INTRODUCTION OF HEAT

AND HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION

In our industry, as in any industry, the proper use of heat is of utmost

importance. Sucessful operation of the processes is largely dependent upon
correct heat application. Efficient equipment, designed to take full advantage
of processing heat, is in use on all the plant operations. The cost of heat for
our plant operations is of such magnitude that inefficient handling of heat
transfer problems may well spell the difference between economic and uneconomic
operation.

To better understand the conservation of heat, it is necessary that the basic

principles of heat transmission be understood. In general, there are only three
different methods of heat transmission. These are known as convection,
conduction and radiation.

A. CONVECTION

All systems of heating and ventilating depend upon what are called convection
currents, which, in turn, depend upon the expansion of liquid and gases. The
explanation of the movement of convection currents is this: that any gas or
liquid expands when heated, increases in volume and, consequently decreases in
density. In a convection current, the lighter fluid is pushed upward by the
heavier surround fluid, just as a block of wood under water is pushed up by the
surrounding water.

Since the rising part of a convection current is warmer than the returning part,
there is a transfer of heat from the flame - or other heat source, to the cooler
parts of the fluid at the top. This process of transporting heat by carrying not
portions of fluid from one place to another is called convection. A simple
experiement, as shown in Fi gure I, will make this clear.

Apparatus
Bottle with Bottom
Removed Rubber. Stopper.
Glass Tube Bent to Shape
Heat Source (Gas Burner,
Steam Jet, Electric Heater)
Quantity of Water.
Containing Small amount of
Sawdust.

Figure 1
XI - 1

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When the flame is moved back and forth along the lower portion of the tube,
the convection current that has been created can be seen as the water
containing sawdust circulates from the lower portion of the bottle, through
the tube and back into the bottle.

The flame has warmed the water in the tube, causing that portion of the water
to expand and decrease in density. The less dense water, like the block of
wood, is pushed upward by the surrounding water of greater density. This
process continues to take place and thus creates the circulation observed. If a
thermometer were placed in the bottle of water, we would see that a rise in
temperature is taking place. This temperature rise is occasioned by the warmer
water mixing with the cooler portion and transferring heat through the process
known as convection.

It is trough this process that the water heater in your home operates. The
home water heater is very similar to the experimental apparatus, except that
the heat is applied directly to the tank containing the water.

B. CONDUCTION

It has been shown how heat can be transported by making hot fluids flow through
pipes. Heat can also be transmitted without moving any material thing - by the
two methods called conduction and radiation.

First consider only conduction. Heat that passes from one part of a substance to
another part of the same substance to another in physical contact with it,
without the movement of particles of either substance, is said to flow by
conduction. Everyone has had the experience of touching the handle of a silver
spoon in hot coffee or soup and have often found the spoon too hot to be lifted
from the cup barehanded. Similarly, the metal handle of a sauce pan becomes
extremely hot even though only the bottom of the pan is exposed to a flame.
These experiences are examples of heat being transmitted by conduction.

There are some substances, such as stone, wood, wool and cork, which are poor
conductors of heat and are called heat insulators. All metals, such as silver,
copper, brass, iron, etc. are good conductors as compared to non-metals.

Metals vary in their respective abilities to conduct heat. This ability or

inability is referred to as conductivity. In order to be able to use this
physical property making heat transfer calculations, the property must be in
some unit of measure. This unit of measure is called the coefficient of
thermal conductivity of the materials.

These coefficients of thermal conductivity of various common materials are

shown in Table 1.

Liquids and gases are much poorer conductors than metals. Iron conducts 100
times as well as water and water conducts 25 times as well as air.
 TABLE 1

TABLE OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES

MATERIAL TEMP. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (K)

JOULES/(SEC)(m)(°C)

Building Materials:
Asbestos 100 .016
Asphalt 20 .062
Building Brick 20 .058
Brick, Insulating 200 .007
Coke 100 .490
Cork 30 .004
Wood, Pine 15 .013

METALS:

Aluminium 100 17.2

Brass 100 8.7
Copper. 100 31.4
Cast Iron 100 4.3
Steel 100 3.7

LIQUIDS:

Gasoline 30 .011
Kerosine 20 .012
Toluene 20 .012
Water. 30 .051

GASES:

Air. 100 .0026

Ammonia 100 .0027
Butane 100 .0027
Carbon Dioxide 100 .0019

C. RADIATION

If an iron ball is heated and hung up in the room the heat can be felt when the
hand is held under the ball. This cannot be due to convection because hot air
currents rise. It cannot be due to conduction because gases are poor
conductors. Similarly, a lighted electric bulb feels hot if the hand is held
near it, but when the light is turned off, the sensation stops very quickly.
The glass of the bulb is a poor conductor and there is very little air in the
bulb; therefore, the sensation of heat can be due neither to convection nor
conduction. Also, if a book or screen is placed between the heat source and the
hand the sensation immediately ceases. These effects are caused by the travel
of heat waves in straight lines through the atmosphere similar to light.
Experiments can be performed to demonstrate that, like light waves, heat waves
can be reflected by a mirror, or brought to a focus by a magnifying glass.

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The knowledge and understanding of radiant heat has made it possible for
industry and the military to develop methods and instruments to more accurately
perform their work with ease. Oil storage tanks are painted suitable colours to
either promote or reduce heat absorption by radiation from the sun. At one time,
sensitive instruments were utilised by the military to locate aircraft by
detecting and establishing the direction of the heat radiated by their engines.

REVIEW

It has been established that there are three methods by which heat can be
transmitted:

1. Convection - transporting heat by carrying hot portions of a

fluid from one place to another.

TYPICAL EXAMPLE: Home water heater.

2. Conduction - the passage of heat from one part of a substance to

another part of the same substance or from one substance to another in
physical contact with it, without the movement of particles of either
substance.

TYPICAL EXAMPLE: Metal spoon in hot coffee.

3.. Radiation - the transfer of heat through space by heat wave that travel in
straight lines.

TYPICAL EXAMPLE: Heat from an electric l h t bulb.

