Lecture № 6

Functional and Clinical Anatomy of the Endocrine Glands

There are two systems of regulation in a living man: nerves regulation and
humoral regulation. These two systems are connected each other and is called neuro-
humoral regulation.
The active chemical substances are produced during metabolism under the
effect of the nervous system. The stimulators of this system are named mediators.
These mediators are produced in specially developing organs called the endocrine
glands.
Endocrine glands are the glands which have no duct and which discharge
their secretions directly into the vascular system. Endo is means within, krinein – to
secrete. These glands were termed by Klod Bernar in 1855.
Common anatomo-physiological features of the endocrine glands.
1. They have no ducts.
2. Their mass is less than 100 g.
3. These glands secrete hormones in small amounts. They are marked by a strong
physiological action. Hormones act far from the site of their production and
spread rapidly in the blood vascular and lymphatic system.
4. The endocrine gland are blood supplied very good.
5. Endocrine glands connect with the nerve system and function under its influence.
The connection of the endocrine glands with the nervous system is of two kinds.
First, the glands are richly supplied with innervation from the vegetative nervous
system. Second, the incretions of the glands cause an effect, on the nerve centres
through the blood. The phenomenon of the production of hormonal substances by the
nerve cells is termed neurosecretion.
The development of many of endocrine glands is linked with the nervous
system so the intimate relation between the endocrine glands and the nervous
system is take place.
Development. Embryologically the endocrine glands differ in origin.
Sometimes even separate parts of one and the same gland may be distinguished.
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For instance, the medulla and cortex of the suprarenal glands. The ectoderm gives
rise to the hypophysis, epiphysis cerebri, the medulla of the suprarenal glands and
the chromaffin organs. The thyroid, parathyroid, the thymus and the insular
apparatus of the pancreas develop from the entoderm. The cortex of the suprarenal
glands and the endocrine organs of the sex glands are derived from the mesoderm.
Classification of the Endocrine Glands.
There are 5 groups of E.G. according to the site of their development.
1.Entodermal glands arising from the pharynx and branchial pouches of the
embryo form the branchiogenic group (the thyroid, parathyroid, and thymus
glands).
2. Entodermal glands of the intestinal tube (the islets of Langerhans in the
pancreas).
3. Mesodermal glands (the cortex of the suprarenal glands and the sex glands).
4. Ectodermal glands originating from the diencephalon form the neurogenic
group (the epiphysis, hypophisis).
5. Ectodermal glands arising from the sympathetic elements form the group of the
adrenal system (the medulla of the suprarenals and the chromaffin bodies).

