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The development of the modern day electrical energy system took a few centuries.
Prior to 1800, scientists like William Gilbert, C. A. de Coulomb, Luigi Galvani, Benjamin
Franklin, Alessandro Volta etc. worked on electric and magnetic field principles. However,
none of them had any application in mind. They also probably did not realize that their work
will lead to such an exciting engineering innovation. They were just motivated by the
intellectual curiosity.
Between 1800 and 1810 commercial gas companies were formed first in Europe
and then in North America. Around the same time with the research efforts of scientists like
Sir Humphrey Davy, Andre Ampere, George Ohm and Karl Gauss the exciting possibilities of
the use of electrical energy started to dawn upon the scientific community.
In England, Michael Faraday worked on his induction principle between 1821 and
1831. The modern world owes a lot to this genius. Faraday subsequently used his induction
principle to build a machine to generate voltage. Around the same time American engineer
Joseph Henry also worked independently on the induction principle and applied his work on
electromagnets and telegraphs.
For about three decades between 1840 and 1870 engineers like Charles Wheatstone,
Alfred Varley, Siemens brothers Werner and Carl etc. built primitive generators using the
induction principle. It was also observed around the same time that when current carrying
carbon electrodes were drawn apart, brilliant electric arcs were formed. The
commercialization of arc lighting took place in the decade of 1870s. The arc lamps were used
in lighthouses and streets and rarely indoor due to high intensity of these lights. Gas was still
used for domestic lighting. It was also used for street lighting in many cities.
From early 1800 it was noted that a current carrying conductor could be heated to the
point of incandescent. Therefore the idea of using this principle was very tempting and
attracted attention. However the incandescent materials burnt very quickly to be of any use.
To prevent them from burning they were fitted inside either vacuum globes or globes filled
with inert gas. In October 1879 Thomas Alva Edison lighted a glass bulb with a carbonized
cotton thread filament in a vacuum enclosed space. This was the first electric bulb that
glowed for 44 hours before burning out. Edison himself improved the design of the lamp later
and also proposed a new generator design.
The Pearl Street power station in New York City was established in 1882 to sell
electric energy for incandescent lighting. The system was direct current three-wire, 220/110 V
and supplied Edison lamps for a total power requirement of 30 kW.
The only objective of the early power companies was illumination. However we can
easily visualize that this would have resulted in the under utilization of resources. The
lighting load peaks in the evening and by midnight it reduces drastically. It was then obvious
to the power companies that an elaborate and expensive set up would lay idle for a major
amount of time. This provided incentive enough to improve upon the design of electric
1.2
motors to make them commercially viable. The motors became popular very quickly and
were used in many applications. With this the electric energy era really and truly started.
However with the increase in load large voltage and unacceptable drops were
experienced, especially at points that were located far away from the generating stations due
to poor voltage regulation capabilities of the existing dc networks. One approach was to
transmit power at higher voltages while consuming it at lower voltages. This led to the
development of the alternating current.
In 1890s the newly formed Westinghouse Company experimented with the new form
of electricity, the alternating current. This was called alternating current since the current
changed direction in synchronism with the generator rotation. Westinghouse Company was
lucky to have Serbian engineer Nicola Tesla with them. He not only invented polyphase
induction motor but also conceived the entire polyphase electrical power system. He however
had to face severe objection from Edison and his General Electric Company who were the
proponents of dc. The ensuing battle between ac and dc was won by ac due to the following
factors:
Transformers could boost ac voltage for transmission and could step it down for
distribution.
The construction of ac generators was simpler.
The construction of ac motors was simpler. Moreover they were more robust and
cheaper than the dc motors even though not very sophisticated.
With the advent of ac technology the electric power could reach more and more
people. Also size of the generators started increasing and transmission level voltages started
increasing. The modern day system contains hundreds of generators and thousands of buses
and is a large interconnected network.
