2.

6 The Derivative
2.6.1 Intuitive Definition of a Derivative
Recall that we estimated the velocity of a magnetic levitation train at time t = 2 seconds by
attempting to find the tangent line to the graph of s(t) when t = 2. Our solution involved taking
decreasing and increasing sequences of t-values that approached t = 2 from above and below,
respectively, and building a chart of values of the average velocity function

s(t) − s(2)
vavg (t) = .
t−2
We note that the average velocity function is essentially a difference quotient. By substituting
h = t − 2, we have that t = 2 + h, from which it follows that

s(2 + h) − s(2)
vavg (t) = ,
h
and we could come up with sequences of h-values approaching 0. Consider replacing the value
t = 2 with t = a and letting h be some positive value. Under this interpretation, we have

s(a + h) − s(a)
vavg (a) = ,
h
which we immediately recognize as a difference quotient. By taking the limit as h approaches 0 of
the average velocity function at time t = a seconds, we find the slope of the line tangent to s(t) at
t = a. Under our interpretation, this gives us exactly the velocity of the train at t = a.

2.6.2 Slope of a Tangent Line

Definition. We say that the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (x, f (x))
is given — if it exists — by the limit of the difference quotient, i.e.,

f (x + h) − f (x)
slope of the tangent line := lim .
h→0 h
We note that for any particular values of h and x, the usual difference quotient gives the average
rate of change of the function f on the interval [x, x + h]. On the other hand, as h approaches 0,
this limit of the difference quotient gives the instantaneous rate of change of f.

Magnetic Levitation Train, Cont’d. Recall that the position of the magnetic levitation train
from before is given by the quadratic function s(t) = 4t2 . Evaluating the difference quotient for
a = 2 and h = 1 gives the average velocity of the train between 2 and 3 seconds after departure

s(3) − s(2) ft
vavg = = 36 − 16 = 20 ,
1 sec
whereas the velocity of the train at t = 2 seconds is given by the instantaneous rate of change
found by evaluating the limit of the difference quotient with a = 2 as h approaches 0

s(2 + h) − s(2) 4(2 + h)2 − 4(2)2 h(8 · 2 + 4h) ft

lim = lim = lim = lim (8 · 2 + 4h) = 16 .
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 sec

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2.6.3 The Derivative
Definition. We define the derivative of a function f with respect to x to be the function
f (x + h) − f (x)
f � (x) = lim ,
h→0 h
read “f prime of x.” We note that the domain of f � is the set of all x for which the above limit
dy
exists and for which f is defined. We use Dx f (x), dx , and y � to denote the derivative of f (x).
Using the following algorithm, the derivative of a function f (x) can be found.
1.) Compute f (x + h).
2.) Formulate the difference f (x + h) − f (x), simplifying if possible.
f (x + h) − f (x)
3.) Formulate the quotient , simplifying if possible.
h
f (x + h) − f (x)
4.) Compute the limit f � (x) = lim .
h→0 h
Derivative of a Linear Function. Consider the function f (x) = 7x + 1. We follow the above
steps to find f � (x).
1.) We have that f (x + h) = 7(x + h) + 1 = 7x + 1 + 7h = f (x) + 7h.
2.) By the above, it is easily seen that f (x + h) − f (x) = 7h.
f (x + h) − f (x) 7h
3.) By the above, we have that = = 7.
h h
f (x + h) − f (x)
4.) By the above, we have that f � (x) = lim = lim 7 = 7.
h→0 h h→0
�
We conclude that the derivative of f (x) = 7x + 1 is given by f (x) = 7. We note that we did
not need calculus to compute f � (x), as we know from algebra that the line y = mx + b with slope
m is tangent to itself at every point. Because 7 is the slope of f (x) and every linear function is
tangent to itself, we conclude that the slope of the line tangent to f (x) is 7, i.e., f � (x) = 7.
Demand for Tires. Economists at Titan Tire Company have determined that the weekly de-
mand function for their Super Titan tires is given by D(x) = 144 − x2 , where the price per tire
D(x) is measured in dollars and the quantity demanded x is measured in units of one thousand.
(a.) Find the average rate of change in the unit price of a tire if the quantity demanded is be-
tween (1.) 5000 and 6000 tires, (2.) 5000 and 5100 tires, and (3.) 5000 and 5010 tires.
(b.) Compute the instantaneous rate of change of the unit price when x = 5000 tires.
Solution. (a.) We find the difference quotient of the demand function D(x). We have that
D(x + h) − D(x) (144 − (x + h)2 ) − (144 − x2 )
= = −2x − h.
h h
Because the units are measured in thousands, the change in quantity demanded between (1.)
5000 and 6000 tires, (2.) 5000 and 5100 tires, and (3.) 5000 and 5010 tires is given by evaluat-
ing the difference quotient when (1.) x = 5 and h = 1, (2.) x = 5 and h = 0.1, and (3.) x = 5 and
h = 0.01, respectively. We find that the difference quotient is (1.) −11 between 5000 and 6000
tires, (2.) −10.1 between 5000 and 5100 tires, and (3.) −10.01 between 5000 and 5010 tires. �

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Solution. (b.) Computing the instantaneous rate of change of the unit price when x = 5000 tires
boils down to a problem of evaluating the difference quotient as h approaches 0. We have that
D(x + h) − D(x)
D� (x) = lim = lim (−2x − h) = −2x.
h→0 h h→0

We conclude that the instantaneous rate of change for the unit price of tires when exactly 5000
tires are demanded is D� (5) = −$10. �

2.6.4 Differentiability and Continuity

Consider the function f (x) = |x|. We note that f (x) is piecewise-defined as x for x ≥ 0 and −x
for x < 0. Evaluating the difference quotient of f (x) for x < 0, we find that f � (x) = −1. On
the other hand, evaluating the difference quotient for x > 0, we find that f � (x) = 1. We wish to
determine the derivative of f (x) when x = 0. Because the left- and right-hand limits at 0 do not
exist, we conclude that the function has no derivative when x = 0. On the other hand, we could
demonstrate that f is continuous. Our above example is enough to conclude that continuity does
not always imply differentiability; however, the converse implication is always true.
Differentiability Implies Continuity. Given that a function f is differentiable at x = a, it
follows that f is continuous at x = a.
f (x) − f (a)
Proof. Observe that for all x �= a, we can rewrite f (x) − f (a) as · (x − a). By taking
x−a
the limit as x approaches a on both sides of this equality, we have that
� �
f (x) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)
lim [f (x) − f (a)] = lim · (x − a) = lim · lim (x − a) = f � (a) · 0 = 0,
x→a x→a x−a x→a x−a x→a

from which it follows that lim f (x) = f (a). We conclude that f is continuous at x = a.
x→a

3 Differentiation
3.1 Basic Rules of Differentiation
3.1.1 Four Basic Rules
Recall that in the prequel, our method for computing derivatives of functions was to tediously
hash out the definition of the derivative as a limit of a difference quotient. Our goal in this chap-
ter is to provide rules of differentiation that expedite the process. We note that all of these rules
can be established by using the limit definition of the derivative. Given a differentiable func-
d
tion f (x), i.e., any function whose derivative exists, we will use the notation dx f (x) to denote
the derivative of f (x) with respect to the variable x. Often, it is more convenient to simply write
f � (x) for the derivative of f (x) with respect to x when the variable of differentiation x is clear.
Derivative of a Constant. The derivative of a constant function is equal to zero. Explicitly,
d
given a constant function f (x) = C for some real number C, we have that dx f (x) = 0.
Proof. Using the limit definition of the derivative, we have that
d f (x + h) − f (x) C −C
f (x) = lim = lim = lim 0 = 0.
dx h→0 h h→0 h h→0

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