THE BRANCHIOGENIC GROUP

ТНЕ THYROID GLAND
The thyroid gland (glandula thyroidea), is the largest endocrine gland. It is
situated on the neck in front of the trachea and on the lateral walls of the larynx; part
of the gland is in contact with the thyroid cartilage. It weighs 25-30 g. It consists of
two, lateral lobes right and left, (lobus dexter and lobus sinister). The third part of the
gland is called isthmus. Isthmus lyes transversely and joins the lateral lobes. А thin
process called the pyramidal lobe (lobus руramidalis) extends upward from the
isthmus and mау reach the hyoid bone. Laterally of the gland the common carotid
arteries are located. In front the thyroid is covered with skin, subcutaneous fat, the
fascia of the neck, which provides the gland with an external fibrous capsule
(capsula fibrosa). The gland is covered with muscles: the sternohyoid, sternothyroid,
and omohyoid. The lobes consists of follicles, which contain iodine.
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Function. The gland produces the following hormones: thyroxin, The gland plays а
very important role in the organism. Its congenital underdevelopment causes
myxoedema and cretinism. The hormone of the gland determines proper development
of the tissues, the bone tissue in particular. It also determines metabolism, functioning
of the nervous system, etc. Disorders of thyroid function lead to the development of
endemic goitre in some regions. Thyroxin, the hormone produced by the gland,
promotes the processes of oxidation in the body. In thyroid hypersecretion а complex
of symptoms known as Basedow's disease (exophthalmic goitre) is encountered.
ТНЕ PARATHYROID GLANDS
Тhе parathyroid glands (glandulae parathyroideae) (epithelial bodies), usually four
in number (two superior and two inferior), are small bodies situated on the posterior
surface of the lateral thyroid lobes. Their average dimensions are 6 mm in length, 4
mm in breadth, and 2 mm in thickness. They weigh 0,05- 0,3 g
Function. The parathyroid glands regulate calcium and phosphorus metabolism
in the body. Their extirpation results in death preceded by tetany. It is now
considered that the parathyroids cause an effect on the blood calcium level not only
humorally through the parathyroid hormone but also by the neurohumoral paths
THYMUS
The thymus is located in the upper anterior part of the thoracic cavity behind the
manubrium sterni and part of the sternum body. It lyes in anterior mediastinum. It
consists of two lobes (lobi dexter and sinister), which are connected by loose
connective tissue. The size of the gland changes with age. In the newborn it weighs
about 12g and continues to grow after birth until puberty when it weighs from 35 to
40g. After puberty (14-15 years), the process of involution begins, as a result of
which the weight of the thymus reduce. In adult the elements of the gland are
replaced by fatty tissue.
Each lobe of the thymus consists of : a cortical substance and a medullary
substance. The cortical substance contains special lymphocytes, called T-
lymphocytes. The medullary substance produces hormone thymosine, which
regulates the conversion of lymphocytes in the thymus itself. The pathology of the
thymus (the hyperplasia of the gland) connects with disorder of the immunological
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processes. This pathology is called status thymolymphaticus. It may cause sudden

death when anaesthesia is applied during an operation.
TНЕ NEUROGENIC GROUP
HYPOPHYSIS CEREBRI
The hypophysis cerebri, or pituitary gland (glandula pituitaria) is а small spherical
or oval gland, reddish in colour, which is connected with the brain bу means of the
hypophysial stalk. The gland is lodged in the sella turcica and is attached there by the
diaphragma sellae.
The dimensions of the hypophysis are small: 8-10 mm in length, 12-15 mm in
width, and 5-6 mm in height. Its weight ranges between 0.35 and 0.65 g..
There are two lobes in the hypophysis anterior (adenohypophisis) and posterior lobes
(neurohypophisis). They differ in structure, function, and development. The posterior
part of the anterior lobe is termed the intermediate part (pars intermedia).
Function. The different structure and development of the two lobes determines the
different functions.
The anterior lobe produces the somatotrophic hormone which affects the growth and
development of the whole body. In tumours of this lobe, intensified growth of the
fingers, nose, and lips occurs (acromegaly). At loss of this hormone retention of the
growth develops. The anterior lobe also produces thyrotrophic hormone, the
adrenocorticotrophic hormone, the gonadotrophic hormone which stimulate the
activity of the other endocrine glands, namely the thyroid, the adrenal cortex, and the
sex glands. The anterior lobe also produces prolactinum which stimulates the
development of mammalia during pregnancy and the secretion of milk. The
intermedial part produces hormone, which stimulates of melanocells. These cells
produce melanin – the substanse which makes color of the skin and eyes.
The posterior lobe excrets vasopressin and oxytocin which are produced by
nuclei of hypothalamus. They augment the work of the smooth muscles of the vessels
by raising blood pressure and the muscles of the uterus. Vasopressin is also called the
antidiuretic hormone because it influences on reabsorption of water in the kidneys.
Damage to the posterior hypophyseal lobe causes diabetes insipidus.
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The hypophysis is considered the centre of the endocrine apparatus because it