FACTORS

With the basic principles of heat transfer established by definitions consider

those factors that effect the transfer of heat energy from one substance to
another.

The first consideration is temperature. In order to transfer any energy or

matter from one substance or location to another, there must be a driving
force. In pumping water or oil through a pipeline, the driving force is
pressure and the amount of liquid moved is proportional to the pressure
difference. Similarly the transfer of heat is proportional to its driving
force; temperature difference. Heat is always transmitted from a warmer body to
a colder one and the greater the difference in temperature of the two bodies,
the greater the amount of heat exchanged.

It would be well, at this point, to again define the unit of measure used in
the Englishspeaking world for measuring heat quantities. This "yardstick" is
the Joule. The Joule is defined as the work done when the point of application
of a force of 1 newton is displaced 1 metre. Actual heat yardstick is the
calorie. One calorie is heat required to increase temperature of one gram of
water at 1500 by 10C;

1 calorie = 4.1860 Joules (J)

THERMAL RESISTANCE

Now to consider the second factor influencing heat transfer. Opposing the
movement of all matter and energy is a force called resistance. Pipe
roughness, valves, fitting, etc., offer, this resistance to liquids flowing
through pipes. The transfer of heat is opposed by a factor called thermal

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resistance. This opposition is caused by the material of the container
(exchanger. tube), stagnant fluid films and scale or. trash on the tube wall.
The illustration in Figure 2 describes the effect of this resistance. The flow
of heat is from the greater. temperature Ti to the smaller. temperature T2. From
this illustration, it can be seen that the temperature level steadily decreases
because of the resistances offered by the tube wall, scales and films.

Figure 2.

5LALE

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11 ~:,ii l l tw
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, .'. I ~
7g5G1~of'.
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I
ld i ~ i
I
I EA1 F'' O W .

L. L
!hi / / / / Ali ! L, i l
I

~ J 6 ~ WA;~ 51ACALIA''J1 FILM

offered by it can be reduced.

The flow of heat in the lighter portions of the drawing at points T1 and T2 is
being accomplished by convection. However, as the tube wall is approached the
effect of convection is steadily reduced until heat is transmitted through the
stagnant film by conduction almost exclusively. Since liquids and gases are
relatively poor conductors, the flow of heat is impeded. This type of transfer
must be depended on, so steps must be taken to minimise its effect and devise a
means to promote heat flow rather than impede it. As has been developed earlier,
the transfer of heat by conduction is inversely proportional to the thickness of
their material through which it flows. herein lies the only means by which
greater heat flow can be effected - by decreasing the stagnant film thickness.
This can be done by changing the speed or velocity at which the fluid is passing
over the tube wall. Just as a river or creek carries sand away from its bank, so
can the fluid in or outside a tube cut into the stagnant film, reduce its
thickness and, thereby improve the ease of neat transfer througn it.

After passing through the stagnant fluid film, heat encounters its second
resistance scale. Here again, the mechanism is heat flow by conduction and since
the scale is relatively porous it is a good insulator, not a conductor. There
are no means of reducing the scale thickness with the fluid being heated or
cooled. Steps must be taken to reduce the tendency of scale formation and
periodically clean the tube surface. This is done during unit turnarounds.

YT - 5
 There remains one resistance to be reckoned with - that offered by the tube
wall. This resistance is very often negligible compared with resistance offered
by the stagnant films and scales. However, if it should become of consequence,
there are two means of reducing its magnitude. Heat flow through the tube wall
is dependent upon conduction. This means, again, that heat transfer improvement
can be accomplished by reducing the thickness of the impeding material. It is
for this reason, that thin-walled tubes are used in heat exchangers. Further,
although all metals are good conductors, some are better than others. The
selection of a good conductor for tube material can help to reduce this
resistance.

As has been shown, the principle factors that influence heat flow are:

1. Temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids.

2. Velocity of the streams being heated or cooled.

3. The thickness of scale on the heat transfer surface.

The transfer of heat through a tube wall is called indirect transfer surface.
This type of heating or cooling is called direct and is brought about by
intermingling the hot and cold fluids. Examples of this direct heat exchange
are cooling towers, fractionators, strippers, absorbers, and barometric
condensers in which the vapors (or gases) exchange heat with liquids.

To follow the mechanism of direct heat exchange, consider a cooling tower.

The cooling medium used in cooling towers is air. The amount of moisture that air
can absorb varies with its temperatures and increases greatly with a rise in
temperature. The function of a cooling tower is to bring air and water into
intimate contact so that the water will be cooled by the air. This cooling or
interchange of heat is accomplished by convection and evaporation. In a tower,
convection is taking place, between the air and the water. Heat is also being
dissipated through evaporation. For any liquid to evaporate, it must gain heat
from some source. The relatively dry air is becoming laden with moisture from
the evaporating water. The water that is now vapor has taken heat from the
liquid water and, in turn, reduced the temperature of the liquid.

Similarly, in fractionators, hot vapours from one tray pass to the tray above
upon which liquid is held at a lower temperature. As the vapour bubbles through
the liquid on this tray, portions of the liquid evaporate by absorbing heat from
the warm vapours.

In having heat removed, portions of the incoming vapours then condense and
become liquid on that tray. This process continues up the tower until vapours
from the top tray pass through the overhead line to the condensers and are
condensed by indirect transfer on the surface of the overhead condenser tubes.

To this point, the basic principles of heat exchange have been explained. The
factors that effect the transfer of heat energy and ways the influence of
thermal resistance can be reduced have been established. Also, the "yardstick"
by which heat energy is measured have been defined, and it has been established
that heat can be interchanged directly between fluids at different temperature
levels, or indirectly through the use of a heat transfer surface.

In the study of heat exchange and the design of heat transfer equipment there
must be a means of evaluating the performance of a given exchanger just as the
performance of your automobile is evaluated by determining the amount of fuel
required to travel a given distance. In heat transfer work, this evaluation

VT
factor is called the "overall heat transfer coefficient" and indicates the
amount of heat an exchanger can interchange during a given period of time for a
given amount of surface and with a given temperature difference to as "U" and
the unit of measure in joules per second per square metre of surface per
degree celcius temperature difference J/(S)(m2)(°C).