Modern day power systems are complicated networks with hundreds of generating
stations and load centers being interconnected through power transmission lines. Electric
power is generated at a frequency of either 50 Hz or 60 Hz. In an interconnected ac power
system, the rated generation frequency of all units must be the same. In India the frequency is
50 Hz.
The basic structure of a power system is shown in Fig. 1.1. It contains a generating
plant, a transmission system, a subtransmission system and a distribution system. These
subsystems are interconnected through transformers T1, T2 and T3. Let us consider some
typical voltage levels to understand the functioning of the power system. The electric power
1.3
is generated at a thermal plant with a typical voltage of 22 kV (voltage levels are usually
specified line-to-line). This is boosted up to levels like 400 kV through transformer T1 for
power transmission. Transformer T2 steps this voltage down to 66 kV to supply power
through the subtransmission line to industrial loads that require bulk power at a higher
voltage. Most of the major industrial customers have their own transformers to step down the
66 kV supply to their desired levels. The motivation for these voltage changes is to minimize
transmission line cost for a given power level. Distribution systems are designed to operate
for much lower power levels and are supplied with medium level voltages.
The power distribution network starts with transformer T3, which steps down the
voltage from 66 kV to 11 kV. The distribution system contains loads that are either
commercial type (like office buildings, huge apartment complexes, hotels etc) or residential
(domestic) type. Usually the commercial customers are supplied power at a voltage level of
11 kV whereas the domestic consumers get power supply at 400-440 V. Note that the above
figures are given for line-to-line voltages. Since domestic customers get single-phase
supplies, they usually receive 230-250 V at their inlet points. While a domestic customer with
a low power consumption gets a single-phase supply, both industrial and commercial
consumers get three-phase supplies not only because their consumption is high but also
because many of them use three-phase motors. For example, the use of induction motor is
very common amongst industrial customers who run pumps, compressors, rolling mills etc.
Overhead transmission lines and transmission towers are a common sight in rural
India. The transmission towers are usually made of steel and are solidly erected with a
concrete base. The three-phase conductors are supported by the towers through insulators.
The conductors are usually made of aluminum or its alloys. Aluminum is preferred over
copper as an aluminum conductor is lighter in weight and cheaper in cost than copper
conductor of the same resistance.
The conductors are not straight wires but strands of wire twisted together to form a
single conductor to give it higher tensile strength. One of the most common conductors is
aluminum conductor, steel reinforced (ACSR). The cross sectional view of such a conductor
1.4
is shown in Fig. 1.2. The central core is formed with strands of steel while two layers of
aluminum strands are put in the outer layer. The other type of conductors that are in use are
all aluminum conductor (AAC), all aluminum alloy conductor (AAAC), aluminum
conductor, alloy reinforced (ACAR).
l (1.1)
Rdc
A
where is the resistivity of the wire in m, l is the length in meter and A is the cross
sectional area in m2. Unfortunately however the resistance of an overhead conductor is not
the same as that given by the above expression. When alternating current flows through a
conductor, the current density is not uniform over the entire cross section but is somewhat
higher at the surface. This is called the skin effect and this makes the ac resistance a little
more than the dc resistance. Moreover in a stranded conductor, the length of each strand is
more that the length of the composite conductor. This also increases the value of the
resistance from that calculated in (1.1).
Finally the temperature also affects the resistivity of conductors. However the
temperature rise in metallic conductors is almost linear in the practical range of operation and
is given by
R2 T t2
(1.2)
R1 T t1
where R1 and R2 are resistances at temperatures t1 and t2 respectively and T is a constant that
depends on the conductor material and its conductivity. Since the resistance of a conductor
cannot be determined accurately, it is best to determine it from the data supplied by the
manufacturer.
From the knowledge of high school physics we know that a current carrying
conductor produces a magnetic field around it. The magnetic flux lines are concentric circles
with their direction specified by Maxwell’s right hand thumb rule (i.e., if the thumb of the
right hand points towards the flow of current then the fingers of the fisted hand point towards
the flux lines). The sinusoidal variation in the current produces a sinusoidal variation in the
1.5
flux. The relation between the inductance, flux linkage and the phasor current is then
expressed as
L (1.3)
I
where L is the inductance in Henry, λ is the flux linkage in Weber-turns and I is the phasor
current in Ampere.
A. Internal Inductance
mmf H ds I (1.4)
where H is the magnetic field intensity in At/m, s is the distance along the path in meter and I
is the current in ampere.
Let us denote the field intensity at a distance x from the center of the conductor by Hx.
