EVALUATION AND PREDICTION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

DURABILITY BY MEANS OF DURABILITY INDICATORS

PART I: NEW PERFORMANCE-BASED APPROACH

V. Baroghel-Bouny

Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées, Paris, France

Abstract
This paper presents a new performance-based approach devoted to the evaluation and the
prediction of the durability of reinforced concrete (RC) structures. It is based upon durability
indicators (DIs) and monitoring parameters. This paper is separated in two parts. In this Part I,
first, the selected panel of "universal" DIs is presented. A system of classes with respect to the
"potential" durability of RC is then proposed relatively to these DIs. These classes are
intended for mixture comparison and selection. In addition, with the purpose of protecting
structures against carbonation- or chloride-induced corrosion, performance-based
specifications are suggested, as a function of the environmental conditions and of the target
service life. Finally, within the framework of service life prediction, a multi-level modelling
approach is proposed, where the DIs and the monitoring parameters are involved as input and
output data, respectively. This aspect will be detailed in Part II of the paper.

1. INTRODUCTION: PERFORMANCE APPROACH BASED UPON DURABILITY

INDICATORS
Nowadays, important and worldwide efforts are made in the development of durability
approaches, in order to ensure long lifetime (often over 100 years for many civil engineering
structures), safety and reliability, to reinforced and prestressed concrete structures. At the
same time, environmental concerns are increasing and economical constraints are tightened.
From a material standpoint, the approaches exclusively based upon requirements on
concrete composition, properties and composition of concrete constituents (prescriptive
specifications), and compressive strength, have shown their limits. This is particularly
obvious, faced with the increasing use of complex mixtures incorporating "new" cements [1]
and various organic and mineral admixtures, which provide to engineers multiple
possibilities, at least as regards the mix-design, to reach the durability requirements. One can
mention for example the recent development in North America of ternary blends [Portland
cement + silica fume + fly ash] [2,3] or [Portland cement + silica fume + blast furnace slag]
[4]. It is indeed now accepted that the incorporation of hydraulic or pozzolanic admixtures is
likely to change in a greater extent the physical and chemical properties of the hardened
material (in particular transport properties and fluid-matrix interactions, see [5]) than the
mechanical ones.
Therefore, a performance-based approach seems the most relevant for durability issues
and has to be applied as early as the design stage. Examples of approaches already developed
according to such a trend can be found in the recent literature (see for example [6,7,8,17]).
 In this paper, the outline of a new durability approach is presented. It is based on key
material properties that have a clear physical meaning, the so-called durability indicators
(DIs), on the specification of appropriate compliance performance-based criteria, and on
predictive models. The purpose of this performance-based and predictive approach is to
design concrete mixtures capable of protecting reinforced concrete (RC) structures against a
given degradation (reinforcement corrosion or alkali-silica reaction), for the target lifetime
and in given environmental conditions. This new approach is detailed in a document, which
includes both a state-of-the-art of the physical and chemical underlying phenomena, of the
test methods and of the models available, and a guide (along with recommendations)
describing all the tools required for (practical) application of the approach [9] (see also [10],
[11] or [12]).
If one considers the case of steel reinforcement corrosion, which is known as the major
deterioration process that affects RC structures, the degradation phenomena occurring in the
course of time can be characterized by two phases (as defined in [13]). These two phases are
the initiation (or induction) period, which corresponds to the time necessary for steel
depassivation induced either by carbonation or by chloride penetration, and the propagation
period, which corresponds to the formation of rust and in particular of expanding corrosion
products. Within the framework of the "material approach" described in this paper, only the
initiation period is regarded (safe side). This means that the depassivation of the first layer of
rebars is assumed as the limit state, and the service life is assumed as the time period of
initiation: time needed to reach a threshold at the first layer of rebars. This threshold is pH = 9
in the case of carbonation, while it is the "critical" chloride concentration as regards
depassivation (defined as the concentration which leads to depassivation of the reinforcement
surface and to initiation of iron dissolution, see [14]) in chloride-contaminated environments.
It is well known that durability is the capability of a structure to fulfil its function during its
design service life. However, durability assessment may refer to various issues, as it will be
illustrated in this paper (Parts I and II), as regards the protection against carbonation- and
chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion.