The examples of these values for work are as shown on Table II. (See next
page).

TABLE II

TABLE OF TYPICAL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

Service Fluid Velocity Fluid Velocity "U" Value

TUBE SIDE SHELL SIDE
Gas Oil Cooler. Water. 0.7 m/s Gas Oil 1 m/s 280 - 400
Gas Oil Cooler. Water. 0.7 m/s Gas Oil 2 m/s 680
Gas. Condensor. Water. 1.6 m/s Gasoline (Condensing) 510
Gas. Vapour to Crude 0.7 m/s Gasoline (Condensing) 110 - 170
Crude
Lube Oil Cooler. Water. 0.7 m/s Lube Oil 0.1 m/s 80
Fuel Oil Cooler. Water. Fuel Oil -------------170
Gasoline Cooler. Water. Gasoline -------------620

It has been determined that temperature difference is an influencing factor in

heat exchange. In the design of heat exchange equipment, the difference is
called the mean temperature difference and is calculated from the inlet and
outlet temperatures of fluids entering and leaving the exchanger.

For example: Hot Fluid Cold Fluid

Inlet Temperature 150°C 30°C
Outlet Temperature 800C 50°C

Differential = GTD + LTD

Temperature 2

GTD = Greatest Temp. Diff.

LTD = Least Temp. Diff.

Diff. Temp = 100 + 50 = 75°C 2

The unit of heat measurement has been established as the joule. For any
substance, a given number of joules is required in order to raise the
temperature of one kilogram of the material, one degree celcius. This is
known as the specific heat of the material. The specific heat of several
materials are shown below:

* Specific heat changes slightly with temperature:

MATERIAL TEMP: °C SPECIFIC HEAT, J/(kg)(°C)

Gasoline 65 2260
Water. 15 4190
Gas Oil 160 2390
Tar. 120 2180
Paraffin Distillate 205 2680
Mobil Heat 195 2660
EXAMPLE:

Cool 50,000 kg/hr of gasoline

Inlet Temp. 80°C

Outlet Temp. 500C

Heat removed = weight x temp. change x sp. heat

Heat removed = 50,000 x (80 - 50) x 2260 Heat
removed = 50,000 x 30 x 2260
= 3.39 x 109J/H
= 942,000 J/S

Since the over-all transfer coefficient, temperatures, and surface area effect
the transfer of heat, they must be arranged in such a way that a mathematical
solution is possible. This is done in the expression:

Q = UATm

Q = rate of heat transfer

U = over-all coefficient J/(S)(m2)(°C)
A = transfer surface, m2
Tm = mean temperature difference, 0C

To demonstrate the use of this equation, the gasoline cooler in the problem
above is selected as an example. Problem:

How many square metres of heat exchange surface is required to cool 50,000
kg/hr of gasoline from 80°C to 50 0C with cooling water entering at 30°C and
leaving at 50°C?

SOLUTION:
1. Determine mean temperature difference, Tm

Tm = GTD + LTD
2

GTD = 80 - 50 = 30

LTD = 50 - 30 = 20

Tm = 30 + 20
2

= 25°C

2. Determine heat
load, Q (See example
1) Q = 942,000 J/S

3. Determine over-all
coefficient, U (See chart of
typical values) U = 620

4. Calculate area required.

Q = UATm
A = Q = 942,000 UTm
620 x 25

60.8m2 required
VT n
This amount of surface would be contained in an exchanger
0.6m in diameter, with 220 20mm OD tubes, 5m long

E. EXCHANGERS, COOLERS AND CONDENSERS

Exchangers, coolers and condensers are used to exchange heat between hot and
cold process streams, cool product streams for storage, and to condense
overhead vapour streams to liquid for use as blending stocks or salable
products.

By properly utilising such equipment, it is possible to effect fuel savings,

reduce power consumption by more efficient use of cooling water, and reduce
the loss through evaporation of salable products.

Heat transfer equipment may be classed in three general categories: exchangers,

coolers and condensers. Exchangers transfer heat from a hot process stream to a
cold process stream. Coolers transfer heat from a hot medium to cooling water.
Condensers remove heat from vapours, condense these vapours and heat the
cooling water. Heat transfer equipment, like pumps is designed for specific
services and it will be seen how types and designs are modified to accomplish a
given purpose.

As a background in the use of heat transfer equipment, an understanding of

various types of equipment on the market is
shell-and-tube exchanger shown in Figure 3.
double pipe exchanger shown in Figure 4. In
small inner pipe and the other fluid in the
and the larger, outer pipe.
helpful. The most common type is the
Supplementing this type is the
this type, one fluid flows in the
space between the small inner pipe

An early application of heat transfer equipment was the submerged coil.

Modifications of this type use submerged tube nests rather than pipe.

A rather new development of recent years appears in Figure 5. This is an air

cooled heat exchanger in which the hot fluid is cooled by air blown past the
tubes by the fan below. This type of exchanger is widely used in areas where
cooling water supplies are limited.

The vast majority of the industry heat transfer equipment is the shell-and-tube
type of heat exchanger. A shell-and-tube exchanger consists of a number of
parallel tubes enclosed in a cylindrical shell. One fluid flows outside the
tubes and is called the shell-side fluid. All shell-and-tube heat transfer
equipment is composed of the same basic parts, but some of these parts are
arranged in such a way as to produce the desired results. Figure 3 is a section
of such an exchanger with the parts numbered and parts indicated by the chart in
the lower portion of the drawing.

Many variations of this design are possible by using various kinds of tubes,
different types of baffles and by providing different arrangements of
partitions in the covers to produce variations in flows. Such a variation is
the kettle type reboiler illustrated in Figure 6.