It is to be noted that Hx is constant at all points that are at a distance x from the center of the
conductor. Therefore Hx is constant over the concentric circular path with a radius of x and is
tangent to it. Denoting the current enclosed by Ix we can then write
Ix
H x dx I x H x
2 x
(1.5)
If we now assume that the current density is uniform over the entire conductor, we
can write
I I x2
x 2 Ix I (1.6)
r 2
x r2
I
Hx x (1.7)
2 r 2
1.6
Assuming a relative permeability of 1, the flux density at a distance of x from the center of
the conductor is given by
0 I
Bx 0 H x x (1.8)
2 r 2
where µ0 is the permeability of the free space and is given by 4π 107 H/m.
The flux inside (or outside) the conductor is in the circumferential direction. The two
directions that are perpendicular to the flux are radial and axial. Let us consider an
elementary area that has a dimension of dx m along the radial direction and 1 m along the
axial direction. Therefore the area perpendicular to the flux at all angular positions is dx 1
m2. Let the flux along the circular strip be denoted by dx and this is given by
0 I
d x Bx dx 1 x dx (1.9)
2 r 2
Note that the entire conductor cross section does not enclose the above flux. The ratio of the
cross sectional area inside the circle of radius x to the total cross section of the conductor can
be thought about as fractional turn that links the flux dx. Therefore the flux linkage is
x2 I
d x d x 0 4 x 3 dx (1.10)
r 2
2 r
Integrating (1.10) over the range of x, i.e., from 0 to r, we get the internal flux linkage as
r
0 I 3 I I
int x dx 0 10 7 Wbt/m (1.11)
0
2 r 4
8 2
Then from (1.3) we get the internal inductance per unit length as
1
Lint 10 7 H/m (1.12)
2
It is interesting to note that the internal inductance is independent of the conductor radius.
B. External Inductance
Let us consider an isolated straight conductor as shown in Fig. 1.4. The conductor
carries a current I. Assume that the tubular element at a distance x from the center of the
conductor has a field intensity Hx. Since the circle with a radius of x encloses the entire
current, the mmf around the element is given by
2 xH x I (1.13)
0 I
Bx (1.14)
2 x
The entire current I is linked by the flux at any point outside the conductor. Since the
distance x is greater than the radius of the conductor, the flux linkage dλx is equal to the flux
dx. Therefore for 1 m length of the conductor we get
0 I
dx d x Bx dx 1 dx (1.15)
2 x
The external flux linkage between any two points D1 and D2, external to the conductor is
D2
0 I D2
ext
2
D1
1
x
dx 2 10 7 I ln
D1
Wb/m (1.16)
From (1.3) we can then write the inductance between any two points outside the conductor as
D2
Lext 2 10 7 ln H/m (1.17)
D1
Consider two solid round conductors with radii of r1 and r2 as shown in Fig. 1.5. One
conductor is the return circuit for the other. This implies that if the current in conductor 1 is I
then the current in conductor 2 is I. First let us consider conductor 1. The current flowing
in the conductor will set up flux lines. However, the flux beyond a distance D + r2 from the
center of the conductor links a net current of zero and therefore does not contribute to the flux
linkage of the circuit. Also at a distance less than D r2 from the center of conductor 1 the
current flowing through this conductor links the flux. Moreover since D >> r2 we can make
the following approximations
1.8
D r1 D and D r1 D
Therefore from (1.12) and (1.17) we can specify the inductance of conductor 1 due to internal
and external flux as
1 D
L1 2 ln 10 7 H/m (1.18)
2 r1
1 D D D
L1 2 10 7 ln 2 10 7 ln e1 / 4 ln 2 10 7 ln 1 / 4
4 r1 r1 r1e
D
L1 2 10 7 ln H/m (1.19)
r1
The radius r1 can be assumed to be that of a fictitious conductor that has no internal flux but
with the same inductance as that of a conductor with radius r1.
D
L2 2 10 7 ln H/m (1.20)
r2
D D
L L1 L2 2 10 7 ln 2 10 7 ln
r1 r2
(1.21)
D2 D
2 10 7 ln 4 10 7 ln H/m
r1r2 r1r2
If we assume r1 = r2 = r, then the total inductance becomes
1.9
D
L 4 10 7 ln H/m (1.22)
r
where r = re1/4.
Consider the three-phase line shown in Fig. 1.6. Each of the conductors has a radius
of r and their centers form an equilateral triangle with a distance D between them. Assuming
that the currents are balanced, we have
I a Ib I c 0 (1.23)
Consider a point P external to the conductors. The distance of the point from the phases a, b
and c are denoted by Dpa, Dpb and Dpc respectively.