produces hormones, which stimulate the development and function of the other
endocrine glands. Some cells of hypothalamus produce hormonal substances –
liberines and statines.They are called rilizing-factors. The liberines stimulate
production of hormones of anterior lobe of hypophisis. The statines have an
inhibiting effect. Connection of hypophisis with hypothalamus is called hypotolamo-
hypophysel system.
ТНЕ PINEAL BODY
The pineal body, or gland (corpus pineale s. epiphysis cerebri) is situated
above the roof of the brain. It is а small oval, reddish. It measures 7-10 mm in length
and 5-7 mm in width.
Function. The function of the pineal body is still not clear tо the end. Extirpation of
the gland results in rapid growth of the skeleton in animals and abnormally intensive
development of the sex glands and secondary sexual features. This suggests that the
gland has an inhibiting effect on these functions.
ТНЕ АDRЕNАL SYSTEM GROUP
ТНЕ SUPRARENAL GLAND
The suprarenal, or adrenal gland (glanduli suprarenalis s. adrenalis) is а
paired organ situated in the retroperitoneal fat above the superior end of the
corresponding kidney. The adrenal gland weighs about 4 g; The dimensions are as
follows: vertical 30-60 mm; transverse about 30 mm; anteroposterior 4-6 mm.
Structure. The suprarenal gland is covered with, а fibrous capsule, which gives off
trabeculae into the tissue of the gland. The suprarenal gland consists of two layers, а
cortex and а medulla. They differ from еасh other in development, structure, and
function.
Function.The cortex is formed of three zones, which produce different
hormones, such as: mineralcorticoid hormone, which exert an effect on water-salt
metabolism; kortikosteroid hormone, which exert an effect on albumine and lipid
metabolism and produce specific hormones identical with the sex hormones.
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The medulla consists of cells secreting adrenaline and noradrenaline.

Adrenaline maintains the tonus of the sympathetic nervous system increase the puls.
Noradrenalin, the second hormone of this part, decreases the pulse.
Both parts of the gland contribute in cooperation to the development of the
body's defence and adaptational reactions.
ТНЕ CHROMAFFIN BODIES
The chromaffin bodies, (paraganglia), free remnants of the adrenaline, or
chromaffin system. They are intimately related to the sympathetic nervous system.
They are situated near of the sympathetic trunk. Like the medulla of the suprarenal
gland, they contain chromaffin cells. The following structures belong to the group of
paraganglia: the para-aortic bodies (corpora para-aortica) situated on the sides of
the abdominal aorta above its bifurcation; the carotid body (glomus caroticum)
situated in the angle formed bу the bifurcation of the common carotid artery; the
coccygeal body (glomus coccygeum) situated on the end of the median sacral artery.
The activity of the chromaffin bodies is identical with that of the suprarenal
medulla (adrenalin, noradrenalin).
ТНЕ MESODERMAL GLANDS
ENDOCRINE ORGANS OF ТНЕ SEX GLANDS
1. Polygonal interstitial cells (Leydig's cells) are located in the testis in the
connective tissue between the seminiferous tubules. They secrete the hormone
testosterone and the androgen hormones. The secondary sехual features develop
under the influence of these hormones.
2. The production of the specific hormone in the ovary is associated with the
secretion of the follicles themselves. To this hormone, called folliculin, or estrogen,
is attributed the exertion of а trophic effect on the sех apparatus, the regulation of
menstruations, the exertion of an effect on the secondary sех features.The estrogen is
excreated duaring the whole cycle. After ovulation the other hormone of the ovary
progesteron is produced. So, estrogen prepare the female reproductive apparatus for
fitilisation of the oocyte, which leaves the follicle after ovulation. Progesterone
provides for the implantation and normal development of fertilized oocyte.
ENTODERMAL GLANDS OF ТНЕ INTESTINAL TUBE
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INSULAR PART OF ТНЕ РАNСRЕАS

Islets of Langerhans (insulae pancreaticae Langerhansi) are the endocrine
part of the pancreas. They are inserted among the glandular parts of the pancreas;
their number is greatest in the tail of the gland.
Function. The islets secrete their hormones insulin and glucagon into the blood and
thus regulate carbohydrate metabolism. The connection of lesions of the pancreas
with diabetes is generally known. Insulin now plays an important role in the
treatment of this disease.