Straight, bare tubes are most commonly used, but for certain applications other
kinds are advantages. "U" or "hairpin" tubes are used to permit free expansion
and contraction of the bundle and shell, but without the use of a floating tube
sheet. This is done in order to prevent product gasket leak at the floating
end. However, such tubes cannot be used where the tube-side fluid is
susceptible to fouling because it is difficult to clean the curved portion of
the tube.

n~-3n VT 0
 Cross-Section of Heat Exchanger

This cross-section shows a heat-exchanger with

one pass inshell, and four passes intubes. The
different parts are listed below.
7
1. Channel-cover 11. Tierod and Spacer
2. Channel 12. Tube 14
3. Channel-Nozzle 13. Crossbaffle
4. Channel-Passrib 14. Shell
5. Channel-Tubesheet 15. Vent
6. Annular-Distributor 16. Floatinghead-Tubesheet
7. Shell-Nozzle 17. Floatinghead
8. Drain 18. Floatinghead-Passrib to

9. Distributor-Sleeve 19. Shellcover

10. Support-Foot

z y I
Cross-Section Through Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
1. Cover Plate for Tube Removal 5. Outer Tube Nozzles
2. Support 6. Inner Tube
3. Outer Tube or Pipe 7. Inner Tube Nozzles
4. Fins on Inner Tube
C0
0

0
c ca r m
 1),J fi ,.-e""?
g

(,\L.L p
,7,E
FINtJFD L L N 1 6 - f l - 1 )
L
Finned tubes, as shown in Figure 4, are often used to improve the heat
transfer efficiency of a unit.

Basic to exchanger thermal design is baffle arrangement and mechanical design.

There are two general types of baffles: transverse and longitudinal. Both are
used to increase the rate of heat transfer by increasing the velocity of the
shell-side fluid.

The baffles add considerably to the cost of an exchanger and make cleaning
difficult, but are an essential part of each heat exchanger. In order to be
effective, baffles must be installed so that there is a minimum of by-passing
around the baffle. This is done by reducing to a minimum the clearance between
the baffles and the shell. Sufficient clearance must be allowed, however, to
permit the tube bundle to be readily removed. The baffles will not move. Figure
6 shows a typical baffle arrangement.

Most heat exchangers are limited to the one type of baffle that has been found
to be most satisfactory, but heat exchange equipment may be designed to
incorporate any one of several types of baffles.

Probably the most common transverse baffle causes the shellside fluid to flow
back and forth across the tube bundle and is suitable for use with fouling
liquids or large volumes. This type baffle is segmental or cross flow type
shown in Figure 7.

Disc-and-ring, or disc- and-doughnut baffles (see Figure 7) forced the fluid to

flow successfully from the outside of the tube bundle toward the center and back
again to the outside. These baffles are slightly more expensive than the
segmental type and have no particular advantage over them.

Orifice baffles, shown in Figure 7, force the fluid to flow at high velocities
through the space between the baffle and the tubes. These baffles can be used
for small or moderate flow rates and clean streams. Their rapid fouling rate,
however, precludes their use in plant equipment because of the high pressure
drop and inaccessibility for cleaning.

Longitudinal baffles consist of flat plates which extend all the way across
the shell. These baffles may be used to obtain counterflow of tube-side and
shell-side fluids. Also, these baffles are used in condensers to distribute
the flow of vapour over the entire length of the tube bundle when the vapour
inlet nozzle is located in the centre of the shell.

Impact baffles are frequently used and are located over the tubes at a point
opposite the inlet shell nozzle. They also help to distribute the flow.

Heat exchangers are designed and built to perform a given duty under the
thermal design conditions. When in operation, these conditions are
appreciably altered, malfunction may be recognised in too low or, too high a
temperature or excessive pressure drop. These inadequacies may be due to a
number of causes:

1. Air or gas binding due to the lack of venting.

2. Impr.oper.ly connecting inlet and outlet piping with respect to flow.

3. Operation at pressures, temperatures, or, flow rates not in

accord with thermal design conditions.

4. Excessive fouling in the exchanger.

VT ,Z

Cross Section
1. Channel-Cover
2. Channel
3. Channel-Nozzle
4. Channel-Passrib
5. Channel-Tubesheet
6. Liquid-in-Nozzle
7. Support-Foot
8. Tierod and Spacer
9. Crossbaffle

-< m

m co
0
Figure 7

Various Baffle Arrangements in Exchangers

DI Sc.

OK1F,GC F , LE
 5. Excessive clearances between baffles and shell and/or tubes due
to corrosion.

6. Leaks in tubes or internal gaskets.

7. Improper drainage from the exchanger.

When operation of an exchanger appears to be impaired, the technician should

first observe the manner in which the exchanger piping is connected to remove
Items 1, 2, and 7 as causes. If unit operations fail to place the cause as Item
3, then the physical condition of the exchange is the reason. Most usually,
close corrosion inspection rules out Item 5 so that fouling and leaks are the
cause. However, poor functioning of an exchanger can seldom be attributed to
leaks. In most cases, excessive fouling of the transfer surface is the
offender.

Because heat exchange equipment is designed with calculated exactness, any

degree of inefficiency can be measured. Knowing the design conditions, they
can be compared with operating conditions. This is most easily done by
comparing over-all heat transfer rates. To calculate the operating transfer
rate, it is necessary that the flow rate of one fluid be known, the inlet and
outlet temperature of both fluids, and the surface area. From these data,
substitution in the equation, Q = UATm, as shown, will allow determination of
the coefficient, "U". Upon comparison with the design coefficient, the
efficiency is determined.