2. SELECTED PANEL OF "UNIVERSAL" DURABILITY INDICATORS AND

(OPTIONAL) COMPLEMENTARY PARAMETERS
The durability indicators have been selected upon both their theoretical relevance in the
quantification and the prediction of durability (e.g. transport properties involved in governing
equations), and their reliable and easy assessment by means of well-defined and reproducible
laboratory methods (see [9,11,12,20]). For many durability issues, a single parameter is not
sufficient to characterize the behaviour of concrete, owing to the various driving forces that
are involved in the transport of aggressive species (e.g. concentration gradient or total
pressure gradient) and to the complex physical and chemical processes that take place. A
whole set of parameters is required. Some of these parameters are basic physical and chemical
properties that can be considered as "universal" durability indicators, since they are the most
relevant as regards many degradation processes. The panel of "universal" DIs, which has been
selected according to the previously mentioned criteria, includes microstructural
characteristics and transport properties:
• (initial) calcium hydroxide (content),
• porosity (accessible to water),
• (chloride) ion diffusion coefficients,
• permeability (to gas and/or to liquid water).This panel of "universal" DIs may be
complemented by some more specific indicators with respect to the degradation processes
identified or foreseen (reinforcement corrosion, ASR, sulphate attack, or freeze-thaw
damage), according to the environmental conditions of the designed structure. Examples of
specific durability indicators can be found in [9].
Note that the number of "universal" DIs selected is very small. This will make the
approach easy to use. Furthermore, these parameters are complementary, but the whole panel
is not systematically necessary in every case. Among the proposed parameters, the
appropriate indicators will depend on the practical case addressed (degradation processes,
environmental conditions, design service life, ...), as it will be detailed in the following (see
for example the parameters involved in the durability specifications presented in section 4, or
those required by the various predictive models described in Part II [19]).
In addition to the DIs, optional complementary parameters can be defined. Their
determination is not mandatory but can be required for example when the selected method for
the evaluation of some of the indicators is indirect, or when these parameters appear as input
data in a predictive model. For example, the "free" chloride concentration at the concrete
surface cs and the chloride binding isotherm (or the binding capacity) appear as useful
complementary parameters as regards chloride ingress into concrete (see next sections and
Part II [19]). Other examples of complementary parameters are provided in [9].

