Energy 5.1 (2011): 104-114.
[24] Venkateswarlu, K., et al. "Effect of exhaust gas
recirculation and ethyl hexyl nitrate additive on biodiesel
fuelled diesel engine for the reduction of NO x emissions."
Frontiers in Energy 6.3 (2012): 304-310.
[25] Prabu, A., and R. B. Anand. "Inhibition of NO
emission by adding antioxidant mixture in Jatropha
biodiesel on the performance and emission characteristics of
a CI engine." Frontiers in Energy (2015): 1-8.
[26] Murthy, Satya Vara Prasad Ua Madhu, and K. Amba
Prasad Rao GADDALE. "Effective utilization of B20 blend
with oxygenated additives."Thermal
Science,Vol.15(2011):1175-1184
[27] Polprasert, Chongchin, Withida Patthanaissaranukool,
and Andrew J. Englande. "A choice between RBD (refined,
bleached, and deodorized) palm olein and palm methyl ester
productions from carbon movement
categorization." Energy88 (2015): 610-620.
[28] Theam, Kok Leong, et al. "Biodiesel from low cost
palm stearin using metal doped methoxide solid
catalyst." Industrial Crops and Products 76 (2015): 281-289.
[29] Issariyakul, Titipong, and Ajay K. Dalai. "Biodiesel
from vegetable oils."Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 31 (2014): 446-471.
[30] Salvi, B. L., and N. L. Panwar. "Biodiesel resources
and production technologies–A review." Renewable and
sustainable energy reviews 16.6 (2012): 3680-3689.
[31] May, Choo Yuen, et al. "Key fuel properties of palm
oil alkyl esters." Fuel 84.12 (2005): 1717-1720.
[32] Cardoso, Claudia Cristina, et al. "Comparison of the
properties of special biofuels from palm oil and its fractions
synthesized with various alcohols." Fuel 135 (2014): 406-
412.