Let us assume that the flux linked by the conductor of phase-a due to a current Ia
includes the internal flux linkages but excludes the flux linkages beyond the point P. Then
from (1.18) we get
1 D D
apa 2 ln pa I a 2 10 7 I a ln pa (1.24)
2 r r
The flux linkage with the conductor of phase-a due to the current Ib, excluding all flux
beyond the point P, is given by (1.17) as
D pb
apb 2 10 7 I b ln (1.25)
D
D pc
apc 2 10 7 I c ln (1.26)
D
Therefore the total flux in the phase-a conductor is
1.10
D D D
a apa apb apc 2 10 7 I a ln pa I b ln pb I c ln pc
r D D
1 1 1
a 2 10 7 I a ln I b ln I c ln I a ln D pa I b ln D pb I c ln D pc (1.27)
r D D
Ib Ic I a
1 1 D D
a 2 10 7 I a ln I a ln I b ln pb I c ln pc (1.28)
r D D pa D pa
Now if we move the point P far away, then we can approximate Dpa Dpb Dpc. Therefore
their logarithmic ratios will vanish and we can write (1.28) as
1 1 D
a 2 10 7 I a ln ' I a ln 2 10 7 I a ln (1.29)
r D r
D
La 2 10 7 ln (1.30)
r
Note that due to symmetry, the inductances of phases b and c will be the same as that of
phase-a given above, i.e., Lb = Lc = La.
1 1 1
a 2 10 7 I a ln I b ln I c ln (1.31)
r Dab Dca
1 1 1
b 2 10 7 I b ln I a ln I c ln (1.32)
r Dab Dbc
1.11
1 1 1
c 2 10 7 I c ln I a ln I b ln (1.33)
r Dca Dbc
0 1 3
a e j 120 j (1.34)
2 2
Note that for the above operator the following relations hold
0 1 3
a 2 e j 240 j and 1 a a 2 0 (1.35)
2 2
Let as assume that the current are balanced. We can then write
I b a 2 I a and I c aI a
Substituting the above two expressions in (1.31) to (1.33) we get the inductance of the three
phases as
1 1 1
La 2 10 7 ln a 2 ln a ln (1.36)
r D ab D ca
1 1 1
Lb 2 10 7 ln a ln a 2 ln (1.37)
r D ab D bc
1 1 1
Lc 2 10 7 ln a 2 ln a ln (1.38)
r Dca Dbc
It can be seen that the inductances contain imaginary terms. The imaginary terms will vanish
only when Dab = Dbc = Dca. In that case the inductance will be same as given by (1.30).
The inductances that are given in (1.36) to (1.38) are undesirable as they result in an
unbalanced circuit configuration. One way of restoring the balanced nature of the circuit is to
exchange the positions of the conductors at regular intervals. This is called transposition of
1.12
line and is shown in Fig. 1.8. In this each segment of the line is divided into three equal sub-
segments. The conductors of each of the phases a, b and c are exchanged after every sub-
segment such that each of them is placed in each of the three positions once in the entire
segment. For example, the conductor of the phase-a occupies positions in the sequence 1, 2
and 3 in the three sub-segments while that of the phase-b occupies 2, 3 and 1. The
transmission line consists of several such segments.
In a transposed line, each phase takes all the three positions. The per phase inductance
is the average value of the three inductances calculated in (1.36) to (1.38). We therefore have
La Lb Lc
L (1.39)
3
This implies
2 107 3 2 1 1 1
L ln (a a ) ln ln ln
3 r Dab Dbc Dbc
2 107 3 1 1 1
L ln ln ln (1.40)
3 r Dab Dbc Dca
1
1 1 ( Dab Dbc Dca ) 3
L 2 10 ln ln
7
2 10 7
ln
r ( Dab Dbc Dca )1 / 3 r
(1.41)
GMD
L 2 10 7 ln H/m (1.43)
r
Notice that (1.43) is of the same form as (1.30) for symmetrically spaced conductors.
1.13
Comparing these two equations we can conclude that GMD can be construed as the
equivalent conductor spacing. The GMD is the cube root of the product of conductor
spacings.
So far we have considered only solid round conductors. However as mentioned at the
beginning of Section 1.1, stranded conductors are used in practical transmission line. We
must therefore modify the equations derived above to accommodate stranded conductors.