3. CLASSES ASSOCIATED WITH DURABILITY INDICATORS: EVALUATION OF

THE "POTENTIAL" DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
From a material standpoint, durability assessment may first consist of a qualitative or
quantitative evaluation of the "potential" (or likely) durability by measuring various properties
(typically the DIs) on laboratory samples. This evaluation can be performed on the basis of a
system of classes. The performances of various concrete mixtures can thereby be compared
and the ranking then obtained can be used by designers or engineers, to guide in selecting
concretes (upon predefined criteria), optimizing the mix-design, or controlling the material
quality according to performance bases.
With this purpose, a system of classes, ranging from the very low to the very high level, is
proposed, in order to assess the "potential" durability of a given RC. The classes regarding the
protection against reinforcement corrosion are summarized in Table 1. These classes refer to
DIs measured on a broad range of concretes cured in water for 90 days (or less) by well-
defined methods (described in [9,11,12,20]), since the DIs are not intrinsic properties of the
material but are strongly dependent on the test method and conditions. As far as the chloride
diffusion coefficient is concerned, effective and apparent coefficients are distinguished, as
well as the test type (diffusion or migration) in the case of the apparent coefficient.
Until now, such systems of classes were scarce in the literature. As far as Dapp(mig)
measured in non-steady-state conditions is concerned, a good correspondence is shown
between the classes suggested here and those reported in reference [15], in spite of a different
terminology. Recently, du Preez and Alexander have also proposed classes, in order to assess
the "potential" durability [16]. Their classes were based on O2 permeability index (negative
log of the permeability deduced from falling head permeameter measurement), water
sorptivity, and chloride conductivity measured on the "covercrete". Nevertheless, no direct
comparison can be made between this reference and the classes suggested here, since the
parameters and the test methods are different in the two cases. Note that Torrent proposed
earlier also a classification of the "covercrete" quality, based on O2 and air permeability,
measured by means of CEMBUREAU and TORRENT gas permeameter, respectively [21].
Table 1: Classes relative to the "potential" durability with respect to reinforcement corrosion associated with
"universal" DIs measured according to well-defined test procedures (mean values deduced from at least 3
concrete samples cured in water for 90 days or less)
Classes
"Potential" durability → Very low Low Medium High Very high
Porosity accessible to water Pw (%) > 16 14 to 16 12 to 14 9 to 12 6 to 9
Effective chloride diffusion coefficient
>8 2 to 8 1 to 2 0.1 to 1 < 0.1
Deff(1) (10-12 m2.s-1)
Apparent chloride diffusion coefficient
10 to 50 5 to 10 1 to 5 <1
Dapp(mig)(2) (10-12 m2.s-1)
> 50
Apparent chloride diffusion coefficient
<5
Dapp(dif)(3) (10-12 m2.s-1)
Apparent gas permeability Kapp(gas)(4) (10-18 m2)
> 1000 300 to 1000 100 to 300 30 to 100 < 30
(liquid water saturation rate s=0)
Intrinsic liquid water permeability kliq(5) (10-18 m2) > 10 1 to 10 0.1 to 1 0.01 to 0.1 < 0.01
Initial Ca(OH)2 content (% by mass of cement)(6) < 10 10 to 13 13 to 20 20 to 25 ≥ 25
(1)
: related to Fick's 1st law
(2)
: related to Fick's 2nd law and measured by means of a migration test under an electrical field
(3)
: related to Fick's 2nd law and measured by means of a diffusion test
(4)
: measured by means of a constant head permeameter at Pinlet = 0.2 MPa and after oven drying at T = 105 ± 5 °C
(5)
: by direct flow measurement, after saturation
(6)
: for plain mixtures prepared with CEM I (type I OPCs)

The evaluation of the "potential" (transport-related) durability of a given RC will consist of

the comparison of the DI values measured by means of laboratory tests according to the
defined procedures (or extracted from a database), with the respective classes presented in
Table 1, as illustrated in Fig. 1 (process 1).
Evaluation of the "potential" Selection or qualification of
durability of a given RC mixtures for a given structure

Durability specifications
Proposed classes comparison comparison
included in the Project

1 2

Durability indicators

Laboratory tests or Database Proposed specifications

- age
- I.C. and B.C well-defined
- test procedure

Figure 1: Implementation of the performance approach based upon durability indicators:

1) evaluation of the "potential" durability of a given reinforced concrete,
2) selection or qualification of concrete mixtures for a given structure.
Such an evaluation, and the consecutive comparison (ranking) between various concrete
mixtures, can be performed according to each indicator determined, or on the basis of an
overall rating, as the "potential" durability with respect to reinforcement corrosion, may
differ, depending on the DI considered. The respective weight of each indicator will then
depend on its influence on the transport-related durability and the underlying degradation
process. The relevance and the validity of the system of classes proposed in Table 1 has been
illustrated in [10,18].