Many plants periodically make such a check of all exchangers within their
plants and in this way establish a fouling rate. From this fouling rate the
frequency of heat exchanger cleaning is determined. An example of fouling
rate curves is shown in Figure 9.
HEAT EXCHANGER

passes inshell and two passes intubes. The different

parts are listed below. SECTION THROUGH
DISTRIBUTOR
1. Channel-Cover 11. Distributor-Sleeve
2. Lifting-Eyebolt Boss 12. Support-Foot
3. Channel 13. Tierod and Spacer
4. Channel-Nozzle 14. Tube
5. Instrument-Tap 15. Shell
6. Channel-Passrib 16. Longbaffle
7. Pulling-Stud 17. Crossbaffle
8. Channel-Tubesheet 18. Floatinghead-Tubesheet
9. Annular-Distributor 19. Floatinghead
10. Shell-Nozzle 20. Shellcover

This cross-section shows a heat exchanger with two

 Clean Coefficient . 90
Efficiency = 100%
90

95
EXAMPLE FOULING RATE
80 CURVE FOR ?SEAT EXCHANGERS

U 75
.-r
U OU
w U=63, at 3 months
c: 70 Efficiency = 70%
U
O N
65
-U = 53 at 8
In
c Eff. = 59a
60
0 h
C
55 I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Months of Operation Figure 9

Fouling of a heat exchanger may result from such causes as common scale, or
particles lodging in the exchanger. Water residue may foul the tubes of coolers
and condensers. Most usually, oil-side fouling material cannot be readily
removed short of mechanical means. When this is necessary, the tube bundle must
be removed. However, water residue can be removed without pulling the tube
bundle from the shell. Water residue may be trash (roots, wood, fish, etc.)
mud, silt, and/or scale (calcium carbonate). If the fouling material is trash,
the use of backwash connections can substantially improve operating efficiency.
By reversing the direction of flow momentarily for force of the water will knock
the adhering trash from the tube ends and remove some mud and silt from the tube
walls. Such an arrangement makes it possible to regain a degree of design
performance without a shutdown.

Water scale formation can be removed without dismantling the exchanger by

utilising chemical cleaning. This method of scale removal requires that the
cooler or condenser be out of service. Thorough cleaning is possible and very
often can be accomplished in a minimum of time.

Water residue very often is removed mechanically and is accomplished by water

jets or by drills throu gh which water passes as a scavenging agent. Mechanical
cleaning of oil side scale can be done in a number of ways. Drillin g, steaming
and sandblasting are used to clean the tube-side. The shell-side scales are
usually handsawed and washed with high pressure water. It is also possible to
chemically remove oil scales.

Advances are being made continually in the field of exchanger cleaning and as
improved methods are developed, industry is able to maintain its heat exchange
equipment nearer peak efficiency with less maintenance effort. The latest
such development is a wet sandblast machine that will efficiently clean both
shell and tube-sides of a tube bundle and return the bundle to an "as new"
condition.
Corrosion can definitely become a maintenance problem with heat exchange
equipment and must not be considered lightly. However, because of the scope of
the subject of corrosion, it will not be discussed in this writing further than
to say that those concerned with this equipment must be ever mindful of the
importance of corrosion prevention.

Engineering design and process development are not and cannot be expanded to
remove the need for maintenance. They can only reduce this requirement.

THE EQUIPMENT TECHNICIAN IS IN A POSITION TO MAKE A SUBSTANTIAL CONTRIBUTION

TO REDUCE MAINTENANCE AND IMPROVED OPERATING EFFICIENCY. BY RECOGNISING
PROPER OPERATING PROCEDURES AND REALISING THE EFFECT OF INCORRECT PROCEDURES
ON EQUIPMENT LIFE, THE TECHNICIAN CAN PREVENT MATERIAL FAILURE AND EQUIPMENT
INOPERABILITY.

A few examples of recommended procedures by which the technician can help to

reduce maintenance and extend the life and efficiency of the exchangers are:

1. Maintain proper cooling water outlet temperatures (not in

excess of 520C).

Failure to observe this recommendation may result in: 1) excessive scaling

of tube wall, 2) accelerated corrosion of exchanger parts, and 3) produce
mechanical failure of exchanger in tube rolls.

2. Avoid introducing a high temperature stream into an exchanger before

circulation of the cooing medium has been established. This is to prevent
undue stress of the metals.

3. Maintain adequate flow rates through exchangers to wash fouling

media from the bundle and maintain heating rates within the limits of
thermal design to prevent overheating.

4. Operate within mechanical design limits to prevent overstress of metals.

5. Utilise steam traps on steam heaters to maintain maximum steam pressure

within the exchanger. By passing traps results in excessive stream
consumption and reduced over-all transfer coefficient.

6. Guard against the use of superheated steam in exchangers designed

for saturated steam heat. Superheated steam in such tube bundles reduces
the overall transfer rate 10 times and may result in overheated
equipment.

Proper testing of repaired heat exchange equipment is an important phase of

maintenance in that it is a means of assuring operable equipment equipment
without the application of excessive pressure. Standard, recommended procedure
for hydrostatic testing of exchangers is to apply one and one-half times the
design pressure. This is applied to the shell-side. Only when the difference
between shell and tube-side operating pressures is substantial is this
procedure applicable to the tube-side.

F. FURNACES - OPERATION AND TYPES

Heating the oil or gas is the first step in almost every stage of processing.
This seems fairly elementary and not worthy of too much consideration, but the
fuel gas consumed daily in this plant for processing presents a fertile field
in which to practice economy. This can be best accomplished by an understanding
of the principles of combustion, furnace operation and furnace construction.
Combustion

Combustion is the reaction from chemically combining a fuel with oxygen at

high speed and high temperature. The gas used in our furnaces is mostly
methane, ethane and propane and the oxygen that supports combustion is taken
from air.

Combustion can be inefficient and dangerous or efficient and save, depending

upon how well it is regulated. Proper combustion in furnaces is essential for
these reasons:

1. Safer. Tubes are not as likely to burn out and cause fires and
there is less chance of a blast of hot air shooting out when a furnace peep
hole is opened.

2. Makes operation easier. Steadier heat holds the transfer line temperature
smoother, lessening the times the amount of gas to the furnace must be
changed.

3. Saves Fuel gas. Good combustion causes the most heat to enter the
furnace charge stock for the amount of gas burned.

4. Reduces maintenance costs. Less oxidation and scaling on the outside and
coking on the inside of furnace tubes is a mark of proper furnace
operation.

5. Increases production throughput on units limited by furnace

capacity. More m} of charge can be heated to required temperature
within the limitations of the equipment, if proper combustion is
obtained.

A better understanding of combustion is possible if the words commonly

associated with it are explained in that light:

1. Energy is the ability to do work.

2. Heat is one form of energy

3. The calorie is a unit used in the measurement of heat. As stated

earlier, "one calorie is the heat required to increase the temperature of
one gram of water at 150C by 10C".