Consider the two groups of conductors shown in Fig. 1.9. Of these two groups conductor x
contains n identical strands of radius rx while conductor y contains m identical strands of
radius ry. Conductor x carries a current I the return path of which is through conductor y.
Therefore the current through conductor y is I.
Since the strands in a conductor are identical, the current will be divided equally
among the strands. Therefore the current through the strands of conductor x is I/n and through
the strands of conductor y is -I/m. The total flux linkage of strand a is given by
I 1 1 1 1
a 2 10 7 ln ln ln ln
n rx Dab Dac Dan
(1.44)
I 1 1 1 1
2 10 7 ln ln ln ln
m Daa Dab Dac Dam
a m D D D D
aa ab ac am
La 2n 10 7 ln (1.46)
I n n r D D D
x ab ac an
In a similar way the inductances of the other conductors are also obtained. For example,
1.14
The average inductance of any one of the strands in the group of conductor x is then
La Lb Lc Ln
Lav, x (1.48)
n
Conductor x is composed of n strands that are electrically parallel. Even though the
inductance of the different strand is different, the average inductance of all of them is the
same as Lav,x. Assuming that the average inductance given above is the inductance of n
parallel strands, the total inductance of the conductor x is
Lav, x La Lb Lc Ln
Lx (1.49)
n n2
GMD
Lx 2 10 7 ln (1.50)
GMRx
where the geometric mean distance (GMD) and the geometric mean radius (GMR) are given
respectively by
GMD mn Daa Dab Dac ....Dam Dna Dnb Dnc Dnm
(1.51)
(1.52)
The inductance of the conductor y can also be similarly obtained. The geometric mean
radius GMRy will be different for this conductor. However the geometric mean distance will
remain the same.
So far we have discussed three-phase systems that have only one conductor per phase.
However for extra high voltage lines corona causes a large problem if the conductor has only
one conductor per phase. Corona occurs when the surface potential gradient of a conductor
exceeds the dielectric strength of the surrounding air. This causes ionization of the area near
the conductor. Corona produces power loss. It also causes interference with communication
channels. Corona manifests itself with a hissing sound and ozone discharge. Since most long
distance power lines in India are either 220 kV or 400 kV, avoidance of the occurrence of
corona is desirable.
1.15
The high voltage surface gradient is reduced considerably by having two or more
conductors per phase in close proximity. This is called conductor bundling. The conductors
are bundled in groups of two, three or four as shown in Fig. 1.10. The conductors of a bundle
are separated at regular intervals with spacer dampers that prevent clashing of the conductors
and prevent them from swaying in the wind. They also connect the conductors in parallel.
Ds , 2b 4 Ds d
2
Ds d (1.53)
where Ds is the GMR of conductor. The GMR for three-conductor and four-conductor bundles
are given respectively by
Ds ,3b 9 Ds d d 3 Ds d 2
3
(1.54)
Ds , 4b 16 Ds d d 2d 4
1.09 4 Ds d 3 (1.55)
GMD
L 2 10 7 ln (1.56)
Ds , b
where the geometric mean distance is calculated assuming that the center of a round
conductor is the same as that of the center of the bundle.
Fig. 1.10 Bundled conductors: (a) 2-conductor, (b) 3-conductor and (c) 4-conductor bundles.
Capacitance in a transmission line results due to the potential difference between the
conductors. The conductors get charged in the same way as the parallel plates of a capacitor.
Capacitance between two parallel conductors depends on the size and the spacing between
the conductors. Usually the capacitance is neglected for the transmission lines that are less
than 50 miles (80 km) long. However the capacitance becomes significant for longer lines
with higher voltage. In this section we shall derive the line capacitance of different line
configuration.
Consider the round conductor shown in Fig. 1.11. The conductor has a radius of r and
carries a charge of q coulombs. The capacitance C is the ratio of charge q of the conductor to
the impressed voltage, i.e.,
q
C
V
(1.57)
The charge on the conductor gives rise to an electric field with radial flux lines where the
total electric flux is equal to the charge on the conductor. By Gauss’s law, the electric flux
density at a cylinder of radius x when the conductor has a length of 1 m is
q q
D C/m2 (1.58)
A 2 x
The electric filed intensity is defined as the ratio of electric flux density to the permittivity of
the medium. Therefore
q
E V/m (1.59)
2 x 0
Now consider the long straight conductor of Fig. 1.12 that is carrying a positive
charge q C/m. Let two points P1 and P2 be located at distances D1 and D2 respectively from
the center of the conductor. The conductor is an equipotential surface in which we can
assume that the uniformly distributed charge is concentrated at the center of the conductor.