4. SPECIFICATIONS BASED UPON DURABILITY INDICATORS: SELECTION

OR QUALIFICATION OF CONCRETE MIXTURES FOR A GIVEN STRUCTURE
There is an increasing need for including reliable performance-based requirements as
regards RC durability in standards and design codes, as well as in (residential and industrial)
building and civil engineering contracts (projects). Therefore, in order to help designers,
structure owners, contractors, etc, when drafting such durability requirements, specifications
as a function of the environmental conditions, of the target service life, and of the degradation
process, are proposed here, with regards to the protection against carbonation- and chloride-
induced reinforcement corrosion. These specifications are based upon the "universal" DIs and
the classes previously defined (see Table 1) and on threshold values associated with an
appropriate selection of these DIs. They have been drawn up on the basis of a broad range of
experimental data and checked by numerical simulations involving several types of models
[9,10,12,18]. The environment types were defined according to the EN 206-1 exposure
classes, and by merging some of these classes according to the degradations considered.
Such specifications provide a correlation between the DIs, which are measured in well-
defined laboratory conditions, preferably on 90-day old laboratory specimens in order to limit
the chemical evolution during the tests (short-term performance), and service life in various
environments (long-term durability performance). They are presented as a cross table. An
example is given in Table 2 (respectively in Table 3), with regards to carbonation-induced
(respectively chloride-induced) reinforcement corrosion, where Pw is given in %, Dapp(mig) in
10-12 m2.s-1, and the permeabilities Kapp(gas) (at s=0 and at Pinlet = 0.2 MPa) and kliq (at s=1) in
10-18 m2. These suggested values refer to concrete samples cured in water for 90 days or less,
under the assumption that the minimum cover thickness specified in the European regulations
is respected. The colours (or grey levels) correspond to the classes defined in Table 1. These
specifications cover a wide range of lifetimes. Level 1 corresponds mainly to industrial
buildings and temporary structures, level 2 corresponds to industrial and residential buildings,
level 3 to buildings and bridges, level 4 to great bridges, whereas level 5 rather corresponds to
special structures (such as water dams, nuclear waste repositories, etc).
For each target service life (requirement level) and each environment type, a set of DIs has
to be checked and different compliance criteria have to be met. In the case of structures in
non- or mildly-aggressive environments, with low requirement level, the durability
specifications are restricted to a single DI, which can be readily determined (porosity) (see
Tables 2 and 3). This last point is particularly interesting from an economical point of view.
In addition, it warrants that this methodology is useful, not only for big projects, but also for
common buildings and small bridges. This will ensure a wide-range application of the
proposed approach. On the other hand, when both the requirement level and the
aggressiveness of the environment increase, the number of DIs to check also increases (up to
four), and the criteria (threshold values) are more stringent. For example, in the case of
immersion in seawater, the specifications refer to the porosity and the chloride diffusion
coefficient, whereas in the case of exposure to salts or in tidal zones, permeability is also
addressed when a high durability level is required (see Table 3).
Table 2: Durability specifications suggested with respect to carbonation-induced reinforcement corrosion,
according to the environmental conditions and the target service life, relatively to concrete samples cured in
water for 90 days or less (minimum cover thickness = 30 mm)
Environment type → 1 2 3 4
Target service life Dry and very dry Highly wet Lighlty wet Frequent
Requirement level (RH<65%) or (RH>80%) (65<RH<80%) drying-
↓ permanently wet wetting cycles
< 30 years •Pw < 16 •Pw < 16 •Pw < 15 •Pw < 16
Level 1
from 30 to 50 years •Pw < 16 •Pw < 16 •Pw < 14 •Pw < 14
Level 2
from 50 to 100 years •Pw < 14 •Pw < 14 •Pw < 12 •Pw < 12
Level 3 •Kapp(gas) < 100
•kliq < 0.1
from 100 to 120 years •Pw < 12 •Pw < 12 •Pw < 9 •Pw < 9
Level 4 •Kapp(gas) < 100 •Kapp(gas) < 100 •Kapp(gas) < 10 •Kapp(gas) < 10
•kliq < 0.01
> 120 years •Pw < 9 •Pw < 9 •Pw < 9 •Pw < 9
Level 5 •Dapp(mig) < 1
•Kapp(gas) < 10 •Kapp(gas) < 10 •Kapp(gas) < 10
•kliq < 0.01 •kliq < 0.01 •kliq < 0.01
Table 3: Durability specifications suggested with respect to chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion, according
to the environmental conditions and the target service life, relatively to concrete samples cured in water for 90
days or less (minimum cover thickness = 50 mm)
Environment type → 5 6 7
Target service life Exposure to marine or deicing Immersion in Tidal zone
Requirement level salt spraying seawater
↓ 5.1 (cs ≤ 10 g.L-1) 5.2 (cs ≥ 100 g.L-1)
< 30 years •Pw < 16 •Pw < 14 •Pw < 15 •Pw < 14
Level 1
from 30 to 50 years •Pw < 15 •Pw < 11 •Pw < 13 •Pw < 11
Level 2
from 50 to 100 years •Pw < 14 •Pw < 11 •Pw < 13 •Pw < 11
Level 3 •Dapp(mig) < 2 •Dapp(mig) < 7 •Dapp(mig) < 3
•kliq < 0.1 •kliq < 0.1
from 100 to 120 years •Pw < 12 •Pw < 9 •Pw < 12 •Pw < 10
•Dapp(mig) < 20 •Dapp(mig) < 1 •Dapp(mig) < 5 •Dapp(mig) < 2
Level 4 •Kapp(gas) < 30 •Kapp(gas) < 100
•kliq < 0.1 •kliq < 0.01 •kliq < 0.05
> 120 years •Pw < 9 •Pw < 9 •Pw < 9 •Pw < 9
•Dapp(mig) < 10 •Dapp(mig) < 1 •Dapp(mig) < 1 •Dapp(mig) < 1
Level 5 •Kapp(gas) < 30 •Kapp(gas) < 30 •Kapp(gas) < 30
•kliq < 0.01 •kliq < 0.01 •kliq < 0.01