(1 calorie = 4.1860 Joules (J))

If completely utilised one m 3 of natural gas liberates about 8,891,688

calories or 37,220,604 Joules (37220.6 KJ) when burned. In power output
this represents about 10.34 kilowatt per hour.

4. Temperature is a measure of the intensity of heat. Its unit is the degree

celcius. For an example of the difference between temperature and heat,
compare a cup of hot coffee to a swimming pool. The coffee may be scalding
hot, but there is not much of it. The water in the pool may be lukewarm to
touch, but its quantity is so large it holds much more heat than the cup of
coffee. The coffee has the higher temperature, but the pool has more Joules
of heat.

n<z<i
Fuel gas is carbon and hydrogen, each of which burns with oxygen. Chemists
picture the separate reactions of combustion or burning in the following
manner:

Carbon Burning: C + 02 = C02 + Heat

Carbon + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide and Heat

Hydrogen Burning: H2 + 1/202 = H2O + Heat

Hydrogen + Oxygen = Water. Vapour. + Heat

Natural Gas Burning: CH4 + 202 = C02 + 2 H2O + Heat

Natural Gas + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water.
Vapour. + Heat

Air supplying oxygen for combustion also contains about 79 percent nitrogen and
impurities such as dust and moisture which contribute nothing to the reaction.
A practical picture of actual furnace combustion of natural gas is this: C02 +
H2O + N2 + impurities + moisture + heat + excess 02.

The theoretical amount of air needed to burn a cubic metre of gas is exactly
enough to furnish oxygen for the above reaction without leaving the excess
oxygen. This assumes that every particle of oxygen combines with the gas. For
a known amount of gas, the exact amount of air required for complete
combustion can be calculated. Ten cubic metres of air is the theoretical
amount required to burn one cubic metre of natural gas. This ratio is
illustrated in Figure 10.

It is not possible to fire a furnace properly with the exact theoretical amount
of air necessary for a complete combustion of the gas. The millions of particles
of oxygen pass through and by the burners so fast that some of them fail to bump
into the carbon and hydrogen particles of gas. Since the air that supports
combustion is only 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen, the nitrogen particles tend to
crowd in between oxygen molecules and hydrocarbon molecules in much the same
manner as a blocker in a football-game. This is illustrated in Figure 10. The
hydrogen molecules that are not bumped by oxygen will not burn, but pass out the
stack as flue gas and their value as a source of heat and energy will be wasted.
For economical operation, it is important, that all of the fuel gas be burned.
Therefore, an excess amount of air is always admitted with the gas into a
furnace to be sure that a molecule of oxygen is contacted with every available
hydrocarbon molecule before it is lost through the stack.

Now, the expression "excess air" can cover a lot of territory. How much
"excess air"? In the answer to that lies the solution to most problems of
furnace firing. There is no cut-and-dried answer, but experience, coupled
with theory, has suggested the following means of determining the amount of
excess air to use on a furnace.

1. A process technician of long experience on a specific furnace can tell

approximately by looking into the firebox. This serves a purpose, but
such experience can only be gained over a period of years of seeing
furnaces fired in every manner. - properly and improperly. IT IS NOT A
RELIABLE WAY TO OPERATE BECAUSE OF THE DIFFERENT INTERPRETATION VARIOUS
TECHNICIANS PLACE ON VISUALLY OBSERVED CONDITIONS.

2. An automatic oxygen analyser and r.ecor.der instrument will show the

percent oxygen in the flue gas. By means of a chart this can be converted
into a reading of the amount of excess gas.
3. The technician can control excess air in the furnace by proper observation
and interpretation of instruments used in furnace operation. These control
points are coil outlet temperature, fuel gas meter; firebox temperatures;
and a draft gauge connected to the firebox roof. An example of the
application of these principles in furnace control is given: The proper coil
outlet temperature when the gas meter chart reads the lowest given for a
charge rate. With this in mind, the technician can close the stack damper a
little and wait a few minutes. If a rising coil outlet temperature causes
the fuel/gas to be reduced it is apparant that combustion has been improved
with the diminishing of excess air. At the same, time firebox temperatures
should be watched to see that they do not exceed standing orders and the
draft gauge watched for evidence of positive (or back)pressure. If high
firebox temperatures and posiive pressure are caused by closing the damper.,
it should be opened gradually until these conditions are corrected.

Operating a furnace with too much air leads to the following undesirable
conditions:

1. More heat is lost to the atmosphere in the extra oxygen, nitrogen, and
moisture in the flue gas. Results of this are higher fuel consumption and
higher flue gas temperature.

2. Extra air causes more unbalance of temperatures inside the firebox. This
causes hot spots from high currents of hot air and leads to burning and
scaling of outside of furnace tubes.

Gas Burners

One of the latest design gas burners is a pre-mix type. A cross-section view of
this type burner in normal position in the furnace floor is shown in Figure 12.

Gas comes in through the centre pipe with enough velocity to aspirate, or
suck, air in through the opening above an adjustable shutter. The amount of
air sucked in is controlled by the size opening above this primary shutter.

Air sucked through the primary shutter mixes with fuel gas in a mixing chamber
on the way to the burner portholes. This is typical of a "pre-mix" burner. The
intimate mixing of air and hydrocarbons before the buring zone is reached
improves combustion, therefore, it is a desirable feature of a burner. All of
the air needed to support combustion cannot be supplied in this pre-mixing
section. The rest of the air needed is pushed by natural draft through a
secondary adjustable shutter.
Figure 10

Theoretical Air.

One Cubic Metre Ten Cubic Metres

Natural Gas AIR

0636L
XI - 23
Figure 11

Mixture of Natural Gas and Air for. Burning

Oxygen blocked off by

Nitrogen Oxygen blocked off by
Nitrogen

N N

7-J N c hov N N N~ cD

NNI
/ A / N( 9 N A , p ~ N
7, ) /Y '-/ g
N N
C
N
c c
oN
ec o, ~~~N N /v,4 '

C
t
'Jc
0 N
c N N
NN C. N
N
Draft

The draft at any location within a furnace, breeching, or stack is the

difference between the pressure at that location and the pressure of the
atmospheric air on the outside. This draft, or difference of pressure, is caused
by the difference between the weight of the vertical column of hot flue gases in
the furnace and stack, and the weight of the column of cooler outside air of the
same height. The cooler outside air column is heavier. As it contacts the air
openings around the furnace burners its greater weight causes it to rush through
these openings and push the lighter, hotter flue gases up the stack. The cool
air is heated instantly in the furnace then it, in turn, is pushed up the stack
by more cool, heavier air. In this manner the movement of cool oxygen containing
air through the furnace becomes continuous.