The potential difference V12 between the points P1 and P2 is the work done in moving a unit of
charge from P2 to P1. Therefore the voltage drop between the two points can be computed by
integrating the field intensity over a radial path between the equipotential surfaces, i.e.,
D2 D2
q q D
V12 Edx 2 x
D1 D1 0
dx ln 2 V
2 0 D1
(1.60)
1.17
Fig. 1.12 Path of integration between two points external to a round straight conductor.
Consider the single-phase line consisting of two round conductors as shown in Fig.
1.5. The separation between the conductors is D. Let us assume that conductor 1 carries a
charge of q1 C/m while conductor 2 carries a charge q2 C/m. The presence of the second
conductor and the ground will disturb filed of the first conductor. However we assume that
the distance of separation between the conductors is much larger compared to the radius of
the conductor and the height of the conductor is much larger than D for the ground to disturb
the flux. Therefore the distortion is small and the charge is uniformly distributed on the
surface of the conductor.
Assuming that the conductor 1 alone has the charge q1, the voltage between the
conductors is
q1 D
V12 (q1 ) ln 2 V (1.61)
2 0 r1
Similarly if the conductor 2 alone has the charge q2, the voltage between the conductors is
q2 D
V21 (q2 ) ln V
2 0 r2
q2 r
V12 (q2 ) ln 2 V (1.62)
2 0 D
q1 D q2 r
V12 V12 (q1 ) V12 (q2 ) ln ln 2 V
2 0 r1 2 0 D
(1.63)
For a single-phase line let us assume that q1 (= q2) is equal to q. We therefore have
1.18
q D q r q D2
V12 ln ln 2 ln V (1.64)
2 0 r1 2 0 D 2 0 r1r2
q D
V12 ln V (1.65)
0 r
0
C12 F/m (1.66)
ln D r
The above equation gives the capacitance between two conductors. For the purpose of
transmission line modeling, the capacitance is defined between the conductor and neutral.
This is shown in Fig. 1.13. Therefore the value of the capacitance is given from Fig. 1.13 as
2 0
C 2C12 F/m (1.67)
ln D r
Fig. 1.13 (a) Capacitance between two conductors and (b) equivalent capacitance to ground.
Consider the three-phase transposed line shown in Fig. 1.14. In this the charges on
conductors of phases a, b and c are qa, qb and qc respectively. Since the system is assumed to
be balanced we have
qa qb qc 0 (1.68)
Using superposition, the voltage Vab for the first, second and third sections of the
transposition are given respectively as
1.19
1 D r D
Vab (1) qa ln ab qb ln qc ln bc V (1.69)
2 0 r Dab Dca
1 D r D
Vab (2) qa ln bc qb ln qc ln ca V (1.70)
2 0 r Dbc Dca
1 D r D
Vab (3) qa ln ca qb ln qc ln ab V (1.71)
2 0 r Dca Dbc
1 D D Dca r3 D D D
Vab qa ln ab bc q ln qc ln ab bc ca V (1.72)
2 0 3 b
r Dab Dbc Dca Dab Dbc Dca
This implies
1 3 D D D
r
V
Vab qa ln ab bc ca
qb ln (1.73)
2 0 r 3 D D D
ab bc ca
1 GMD r
Vab qa ln qb ln V (1.74)
2 0 r GMD
1 GMD r
Vac qa ln qc ln (1.75)
2 0 r GMD
1 GMD r
Vab Vac 2qa ln r ( qb qc ) ln GMD
2 0
(1.76)
1 GMD r 3 GMD
2qa ln qa ) ln qa ln
2 0 r GMD 2 0 r
Vab Vac 2Van 0 Van 120 Van 240 2Van 0
(1.77)
1.20
1 GMD
Van qa ln V (1.78)
2 0 r
qa 2 0
C F/m (1.79)
Van ln GMD r
Earth affects the calculation of capacitance of three-phase lines as its presence alters
the electric field lines. Usually the height of the conductors placed on transmission towers is
much larger than the spacing between the conductors. Therefore the effect of earth can be
neglected for capacitance calculations, especially when balanced steady state operation of the
power system is considered. However for unbalanced operation when the sum of the three
line currents is not zero, the effect of earth needs to be considered.