In the practice, these suggested specifications can be adapted or complemented, in order to

take into account the specificities of the project, different cover thickness, economical criteria,
etc. The threshold values are also likely to evolve in the future according to further experience
feedback, techniques/models improvement, scientific or technological advances, and so on.
 The selection or the qualification of a concrete mixture, for a given designed building
structure or civil infrastructure, will be performed by checking that the whole durability
specifications written in the contract (project) are fulfilled (according to Fig. 1, process 2).
Checking involves the measurement, on laboratory samples and in the required experimental
conditions, of the various DIs appearing in the specifications.

5. SERVICE LIFE PREDICTION AND MONITORING OF RC STRUCTURES

The new durability approach can also be used in a more quantitative way, in order to
predict the service life of RC structures at the design stage or the "residual" lifetime of
existing and possibly deteriorated structures. The proposed methodology requires in this case
three essential tools: the previously defined durability indicators, predictive model(s), and
monitoring parameters, where the model has a central role (see Fig. 2). This is a multi-level
predictive modelling approach. This means that a panel, covering different levels of
sophistication, of relevant and easily accessible predictive models has been selected among
those recently developed or in current development. The various selected models are thus
devoted to different issues. This will be detailed and illustrated in Part II of this paper, in the
cases of carbonation and chloride ingress [19].
material
Durability indicators parameters
(input data of
the model)

Model
- state equations - transport equations
- I.C. and B.C. - variation "laws" relative to indicators: f(t, T°, RH, x, …)

In-situ measurement of Calibration of the "laws"

DIs at given exposure times included in the model (numerical
outputs of the
model)

Calculated monitoring parameters

Figure 2: Implementation of the approach based upon durability indicators according to a quantitative way for
service life prediction. Central role of the model.
Prediction of the durability (service life) of a given RC structure at the design stage will
require comparing the numerical outputs of models (so-called monitoring parameters [11],
see Figs. 2 and 3) to the structural characteristics (typically the cover thickness), as illustrated
in Fig. 3 (process 1).
The monitoring parameters can be chloride concentration or carbonation profiles, chloride
penetration or carbonation depth (as a function of time), in the case of chloride- or
carbonation-induced corrosion respectively. The purpose here could be either to select a
concrete mixture for a given cover thickness, or to select the minimum cover thickness for a
given mixture.
The evaluation of the in-situ state of a structure at a given age and the prediction of its
"residual" lifetime will require in addition the comparison of the numerical values of the
monitoring parameters with the values measured in situ and the recalculation of the service
 life on this basis, as illustrated in Fig. 3 (processes 2 and 3). A typical case consists of the
prediction of the future (long term) evolution of the chloride concentration profile from
experimental profile(s) obtained at earlier ages (medium term), as illustrated in Part II [19].
The test methods available for the measurement of the various monitoring parameters are
described in [9] (and more precisely, in [11] with regards to the specific case of chloride
ingress and in [22] with regards to carbonation).
(numerical
Calculated monitoring parameters outputs of the
model)
(kinetics and/or profiles)