The control of this natural draft or flow of air must be accomplished by some

SEGO} DPR! AIR S ~ u i Y

AIR c PRe-MIxING GlaAM6~~ -

PZ.MAR' AIR SNU~~~Z

c LIKE

mechanical means of obstructing the movement of air up the stack. This is done
by a damper placed in either the breeching or stack.

n « n
Figure 12

Pre-Mix Type Gas Burner

To best determine the proper damper setting, draft gauges have been connected to
the following locations at each furnace.

1. One in the breeching between the main damper and the firebox.

2. One in the ceiling of the firebox.

3. One near the floor of the firebox.

From the readings of the draft gauge connected to the breeching a technician
can soo obtain a backlog of informaton that will enable him to determine the
best damper settings for any operating conditions. This would require keeping
records of coil outlet temperature, charge inlet temperature, charge rate,
charge stock and damper settings each time a check is made of furnace
combustion. Such records would in invaluable in determining future damper
settings when similar operating conditions are encountered.

From the reading of draft gauges to the one or more firebox ceilings of a
furnace, the following can be determined:

1. If there is positive pressure instead of desirable draft at the

firebox ceiling.

2. If the drafts in different fireboxes exhausting through the same

breeching damper are properly balanced.

If a positive pressure is indicated it should be corrected immediately by

further opening of the main damper until the desired negative pressure or
draft is obtained.

Natural draft is affected by sharp changes of temperature or barometic pressure

of the outside air. As the temperature of air becomes colder., it becomes
heavier, forcing more of the light hot air up the stack. As barometic pressure
increases the same thing happens, but to a lesser degree. In both cases
circulation or air, or draft, is increased and adjustments must be made
accordingly. Proper control of draft in a furnace is essential to good
operation.

Flame Impingement and After-Burning

Flame Impingement refers to the burner flames touching the tubes and wall of the
furnace. In any heater, the length of the flame in the combuston zone is of
importance. Generally, the flame should be as short as possible to give uniform
furnace temperature and prevent impingement of the flame on any part of the
heater tubes or walls. Flames that reach the furnace wall cause rapid
deterioration with increased operating and maintenance costs. Impingement on the
tubes causes local overheating of the oil or gas flowing through the tubes with
decomposition and coke formation inside of the tubes. Also, scaling of the
exterior surface of the tube may lead to mechanical failure of the tube wall.
This places emphasis on the value of periodic inspection of the firebox.

After-burning is the delayed combustion of air and fuel gas in the upper parts of
the furnace. Not very common in the gas-fired process unit furnaces,
nevertheless, after-burning can occur in furnaces operated in excess of design
capacity. The furnace most likely to experience after-burning is the up-draft
type with the stack in the firebox roof. After-burning will cause damage to the
walls, tubes and stack.

Heat transfer has been defined as the movement of heat from its source into
anything that is colder. In a furnace, the flames of the burners are the
source of heat. Heat moves from the flames into the oil or gas flowing
The means of transferring heat by radiation, convection and conduction has been
discussed earlier in this section. In the furnace all of these means are
employed.

Furnace Radiation

An example of radiation in the furnace is the heat received by those tubes

located in the firebox. Most of the heat comes on a direct line from the
burner through the intervening space to the tubes, or else it is reflected to
the tubes after striking the furnace wall. This part of the furnace is
generally known as the radiant section because the greater fraction of total
heat transferred in a well-fired furnace is by the mechanism of radiation.
Most heaters are designed for. 70% addition of heat by radiation and 30% by
convection.

The amount of heat that a flame will radiate is proportional (to the forth
power) to the temperature of the flame. Proper adjustment of the excess air to
the furnace and the condition of the furnace tubes are factors in obtaining high
furnace efficiency. Correct adjustment of the excess air insures highest
possible flame temperature, and tubes that are free of scale, coke, dirt, etc.,
will give the highest rate of heat absorption.

Furnace Convection

Convection takes place in the furnace when the hot combustion gases give up
heat to the cooler flue gases that exist around the outside of the furnace
tubes. Convection occurs, as does radiation and conduction, in each section of
the furnace. However, it is the principle means of heating the oil or gas
before it enters the radiant section. As the flue gases leave the firebox on
the way to the stack they give up heat to the charge in a series of tubes.
This part of the furnace is known as the convection section.

The amount of heat transferred by convection is dependent on the following

conditions:

1. The difference in temperature between the hot flowing gases and

the gas film around the tubes, the greater the difference the more heat
transferred.

2. The velocity of the gases. The greater the velocity, the greater
the rate of heat transfer.

Furnace Conduction

Conduction in the furnace is the mechanism of transferring heat through the

metal wall of the tube to the material flowing within the tube. This type of
heat transfer is dependent on contact, either from one body to another, or in
the same body. An example of conduction in the furnace is the process of
moving heat from the outside wall of the tube through one body, the metal, to
the inside wall. There the moving liquid contacts the hot surface and is
heated.

Heat transferred in this manner depends on:

1. The difference in temperature between the outside of the tube and the
inside of the tube. Greater difference result in greater heat transfer.

2. The thinnes if the gas film and tube wall. The thinner they are, the more
heat transferred (See Figure 13).

0636L XI - 27
Furnace Operations

As the process furnaces are designed so that about 70% of the heat added to the
oil or gas charge is by radiation and only about 30% by convection, it is
apparent that the furnace should be operated for the highest radiant heat
transfer. By this means the most heat can be added with the least cost of fuel
gas.