Let the self-inductance of the stator windings be denoted by Laa, Lbb, Lcc such that
The mutual inductances between the field coil and the stator windings vary as a function of θd
and are given by
ia ib ic 0
Hence the flux linkage equations for the stator windings (1.85) to (1.87) can be modified as
a Ls M s ia Laf i f (1.89)
b Ls M s ib Lbf i f (1.90)
c Ls M s ic Lcf i f (1.91)
i f I f constant (1.92)
Also assuming that the rotor rotates at synchronous speed ωs we obtain the following
two equations
d d
s (1.93)
dt
d st d 0 (1.94)
1.22
where θd0 is the initial position of the field winding with respect to the phase-a of the stator
winding at time t = 0. The mutual inductance of the field winding with all the three stator
windings will vary as a function of θd, i.e.,
Substituting (1.92), (1.94), (1.95), (1.96) and (1.97) in (1.89) to (1.91) we get
a Ls M s ia M f I f cos s t d 0 (1.98)
Since we assume balanced operation, we need to treat only one phase. Let the
armature resistance of the generator be R. The generator terminal voltage is given by
da
a Ria (1.101)
dt
where the negative sign is used for generating mode of operation in which the current leaves
the terminal. Substituting (1.98) in (1.101) we get
dia
a Ria Ls M s M f I f s sin st d 0 (1.102)
dt
ea 2 | Ei | sin s t d 0 (1.103)
sM f I f
Ei
2
(1.104)
Since θd0 is the position of the d-axis at time t = 0, we define the position of the q-axis at that
instant as
d 0 90 (1.105)
d s t 90 (1.106)
ea 2 | Ei | cos st (1.107)
dia
a Ria Ls M s ea (1.108)
dt
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 1.16. Let the current ia lag the internal emf ea
by θa. The stator currents are then
ia 2 | I a | cos st a (1.109)
The single-phase equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 1.17. The phase angle θa between
ea and ia is rather difficult to measure under load as ea is the no load voltage. To avoid this, we
define the phase angle between va and ia to be θ. We assume that ea leads va by δ. Therefore
we can write
a (1.112)
Then the voltages and currents shown in Fig. 1.17 are given as
a 2 Va cos s t (1.113)
ea 2 Ei cos( s t ) (1.114)
1.24
ia 2 I a cos( s t ) (1.115)
Z d R jX d R j s Ls M s (1.117)
Va Ea R jX d I a (1.118)
The equivalent circuit of a single-phase transformer is shown in Fig. 1.18. In this the
primary voltage and currents are denoted by V1 and V2 respectively. The current entering the
primary terminals is I1. The core loss component is represented by Rc while the magnetizing
reactance is denoted by Xm. The leakage inductance of the transformer is denoted by Xeq and
Req is transformer winding resistance. It is to be noted that all the quantities are referred to the
primary side. The turns ratio of the transformer is given by N1:N2.
The impedance of the shunt branch is much larger compared to that of the series
branch. Therefore we neglect Rc and Xm. Again of the series parameters, Req is much smaller
than Xeq. We can therefore neglect the series impedance. Therefore the transformer can be
represented by the leakage reactance Xeq. The single-phase transformer equivalent circuit,
when referred to the primary side, is as shown is Fig. 1.19 (a). The equivalent circuit, when
referred to the secondary side, is shown in Fig. 1.19 (b) where a = N1/N2.
1.25
Fig. 1.19 Simplified equivalent circuit of a single-phase transformer: (a) when referred to the primary side and
(b) when referred to the secondary side.
Consider the three-phase circuit shown in Fig. 1.20 that contains three balanced
sources Ea, Eb and Ec along with three balanced source impedances, each of value ZS. The
sources supply two balanced loads one wye-connected with impedance of ZY and the other
-connected with impedance of Z. Since this is a balanced network, the sum of the currents
at the neutrals N (or n) is zero. Therefore the neutral are at the same potential. Transforming
the -connected load to an equivalent y, we get the per phase equivalent circuit as shown in
Fig. 1.21. In this fashion an entire power system can be converted into its per phase
equivalent. The line diagram showing a per phase equivalent circuit is called a single-line
diagram.