Monitoring parameters
Structural
measured in situ(*)
comparison comparison characteristics
at given exposure times
(cover thickness, …)
(*): and/or in laboratory 3 1
2

Evaluation of the in- Prediction of the "residual" Prediction of the service life of
situ state (diagnosis) lifetime of the structure the structure (design stage)

and/or 2nd stage of model validation (or re-calibration) in natural environment

and/or 1st stage of model validation (or re-calibration) in laboratory
Figure 3: Implementation of the predictive approach based upon durability indicators. Role of the monitoring
parameters:
1) prediction of the service life of reinforced concrete structures at the design stage,
2) diagnosis,
3) model validation and prediction of the "residual" lifetime of existing (degraded) structures.

6. CONCLUSION: TOOLKIT FOR DURABILITY EVALUATION AND

PREDICTION
Finally, the package:
• system of classes,
• performance-based specifications, according to the environmental conditions and the
required service life,
• predictive models (together with the relevant monitoring parameters and their associated
test methods),
where each component involves the same panel of durability indicators (porosity,
permeability, chloride diffusion coefficient, and/or initial Ca(OH)2 content) and their
associated test methods, along with optional complementary parameters, constitutes a toolkit
for an efficient evaluation and prediction of reinforced concrete durability, as regards the
protection against carbonation- and chloride-induced corrosion.
 Within the framework of this approach, each tool has a precise function and takes place at
a precise step. For example, a carbonation depth (or profile) is typically a monitoring
parameter and cannot replace a durability indicator. Further, both laboratory tests and long-
term monitoring of the structure, or at least long-term exposure testing of the reinforced
concrete in the foreseen natural conditions of the structure, are required for validation of the
models and thereafter lifetime prediction.
The new approach proposed offers greater freedom to engineers and designers and allows
manufacturers to innovate, and to develop new products and optimal technological solutions.
The achievement of specified levels of performance allows to take advantage of all the
technical and economical benefits of new concepts of mix-design (e.g. HPCs, mixtures
incorporating supplementary cementitious materials like fly ash, ...) and high-tech materials,
from which an extended service life can be expected for the structures, as confirmed by the in-
situ performance data already available.
In addition, this approach is likely to constitute a relevant basis for the drafting, updating
and revision of documents such as test procedures, cement and concrete standards, or design
codes. For example, the toolkit presented here could help to include a precise description of a
performance-based approach in the European Standard of Concrete EN 206-1 and Design
Code Eurocode 2. Meanwhile, the need for both standardization of existing test methods and
development of more sophisticated techniques are pointed out.
Furthermore, the general approach described in this paper has been developed according to
an evolving feature. This means that the various tools can be updated and improved in the
future, according to scientific, technical or technological advances.
By the end, such an approach as described in this paper will reveal its greatest interest, in
particular to help efficiently the various stakeholders of the construction sector and more
particularly the decision-makers, when applied according to a global way (life-cycle cost and
risk analysis):
• including material and structural aspects,
• meeting optimally not only technical performance-based criteria, but also the various
environmental, social and economic criteria related to the project,
• taking into account both the early-age behaviour and the long-term ageing,
• taking benefit of its validity for the entire life cycle of structures, from the design stage as
well as for the monitoring and the maintenance of (degraded) existing structures and for
the development of repair strategies (e.g. support for decision making as regards time and
type of intervention).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank the members of the AFGC Working Group "Durability
indicators", who have contributed to the elaboration of this new durability approach.

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