There can be no rigid rules established for furnace operation that will fit all
furnaces and all situations. The chart on the following page is designed as a
guide to accomplishing some of the most common conditions that are necessary
for good furnace operation.

Types of Furnaces

Fired heaters or furnaces are used in our plant for one or more of the
following reasons:

1. To increase the temperature of the natural gas charge or oil vapour to the
point at which catalytic reforming will occur when catalyst is contacted.
The heaters of the methanol reformers are an example.

In all of these cases, the temperature of the oil or gas is increased,

therefore, the primary function of furnaces used in our processing is to
increase the temperature of the oil, and natural gas charge.

The early furnaces were all of the shell type. A relatively large container of
oil was heated by building a fire under it. In a modification of this type of
furnace, tubes were placed inside of the vessel of oil and the hot products of
combustion passed through these tubes.

The first tube still heaters were constructed similar to a shell still in that a
fire was built more or less directly underneath a group of bank of tubes.
Experience, however, soon showed that the lowest row of tubes were subjected to
too much heat since they received the full radiant heat of the fire and were
swept by the hottest flue gases. This type is now used only for small, low heat-
transfer furnaces.
The design of the tube still heaters was gradually modified until many of them
resembled the heater shown in Figure 14A. This type of heater had the fault of
a low percentage of radiant heat duty (about 40%) as compared with the
convection duty (about 30%), but still constructed for moderate heat loads.

A later type of heater is shown in Figures 14B and 14C. The difference
between the two being that Figure 14C has a convection plenum above the roof
tubes. The type is characterised by having two radiant sections and one
convection section. The percentage of radiant heat absorbed is normally 55-
65% of the heat released in the furnace.

The highest ratios of radiant duty to absorption duty are attained in the
verticle tube and the up-draft types of heaters. Figure 14D, which is an A-frame
heater, illustrates this type. It is a relatively cheap heater to construct, and
where high heat transfer rates can be tolerated, it is possible to absorb as
much as 70% of the heat released in the radiant section. The vertical-tubed Iso
flow heater. (Figure 15) and the A-frame heater are examples.

For the most part, all of these types of heaters may be either side-wall-fired
or floorfired. With floor-firing, which necessitates raising the floor of the
furnace above ground, it is feasible to install a large number of small burners
which increases the flexibility of the furnace and makes for more uniform
distribution of heat.

Before the art of controlling radiant heat had been developed fully, many
furnaces were constructed with re-circulation in which some of the flue gases
are brought back from the stack by use of hot-gas fans and injected into the
radiant section. The effect of re-circulation is to reduce the percentage of
radiant heat by lowering the firebox temperature and to increase the
percentage of convection heat by increasing the volume and velocity of gases
through the convection section.

Preheaters in which the stack gases heat the air are being used for combustion
are installed on furnace to increase the efficiency by lowering the temperature
of the flue gas to the stack. Air preheat has the additional effect of
increasing the percentage of radiant heat by increasing firebox temperature.
However, much of the flue gas is potentially corrosive because it contains
water vapour and sulphur compounds as part of the combustion products. If the
flue gas is allowed to cool to or below the dew point, which is the temperature
at which some of the water vapour will start to condense to liquid water, any
material in contact with the flue gases will become coated with moisture that
is acidic enough to be corrosive. This happens in air preheaters and has caused
high maintenance costs on air preheaters has approached or exceeded the value
of fuel saved, which has discouraged their incorporation into the design of new
heaters.

n(3t XI - 29.
Figure 13

Heat Transfer from Flame to Oil in Furnace Tube

CHART FOR OBTAINING GOOD COMBUSTION IN PROCESS UNIT FURNACES

INSTRUMENTWHAT TO ACCOMPLISH DESIRED READING

REQUIRED OF INSTRUMENT

Draft
1. gauge
Avoid connected
positive Any negative reading.
to firebox roof.of flue
pressure
gas in firebox.
Temperature indicator Depends upon
2. Try to maintain
or recorder connected furnace design.
maximum allowable
to firebox thermocouples.
firebox temp.
Draft gauge connected to Depends upon
3. Maintain
breeching, right on
or stack, furnance design.
amountside
the firebox of excess
of the air.
main damper, or oxygen analyzer
and recorder sampling breeching flue gas, or -CO2
analyzer and recorder sampling breeching flue gas.

4. A check on the Fuel gas meter. Least amount of

amount of gas fuel gas that will
the furnance is do the heating job.
burning.

EXPLANATION

Items 1 and 2 are special in that one or the other will show up as the
limiting factor with respect to the maximum possible heating job of a
particular furnace, unless unit equipment other than the furnace (such as
tower pressure or pumps) are under-designed relative to the furnace.

After the technician has reached the limiting factors on his furnace, whether
it be Item 1, Item 2, or tower pressure, etc., then Items 3 and 4 should be
checked and investigated by trial movement of the main damper until their best
adjustment is obtained as reflected by the least amount of fuel gas being
burned.

To help get this ideal furnace adjustment, particularly the initial adjustment
after a turnaround, the test engineers are available. Immediately after each
adjustment by the test engineers, the technician can add to his log sheet the
readings of each instrument used in Items 1, 2, 3 and 4. (From Item 2, log the
highest of all the firebox temperatures.)

These records are very useful, because they will enable the technician to
duplicate the furnace adjustment almost exactly any time in the future by
moving the main damper until the same instrument readings are obtained,
provided that the type of charge stock, charge rate, oil furnance-inlet
temperature, and transfer line temperature are about the same.
ou -4---JOOo 0 0 0 0 0 0 O o 0--
q 00000000ooooouooo
l'ooca+- - BRI17G -
ooo----
o o o o n r- ^ o f O-~ oUT o

I
WALL,y„ 0 0 000 O -
000 T
auRr+Ez o00-
--"I" q O •• G O O
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Type 1-a Type 1-b

Type 1-c Type 1-d

Figure 14

Various Types of Furnaces

ou(
 pRAr1 C,AUC

F7OX

C O N V EG-fI O t 1
56O-r10 U

+~ADIA~~f

- ~ G o I L GUILE

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Fig. 14.

FURNACE TYPE VERTICAL