In a power system different power equipment with different voltage and power levels
are connected together through various step up or step down transformers. However the
presence of various voltage and power levels causes problem in finding out the currents (or
voltages) at different points in the network. To alleviate this problem, all the system quantities
are converted into a uniform normalized platform. This is called the per unit system. In a per
unit system each system variable or quantity is normalized with respect to its own base value.
The units of these normalized values are per unit (abbreviated as pu) and not Volt, Ampere or
Ohm. The base quantities chosen are:
VA base (Pbase): This is the three-phase apparent power (Volt-Ampere) base that is
common to the entire circuit.
Voltage Base (Vbase): This is the line-to-line base voltage. This quantity is not uniform
1.26
for the entire circuit but gets changed by the turns ratio of the transformer.
Fig. 1.20 Three balanced sources supplying two balanced load through balanced source impedances.
Fig. 1.21 Per phase equivalent circuit of the network of Fig. 1.20.
Based on the above two quantities the current and impedance bases can be defined as
Pbase
I base (1.119)
3 Vbase
Z base
Vbase 2
Pbase
(1.120)
Z
Z1 pu Z Z1 Z base _ old (1.121)
Z base _ old
The impedance now has to be represented in a new base value denoted as Zbase_new. Therefore
Z Z Z
Z 2 pu Z 2 1 base _ old pu (1.122)
Z base _ new Z base _ new
From (1.120) Z2 can be defined in terms of old and new values of VA base and voltage base
as
1.27
2
V Pbase _ new
Z 2 Z1 base _ old pu (1.123)
V P
base _ old base _ old
Example 1.1: Let us consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.19 (a) which contains the
equivalent circuit of a transformer. Let the transformer rating be
The VA base of the transformer is 500 MVA and the voltage bases in the primary and
secondary side are 200 kV and 22 kV respectively. Therefore the impedance bases of these
two sides are
where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the primary (high tension) and secondary (low tension)
sides respectively. Assume that the leakage reactance is referred to the primary side. Then for
10%, i.e., 0.1 per unit leakage reactance we have
9.68 9.68
X eq 2 0.0968
a2 102
Hence the per unit impedance in the secondary side is 0.0968/0.968 = 0.1. Therefore we see
that the per unit leakage reactance is the same for both sides of the transformer and, as a
consequence, the transformer can be represented by only its leakage reactance. The
equivalent circuit of the transformer is then as shown in Fig. 1.22. Since this diagram only
shows the reactance (or impedance) of the circuit, this is called the reactance (or impedance)
diagram.
The transmission line reactances are as indicated in the figure. We have to draw the reactance
diagram choosing the Generator 3 circuit as the base.
As we have chosen the circuit of Generator 3 as the base, the base MVA for the circuit
is 300. The high voltage side of transformer T2 is connected wye. Therefore its line to line
voltage is 3 130 = 225 kV. Since the low voltage side is connected in , its line to line
voltage is 25 kV. The base voltages are chosen as discussed below.
Since the base voltage of G3 is 20 kV, the base voltage between T3 and bus 1 will be
20 10 = 200 kV. Also as there is no transformer connected in bus 1, the base voltage of 200
kV must be chosen for both the lines that are connected to either side of bus 1. Then the base
voltage for the circuit of G1 will also be 20 kV. Finally since the turns ratio of T2 is 9
(= 225 25), the base voltage in the G2 side is 200 9 = 22.22 kV. The base voltages are also
indicated in Fig. 1.23.
Once the base voltages for the various parts of the circuit are known, the per unit
values for the various reactances of the circuit are calculated according to (1.123) for a base
MVA of 300. These are listed below.
300
Generator G1: X G1 0.15 0.225 pu
200
2
18
Generator G2: X G1 0.2 0.1312 pu
22.22
2
220
Transformer T1: X T 1 0 .1 0.121 pu
200
1.29
2
25
Transformer T2: X T 2 0.1 0.1266 pu
22.22
2
22
Transformer T3: X T 3 0.1 0.121 pu
20
(200 103 )
Z base 133.33
300 106
75 50
X j 75 0.5625 pu and X j 50 0.375 pu
133.33 133.33
This completes our discussion on the modeling of power system components. In the
subsequent portion of this course we shall use these models to construct a power system and
use the per unit notation and the impedance diagram to represent the system.